CEU eTD Collection Second Juli Reader: Professor Supervisor: Professor Andrea Pet SUBVERTINGFRANCOIST MODERNITY:SEPHARDIM SPAIN’S OF RESCUE IN GREECE AND BUDAPESTDURINGHOLOCAUST THE In requirements for of fulfillment the thede partial á n Casanova ő Central European University

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CEU eTD Collection list? And wasWhat list? thenature oftheir connection howisthis tothe Spanish authorities? respectcon howitwas to survival. during monthsof1944inthe form thedark ofordinary Spanish passports that enabled their identifiedreporta as of45Jews includedlist Bern,Legation.scope Switzerlandrescue ontheand meted natureofThis theSpanish outby forwardedHungary, Briz, a Sanz tothe report Spanish Ángel Foreignfrom inMadrid Ministry Budapest 1944,FrancoistHolocaust. S 14, the during OnDecember EmbassyBudapestaLegation ofSephardic list inwho were of Jews Spanish rescued byin the forwell as responsible theindividuals precisely as onthe thelists inthe names because shrouded larger narrativethatis of of people that were produced the duringobjects theHolocaust emerge historian as offascination for ofviewpoint were made thelists andsay what doesthis about the Fromexample, whodrew and what howdidonethelist? lists, upthese manage placedon tobe m conjurequestions andmore issues upa concerning ofandcomplex plethora thebroader yet aabout; piece list, thatthis factremains ofpaper, the ensured These their survival. stories came totheir aboutn due I 1944 de diciembre 1

ntroduction AMAE 477, 211.o. 211.o. AMAE477, echanismswell behind as theof operation genocide as thesetheexperienceFor of lists itself. This presentfrom study the author’s stems discoveryinthe archiveSpanish of the Thereare where survival ofthe many recallhowtheir instances Holocaust survivors 1

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ame being placed on a certain list, which they had little tonoideaame which beingcertainlittle they placed list, ona had structed: be individuals manage howdidthelisted placed to onthe

de España en Budapest, Berna, al Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 14 de 14 AsuntosExteriores, de Ministerio al Berna, enBudapest, España de

their assembly. pain in Budapest. in pain

being Spanish assistance Sephardic whoreceived 1

people on such lists? Lists such lists? on people pain’s representative in CEU eTD Collection the apologetic literature: Avni, Haim. Avni, literature: theapologetic 2 attentionrepresentative, Briz, has little Ángel Sanz been and issue of paid thequestion to concerning i assistance during the Holocaust. toJews include one this particularcase analyses rescue intheir larger study activities ofSpain’s and Legationthe rescue ofthe operations Spanish inBudapest 19 during Indone a more lot Jews. at toassist inHungary, Francoist Spain’s termsrole oflooking thatis, gain In andshePowers. policiesinorder wereonly particular,Spain’s paradoxical Jews to rescued Spain aswell ambivalent asonSpain’s contingent relationship boththe Allied and with Axis scholars that whohaveshown image Francisco asFranco a modern of and grosslyexaggerate during rescueHolocaust activities toconjure Spain’s order the in upthe betweenSecond Warisposited World twocamps: study. that has been not pre form during anenigma at looking assistance when Spain’s toJews the brought fact theforequestions and to by Allofthese the were issues thatSephardic theseJews. during particular rescuing Spain’s rememberedinthe ofrescue narrative instance role Jews in of 2005. Historia, Pons Opportunism. 1993; Riopiedras, Barcelona: 19 America,

These works constitute the main and dominant positions on Spain’s role in the Holocaust and staunchly repudiate staunchly repudiate and Holocaust in the Spain’srole on positions dominant and main theworks constitute These favor with the Allies towards theof with end favor theAllies near very war.Furthermore, Spain couldhave

the Holocaust in Budapest? Equally,Budapest? tothe Sephardim ofSpain’s Holocaust relationship is theissue the in Althoughwritten a has lot been The historiography onSpain’s rescueduring ofJews andthe operations theHolocaust 82; 82; Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 2007 AcademicPress, Sussex Portland: ts efforts to rescue Jews during rescue theHolocaust, ofSpain’sts effortsspecifically to Jews actions the Lisbona, José Antonio. Antonio. Lisbona,José

viously andbe will subsequently explored by historians explored inthis

Rohr, Isabelle. Isabelle. Rohr,

Spain’s role was limited bySpain’s role was wishkeep Franco’s outof to limited Jews Spain, the Jews, and Franco Jews,and the Spain, Retorno a Sefarad: La política de España hacia sus judíos en el siglo XX siglo el en judíos sus hacia de España La política a Sefarad: Retorno The Spanish Right and the Jews,1898 the Right and Spanish The

- ab day Don Quixote; ontheother hand,Quixote; day however,are Don 2

out the role of the Spanish L out the role Spanish ofthe ; Rother, Bernd. Bernd. ; Rother, 2

apologists regime ofthe whopraise Franco . Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of Society Publication Jewish . Philadelphia: Franco y el Holocaustoel y Franco 44, most recent44, most works - 1945: Antisemitism and and 1945: Antisemitism

egation inBudapest Holocaust Budapest in . Madrid: Marcial Marcial Madrid: . . CEU eTD Collection 3 view ofa needs topicbe thatstill to exploredand p LegationSephardimoperations therescue provide in a ofthe inBudapest new Spanish would correspondenceBudapestand ofthe Madrid. Therefore exploration between a deeper was, theirconnection andhow toSpain, enormous gap in Budapest, there shealsocitizenship; assisted as Sephardimwell as citizenship Spanish without Hungarian Jews. the onlySpain went where instance Hungary other instancesSpain alsoassistedJews, isdifferent wherenamely, from Hungarywas the Allied powers. theySpain’s conclusions role Moreover, also in about reach how similar move toSpaintheend following of and thewar; because o because would assistanceJews thatSpain lent to mean the not would thatthese have Jews to because thegovernment fact timing,Hungarian of the was thatunstable; thepolitically and conclusions:similar all authors argue Je outthatassisted Spain point and larger Furthermore,explorations. they caseBudapest, withrespectthe of to study all reach and duringexplore tovariousHolocaust, extentsLegation therole the all of inBudapest theSpanish their specific descendants, this within context. Spain's and with policieswho toward relations were the Jews expelle Sephardim, not. did Sephardim the citizens; Spanish were and citizenship Spanish held Jews Spanish Jews.” “Spanish fromthe term isdistinct Sephardic or Sephardim fr wereexpelled whoseancestors thoseJews to refer usedto be

Throughout this project, theterm project, this Throughout the initiatives ofthe initiatives theyoung Briz, asof their one component Ángel small diplomat, Sanz Although ofworkdone a hasonSpain’s role substantial intheHolocaust amount been Avni, Rother, and thedate Rohr, position foremosttohave historians to studiedSpain’s of

knowledge with respectwho to knowledge are still some gapsfurtherare still explora that warrant

Sephardim

beyond simplywithSpanish lending assistance toJews , which is the Hebrew plural of the noun and adjective adjective and noun ofthe plural Hebrew which , is the they

are presented governare Spanish inofficial 3

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these their experiencewhat Sephardim were, roblematized ingreater d om Spain in the fifteenth century fifteenth the omSpainin f Spain’s tocurry desire with favor tion. In tion. particular, thereisan ws inBudapest etail. . The term The .

d in1492and In to order Sephardi ment ment , will ,

CEU eTD Collection to also shed light on the list as a inmodernity.to alsoshedlightallows historical forrooted a source onthe list This not only questionand analyze rescue inGreece thenature ofJews ofSpain’s Budapest, and but carried theidea “the out,to as list” of an instrument Spain’s assistance during toJews Greece theHolocaust in Budapest. and studyfew, this incorporationinto its allows forne a issue ofdefining modernity itselfor oftechnology therole genocide, anda science toname in ofasHolocaust expression humanexperience, themodern theperplexing astheultimate such bureaucratic withusing thi therearelimitations system.Although obvious weremanner implementedinwhich inthe the wasout,namely, Holocaust carried modern the heavilypower, andand they uponthecontrol, ofauthority incorporate draw notions and how were modern onabureaucracy. will through massscale thesis of themeans utilized This formof theultimate of Nazi system modernity inthe way ascontrol the and inwhichpower Zygmunt Ba InHolocaust of extremerealization modernity. asthemost particular,drawing of uponthework Budapestand howthe elements to questioningand with view Spain’s relationship ofthe Sephardim bothGreece in and Infunctioned study,be during theHolocaust.will devoted thecourse attention ofthis particular Sephardim and of thepower a “the astoo list” assistance along inBudapest thatof ofSpain’saxes Greece with relationship the toJews to the answer these ofdehumanizationtool in theNazirescue system, also and was usedthus toassist but Jews, provocativerol lookatthe Therefore andconnecting of rescue theway Jews, activities Spain’s inwhich they were The guidingmethodology and theories behind study this ofthe centers onthe concept uman and Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer,uman andand Adorno Max Theodor thisstudy theview incorporates

questions and raisequestions and new ones, e and bureaucracy naturehow modern as functioned of notonly a of modern bureaucracyfactored Spain’s assistance into toJews. this thesis will compare will thesis this study thecase ofSpain’s l ofthe modernsystem bureaucratic that 4

w perspective to question thenaturew perspective of toquestion of poweracontrol new and offers wayto

s view ofthe

CEU eTD Collection she was assisting. ofbureaucracythe tools gavepower Spaincontrol aleverage ofand respect with theJews to yetmodern bureaucracy,ultimately remained of a thatsystem part the ways through inwhich modernity, systemofdehumanization, theNazi invented story being Sephardic. argues of conclusion The rescuingJews, thatin Spainsubverted operationassistance inBudapestrescue andhowtherewere onthe toJews the manifested Sephardicdrawn of1944,retel thatmonths was upduring Jews thelast be to citizens rescued.Inthe thirdand chapter, final research focuses of studyonthe list this the naturebureaucratic precluded modernand ofthe enabled Spain’s Jewish systemboth Salonika these and and to Athens,individuals exploring Spain’s relationship questioning how Budapest. Spain’sempirical assistancecitizens chapter secondanalyzes Jewish in The toher summary the natureo of section backgroundduring also awell offers as thewar brief as onSpain’sa position short respectcases relationship theSephardim the to to bothGreece ofSpain’s and in Budapest. This byend War gover of theSecond World theSpanish Sephardim Budapest. Greece in and murder li subverting as marked an modernity.instrument ofrescue duality This the and list mass of

The firstchapter exploresof rescue empirical thenarrative thatwas at promulgatedthe esof thispresent at the centerwith respect study operations Spain’s rescue to of

f Spain’s assistance duringpriorf Holocaust toGreeceand toJews the

5 which was carried outthrough of themeans

nment and problematizes thatnarrativenment and with problematizes ling thestoryling Spain’s of CEU eTD Collection modern bureaucratic system that allowed take theHolocaust to place. The theoretical the relationship modernity, oftheto list spec Budapest ofJews lists were upby drawn Spanish representatives where study this focus will on Methodolo War. critical approach theSecond Spain’s toanalyzing roleof intheperiod World theHolocaust and apologetic literatureFranco the that offers regimeandseriousawork scholarly more of more Budapestand inGreece.In particular, t Spain’s role intheHolocaust aswell as literatureSpain’s role alltherelevant in specific to that dealactivities therescueof with t followedend theJews; bypersonal ofassistance Spain’s which thewar, discuss to two memoirs alsoSpanish government included.Secondly, immediately publicationspublished followingthe Spanish Foreign who ofJews recei inMadrid, which Ministry in lists correspondencediplomatic Budapest inboth representatives and fromGreece Spain’s tothe The primary so of the comparison Spain’s rescue ofSephardim operations between Budapest in andinGreece ofSources Description C Holocaust framework ofdraws study ofZygmunt this Bauman’s heavilywork onthe hapter

In and analyze toproblematize order Spain’s theenigma rescue of inGreece and As for the secondary covers thesis literature,recent on this the anddominantviews incorporatesThis thesis wide a arrayprimary ofsources,and both secondary,a part as , inwhichhe argues tha

O gy: Modernity and the Holocaust Holocaust andthe gy: Modernity ne urces are brokenurces downintothree are : S ources

a nd t theand Holocaust bureaucratic that allowed means to it

M he Spanish Legation inBudapest. he secondary camps:he intotwo literature isdivided ethodological ificallyashow the functioneda list part of the 6

distinct categories. foremost, and Spanish distinct First

F ramework ved Spanish assistanceved are

Modernity andthe . CEU eTD Collection Jewry. acknowledge must Andhere one isalsoanother therethought school that ofthat sees the to understand how modernity it the dynamics and control, ofpower, rationality the Holocaust within machinery present inorder and works ofprominent who scholars substantiate the between link and thelist modernity,stud this shed an asa interestingon thelist historical lightIn source rootedto order inmodernity. to ofthesis intention this offera two,butrather relationship new about idea between the the to evidence murderand rescuean source of authoritative and becomes intelling thatstory. to analyze w enabled the machinery Holocaust asan list object torun,the an becomes interesting document technology,areand science,phenomena. Asaof allbureaucracy modern themodern part that because very bywhich the was means it trueThis is notonly theHolocaust because inamodern occurred rational societyalso but analyzing processesextensive and and figures fruition. the questioning toits thatcontributed rationality. responsibilitywas for substituted organizational and to subservient discipline and instrumental based u centralhistory ofmodern event and regression tobarbarismbecause was notamere historical it occurBauman isa argues ofmodernity. product thatthe Holocausta beunderstood must as 4

Bauman, Bauman, Situating pon thetechnological andorganization industrial bureaucratic ofsociety an moral where In betweenrelationship the theHolocaust theandmodernity,isnot discussing it Modernity 4

ith respect to the aspects of power and control. theaspects Moreover,theand offers respect list ith to concrete ofpower

the Holocaust within theframeworkwithin modernithe Holocaust of

and the the Holocaust and

self perpetuated Nazi Germany’sself perpetuatedannihilation ofEuropean Nazi

(Ithaca: CornellUn (Ithaca: have vigorouslythought,have taken train upthis of exploring carried out, i.e., thehierarchicalcarried out, ofbureaucracy, chain 7

iversity Press, 1997), 1997), iversityPress, ydiscuss the briefly theories will ty means a useful provides of 13 - 26. 26.

CEU eTD Collection carried carried geno about modern 5 a a modern rapidpastpre bureaucracy,from departure that or giganticas a pogrom from stemming withthe hatred efficiency Medieval carried thatwas out of relationship to Nazi Germany’sofEuropean destruction theinNazism’s Jewrydemonstrates perplexities understandincluding not could themodern many and Jews, and methodsbehind means rational made problematic it difficu and yetthemselves very way Nazi barbaric Germany theplansiswhat modern its inwhich executed whatThis is setsthe Nazi agendaIndeed apart. hatredand thedesire for are murder in scientific perpetuated powerhouse that massmurder their anti whotheir were warpedseenwomen, basically view ofas child not modern.Roma, Theirofhomosexuals, and otherJews, hatred m modern phenomena aboveart music,and including modernandall, were their modern ideals, puzzlingrelationship modernity. andwith rejected ambiguous Onthe Nazism onemany hand, issue preciselymodernity. a Thisis complex thecase because ofNazi Germany does thesis delve not this intothe incredibly questionof Nazism’s relationship difficult to study. Holocaust asanti wasout carried thewhich Holocaust meansby of character theantisemitic work,his event in 2001); Press, University

Yehuda Bauer, one of the most prominent historians of the Holocaust, argues that there is nothing inherently nothing inherently is there that argues Holocaust, ofthe historians most prominent oftheone Bauer, Yehuda out

The Holocaustinterpreted alsoinmany differentwith respect modernity: can be to ways W - withlow very modernist tendencies. Yet the fact remains thatmodernist Germany tendencies.factNazi Yet remains a the was developed hile using toNazi thelist Germany the case link modernity, to Holocaust and of the modernity. Hitler’s Willing Executioners Willing Hitler’s cide: the Rwandan genocide was not carried out with modern advanced technology, but was but technology, withadvanced modern out notwas carried genocide the Rwandan cide: - modern. American scholar Daniel Goldhagen DanielAmericanGoldhagen scholar - tech machetes.See tech

the Nazis’ views of Jews and avoiding any serious discussion about the bureaucratic thebureaucratic about discussion serious any avoiding and Jews viewsNazis’of the 5

However, that historiographical thescope isbeyond debate ofthis

lt for people to comprehend. The fact that most ofthe forcomprehend.factmost lt world, The people to that Yehuda .

: O rdinary Germans and the Holocaust the and Germans rdinary

Bauer, Bauer, 8

Rethinking the Holocaust Rethinking also also

according to a rational bureaucraticaccording toarational form. essentially dismisses the Holocaust as a modern a as Holocaust the dismisses essentially cisely ofthe because rationale - producing factories,producing attest to inority groupsinorityas well as

(New Haven: Yale Yale (NewHaven: , by , exclus focusing

presents a ively on ivelyon CEU eTD Collection sporadically and chaotically by angry mobs without a guiding order ormetho order guiding without a mobs angryby chaotically and sporadically out wascarried often Ages, the Middle Crusades of massthe during the violence or century nineteenth theduring 7 Century Twentieth 1996). Knopf, See ofscholars. camp “Intentionalist” the among most salient 6 contrary, genuinely arose outofa it rational andgenerated was it concern, by bureaucracytrue clash at withthe anyrational stage of pursuit the Holocaustconflict theprinciples with didnot comeof into rationality. Solution’ The ‘Final ofitslong point Holocaust, and consequences: did unintended tortuousexecution some no “at the principles of rationalityefficiency andmodern ofthein era may had, have was a “ conditions” for theHolocaust. ofthe undertaking ensuredthe gas chambers,butalso their survival. modernity athese approachonly andobjects,at new offers tolooking whichs not of powerand howthey control and arerelated providesthelinkbetween tothe list and thelist Holocaust fr apart bureaucratic was carriedSolution way wasandFinalwhat is form inwhichthe the setsthe out as autilized means carry to drawing The according outmassofJews murder. upof lists to Holocaust unique inJewish is history and w scientific racism. according characterizationsbehind ofJews Nazism’s ofSocial Darwinism todistortions and 9 8 order. or logic systematic no to according masseand enmassacred were Jews which in accusations, other libels or blood by targeted communities Jewishsaw that violence inspired form ofreligiously

not anirrati Ibid. 1 Ibid. Bauman, toanti the Holocaust, Prior tha prominent interpretation The Daniel Goldhagen, DanielGoldhagen,

legitimate resident in thehouselegitimate residentin ofmodernity.” 7. In

Modernity Modernity andtheHolocaust

See also also See on a

( l outflow ofthe not l outflow Chicago & London: & Chicago 6

om other episodesanti om other of , Notwithstanding these different tendencies,Notwithstanding thatfact the these the different remains 13 Moishe Postone and Eric L. Santner. Eric and Postone Moishe Hitler’s WillingExecutioners Hitler’s .

- Jewish viole Jewish t regards the Holocaust as a culmination of antisemitism and Medieval hate is hate Medieval and ofantisemitism culmination a as Holocaust the t regards

U nce and destruction, most notably the pogroms in the Russian Empire Empire Russian the in mostthe pogroms notably destruction, nce and niversity - yet - , Baumanargues modernity“necessary the that provided fully

of Chicago, 2003). ofChicago, - orld history andwereorld thatpower inthe way control Jewish violence.Jewish : - Ordinary Germans Ordinary efficient, optimal goal optimal efficient, eradicated residuesof pre 9 Again, the work of Daniel Goldhagen comes to mind. to comes Goldhagen Daniel workAgain,of the

8

In thewordsBauman, of Holocaust the was Catastrophe and Meaning: The Holocaust and the and Holocaust The Meaning: and Catastrophe 9

To supportclaim,he this

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and the Holocaust the and Therefore exploring therationale d. This destruction often took the took often destruction This d. - implementation.

- modern barbarity. It barbarity. modern

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New York: York: New the case ofthe suggests that ent Jews to ent Jews

On the Alfred A. Alfred CEU eTD Collection inextricably linked tomodernity,ascan a particularly inhumane be understood form o ofthemethod, exploitation labor capital.” ofothers, Itknowledge. a knowledge takes of onthe technology, specific form essence defineas which “the ofthis they knowledge towards rational as as turn well thinking. of th desire itsfear toconquer to Horkheimer argument,thrust ofTheAdorno’s and thehuman Enlightenment themain is in asense, theHolocaust, aproduct totalitarianism, isaform offascist According of modernity. to them, fascist extreme totalitarianism isthemost conc enlightenment” Thebe over which to taken West by caused instrumental rationality.According Horkheimerand see Nazism Fascismas phenomenathatstem from the destructive“dialectic of highlightingof The Enlightenmentby In dominating its tendency. shor Enlightenment,” argument bytheCritical drawingIn TheoryHorkheimer upon and of Adorno. “The of Concept bureaucracy as thedefining society characteristics of supportfor modern and invokes simply be necessarilycause withthat catastrophic modernity’srelationship Holocaust, the event cannot modernity his problematizes deeply rather top failed formto its andpurpose. 12 2. 11 10

Ibid. Ibid. Adorno, W. Theodor and MaxHorkheimer Bauman,

In claims, Bauman tosubstantiate order his rationality, identifies efficiency,and

Modernity overlooked precisely providedbasis for a tooccur it modernity fundamental because ims to produce neither concepts toproduceneitherimages, nor ims understanding, northe of joy but

revent it. For Bauman, Forrevent it. to of theHolocaust’srelationship the question from , 17. 17.

Dialectic ofEnlightenmentDialectic

”

10

Accordingmodernity Holocaust, view, cause tothis the didnot but ofe accumulation and unknownthrough acquisition the

own Dialectic of Enlightenmen of Dialectic

view ofmodernity. modernity didnot While 10 , Horkheimerand engage Adorno , critique ina

12 11

Therefore, theknowledge technology, Within the context ofWithin modernity, this lusion of Westernlusion Enlightenment. Thus t

( New York: t, Adorno and t, Adorno Herder and Herder, 1972), 1972), Herder, and Herder

his f power.

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CEU eTD Collection points ofconventionalpoints reactions and objectification of mind.” relationship beings thedominated objects, from the r but Horkheimerand “not Adorno, only paid isdomination forof humans withthe estrangement estrangement naturebeings as human well from their asAccording ownselves. other and to resulting ina one way, gains inthis time controloveratthey nature the same it, distancedfrom become estrangementincrease with intheir power over from which that isexerted.” it “ Inexception from desire this tounderstandcontrol. andwords and ofHorkheimer Adorno, the scientific remnant ofownself its beings. human beings seek According and Adorno, toHorkheimer of the Enlightenment, theanddominationcome conceptscontrol, tothe fore. ofpower, drive against enemies. perceived its and control, constitutedthemeansNazi Germany murderous bywhichits able was toexecute manifestsThis notion itself inthewhich Holocaustorder, form, power machinery, method, in 15 14 13 Myth and nature enlightenment becomes mereobjectivity. H

Ibid, Ibid, Ibid, Adorno, and Horkheimer

2 6.

From humanity’s overarchi Nothing else counts. Ruthless toward itself,eradicated Ruthless theEnlightenmentcounts. hasthe elseNothing last 1.

terms, is therefore to control and exert powerexert terms, thereforetocontrolit over and is

of individuals to themselves,of individuals have to by been themselves bewitched the lessening in theimportance toindiv lessening in attributed

to learn

- awareness The Dialectic The 15

As a result ofthisestrangement,

from

nature is how to use it to dominate wholly both it andhuman tousedominatebothit wholly nature ishow it .” ng toaccumulate desire knowledge, ischaracteristic which ,

4. 4. 13 the modes of operationthe modes of objectively expected of them. T

“power and knowledg“power and o understand nature,o understand to thatis elationship 11

s ofhuman beings,including the iduality “individuals shrink to thenodal“individuals shrinkto e are synonymous,” ande “what are synonymous,” uman beings pu uman beings , and human beings, and human are no . This explain it according it explain to accounts for man’s 14 rchase the

However, as

CEU eTD Collection carried Nazi Germany targeted its g towards coordinated modern efficiency bureaucracyIn of technology. theenterprise and sense, this that others lives andindividual mass t at tomorality blindness all.This isp ethical andmoral virtually blinded tomoralitycontinuall inthat insomuch as theyimpa donot then able the moral todismiss andethicalconsiderations associatedwithone’s actions part actions ofthe system,broader arefrom this effects one’s divorced have. theymight relation to therefore solely ledman onhis tofocus to the objectivityfunction oftheirassigned and theschemata toit. successes failures. or nature, they write: related to bureaucracy regard without for consequencesactions oreffectsisdirectly thatone’shave, where isdistan one idea,this onea one’sfroma natureinto larger estrangement renders meresystem piece of hasendowedAnimism things.” makes into thingsindustrialism souls withsouls; 17 16 hese exceptional conditions

Ibid, 21 Ibid, Horkheimer and Adorno, Adorno, and Horkheimer , theNaziwas system able toperpetuatewith the legitimacy onascale murder and mass Bauman’s concept distance, ofmoral - 22. 22. the an

views of HorkheimerAdorno. andviews of arbitrary where matt standard else nothing

obligations one is thus sofar one isthus removed from nolonger the themthatone obligations sees

“individuals definenow only themselves as statistical elements, things, ced not onlyced one’s self from actions not effects. but and one’s their

Their criterionTheir isself

The Dialectic The murder.man’s tomora Drawingblindness upon

humanity theheinous committed act: most dehumanizati ct their lik

,

21. 21. recisely

self, that is, one’s self, that is, elihood of succes - preservation, successful orunsuccessfulpreservation, adap oal, the bureaucraticoal, control, means showshow of what allowedtakewhat theHolocaust place. U to that is the notion of a rational thenotion that is adherence to y what oneperceives dismissing 12

Regarding humanity’s estrangement from

ers exc s or failure. Infailure. doings or so,one

own degreesuccessfailure of or in ept that of the targetedeptgoal. that ofthe Asa ” 17

This estrangement has lity

and disregardfor as irrelevant 16

According to on of

becomes becomes One is One tation nder m CEU eTD Collection especially ofthe true thinks ifone who processedtoberelieved allobligations thatcargo moral and of responsibility. Thisis numbersthe human tobetransformedallowed ordata victim allowed cargo intomere and those slows downthesmoothflowof bureaucraticroutine.” which intodisapprobation soonturns andwhen censure theirlack resistance, orofcooperation, demands,of bureaucratic human objects task Bauman,“Once effectively subjects dehumanized,as cancelled ofmoral and potential hence to carry anywithout outtheirorregard dutiesIn moralfor qualms human life. thewords of occur. thekey system, Dehumanization, oftheNazi element proc those allowed perpetuated moral and thatallowed blindness distancingthe the victims from theHolocaust to in Listsdeportcamps themtothe death Poland. in notonly were oftheir useful because efficiency theReich within citizenship and German inorder tofamiliarilists Indeed, enterprise Holocaust theNazi (campbureaucratic commanders, etc.) officials, utilized in many according different and theHolocaust. ways agendas todifferent goals during and Power Control and of aForm The Listas modern human experience. ofotherandformgenocide human aof beingsinitself domination the and is product man’s 19 Arendt,Hannah. 1998; UP, Stanford 18

Bauman, Bauman, For keeping marchgas chamberssteady, the also thesystem tothe thatthey fit theyin more authors on this subject see subject this moreon authors Rendering ofnames toaset onpaper, victims pieceeven of or fu The asan list, one object, part comprised of th Modernity , 103. 103.

ze strip communities, of themselves their with Jewish Jews German 18

The Origins of Totalitarianism of Origins The : Agamben Giorgio AgambenGiorgio Judenrat - occupied countries, ghettoize countries, them,and occupied eventually o -

r the so r the performance 13 and DanielHeller and

- called councils established Jewish by the e larger functioned chain bureaucratic that 19

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of Rescue of Rescue 17

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hapter Ibid, 9. Ibid, 49. Ibid, Diplomática, de Información de SpainOficina rld War.This publicationcameIsrael’s tothe recently as State of founded a directresponse This government publication portraysThis government publication a liberalJews Spainas savior benevolent of England period herselfof duringofJews? the persecution wa that nationality own her them Give Jews? the of favor in do Spain could things other What .] . . . [ identity. of documents his aske was one no in; let were anguish in door our at called who those ALL o Spanish of were protection her needed who those whether ask to made were distinctions No Jews. the to assistance generous and varied a dispensed .] . [. Government Spanish the war, world last the During InformationIn Diplomatic Office Spanish Ministry ofthe 1949the Foreign Affairs of in

ss towards ass towardspersecuted towhichSpaniards race, attached feel themselves by

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27

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at YIVO Institute f Institute YIVO at 22

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make them Spaniards? Well, even even Well, Spaniards? them make Spain andthe Jews (Ma or Jewish Research, New York, NY York, New Research, Jewish or dr id, 1949), 47; Consulted in YIVO Consulted in 47; YIVO 1949), id, 26

Jews duringJews theSecond –

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Embassy of Spain, ofSpain, Embassy These asportray Spain’sJew publicationsof desire demonstrate rescue her to operations its and testimonials people government that th Spanish of the number satisfied fully the thankfulness whole Sephardi the in originating on but circumstance to according country to and country from varied f success less of their measure of The millions communicants. to fellow destitution or death brought which war a of course the during Jews Sephardi of behalf on did representatives diplomatic its fullyeverything and It inawould beshort todescribe few impossible lines Spain yearIn wasSpanish government by published another thesame pamphlet the - oriented state duringoriented state World theSecond

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Spain andthe Sephardi Jews )

at Center for Jewish History, CenterJewish for

(Washington D.C., 1949), Consulted 2; 1949), D.C., (Washington 23

War, whichWar, actively Nazi supported - occupied Europe. 28

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David Salinas, David “ ofSpain, Embassy España hacia sus Judíos en el s en el Judíos sus hacia España Quijote frente a Quijote .

ulating usedlight by thatsheda thesources onthe Spanish ones only favorable selecting . Barcelona: DOPESA, 1973 DOPESA, Barcelona: . These the twoinstances Spanish Foreign show active Ministry’s involvement in This particularconstructed narrative,in the post immediately 31 29

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24 José Antonio Lisbona describes Ysart’ Lisbonadescribes Antonio José (Spain, theThird Sephardim, Reich: and

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35

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Isabelle Rohr, Isabelle Avni, Haim

Nazi occupation duringItNazi occupation theHolocaust. SecondWarand ofthe World thelast is stages At thestartWarSpainwas World ofthe a Second neutral country

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CEU eTD Collection Portuguese well.authorities Forexample,Vichy as 2 June France on issued orders bur alongclosed periodically.waswere deeply entirely thePyreneesnot this Spain alone in Spain was difficult only not due Portugal remainedinplacet their had Portuguesetheir visastoafinalgenerally visasorexpired.” destination Into leave of Europe. “B thewords Rohr, thus intensifying distraught their situations wereforced towait entire length ofthejourneygranted being even considered before the applicants were requiredproperconsular topresent for travelthe the documentation to applicationsbe sentMadridapproval nowhad to foronacase to consuls had abroad theauthority transit refu toissue visasbecause nolonger the severely refugees seekingone impacted way. toreach Portugal moreSpanish via Spain in than and Rohr the new came stating1940and Spanishregulation Rother 11, intoplayNovember withAvni could enter as Spainas thelength well ofthewaiting process.onwhen There isadisagreement reevaluated ent policies her for to Portugal of from thewar the start 1940 upuntilSeptember 41 ( 40 39 Franco and the Holocaust and Franco

Rohr, Avni, Rohr, eaucraticability Spainwas the theFrench process; ofrefugees toenter contingent and on This legislation concerning refugees seeking order onto Spain in toenter tocontinue After short this The Spanish Right Spanish The Franco Jews,and the Spain, Spa The

stating 8,1940.Regardless timing, October theseordersfrom ofthe new Madrid nish Right nish

anywhere from three weeks up to more than six weeksanywhere threeweeks tomore hear thansix to from response up a

- ) , 109. , 109. ,

lived heyday of Jewish transitlived through heyday Jewish Iberian Spain of the Peninsula, (Marcial Pons Historia, 2005), 139. 139. 2005), Historia, Pons (Marcial

hroughout the remainder ofhroughout Obtaining thewar. remainder

rance, of affectedthe which refugees number that subsequently , 73; Rohr, Rohr, , 73; to Spain’s new regulations new to Spain’s The Spanish Right, Spanish The y thetime therefugees theSpanishvisa, received had . 40

This meantmany severe setbacksforattempting 29

109; 109; ,

but also because theborder but alsobecause stations . Bernd Rother, Rother, Bernd 39

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permission to enterpermission to

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H 79. Ibid, 77. Ibid, Avni,

aim Avni, “España Avni, aim

. 45 tional Red Cross, the American Joint Distribution Committeethe American Distribution orother tional RedCross, organizations Joint to Avni initiallycharacterizes of“a thesea policiesresult as progressively declining Spain, the Jews, and Franc Jews,and the Spain,

Spain did notallowSpain did any welfareagencies, international as the such orprivate,

to this wasto this thesmalloperation set thePortuguese upby national Samuel Jewish

obtaining Spanish transit obtaining transit Spanish of 1942, which cancelledvisasto of 1942, which exit French and alien J

y Portugal, su actitud respecto de los refugiados judíos durante la era nazi.” In Ignacio InIgnacio nazi.” era la durante refugiados los judíos de respecto su actitud yPortugal,

Nationalist coalition ’s “state

o , , 7 Avni 5. 5. ó n y racismo en America Latina (Grupo Editor Latinoamericano, 1997), 1997), Latinoamericano, Editor Latina(Grupo America en yracismo n

visas. -

sponsored” antisemitism astheprimaryantisemitism sponsored” reason for her compares Portugaland Spain’s attitudes towards Jewish 42

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thus prevented grant AidSociety CEU eTD Collection 46 deportedIt likely toFrance. back meta most “East” is terrible thatthey inthe fate c Foreign actions Affairs these tostop E families, clandestinely andwere intoSpain, crossed France deportedback un to whichand a Octoberrefugees, 1942,largewave ofJewish in individuals and mostly of older the United Sta instance, concerning her Spain’s anguish towardrefugeeswere polices Jewish received how in outrageouslythey highforced prices weret who hadJews previously sailed for York New ha fromvesselsAmerica boundfor sailingand Northreason onSpanishCuba.was The thatsome General Transport, Directory ofMaritime from onorders the borderline refugees Jewish indifferencewhen towards occurred 1941, theSpanish inSeptember Spainalso Antime, consciouslyexample assist Jews. canceledofSpain’s efforts to its thattheseimplication were individuals passing just borders. Howev through her presence te inSpanish respect thedoctrinal oppositi to turned a eye blind t under thethe AJDC guise ofthe whoseCross, Portuguese activities the Red Spanish authorities Sequerraahotel during Barcelona in 1941.Sequerra served 49 48 47 mbassy inMadri

Ibid, Rother, Avni, Avni,

263

Another chillingexample ofSpain’s duringSpain was more Jews orlesstoassist willing halfwith the of thefirst thewar “España y Portugal,” 262. 262. y Portugal,” “España Franco Jews,and the Spain, Franco y el Holocausto el y Franco - 264. 264. tes appears tohavetes appears affected her

d on November 9th of that yearwasd onNovember 9thofthat able of Spanish Minister topersuade the o. 46

rritory.”

In“Spain’s words tolerance ofAvni, the deviation was with theonly , 139 ,

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9. 9.

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decision to stop helping stop to them. decision 31 d “claimedobjecting tothecourts,”d tothe

as an unofficial representativean unofficial of as

Interior Ministry, Jews banned

til the Americantil er, ater, the same . 48 onsidering onsidering In this

CEU eTD Collection Spain playeda role abilityEurope,from inJews’ Spain’s attitude toescape was inconsistent welcome them.” humanitarian considerations orthepolicy, rejection of Nazi b though were hastohighlight “But Spain] Spain: also essential [of motives not one that the through in highlights point Spainhiscritique refugees andRother this of Jewish whopassed Germansavoid withtheAllies. Portugal clashes played and ainthe passage role manipulative attitude towardattempt tomaintain asthe thegoodgraces well Jews as the its of refugees. Spai recentanalysis the topicsuggests thenumb contrast to able topass through Spain duringfirst S halfof the the Franco regime and isin of number refugees of Jewish to safeguard by itsposition goodmaintaining t France,Franco the regime wasAllies’ military confrontedby theand attempted successes to wasthe behalf able tointervene French onrefugees ofback the Jewish being to deported powers thatquestion.Aro and into factored howJews example sheds light onthe broadervis themeposition of Spain’s the massive deportations roundups This and thatinParis. alreadytook placethatsummer 52 51 50

Rother, Rother, Avni, Rohr, However, morebeen onbehalfSpaintoaccommodate coulddone Jewish of have Spain’s policies andnon attitude towardsand Jewish Spain, the Jews, the Spain, Right, Spanish The Franco y Franco Ysart n’s transit policies towardn’s transitrefugees reflect thus regime’s and the inconsistent

sit 52 ’s

el Holocausto uates the figure 20 torange from

While Portugal’sWhile refugees attitude from Jewish towards that of separate inflated figure of70,000 refugees inflated

73

; Rother, 1 23

itself surprising. - 124. 124. er tobe refugees around 30,000 while Rother’s , 156.

escape theNazi That threat. Franco y el Holocaust, el y Franco

The figures for the number of refuges figuresforof whowere The thenumber ies with these powers as well as the Axis powersies withtheseas theAxis powers well as 32

,000 upto35,00

158. 158. , Avni, the first historian toseriouslyAvni, thefirst historian stud und the econd WarvaryIngreatly. World

positive actionpositive onbehalf of the - Jewish refugeesgreatJewish allow a did ut also Portugal’s readiness to ut alsoPortugal’s time that the American thattime the E - à - 0. vis both the Axis andAllied the Axis vis both 51

mor e thorough and

of Jews of Jews mbassy . 50 y

CEU eTD Collection th Following War,whichendFirst ofsaw Ottoman World Empire, the the dismantling ofthe the questionofSpanishnationality and problem assistance ain Spain’s tothe played Jews. role encountered al Sephardim but Citizenship of Spanish and theQuestion Sephardim, Spain, the and rescue Budapest encountered Greece withSpanish in citizenship operations and where she Jews Spain ontheir way important for destination. Thisis toanother understanding Spain’s later of Ashkenazi orSephard make betweentheindividualsthrough passing whether distinctions borders. Jews, her they were forto transit point Jews North orelsewhere, not that Spain did America, Palestine, isthefact relationship However,of the and is to viewJews. what and eitheralso entry it.This highlights complicatedSpain their ordenied her into complicated certain reneged Spainalso instances, complicated onits “policies” vis itself attests tothe ambivalent Spain andNazi relationship Germany. between Howev refugeesJewish inandof This toescape borders inorder to pass throughher theHolocaust. them.” themorthe majoritycountries,no concrete help there but plantobenefit ofEuropean was “It thatSpanishdiscriminatedwould be toconclude policies just less against than thatof Jews and was by marked indifference vis 53

e systemcapitulations under thathadexisted Ottoman of rule, was under the abolished treaty Payne, Payne, Sephardim markers identity andaffected howthose of efforts. Spain’s rescue 53 Before rescue Spain’s discussing Budapest, Greece in operations and she not only where During

Franco y Hitler y Franco

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so Jews of Spanish nationality,so Jews understand to isimportant it how

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- Jews wereJews totransitthrough allowed

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er, in er, CEU eTD Collection as was the law at that time. Inas wasatgovernment thelawthat time. to“obviate order trip,” authorized theSpanish the that thebeneficiaries have not tocomeorder would in toSpain toreceive citizenship, Spanish with the Spanish authorities didnotSpanishbut couldobtaincitizenship citizenship need by tocome toSpain registering capitulations system. had previouslyabroadregistered been t withthe Spanish authorities under thatthoseimplied individualsfrom whowouldbenefitdecree theSephardim this wouldbe who consu families thatinany ofSpanishorigin been occasionrecords had registered inSpain’s inSpanish to those“formerly Spaniards orgeneral, protected their descendants of individuals andin Thecitizenship. wordingof the dec years, period applyDecember of from six Spanish 20,31, December 1924 though 1930,to for promulgateda Royal Decree those allowed in countries theSephardim 1924that inDecember a themselves orprotection withoutrights countries. inrecentlyestablished BalkansandOttoman Empire theFormerthey inadesperate nowthat situation found that emergedBalkans away also did inthe wi of Sephardim theOttoman Empire. in Ottoman Empirethestates Now was thatthe dissolved andsincecentury, protection significant the late a eighteenth itsjurisdiction had under number Spain hadbeen tohaveof allowed protégés a systemofprotection abro Lausanneof 24,1923. onJuly signed 56 55 54

Ibid. Ibid. 37. Ibid, Lisbona, lates abroad.” theworddecree, “Sephardi” While “Jew” in was was or it stated never

The regulations whoapplied inthe decreethoseindividuals for set forth dictated that In ofthese p former the toalleviate order limbo

La política de España de política La 56

abroad. , 36. ,

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Under thissystem,such as EuropeanFrance and powers th this system. left This the Sephardimth this the in 34

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CEU eTD Collection possibilityrepatriated ofbeing totheirorigin. countries of Germany among of distinctions byforeign made allowingJews only theJews nationality the operations Greece in where on actually Thiswouldhave held strong citizenship. Spanish later forrescue implications Spain’s Greece community Jewish was where the predominantly Sephardic butonly numbera limited numberformerly of protégés who held pr Spanish abroad citizens so thatmuchlessdate, by wasthan theSpanish number theexpiration of they and apply didnot citizenship Spanish the forthregulations thedecree held under newin set who hadregistered previouslyauthorities automatica been withthe Spanish swearing constitution. ofthe and consularSpanish diplomats abroad intheir togrant citizenship Spanish residences by 57

Lisbona, Lisbona, La política de España de política La

, 37; Rother, 37; Rother, , However,Lisbona asand Rother discuss,many of the Sephardim

ly Jews with Spanish citizenship werely withSpanishand citizenship where Jews assisted Nazi Franco y el Holocausto el y Franco 35

otection. 57

, 49. , 49.

This can be seen intheThis cancase be seen of

lly believed that CEU eTD Collection well as thatcommunit her to relationship stationed inMadrid, chaptertoelucidate this out assistance as thenature sets ofSpain’s toJews in Athens, Through correspondenceanalyzing between diplomatic Spain’s repr andtime whatrelationship light characterized in assistance sortofdynamic their ofher toJews? Furthermore, proceed vis howdidSpain construct respect her with to rescue didshe viewshe and ofJews thewas how assisting Greece weresortofrelationshipWhat ends? Spain and theydid outandtowhat how carried following theAllies surrenderand her Nazi Germany’s to invasion. subsequent Italianin the Germans Salon invaded, persons who inSalonikaandAthens. resided number a smaller and Spanish citizenship wereregistered approximately inthe Spanish consulate inAthens: 510 origin inSalon andlivedmostly population ofGreece of whomthemajority some numberedaround 77,000, Sephardic were of hada important been cultural prominent oflife and center inthe Balkans. Jewish The Jewish consequences for and large its predominantly Seph Nazi GermanyBulgaria. and The Greece that outin drama played was dire tohave C 59 58

hapter Avni, Morcillo What initiat What During SecondWar,in1941,Greece World the byItaly, thetriple suffered occupation Spain, the Je the Spain, ,

Sebastián de de Sebastián Sebastián T - occupied part ofItalian part Septemberoccupied Greece, until was jurisdiction under 9,1943 hree ws, and Franco, ws,and ives then did Spain take withrespectassisting inNazi to Jews : S

de Romero Radigalesde SpanishForeign Ministry Affairs and of the Radigales

pai ika remained occupationwhileAthens, German initially under situated n’s

, 24; 32. 24; ,

ika. However, only held those number a Jews of limited S 148; panish

157.

-

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ardic community centuries Jewish that for

L egacy 58

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esentative onthe local levelesentative i n

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occupied ? CEU eTD Collection had previou Nazi occupationthey respect“Sefarditas,” onhow who with the were theJews to toproceed Spanish government consulates instructed its and countries representatives operating under in to havetheu been Prior to true. .washedsubjects in hands[had]. its ofJewish Greece.” seeSpain to theevacu aout in letter tothe Spanish Foreign Mayfrom Ministrywilling 6,1944,weretowork with Greece. in Interestinglycitizens enough,authorities inGreece,as theGerman Radigales points byultimatum Germany prompted Spa Nazi iswhat deported unlessSpain evacuatedfrom Greece them by 15,1943. deadlineJune the of Spanish government withSpanish citizenship, theSpanish that the Jews Jews, would alsobe the time being. onApril 30,1943theGerman Nevertheless, E foreign citizenship withSpanish were the nationalities510Sephardic alone; safe for Jews thus point, this Germanyuntil Nazi onlyagainst and discriminated Greek left Jews thosewith Greece.By been P had in May than48,000Jews sentthedeath camps to 1943more with the commencementof deportations intheNazi toPoland ofJews Assi to Spain’s Reluctance also between the how relationship Nazi Germany Spain and isbeingconstructed. internal bureaucracyfigures workings ofSpanish and but theofJews, behind rescue Spain’s 62 ArchivoGeneral 61 60 AMAE Rohr, Avni, The appears Germans’ citizens speculationaboutSpain’sher reluctance toassist Jewish In turninga catastrophic occurredfor point March 1943 theGreekcommunity Jewish The Spanish Right, Spanish The Franco, Jews,and the Spain,

R1716/4 3 R1716/4 sly been registered with Spanish consulates asregistered been former protégéssly consulates withSpanish the under ; Consulted at the USHMM in Washin in the USHMM at ; Consulted

“ Expediente general de los Sefarditas Españole Sefarditas los generalde Expediente

ation of yet her citizens Jewish ation were convinced ultimately that“Spain

142.

st Jews

ltimatum promulgatedltimatum by theNazi authoritiesinGreece, the

148;

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in to takein to actions respect with her to Jewish

, 142. 142. , s”

España, Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, AsuntosExteriores, de Ministerio España, 62

mbassy inMadrid informed the

- occupied zoneoccupied of

oland. 61

This 60

Up CEU eTD Collection are provis happening onthelocal respect The with citizens. fact Jewish level these her instructions to that in countries underoccupation Nazi demonstratesthatMadrid aware was well of whatwas respondingand rep instructing its to citizensfrom in Jewish its Greece. thefact Nevertheless, Foreign that theis Spanish Ministry government thereality orreflects Foreign ofthe being Spanish Ministry physically distanced which aSpanish Jews” perhaps implies sense ofindiffere areSpanish Jews toas“our referred here SpanishJews,” are simply they referenced as “the GreeceSpain’s representativesBerlin theSpanishForeign to in and Ministry, the inwhich areSpanish Jews referencedIngovernment. by theSpanish contrast later to and tomove second,these thedesire Spanish ofJews toSpain. issues: one,Spain’sresponse tothe discriminatorymeasures t representativesto its The discussed inthedispatch thefollowing mainpoints abroad. deal with issued instructionsconcerningconcerning Spanish citizenship with issues twodistinct theJews dePrimo Rivera decree.On January Spanish General of 19,1943,the Foreign Policy Director capitulation system under acquired ofthe and the Spanish had citizenship 1924 stipulations 64 D.C. in Washington, theat USHMM Mi 63

Ibid. AMAE nisterio de Asuntos Exteriores, Madrid, Direcci Madrid, AsuntosExteriores, de nisterio

The first thatcan interesting point report be inthis isthe seen mere inhowthe language themselves. mo difficult establish aand to theundersigned, definitive legalgives solution, the for authorities or passports toapplyorderfor in toSpain. Because tocome is it consulates theagainst measures tocomplain themby about German taken the theyconstantly diplomatic inour represe present themselves The of situation the

R1716/ ional also shows thatthe Spanish governmentional also was shows should undecidedwith howit ment, provisional instructions forrepresentatives howour shouldconduct 3

“Instrucciones a los representantes de de representantes los a “Instrucciones 64

Sefarditas

resentatives abroad about the situation of the Spanish Jews theresentatives abroad Spanish Jews about of the situation

in countriesNazi underoccupation grave isand ó n General de Política de Exterior, de Exterior, Política de n General 38 España

en Europa sobre trato a lostratoa sefarditas” sobre enEuropa nce on behalf of the Spanish of onbehalf nce the aken against the Spanish Jews, the SpanishJews, againstaken 63

The report states: ntations and ArchivoGeneral

reports sent by

; Consulted Consulted

España, España,

CEU eTD Collection nacional española. De suerte que, soslayando soslayando suerteque, De nacionalespañola. riqueza la de modo,parte en cierto tanto, lo por yforman, que españoles a pertenecientes como seanrespetados en Espa nacidos las que la mismade condición nosotros para son españoles siendo que Autoridades antelas alegar actual, momento D.C. in Washington, theat USHMM Mi 65 and the“spiritand raisedofSpain.” educated in mean that inorder legalJews tooffer vis them protection undergranted the Spanishcitizenship former Jews systemcapitulations for of thebenefit ofthe According setforth by tothe argument the stipulated a andofthe differentthecitizenship called Spanish evenJews. view question into representatof Spanishconsulates diplomatic and also toleave ordered,necessary, toallowJews their propertyand if under wealth the protection isimportantquestion and the wellbeing Spanish Jews therefore of Spanishwere representatives and religion, important states, thefor reports isnot Spain’s representatives.Onl and,citizens inacertainway,a Spain’s formed partnationalThe of wealth. questionof race andth in Spain that Spain viewed abroad and asSpaniards considered Jews born her inthe same Spanish light evenof her opportunisticview citizens. own Jewish the Foreignthemselves meted outby reflect further Ministry hostile ambivalent, Spain’s proceed vis a les equipara esto sin que pero locales las autoridades ante legalmente defender 66 de consular o diplomática representante el por administración presidido de patronato un bajo quedan que es necesario, si ello y requiriendo, confiscados sean bienes sus que evitando económica

Ibid. Ibid. AMAE nisterio de Asuntos Exteriores, Madrid, Direcci Madrid, AsuntosExteriores, de nisterio La concesión de la nacionalidad se les hizo, pues, para beneficio suyo y para tener ocasión de poderles poderles de ocasión tener ypara suyo beneficio para pues, les hizo, se nacionalidad la Lade concesión However, regarding tomove the thedesiretoSpain, instructions ofthe Spanish Jews Spanish representatives abroad wereauthorities the Nazi instructedandlocal toinform

R1716/

theycould wereas becomparedwhowere thesame or toSpaniardsborn inSpain - à - ña. Eludiendo este aspecto conviene mas bien referirse a los bienes de los sefarditas pidiendo que pidiendo sefarditas los de bienes los a referirse mas bien conviene este aspecto ña.Eludiendo vis the Nazi authoritieswithrespectTheits citizens. instructionsvis theNazi Jewish at their property considering respected belonged be thatit should toSpanish 3

“Instrucciones a los representantes de de representantes los a “Instrucciones

“En cuanto a este particular no es oportuno, por las corrientes de ideas del del ideas de las corrientes por es oportuno, no este particular “Ena cuanto la cuestión de raza y religión se apunte solamente a la cuestión cuestión la a solamente apunte se y raza religión de cuestión la ó n General de Política de Exterior, de Exterior, Política de n General Spanish Foreign SpainSpanish hadprotected Ministry, and 39 - à 66 España - ion by having themregistered.

vis thelocal authorities.However, not thisdid The desire Spanish Jews’ tomove toSpain

en Europa sobre trato a lostratoa sefarditas” sobre enEuropa

los españoles nacidos en nacidos españoles los

España.” ArchivoG

65 yeconomic the eneral

; Consulted ; Consulted

España, España, España , and ,

CEU eTD Collection assist her Jewish citizens citizens assist her Jewish inGreece,confronted w Spain was born inside thepeninsula. Spanish Spain, the definitionof what meant be it establishedway to Spanish is insuch a thatthe citizenshipcallingSpanish Jews’ as a questionthefrom way into moving topreventthem to assertJews authorityover the wealth national wealth, isapart Spain essentially ofas Spain’s a Jews way manipulates the to connectionJews’ and theirhaving that toSpain, is, asserting citizenship Spanish thattheir way sovereigntywith regards for her t assert Spain to onlyalsoand butis a local manipulativewith respectJews, authoritiesisnot the Spanish for protect their inthe maintenanceand wealth property andbecomeof involved vis relationship theNazi to authorities.Justifying Spanish nationalitySpanish Jews’ the a guidingmotives butalso sheds lightrelationship theSpanishJews, to onher Spain’s moving be abroad compared toprohibitcitizens her to“real inorder Spaniards” Jewish from physically wassee blatantlythatthey themmovetoSpain andusedcould to thejustification not opposed safeguarding property and wealth their former moving from toSpain. of what specifically meantSpanish becitizen it to aprecluded Jews regardingthe theSpanish Inwas rejectedgrounds. words,Spanish government’s on these the other ambivalent sefarditas. los con compararles permite no que diferencia españoles de hijos Therefore30, 1943Nazi Germanyprompted abandon eitherSpain to onApril when or Spain viewedas Spanishcitizens theSpanishJews when came of it tothequestion to Spain. This demonstrates This to Spain. and notonly manipulativeviews theopportunistic and Jews areJews renderedsecond

y educados en el ambiente y en el espíritu de de yespíritu el en ambiente enel y educados

to the detriment ofthe Nazi andlocal However, authorities. in

- class citizens ofSpainand citizens onan parclass unequal with Spaniards

vis - à

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CEU eTD Collection r were Madrid to highlights sent thepower asan list of informative Rather document. than “encounter” The fact Jews. ofSpain its andnumbers citizens of passport that names Jewish readiness tofacilitate GreeceBerlin theSpanishForeign to and Notonly Ministry. doeshighlight this Radigales’ repatriated. withSpanish to Spanish Jews citizenship waitsIncolony anxiously Jews] included toobtain [of passports.” a of list note Radigales this He Greece in emphasized situation theprecarious byforwriting theSpanishJews that“[the] underpassports those histutelagetheundoubted Jews “had to rig who authorize Foreignthegrantingrequesting himto thattheSpanish allow Ministry ofSpanish German away, Withmonth thedeadlinewrotea authorities. Radigales again lessthan Madrid to instructions as he tohow as proceed should well theSpanishJews as to withthe withrespect madegreaton Radigales. aearlyDuring he of impression the asked Mayfor part 1943, Madrid as Spanish citizenship Salonika Jewsfrom Spanish ofthe Repatriation Spain.repatriating to citizens Jewish her conseqstance strong wouldhave one inwhichher towards herwere policies stone. citizens notset Thisirresolute in Jewish and relationshipwas her citizens only to not Jewish also motives, but guided by opportunistic Mayo de 20 Madrid Jordana, Gomez Francisco 67 endering as mere theSpanishJews and as Nazi system, inthecase names numbers, ofthe in

AMAE This perplexing marred situation ambivalentwho possessed view by Spain’s ofthe Jews R 1716: Nota Verbal dirigida por l por dirigida Verbal Nota R1716: 67

This list was This list the firstwere ofmany which representatives by sent Spain’s in the evacuation italsoforced of Spanishthe Jews, Foreign the to Ministry

well as NaziGermany’s toseerepatriated thoseJews toSpain desire

uences for Spain’s response to the German ultimatum of response ultimatum totheGerman uences for Spain’s a embajada de Alemania ende España embajada a

in

whom he issued passports andwere waiting tobe Morcillo 41 ,

Sebastián de Sebastián

Radigales, Radigales,

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AMAE R1716 AMAE Avni, to the Spanish Jews in this instance inthis highlights hesitantto the Spanishandpassive Jews his attitude towards However, on June Spain, the Jews, and Franco, Jews,and the Spain, : Telegrama dirigido por el ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, Francisco Gomez Jordana al Jordana Gomez Francisco Exteriores, ministroAsuntos el de por dirigido : Telegrama

enBerlin istry effectively through from distancescitizens thesituationofits itself

4, 1943 the Spanish Foreign Minister Francisco4, 1943theSpanishForeign GómezJordana Minister

in Morcillo é

s Vidal would issue transit visasfor who those hads Vidal Jews fully wouldissue

14 68 9

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150. 150. , Sebastián de de Sebastián

42 lists and bureaucracylists facilitatedindifference on Radigales,

20 - erman authorities who then erman authorities 21. 21.

that the Spanish Jews of the SpanishJews that he Jews explicitlyhe Jews but 69

This particular the CEU eTD Collection passport for the Spanish Jews. Not onlyJews. passport resistance forshow his this theSpanish does tocooperating withthe he instructed amake easier. lot their movetoSpain authorities’ thattheSpanish be recommendation issuedJews a collective which would passport, about their repatriation aswell toSpain as blatantlyrefused tocomp Spanish Foreign Moreover, Ministry. actuallyefforts Jordana impeded Radigales’ tobring toseeinitiatives theswift evacuation hisactions of fell Spain’sears Jews, ondeaf inthe have topassthrough,Jews] itself.” ofthetransport regardless may ofobtaining thatthey fromcountries theprocess the numerous transit visas stemfrom [the gofo thewayof to the so relayed and toJordana at message of saw as this June thethis end a inMadrid reliable solution Greece which were viaSwedish runby boats, the representativeabout the possibility inGreece toSpainfrom theSpanishJews oftransporting Madrid’s He citizens. approached prolonged theSwedishin repatriating delayher Jewish thattheSpanish hadof Spaintoalleviate foundJews the th limbo largegroup borders. multiple people across of a collective inorder toallevi passport would be demanded deported grant the Germans to Germany. thatSpain citizens Moreover, her torepatriate wouldhave ofJune informed the Vidalend citizens until before thatSpain her they J Gomez Francisco 71 70

AMAE R1716 AMAE Morcillo On Julyinformed instructions Radigales, to Vidal 1,1943Jordanaof inwhich hisprior In attempted Radigales themeantime, touse hisinfluenceas a representative inGreece - called problem of repatriation. Incalledof repatriation. problem a Jordana telegramhe“I to writes, suggest thatwe , Sebastián de de Sebastián the latter to continuethe latter retaining to aattitude and issue passive a tonot collective : Telegrama dirigido por el Embajador de España de en Berlin Embajador el por dirigido : Telegrama ordana in ordana rmer option whichoption rmer wouldthensolve all thecomplications and delays that Radigales,

Morcillo

22. 22. , Sebastián de de Sebastián

ate the complications andstemming time complications ate from the a moving

Rad 70 43 igales,

InternationalVidal Berlin in RedCross. 27. 27.

71

Regardlessof Radigal

al emselves inasaemselves result of

ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, AsuntosExteriores, de ministro ly with theGermanly with es CEU eTD Collection 72 as of from Salonika whose the Spanish Jews hungOn July fate inthe balance. 20, Madrid’s elicited position sharp inBerlin responses from inAthens Vidal and as Radigales well nationals and informed accept not Radigales 17,1943thatSpain could onJuly ofits the repatriation Jewish assisting wereForeignrevealed onbehalf theSpanishJews Spanish MinistryVidal whenof the citizens. byForeignMinistry theSpanishwithrespectSpain’s assistance to view ofher toand Jewish betweenand andBerlin a Madrid is Greececomplicated Madrid and bureaucratic battle dictated fromMinistry that ofthe Foreign inMadrid. Thereforewhat em inwhich thepositionJews, of Spain’sonthe representative Greece local level starkly in differs reflects negative this the SpanishJews forthand relationshipand back between Spain andthe create for repatriated. serious Spainshouldtheyreluctance difficulties Moreover, his toassist be Jordana frames matter abroad ofcitizens the specific Spain’s own as thatcould something greatly of v reduce thenumber couldIn create inSpain.” serioussame difficulties message also this orderedto he Radigales overzealous General Consul [Radigales], paralyzing efforts ofthe ofAthens matter that this his messageRadigales’ concerning efforts.write He Madrid and representative onthelocal its called question.Jordana level also into is isstern in Foreign negative inwhichbetween Ministry’s attitude towardstherelationship Jews assisting German where Spain’s owncitizenswere authorities also concerned it highlights D.C. in Washington, theat USHMM 1943 August, and 8 1943 July30, Jordana, 73 enBerlin España de Embajador

AMAE R 1716/3. R1716/3. AMAE R1716 AMAE During of middle July the the

that visas could onlygrantedthat visas cases. could be inexceptional : Telegrama dirigido por el ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, Francisco Gomez Jordana al Jordana Gomez Francisco Exteriores, ministroAsuntos el de por dirigido : Telegrama “ Letter from Radigales, Spanish Consul General in A in General Consul Spanish Radigales, Letterfrom

in Morcillo

isas for the Jews who wereisas for who repatriated. the Jews tobe

” , España, Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, ArchivoGeneral Asuntos de Exteriores, Ministerio España, Sebastián de de Sebastián true colorsSpanish Foreign viewtrue of the Ministry’s 44 Radigales,

s, “It the neutralize to essential is 27 - 28. 28. thens to the Spanish Foreign Ministry, Ministry, Foreign Spanish the thensto

erges in the correspondenceerges inthe 73

This abrupt change in 72

It striking is how the Spanish 1943 ; Consulted ; Consulted

CEU eTD Collection 74 subsequently thattothe were Germans, citizens Jewish demonstrated her not Spain’sactionscitizens, ultimately and Jews signaled herreluctance her toassist own Inauthorities. German Jewish spurningand torepatriateown demands refusing her reality her vis indifference of stance reluctance characteristicdemonstrates ofhercitizens the Spain’s torepatriate responsibility back Spain. ofThis to herfor citizens Jewish thetransportation and forth concerning a collective of Spain theissuing alsorefrained passport, from yet tothe orders coming Madrid. remainedsubordinate from He writes, Italy.and countries who alsonationals hadJewish In instarkJews. stood thatof instanceSpanish government’s other this contrastto the position citizens,repatriate Jewish its highlightinggrave repercussions have would the this for those pressure Madridgovernment in by onthe outhowSpain pointing foreign consulates evacuatedand inGreece repatriated had their Jews. Radigales viaVidal all other thatwiththe Madrid exceptionof informed theSpanishJews, Gomez Francisco 76 75 J Gomez Francisco

AMAE R1716 AMAE Rohr, R1716 AMAE Like where instance the Spain refused prior tocomplywithGerman demands intervention will there repatriation this a canceling come After train. said of formation the orders waiting t is government for train it special make a will gather which journey to inability the from stemming consequences delayed t in, themselves a find extreme Sefarditas” the you to communicate must I The Spanish Right, Spanish The 75

Vidal added andown opinions concerning hissuggestions situation precarious this

J España de en Berlin Embajador el por dirigido : Telegrama España de en Berlin Embajador el por dirigido : Telegrama

ordana in ordana in ordana da repatriation i wih t which in y

on

compliance

143. Morcillo Morcillo

Ter ocr ses rm h fa o te grave the of fear the from stems concern Their . - à

, - , , vis the Jews and ambivalencevis theJews towards I interned. and deported be will hey codn t my to according Sebastián de de Sebastián de Sebastián

with mpossible

orders in Greece, namely, Turkey, Switzerland, Argentina, e great he Radigales, Radigales, 45 received

o them for

reports, reports, esn for reason d rtcl iuto i wih “our which in situation critical nd 28. 28.

.

76

to

ht h Saih government Spanish the that

go their

al al o Spain to was the last country was to the

ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, AsuntosExteriores, de ministro AsuntosExteriores, de ministro

concern

74

the Nazi the refrain

Radigales triedtoexert taking .

h G The

en their being all that

from erman

heir any

CEU eTD Collection repatriated to the Italianrepatriated ofGreece,zone tothe relatively was that of theGerman calmerthan which who inwriting,Jews, the plight oftheSpanish letter from Spanish Foreign Radigales tothe Ministry authorities on managedItalianSpanish Jews escape Athensthe thehelp with from of to Salonikato Italian the to transfer citizens Spain’s Jewish of zone ofGreece. 150 some Nevertheless, yetbut the G again Radigales ina thegroup entirespecial intransporting Jews train Athens,of Spanish to Athens,Italian which wasunderItalianscontrol. still Thewere willing toassist possibility ofmovin not successful.Italian entered negotiations Hethe into with then aboutconsulate the children,Spanish Jews, theold,and being thesick, from were deported.Hisinitiatives about the current situatio reassureeverything to jurisdiction his of he Salonika couldtheSpanishJews within the impending of German toGermany, deportation these Jews attempted Radigales todo Germans.gambleIt patience.” a seemed withNazi dangerous nationalsSalonika, in Jewish which handing wasto the tantamount themover to Inimportant. Avni, ineffectwords “this of heraldedSpain’s the abandonmentofits in Affairs, 78 77

AMAE R1716 AMAE Avni, Two days Radigales’ following from letter 1943, July 20, Distressed by thenew Spain, the Jews, and Franco, Jews,and the Spain, Morcillo an Italiananmilitary train. : Dispatch , Sebastián de de Sebastián erman authorities also rejected this demand, authoritiesallowthis refusingthe also rejected erman to g the Spanish Jews from Salonikag Spanish Jews totherelatively the haven safe of

from Radigales, Spanish Consul General in Athen in General Consul Spanish Radigales, from n. Heamong authorities toexempt petitioned theGerman the Radigales, Radigales, s of Spain’s refusalrepatriate to s of her and Spanishcitizens

152. 152.

31 78

- 34. 34.

46 requested thetobe Spanish government

. This time Jordana was confronted Jordanawith was . Thistime 77

Vidal s to the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Foreign of Ministry Spanish the sto again forwarded a nother -

CEU eTD Collection Salonika. The letter stat which theydesire expressed intercede their to for their Spain co of onbehalf Greece. prominentcommunity membersletter OnJuly 29,1943 ofthis atoFranco draftedin reactions thesmall community from ofSpanishJ citizens. readiness Spain’s representatives for onthelevel see local her to Spain repatriate Jewish emphasis onthe consequences reluctance ofSpain’s her toassist J added would this bedeportedthe German that theSpanishJews government toPoland, which“tragicPoland, would be and definitive.” Jordana by being alludingtothe possibility citizens ultimate Spanish ofthese hehave furtherattempts Spanish forJews, toimpress the severity inactions the on ofSpain’s does V Bergen Belsen in Hanover,Germanyalready expired.Notonly since extended deadlinehad the if deported. to weretheSpanishJews VidalMadrid ready thattheGermans informed todeport twice onJuly 22 occupied zoneItaly’s considering todeportingopposition Jews. J Gomez Francisco 80 J Gomez Francisco 79

AMAE R1716 AMAE R1716 AMAE idal inform Madrid aboutidal inform the consequencestheconcentration Madrid Germany camp would in good enough to intervene so that the Sephardim that will go to Germany receive receive Germany to go will that Sephardim the that so intervene to enough good benefic but detrimental be not would Spain into entry our that and elements orderly are we you, that knows for us know us, who surprised profoundly has is but government, our from change this wou they that and prohibited was Spain into entrance their that notice the Salonika. received they Spain, in brothers Jewish to repatriated be would our they another or day one of that security the had desperation they When the you to relate cannot We News from of Salonikastrong of theimpendingalso deportation Spanish Jews elicited

: Telegrama dirigido por el Embajador de España de en Berlin Embajador el por dirigido : Telegrama España de en Berlin Embajador el por dirigido : Telegrama ordana in ordana in ordana nd

and July 23 ld be deported to Germany. We ignore the causes that have caused have that causes the ignore We Germany. to deported be ld

es: es: Morcillo Morcillo

r d , ,

about wouldface theconsequences tragiccitizens Spain’s that Sebastián de de Sebastián de Sebastián Radigales, Radigales, ial. Knowing your good heart please be be please heart good your Knowing ial. 47 80 ews dwellingItalian inthe

While VidalWhile hadnodefinitive answer from 29. 29.

79

al al

Madrid again was informed ews the demonstrates

ministro de de ministro AsuntosExteriores, de ministro - - occupied zone of Asuntos Exteriores, AsuntosExteriores, ly deportedto religionists in religionists CEU eTD Collection governmentIn assisting with whomthey Madrid. in theSpanishJews indirect were contact physically toSpaineven bringing Jews though they prob are is citizens Andconsequences yet inactionsthe Spanish Jews. have will thatMadrid’s on of the idea Greece. Spain andher abroad hand, Onthe representatives one are quiteof the aware This interestingshowcasesa dispatchcomplicatedview that ofJews was being pl would have.abandonmentwrote: Jews He of theSpanish Writing fromunidentifiedwarned diplomat Berlin,an Madriddire of consequences the her that representatives Greece in abroadto evacuate concerning Spain’s refusalher citizens Jewish maintained desp severity governmenthope a of the and theSpanish is becauseof certain trustin situation sense an ofview point interesting ofthe Jewish light events Greece onthe and in showcases the withrespectposition her citizens to Jewish hopeful calls assist themandisstill Jews onSpainto that despite therealtyof Spain’s current Highlighting their thatconnection toSpain, is group theirhavingthis citizenship, of Spanish 82 in 1943, Exterior,July 29, Política de General Director 81

Rohr, R1716 AMAE belief the up give that wethe horrible can deathawaits themfrom them. save that cannot I .. . . Spanish practice and theory entrenc in are Jews they though of number not large do a we such that see well to perfectly want understand I ourselves. to it conceal cannot we and reality sad the is This death. to automatically they condemn we legislation, na Spanish possess they though even abroad colony Spanish the of members those welcome to refused Spain If yetDuringreceived latteranother July Madrid half the from ofits of response one not are expelled being we of that misfortune the so have repatriated also Greece. we quickly day one be if and abandoned treatment humanitarian a The Spanish Right, Spanish The : 81 Letter sent from leaders of the Spanish Jewish community to Se to community Jewish the Spanish of fromLetterleaders sent ite Madrid’s blatant underite andassist Madrid’s her to openNazi Jews refusal occupation.

143.

tionality and have settled all formalities by our our by formalities all settled have and tionality in Greece, letter them. This assist sheds Spain will Morcillo 48

,

Sebastián de Sebastián

h themselves in Spain, even even Spain, in themselves h Radigales, Radigales, ñ or D. José M. Doussinague, Doussinague, M. José D. or 82 lematic forlematic the

30 - 31. 31.

ayed outin from .

CEU eTD Collection of such a high number of of such a number high of solidarityyou,I worldwide, which unites Jews indicate my must to Sir, fea power” impact“Jewish internationalan onSpain’s having prestige. writes, He “Givenclose the howev Ministry abandonmentwarning, of This about her citizens. the consequencesJewish ofSpain’s accept considering thepresent circumstances. them inaconcentration c suggests noother thatifthere were possibility, Spain couldaccept and place their repatriation desperate Ministry attempt topersuade theSpanishForeign totake ofaction, any Radigales sort despairingthe SpanishJews’ infaceimp situation ofthe Radigales withrespect rapidly informs ontheground ofthe evolving Jordana situation then to ItalianGreekandauthorities who donowknow thereasonsgovern behavior.” our that factthis has hadeffect colony a for only deplorable not our SpanishJews] [the you,Spanish Sephardimtheconcentration to Germany, tell camps ismythat it Sir, in to duty been very RadigalesForeign Jordana onJuly1943.He towrites, Minister 30, “Although surely therehave want be them to killed the SpanishForeign tokeep thatwanted Ministry Jews seemswith it representatives thatSpain’s caught onthelevel local were between thewishes of 84 in Affairs, 83

Ibid. R1716 AMAE

er, raiseser,complicatedbecause a question precisely thepossibility sees Radigales of

This train ofthought similarly is expressed ina from and long descriptivedispatch Morcillo

important reasons thatourgovernment reasons havethe deportationimportant motivated allow of to : Dispatch , Sebastián de de Sebastián

from Radigales, Spanish Consul General in Athen in General Consul Spanish Radigales, from amp which attheir they ownexpenses, gladly wouldwillingly and Sefarditas Radigales, Radigales,

[Sephardim] givewill campaigngreat place toaviolent of 31 - 34.

84 49

Finally,warned Radigales theSpanishForeign

out of Spain yet sameout ofSpain time didnot atthe ending deportation. Inending awhat seems deportation. s to the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Foreign of Ministry Spanish the sto r that a deportationr

but alsofor the 83

CEU eTD Collection 85 nature bringsSalonika effectively and howthe Athens. of bureaucracy tomind cancel This can Radigales,confronted were with notthereality they ofthe at level situation the local in is what allowed at pr those the dictatingtopto decisions of transitdictated visas,etc., Spain’sand evenJews, and thatambivalent view attitude of hostile Jew GreeceSpain’s representatives distancingBerlin. this Perhaps in and between Spain andher were representdid not but bloodindividuals and that flesh onlists merenames hadbeen by sent GreeceBerlin. and bureaucratic maze thatcharacterizedbetween representatives therelationship in Spain andits Ministry which citizens encountered only Jewish through its correspondence, and the thelists, their precarious undoubtedly situation hadeff more Beingwhere leveland onthelocal direct came into Radigales Spanish Jews contact the with superiors inGreece. of indifferencethesituation Spain’s whoseJews and silence prolonged drawing stereotypepower uponthis Jewish Radigales toprovoke of tried difference Perhaps Madrid withrespectJews. andby in Greece between theSpanish officials to eit invarious instancesprevious attemptsJews toassist where theSpanishForeign was Ministry power asJewish provoke aGreece, toher in way respond SpainSpanish to citizens to his the world’s democracies.” importance ourgovernmentgiven against have influence the Jews enormous throughout thatthe requesting Athens and in Embassy fro 86 in Affairs,

In many of the reports, telegrams, and dispatches sent to Madrid, Radigales des Madrid, sent to dispatches and telegrams, manythe reports, In of R1716 AMAE m the Spanish Jews as well as thewell as m Jews Spanish the her silent or ordered its representativeher silentora toretain ordered passive the its stark attitude highlight ish citizens abroad ofcitizens,lists perpetuated maze byinthe thebureaucratic form oflists Notwithstanding the Morcillo : Dispat , Sebastián de de Sebastián 86

For Sp the ch

from Radigales, Spanish Consul General in Athen in General Consul Spanish Radigales, from 85 se complicated views bycomplicated setse forth theassertion is, Radigales, of that

Radigales, Radigales,

Spain’s assistance. assistance. Spain’s

physical encounters with the with encounters physical anish Foreign that Ministry heldSpanish citizenship Jews these 31 - 34.

50

ect on him than the Spanish Foreignect than theSpanish onhim

latter presenting themselves at the Spanish the at themselves presenting latter oceedas they didbecause, unlike s to the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Foreign of Ministry Spanish the sto cribes the phone calls, letters letters calls, phone the cribes

a response his a from CEU eTD Collection 88 87 persons and in15 st Finally, reachedanand agreement Germanyearly between was Spain which September in Spain one repatriate in group citizens Jewish its according possible. tothe quickest route in groups of 25 of Salonika whowerethat theSpanishJews currentlyBergenBelsen detained repatriated in be citizens Spain.Jewish to On AugustForeign Ministry of 1943theSpanish 5, Affairs suggested reneged stanceand infor previous onits August 1943. 2, wascamp. subsequently Jews groupof This Spanish BergenBelsen deported inGermany to on and detainedrounded Jews theminth upthe367Spanish afterof delay thanaSpanish more authorities, theGermans of onbehalf month the Salonika in States. rather only allowed Spain ontheir thattheyway be totransitthrough toPortugal or example, onJuly Jordana again toSpainandinsisted repatriation of 24,1943 refusedJews the seems have to ulti Spanish representativesmade well as ontheSpanishForeign as theSpanishJews Ministry the lists. the relations betwee and connections J Gomez Francisco 90 J Gomez Francisco 89 ipulated that the Spanish Jews wouldipulated thatberepatriated the Spanish twogroups Jews in toSpain ofroughly 180

AMAE R 1716: Dispacho Dispacho R1716: AMAE Dispacho R1716: AMAE Ibid. Rohr,

87 However much reportsGreece impact the coming the Berlin outof from and both The Spanish Right, Spanish The

This was the final strawThis was that thefinal figurativelyJuly thecamel’s broke On back. 29,1943,

persons. However, bizarre Germany this and that insisted rejected proposalpersons. ordana, September 13, 1943in 13, September ordana, in 1943 20, September and 1943 August 12, ordana, 88 -

matelynot altered Spain’s hostilityassisting toward citizens.For her own Not too long after the deportation of the Spanish Jews toGermany,Not toolongofthe Spanish Jews afterthe Spain deportation day intervals.

143. dirigido por el Embajador España ende Berlin Embajador el por dirigido Es de Embajador el por dirigido

90

On September 17, 1943 and October 3, 1943, Vidal BerlinOn September1943and in 3,1943, October 17, n thoseand processingand those constructinglists on the med the Germans that Spain would indeed evacuateGermans that would Spain med theher Morcillo 51 ,

Sebastián de Sebastián pañaenBerlin e Baron concentration Hirschsuburb Morcillo Radigales

al al

ministro de AsuntosEx de ministro AsuntosExteriores, de ministro , Sebastián de de Sebastián , 46. 46. ,

Radigales

the United the teriores, teriores, , 40; 42. 40; 42. , 89

CEU eTD Collection had played inassisting Jews. Congressof theJewish World and the role there discussed with thatSpain them inAugust 1943 for publicrelations. theinterestLondon Spanish representatives ofSpain’s in scant analysisthat toshow Spanish rescue indeed instance inthis overtly was exploited ofJews particularepisode also butto playJews her policies vis out construed of what only thedefinition beingtonot Spanish meant andhowassist used thatwas relations Germany.further withNazi This instance become theSpanishJews aSpaintousewith respect her chip perfectbargaining to for respect Germanyas well asSpanish Nazi neutrality to a toassert way In and sovereignty. this and NaziJews Germany. Perhaps Spaintoobtain wasa this a for way be treatedthe SpanishJews across as ofSpaincomes citizens vis as manipulative ligh shouldbe“treatedGermany Jews inamanner citizens.” thattheSpanish befitting Spanish impasse was finally settledandVidal Berlin Jordana orderedin guarantees demand to from in whichthe questiono Avni demonstrates internal that an among debate theSpanishauthorities inMadrid played out been twoexpeditions. divided into forwarded tothe Spanish Foreign twolists Ministrygroup of in whichthe 93 92 91

Rohr, Avni, Morcillo t of Spain’s irresolute stance towards accepting her own Jewish nationals this demandt ofSpain’sthat stancethis irresolute accepting nationals own towards her Jewish What prompted this sudden promptedWhat this of the change Spanish fromauthorities inMadrid? the part The Spanish Right, Spanish The Franco, Jews,and the Spain, , Sebastián de de Sebastián

is divorced thebroader goes Rohr international from implications, his beyond Radigales

f repatriating membersf toSpaindivided government. Jews ofthe The

14 4.

93

, 81 ,

She writes, their “To image improve Spaniards abroad, the

155. 155. - 91. 91. 91

- à - raises the question of how the Spanish authorities raises questionof howthe the Spanish vis Nazi Germany. Avni’s analysis While vis Nazi this of 52

leverage ofpowerwith

Spanish Jews had Jews Spanish met withleaders - à - vis both the vis both 92

In CEU eTD Collection 95 94 opportunity onthis Nevertheless, promote abroad Spain’s image seized Jordana to by ordering responding p citizens, own toher Sara who had Saporta witnessed threeSpanish Jews Saltiel, Madrid’s indecisiveness in Belsen totheMoche safeCarasso haven it Salomon and made Moche, Saltiel ofSpain. Raquel spent who ar had point the SpanishJews uptothis Spanish border at Port repatriation duringFebruarygroups carriedintwo was out crossedtheFrench 1944who necessary brining from preparationBerg theSpanishJews for entered1943 was Africa evacuated AugustDecember1943 Spain Spainmade in toNorth the in and through theearlyof1944.Finally months after theFrance groupfrom ofJews whohad housed in Spanish Jews Bergen t stayprolonged Belsen whose was throughout 1943. eva Germany thattheir Spain nowinsisted repatriation because was toSpain contingent onthe from proved theto Spanish Spanish government interned tobea Jews disappointment in contrast theimage to the reality Jewish Bergen inwhich her in citizens instart Belsen stood themselves found rescue Jews.” the began ofthe promoting myths non the 98 J Gomez Francisco 97 96

Ibid. Dispacho R1716: AMAE Ibid Avni, Rohr, cuation of a group from of aFrancecuation Jews of allowed been whohad Spain during into August 95 ,

157.

While Spain was ofWhile busy Greecethe SpanishJews her exploiting assistance abroad, to Spain, the Jews, and Franco, Jews,and the Spain, Right, Spanish The This desirecitizens Spain’s ownJewish tokeep at bay repercussion had difficult for the

ordana, February 29, 1944 in 1944 29, February ordana, 94

and message The responseand positive shesending totheinitial world. was

- Bou onFebruaryBou 10

14 dirigido por el Embajador España ende Berlin Embajador el por dirigido 4.

155. erished whilewaiting toberepatriated toSpain.

- antisemitism ofthe antisemitism Morcillo th

and February 13 53 , Sebastián de de Sebastián

ound a total of six monthsound a interned total ofsix inBergen

regime and its extensive activitiesregime to and extensive its Radigales th en Belsenen toSpain.

respectively. al

ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, AsuntosExteriores, de ministro , 97 , - 99. 99.

97

However, notall he end of 1943 98 96

The - CEU eTD Collection them asonly lessthan was soand it assisted them a a because way image positive topromote shewas wereindividuals Jews dealing these Spainviewed with.Although Spanish citizens, abroad citizens own Jewish under Nazi It indecisiveness and reasons repatriate thereforeclear assist thatSpain’s to her is the behind Spain’s international image. inthe words accurately captured ofJordana: Thisis was toassist themprecisely disposed the because have broader would implications this of on clear, isthatSpain viewed own however, her Jewish personally dictated policy this representatives toSpain’s abroad is thepoint.What isbeside permanentlyForeign WhetherFranco ornot settling the or Ministry himself inSpain. indicative ofa broader policy outofSpainba of keeping Jews repatriation notonly ambivalent her tothe peninsula view confirms further butis ofthe Jews, arrival of theSpanish in thethe SpanishAmbassadorUnitedStates, Juan Francisco de C 1943 December 28, ofWar, 100 99

Rohr

AMAE R 1716/4 Letter from Spanish Foreign Minister Jordana to Señor General D. D. General Señor to Jordana Minister Foreign Spanish Letter from R1716/4 AMAE , remain inSpain. others trace group one Spain leavesafter only and hundred one less or more h of groups we in them situation, bringing the of light In difficulties. international serious in result and States United the in major particularly abroad, a us against about campaign bringpress could this as citizens Spanish are they that fact the the ignore does nor us suit not does it Caudillo because Spain in settle to them allow cannot We them. for bound or camps concentration in either are who now right Europe hundred several are There . .]. [. Spain’s unwillingness assist her to owncitizensabroad and their realize actual The Spanish Right, Spanish The –

follow. With this system it is clear that in no way will we allow Jews to Jews allow we will way no in that clear is it system this With follow.

o e lo a eod ru, hc i tr wud e vcae t let to evacuated be would turn in which group, second a allow we do

authorize it. Yet we cannot abandon them in th in them abandon cannot we Yet it. authorize –

toSpain. Jews going through the country like light goes through glass, without a without glass, through goes light like country the through going

inAvni, 100 14 8.

Spain, the Jews, and Franco the Jews,and Spain, 99

- occupation werecontingent s of Jews with Spanish nationality who are in in are who nationality Spanish with Jews of s 54

nationals as less than Spanish citizens, yetnationals aslessthanSpanishcitizens, , Appendix. , sed on the fear ofsed on thefear their

eir current situation and situation current eir

á rdenas to publicize the publicize rdenas to

on her mixed view ofthemixed on her v considered ave Carlos Asensio, Minister Minister Asensio, Carlos

CEU eTD Collection Repatriation of the Spanish Jews from Athens Athens Jewsfrom Spanish ofthe Repatriation the bureaucraticgoals they go, are and notperceived better notremembered.” perceive is andtechnical humansbehind remember the allsuch point terms. The ofviewInpoint Foreign of theSpanish Ministry. thewordsBauman, is difficult to of“It of relievecertain precisely of Thisis thoseinpower obligations. moral case because the thelabels effectively being reduceand processed theindividuals referenced totechnical terms, which perhaps th an overstatement, way inwhichtheyreferenced are andSpanish viewed Foreign report by the inthis is Ministry ofpower. werethose inpositions an While the assertionSpanish Jews that dehumanized inthe of bureaucracy toeffectively humanindivi undermine in whichthey Thishighlightsarereferenced power by theSpanishauthorities. of the thenature inthis particular thewaySpanish Jews in asSpanishcitizens losetheir instance distinctiveness becomes a of befitting Spain’s label owncitizens.Beingof “tha label reduced to doing“Jew” so,theseems valuethe“them,” term loseits and other,’ to ‘the now thatis interchange citizens.indifference anditsJewish distancingwell as The Spain as the repeated between Spanish Foreign theterm While “Jew” Ministry. report isused inthis one literally can the see particular, thevery language isst assistance citizensstemmed from toher manipulativemotives. own as well as opportunistic foras Spain abroad as toassert wellSpain’s s 101

“them”“Jew” connection effectively andcanceled Jews from theseto Spain the Spanish

Bauman, Bauman, The way in which the Jews are viewed in this report raises interesting questions. InThe are raises way report inwhichthethis interesting viewed Jews questions. Modernity

between “Jew” textunderscores and inthis between “them” distancing. Furthermore, in that , 103. 103.

is instance highlights thepowerbureaucracy of language to in

riking with respect to how the Jews areriking howthe to Jews withrespect referenced by the overeignty vis 55

duals being referenced and processed by - à - vis Nazi Germany.vis Nazi Thusher 101

that as far as em” the

CEU eTD Collection accordingJews guidelines considering difficulties tothese intransporting the them across years1943 Radigales wouldtakeresponded thantwo thatit all more ofthe Spanish toevacuate could after onlytoSpain repatriatedgroup be the inAthens groupsrepatriation in of twenty Jews five butthat of eachgroup theSpanish persons, towards repatriating Radigales her citizens, was Jewish organize informedcould that he own hands. his Radigales into tookinitiatives Radigales, betoSpain.gave The repatriated German they authorities reply therefore no who had escapedSpanish Jews Salonikaassistance toAthensand from thatwiththe of EmbassyBerlin that refrain the Germanauthorities actio inrequested from any repatriationgroup toSpainaswell.of Jews Uponhisrecommendation, theSpanish of this the German theGreece.expel foreign from Jews plansto petitioned theGermansyears exclude sick,thoseofyoung 80 and older, to from children or authorities allowedthe Spanish interned tovisit Radigales Jews there he unsuccessfully where but detainedkilometers and tothe camp relocated of outside ofHaidiriAthens. six The G roundup this Auschwitz; who also were included155SpanishJews toAuschwitz notdeported them. Onth March and German begantoroundupJews subsequently 1944inwhichthe authorities deport partNazi authorities.Theinthis ofGreece Jews relatively secure remained safe and upuntil who had previouSpanish Jews 104 103 in 1943 26, March Affairs, Foreign 102

Ibid. Avni, R1716 AMAE

Pr InItaly’s following capitulation group September themeantime, in 1943, thesmall of

Spain, the Jews, and Franco, Jews,and the Spain, ior to this, Radigalesior tothis, petitioned theSpanishauthoritiestosee inAugust had the 1943 e night of March 24, 1944 the Jews of Athense were ofand rounded night 24,1944theJews deported up ofMarch to : Dispat

ch

from Radigales, Spanish Consul General in Athen in General Consul Spanish Radigales, from Morcillo

sly escaped to Athens nowcameofthesly the under escaped jurisdiction toAthens

156 - 157. 157. , Sebastián de de Sebastián

103 56

In of thechange view

Radigales, Radigales,

before that hadleftbefore Spain. that 102 101

- 102. 102.

s to the Spanish Ministry of Ministry Spanish the sto

in Spain’s policies in Spain’s 104

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AMAE 477, 211.o. 211.o. AMAE477, A Interviewof Budapest, 1990, HistoryProject, Oral Museum Memorial StatesHolocaust Lang,United Eva Interviewof ; What littleWhat demographicinformation providessheds the list thesmall light onwhere The last groupof Jaime Vandor, Vandor, Jaime . See . panish passports validforwhich werepanish in whole three passports families in months included ; Consulted at the Embassy of Spain in Budapest. Budapest. Spainin theof at Embassy ; Consulted ndrew Furst, Shoah Foundation Visual History Archive, 1996, Hawthorn, Australia.Hawthorn, 1996, Archive, History Visual Foundation Shoah Furst, ndrew Deaglio, Deaglio, Legación Al filo del Holocausto: Holocausto: del filo Al

Jews assisted byLegation assisted was theSpanish Jews approximately45 The Banality of Goodness of Banality The

de España en Budapest, Berna, al Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 14 de 14 AsuntosExteriores, de Ministerio al Berna, enBudapest, España de

arcelona in1940. arcelona Diálogos nity of Sephardimnityalso established. was of ifteen in Budapest alone and six from elsewhere inBudapestifteen six and in alone 124 65

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- AMAE 477, 211.o. 211.o. AMAE477, L. Randolph 211.o. AMAE477, 976. 976. This was one of the reasons, Sanz BrizThis was claimed,reasons, oneSanz ofthe Briz issuedSanz theSephardimpassports ordinary i Spanish

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de España en Budapest, Berna, al Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 14 de 14 AsuntosExteriores, de Ministerio al Berna, enBudapest, España de de 14 AsuntosExteriores, de Ministerio al Berna, enBudapest, España de

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Ibid. Ibid. 211.o. AMAE477,

hs rtcin Fnly I de ta te emn oenet tef a an as itself, government Sephardiccondition that imposingtheybe the Jews, transported toSpain. German the o that had, power, added occupying the I that Finally, and protection. authorities this Spanish respected always had by arisen had problem policy Jewish the where traditional countries European a was Sephardim of pro the that explained I which in Ministry Foreign Hungarian the to a note sent I possibility this avoid to order In houses. Spanish the from persons over 300 evacuating of intention their me to signaled have they occasions repeatedb unnoticed passed not has saved been have practice in that those and government Hungarian the recognizedby been Representationhas this by protection whose Jews of numbers the between disproportion great The Furthermore, authorities concerning negotiating withthe when Hungarian S “La gran desproporción entre el numero de judíos cuya protección por esta Representación había sido sido había esta Representación por protección cuya de judíos numero el entre “Ladesproporción gran ; Consulted at the Embassy of Spain in Budapest. Spainin theof at Embassy ; Consulted Legación

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131 isterio de Asuntos Exteriores, 14 de 14 AsuntosExteriores, de isterio

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132 Briz mention tection pain’s

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December 1945,Sanz 134

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USHMM 1995.A.0612 “The Spanish Safe Houses” Giorgio Perlasca Collection. Perlasca Giorgio Houses” “The Safe Spanish 1995.A.0612 USHMM R.Molho, Isaac Collection. Perlasca Giorgio Houses” “The Safe Spanish 1995.A.0612 USHMM stván Whil The Spanish safe accordingcame houses, Briz, tothe aboutassis toSanz due , Jerusalem, , 1964. Park 35; Phoenix u.5;andN Park 35; Phoenix e theSpanishLegation inBudapestwiththe Hungarian authorities, negotiated “Un hidalgo español al servicio de Dios y la humanidad e y humanidad Dios de la servicio al español hidalgo “Un

ó nia u. 44 and 48; nia u.44 á vay 4. u. Lajos mber 1944, when the International1944, when Ghettomber was the 70

137

However probable itis that the majority of 135 LégrádyKároly

ways. ways. n Budapest” In nBudapest” nder Spanishprotection Spain had eight such Spain

u. 33,25,and 44; 136

Tesoro de los Judios Judios los de Tesoro The dates of - called Spanish nish tance ofa

n CEU eTD Collection D.C.” 10 d 10 D.C.” 138 Israelitesdeportation Thishasprevented ofhelp. and inneed providing internment, their as well Legation 1898letters issued 397passports toasmany ofprotection inBudapestand has letter,this Cárdenas received “Accordingjust govern writes, toacable by my CongressIn York New detailing drawnsentfromBriz. in thelists Sanz theinformation from Ambass Foreign tothe Spanish Ministry Embassy D.C. inWashington Briz senttheSpanishForeign to from 1944was inDecember Ministry the alsoSpanish sent report which in concrete rescue aboutBudapest. Spain’s numbersthe scope Acopy and ofthe in data of final LegationSpanish inBudapesttheSpanishEmbassy to repeatedly D.C., inWashington offers and ontothe American The press. Sp in Washington which D.C. isthenrelayed members Congress of Jewish theWorld toprominent purpose ofpromoting a certain image and ofSpanishrescue narrative tothe Spanish Embassy rescue Budapest in operations leverag acquire a powerful highlighting ingeneral. and Spain’s assistancetotheJews Sephardim Budapest press, theAmerican Y in includingNew the in Budapest. Legation Jewishto informbeing the World Congress Spanish protection meted the outby ofthe the SpanishForeign instructedinWashington ambassador Ministry its Spanis the to ForeignMinistry 140 Dic de 3 Ministry” 139

AMAE 1716, 781 “Sobre protección a los judíos realizada por la Legacion de Espana en Budapest” Budapest” enLegacionEspana la de por realizada judíos los a protección “Sobre 781 AMAE1716, “Telegram 781 AMAE1716, “Telegram 781 AMAE1716, In instanc this ador aletter Cárdenas toDr.L. sent Maurice Jewish a the World Perlsweig, leader of e Noviembre de 1944. Noviembre e de 138

cluded the lists of Jews assisted by ofJews Legation thelists cluded theSpanish inBudapest thatSanz The World Jewish Congress Spain’sThe Jewish assistance in World then publicized toJews iembre de 1944. de iembre e the e the

h Embassy in Washington D.C.” 23 de diciembre de 1944. 1944. diciembrede de 23 D.C.” Washington hin Embassy list

sent from the Sp from the sent inWashington Embassy the Spanish to Ministry Foreign Spanish from the sent

and toMadrid reports Briz sent Sanz by anish Foreign Ministry,anish inrelayingactivities Foreign of the the anish Embassy in Washington D.C. to D.C. in Washington Embassy anish 71

ork Times and other publications, ork Times and other e serves ofauthority it because the 140

On January3, 1945,

D.C., Juan F. Juan Cárdenas,D.C., as ev 139

the Spanish Foreign Foreign Spanish the

idencefor Spain’s

ment, theSpanish Span ish ish CEU eTD Collection F. Cárdenas to Dr. Perlsweig, January 3, 1945. 1945. January3, Perlsweig, Dr. to Cárdenas F. 141 carried outandlegitimized. Briz inBudapestSanz particular around thenbecomes this cornerstone which the agenda is there a istransformed into powerfulpoliticalto tool realize agenda this abroad,case Spanishassistance centered the the of inBudapest ontherescue Sephardim of foreig Internationalthe Service News Agency.” and Canada,know, itwas country inthe published press States] and andradioofthis by [United andotherto Spain for countries their recently World Congress,he approved byJewish thewrites, given thanks is “In resolution, this had for Spain abroadinthe American as as theCanadianresolution well press.Referring toa wrote totheSpanishForeignMadrid of informingthe“suc Ministry, communitythe Jewish theUnited States. of also presentrescuer togain asa Spain ofinorder powers Jews with as theAllied as favor well Spanish government’s andGermany, desire agendaonlydistancefrom tonot Nazi itself the United States. authorities W inMadrid and authoritativeultimate source evidencerescuethe Spanish for inBudapest ofSpain’s for exact numbersprotected of becomes Jews list asthe as thenature ofthatthe well protection, a great intheir way improvement oflife.” TercerReich 1945 7, January Ministry, Foreign Spanish the to Cárdenas JuanF. D.C., 143 142

AMAE 1716, 186 “Jewish thanks for Spain’s efforts” Telegram sent from Spanish Ambassador in Washington in Washington Ambassador fromSpanish sent Telegram efforts” Spain’s for “Jewish 186 thanks AMAE1716, Rother, Juan D.C., in Washington Ambassador fromSpanish Lettersent Jewry” “Rescue ofEuropean 3 AMAE1716, n policy during the warn policyas during and thetoJewish a Jews organizations rescuer itself presenting of The promotion of Spain’s assistanceThe inBudapest for of promotion was Spain’s the toJews a win positive Fran ,

136. 136. co y el Holocausto el y co

ashington touse D.C intheirleaders communication with Jewish in , 377 ,

.

protection of of protection

143 141 142

At a time whenonrestructuring Spain was intentits Incull

On DecemberCárdenasAmbassador 7,1945, 72

Sefarditas ing the very data from the list, that is the ing thatis list, from thevery data the

in and other Jews, and as you,and and other as Jews, Sir, Salinas, cess” that this informationcess” thatthis

España, los sefarditas y el y sefarditas los España, . The list drawn list upby. The but to but to CEU eTD Collection Jews 144 there. The o in the way inwhich assistance overtly toSephardim omitted? identity groups between these two isblurred. left theimpression all thatSpain with assisted Sephardim during because Holocaust the the o “Spanishmoves between Sephardi”“Sephardi,” andcreatingfor theterms confusion thereader is themisleadingwith respect way howthearereferenced. constantly to Sephardim text The to the Sephardic there Jews assistanceduring Briz’s caseHolocaust, assistance toSephardimBudapest the the ofandSanz D.C. published years,the immediate postwar specifically in Spanish government also publicationsbut endorsed those by theSpanishForeign Ministry. Sephardim Budapest in hasbeen remained and forgotten has obscurity in inrelative notonly in the post hasopportunistic agenda.theassistance memory been Spain’s silenced tothe Sephardim Yet of assisting allowedother Sephardim Jews pursue and theSpanishForeign its to Ministry of theList Silencing Memory and Jews 145 Asuntos de Exteriores, Ministerio Madrid: Valladolid; nazi genocidio el contra f the identity of these two groups. Inf thegroups. identity manipulating two ofthese document thelanguagereading this is one

Embassy of Spain, ofSpain, Embassy ofSpain, Embassy . ; David Salinas, David

The case Greece ofSpain’s in manipulated assistancetothe Sephardim isalsoblatantly The realized initiatives by Briz onthelocalBudapestSanz respe in with level - war years.warIn memoryduring ofJews ofSpain’s the rescue nly reference concerning the Greek case is presented as follows: “Spainapproached concerning is presentedas reference Greeknly follows: case the Spain andthe Sephardi Jews

España, los sefarditas y el Tercer Reich, 1939 Reich, Tercer el y sefarditas los España, Spain and the Sephardi Jews Sephardi and the Spain Jews Sephardi and the Spain . Spain andtheSephardi Jews Spain Vallad

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presents assistance thescenario of Spain’s .

- 1945: la labor de diplomáticos españoles españoles de labor diplomáticos la 1945: the Holocaust, of the thelist

Budapest andSpain’s Budapest niversidad De niversidad Spain and the the and Spain the and Spain ct to 144

In CEU eTD Collection in the Service of God and Humanity Humanity and ofGod Service inthe 147 Jews 146 can be pers Franco.” IallI that can government tell,because ofGeneral of my and fulfilled merely the orders “Christianly”unjustly those save pers inthe“Sephardic tragicI which served moments to thepossibility refer, sons,” ..] [. to ofFranco.initiatives states:He “The tieshistory thatSpainhasmaintained throughout withher on these and individuals subsequentlyeffortsattributes ass all to passports Budapest extensively was higher to alsobe reframed.only claim that Notthe Briz number does ass Sanz ofSephardim interview Briz withfrom Sanz 1964.Even then,however,appears theand significance memory of her assistance. asopportunistic motives inthecaseBudapest, view oftherebya tothe world distorted offering view was ofJews characterized by indifference notonly and half for silencing desire toSpain’s this the due tonegate was citizens ownJewish inits This Greecesuggests omitted. is Holocaust during the thatthereason manipulatedfact because the that the Spanishtoassisting ForeignMinistry opposed itselfwas been deportedfromtovarious concentration German Salonica camps.” the GermanIIrepeatedlygovernment War World who concerninghad during Jews theSephardi Franco.” y General mi del Gobierno de órdenes cumplirlas mecontar, puesa limité lo puedo que es todo esto Y extraviadas. gentes algunas de locura la por perseguidos delas procedencia la demasiado sin analizar me para, querefiero a momentostrágicos en los sirvieron sefarditas hijos sus historiacon la través de a mantenido haEspaña que lazos

Isaac R. Molkho, “Un hidalgo español al servicio de Dios y la humanidad en Budapest” (A Spanish Nobleman Nobleman (ASpanish en Budapest” yhumanidad la Dios de servicio al español “Un hidalgo R.Molkho, Isaac ofSpain, Embassy .

The o 147 — onally attributed toFranco foreonallyfrom Briz’s attributed comes This assertion. tothe Sanz but alsooffers a Spain’s romanticized imagerelationship theSephardim to of based The question of what extent theinitiatives whatThe inBudapest questionof extent ofSpain’s Jews assistance to nly ofSephardimthe list Budapest in where instance an been isin discussed has

Spain and the Sephardi Jews Sephardi and the Spain

in Budapest) In Budapest) in — he states that he provided 200 Sephardim with Spanishhe providedwith states200Sephardim thathe ecuted by the folly some bypeople.ecuted misguided the And is of this ; Tesoro de los Judios Sefardies VII Sefardies Judios los de Tesoro Spain Oficina de Información de Diplomática, Diplomática, de Información de SpainOficina 74

personas, salvar cristianamente a los injustamente injustamente los a cristianamente salvar personas, instances where her relationshipinstances and to where her ist Jews inBudapest Jews ist the on - hearted assistance, butalso 146 , , 1964. Jerusalem,

This story is Spain and the the and Spain isted in thus

“ Los CEU eTD Collection documents proclaiming a direct intervention of Franco in the case of Spain’s assistance in Budapest. in ofSpain’sassistance case in the ofFranco intervention direct a proclaiming documents archives Ministry Foreign Spanish 148 realize Furthermore, an of operation extensive Jews. therelatio not have theto Spain, invented anystory being connection usedinorder Sephardic was of to placed themajority of under protection Spain. While assisted in Budapest Jews ofthe did thepremisesLegationwithin ofthe Spanish where andeight safe procured Jews houses manipulating placed ofpassports, thenumber etc.also issued,heJews letters of protection, Spanish Brizassisted. notonly Sanz generously thedirections interpreted for comingfrom rescue the personalized withrespect initiatives theHungarian being to authorities theJews as well as to Conclusion Sephardim, factors broadernarrative. a into polemical andpoliticized of assistance Budapest group list this toSephardim in how shows ofindividuals, this enigma,which lies b connected While at toSpain’s foreignpolicy thatthis orinternaltime? affairs issueremains an Legationthe activities of theSpanish inBudapestFranco be to this aCould for specific reason? suggests political Did reason perhaps abehind larger this. reframing and ofthat the theindividuals list memory as of it a on tribute toFranco in1964, immediatelySpain’s rescue Jews Briz’s later coupledwithSanz followingthewar, toSephardic Budapest by omitted and silenced theSpanishgovernmentthe narrat was from itself today. exists thathowever, still isa issue polemical in Nazi Budapest) Spain Nazi Budapest en el España Franco. c Legationin Budapest Spanish the by realized the initiatives claims that Arcadi Espada hand,

Rother, Rother,

See In Jews protecting

Foreign by Ministry numbergreater tobe a ofJews rescued allowing for by Franco y el Holocausto el y Franco Espada, Espada,

Arcadi, and Cacho Sergio. Campos. CachoSergio. and Arcadi, . eyond thescopeeyond the memory ofthisstudy,and reframing ofSpain’s

. Barcelona: Espasa Barcelona: .

in Budapest, Briz Ángel undertook and Sanz many localized n ,

or in those of the Fra ofthe in those or 370 .

As Rother discusses from his extensive investigation, neither in theneither in investigation, extensive his from Asdiscusses Rother , 2013. ( 2013. , In the Name of Franco: The Heroes of the Em Heroes the The of Franco: of Inthe Name 75 ncisco Franco National Foundation are there anythere are Foundation National Franco ncisco En Nombre De Franco: Los héroes de la embajada de embajada la héroesLos de Franco: De Nombre En

148

The fact ofSephardim that the list in

Sanz Briz attributeSanz all on initiatives nship betweennship Spain andthe

an be attributed to to attributed anbe

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The byBriz complied notonly list whowere Sanz thus placed onit, those saved

which renders a different view of their function during the Holocaust. In afunctionwhich differenttheir renders during theHolocaust. subverting view of

a sor t of powerful t

certain agendaSpanish opportunistic onbehalfthe of marker lowed Sanz Briz and theSpanishLegationlowed Sanz to - Jewish relations, whichallowedJewish ineffecta for large

of 76 identity not only for notonlybeingidentity theJews recued but

ies, butalso proved tobea powerful

In thisinstance

being CEU eTD Collection also played a larger and powerful role in how the Jews werealsoJews playedpowerful that theand assistance a and viewed larger how roleinhow Madrid and her that of that Nazi Germany.ofJews were drawn lists correspondence upand The the between Spain’s rescueinto renderedof thedifferent system albeit ina Spain apart ofJews than manner Spain’s actions went thegrain. against Y Inculminated inthe Final Solution. from lives thethroes saving Holocaust, Jewish ofthe anddehumanize assert Jews and powertheir that control verybodiesand over identities system, theultimate symbol which utilized ofbureaucra either beingoriginallowed citizenship, ofSephardic for orhaving one Spanish toberescued. Infactored Spain’s rescue into ofJews. connec instance, particular howone’s this modern system ofbureaucracy.And lastly, different and markers how of identity construction and Bud that assistance. Spanish therelationshiprepresentatives Secondly, between abroad inGreece role onlySpain’s innot rescue butalsoand Jews, her shaping thememory view of ofJews of meted out,three issues a distinct thatassistance.into looking When atwas these where twoinstances toJews Spanish assistance the Holocaust,an interesting the andshedsofmodern lighttools bureaucracy factored onhow illuminating because for ofSpain’ aanalysis allows deeper it frameworkof bureaucracy, of the power of“the” inthe form is andthe list, Sephardim, C opportunisticmanner.wasan meted and out,remembered, manipulated in onclusion In theNaziassisting of Spainsubverted is, modernity. the Jews, highest expression That ComparingFrancoist Spain’s assistance inGreece Budapest toJews and alongthedual apest to the Spanish ForeignMadrid, theSpanish Ministrywhich to apest was throughthe in dictated

representatives onthe localnotonly rescue level, allowed but Spain to Jews,

rise: thenaturethat firstly, ofbureaucracy playedand how a et theinwhich wayofbureaucracy factored tools 77

cy, asa thelist, powerfulto tool s rescueduring ofJews and view

tion to Spain, toSpain, tion

CEU eTD Collection United States by government,effectively tosella theSpanish which ofJews used thelist rescue. Briz respect Budapest,were to With theefforts abroad ofSanz manipulated inthe historyto alsoserve andan hi memory,authoritative as but different a bureaucraticdual notonly as sidetothepowerto list list distort theof tool: the very inBudapest drawn Jews list uptosave as ofand campaign wasa this showsa used part to promote image a Holocaust manipulated herWar role World inthe and of Second Legation’sof the Spanishrescue inBudapest Jews atthebehest government of oftheSpanish able abroad. citizens toreduce its moral to its obligations In questiontheir into connectiontoSpain. theSpanishgovernmentwas effectively so, doing e questionwhen in individuals came it the correspondence thatassistance. tometing Attimes out hostility,a certain and distanceForeign betweenJewish theSpanish and Ministry the occur.Spain to However, byand allowed Radigales transit thepassports visasissued tothe Jews their repatriation to rescuedand one reduced hand, onthe tosecond rescue an interesting onhowthemechani sheds light seen are inthe waytheJews inwhich referenced. referred toand Thisparticular case ofSpain’s the SpanishForeign withindifference theJews viewed can Ministry which andbe hostility, Athens In were and Vidal Berlin, Jews. disposed toassist in more contrast to stark the demands authorities,the of Spanish representatives theNazi level, onthe local Radigales in intheexerted way byauthorities rescued theBudapest Jews theSpanish inwhich used in were certainrole inthe Spain’sHoloca image of manating from Madrid rendered Spain’s own Jewish citizens asmanating citizens second renderedown from Jewish Madrid Spain’s Unlike Gr InGreecewhe eece, however, the list asa thelist ofevidence powerful thecontext eece,was usedin however, form re Spain encountered the issue of repatriating her own Jewish citizens at Spainrepatriatingcitizens encounteredre Jewish her theissueof own

the nature ofbureaucracyalso indifference facilitated tomass murder, ust. Indoingcertainust. so,a powerwas leverage of 78 - class citizens, onthe other. citizens, drawnclass The lists up

sms ofbureaucracysms allowed tobe Jews

storical evidence source for of - class citizens, calling citizens, class those efforts, . The CEU eTD Collection promulgatedat the the endw of Greece stands in This toSpain. ontheirstark based ties contrast ofrescue thenarrative to foras rescue, a pretext made between distinctions assisted inBudapest Spain theJews and pretext ofSephardic identity Jewish as a torescue way Jew inGreece the Jews held citizenship Spanish yearyet, who aBudapest, merelater the in used also demonstrate issue ofone’s how the identityfactored Spain only thatequation. into assisted mechanisms theseview ofbureaucracyfactored ofand two toJews, Spain’s into rescue distanced withwhich they fromwere thelives very dealing with. essentiallyJews the authorities allowed at proceed the topto the medium ofbureaucracy.with respect differencerelationship the Madrid’s Thisstark to to andonly Foreign through assisted them. The encountered Spanish Ministry individuals these Budapest, Briz cameSanz andcontact intodirect under Radigales theJews per with representativesthe naturewithits relationship ofSpain’sabroad, Greece where in and houses w interpretcoming theSpanishauthoritiesalso inMadrid, the procured instructions from he local levelallowed fruition. rescueNotonly arewhat Briz this tocomegenerously didSanz to Legation in Budapestdictatep to its able tocarry agendabyexerting outits over people. control considering tha to promulgatenarrative. and anda politicized Thisin of distorted itselfisstrikingeerie and Sephardic community, Jewish allowed one rescued and for tobe figurativelyabecome of part inventedbecause story tieone’s atoSpain, belonging tothe showshowthe historic of it While Spain’s assistance inGreeceWhile toJews and Budapest showcases howthe theSpanishgovernmentWhile drew uponthe realized operations by theSpanish here the Jews underhere theJews Spain’swere protection thensheds placed. Thisinstance light on t this leveraget this tothe similar wayNazi ofpowerisvery Germany inwhich was ar. The case of Budapest juxtaposed toGreeceBudapestar. case The ofjuxtaposed isilluminating ost - war of narrative rescue,Briz ofSanz onthe theactions 79

s. Ins. constructing different identities

as they theywere didbecause

secution secution cases CEU eTD Collection bureaucracy bureaucracy Jewish within history, ofhow exploring prior instances tothe Holocaust topics for exploration.One further betofocus such issue would onthe history modern of larger and issues questions inGreecerole assistance inSpain’s toJews and Budapest theHolocaust during brings tomind authorityto exert and power. bureaucracy usedof which indifferentand outside that be can contexts ways and at and the samerenders silence tomanipulate symbol history, of the astheultimate list silenced b Spain’s rescue inBudapest Jews and thenlater subsequently abroad of publicized thatwas Legationrescue Spanish a tohave powerful byproved asthewas the effect list evidence of Perhaps weren’t these individuals Holocaust playedpressrole aUnited States. onthepartcampaign large of inthe Spain’s virtually totrack whose impossible existence these down inBudapest individuals the during inBudapestthe variouscommunities speci Jewish not do Spanish authorities inBudapest The orhowtheyplaced onthelist. records of managed tobe to remainIt shrouded unclearas inobscurity. still towhat they is connection with the had of Sephardic tobe an continues enigma Jews precisely this thepeople because on of Sephardim was Budapest virtually in non an imagined Europe, wher historythe role andthat of pastofcontemporary isthequestionof within theJewish Jews Another This study’s the focusand powerlists other ofbureaucracy tools onhow of aplayed ygovernment.duality marked This theSpanish totella ofthe thepower story list,

f community. Asidecommunity. from assisted Briz, by thepresence 44Sephardic Jews Sanz e Jews formerly theerecentand Jews country’s are of The a lived past. part passageof unctioned in thestate’sunctioned in larger topic that stems from study this ofJewish the context larger topicthatwithin and Spanish

which are beyond the scope of this study yetwhich arescope beyond theofthisstudy themselves as present

Sephardicat all.Nevertheless, placed their being ona of list

relationship - existent during the Holocaust. This particular duringexistent theHolocaust.list 80

to its Jewish citizens. citizens. to its Jewish fy origin one’s remains Sephardic it so

of the Nazi system

list continue list CEU eTD Collection andhow Jews theJewish past playa role i relatively historic catastrophiccircumstances, nation thatalso past. toanothercomparison Perhapscountry a identity,of historical andSpain’sown indemnification loss, view anditsJewish memory of raisesyears rightprovocativefrom ago the obtainSpanish Spain citizenship to legislation that inSpain grants forced descendants ofJews five more hundred exile than into

minor Jewish community, Jewish anminor allow for interestingcomparative wouldand view of historically had a largehad is nowa thriving former center and prominent Je and prominent n theimag such aswhich Poland, likeSpain such 81

e histories. ofboth countries’ wish community,and today

of Jewish lifeof Jewish questions of

is aCatholic with a

due to CEU eTD Collection

A ppendix : T he he L ist o f S ephardic ephardic J 82 ews

CEU eTD Collection Publicaciones E Labor of Spanish Diplomats españoles Nazi contra el genocidio Salinas, David Correspon Radigales Spaniardsduring ofandHolocaust theSephardic Greece the through Diplomatic durante el Holocaustoatravés diplomática de correspondencia Morcillo Rosillo, Sefardies VII Spanish Nobleman intheServiceand ofGodHumanity inBudapest] Isaac Molkho, yespañol “Un R. hidalgodeDios alservicio Budapest” humanidad en la Univ Deaglio, Enrico. Spanish Embassy inWashington D.C. InfOficina de Spain OficinaInformación de deDiplomática. CenterThe History Jewish for andSpanish diplomatic consular correspondence related and records Spanish The Giorgio Perlasca Collectionat the USHMM Memorial Council Records relating tothe investigationof GiorgioUnitedStates Holocaust Perlasca by the United States Memorial Holocaust Museum of Foreign Primary Sources B Holocaust: witha Conversations Vándor, Jaime. Archivo del Ministerio de Asuntos ExterioresArchivode Asuntos España Ministerio del de ibliography ersity Notre1998. of Dame, Books, PublishedMaterials Memoirs andother Archival Material Ministry Foreign Affairs of records dence Affairs Madrid] , Jerusalem, 1964. , Jerusalem, or . España, los sefarditas yel sefarditas Reich,. España,los Tercer 1939 Al filo del con Holocausto: diálogos Al filo unsuperviviente

mación de Diplomática, 1949. de mación ] Intercambio Univers Científico, The Banality ofGoodness: Perlasca The StoryofGiorgio The Banality ,

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[ - Archive of theSpanishMinis 1945: la labor de diplomáticos 1945: lalabor

[ Sebastian de Romero . Publications Vol.2.Madrid:. Publications

Washington 1949. D.C.,

In [ The EdgeThe the of Tesoro delosJudios Tesoro

. Notre Dame:

- 1945: the [A [A try

CEU eTD Collection Payne, Jesú G, and Menezo Stanley Barcelona XX Lisbona, Antonio. José Herder, 1 andHorkheimer, Theodor Adorno. Max, W. of SpaininNaziBudapest embajadael de Budapest Españaen Nazi Espada, Arcadio, Sergio. andCacho Campos. Hoy, 2000. SpaniardBriz saved How facing Angel Holocaust: 5,000Jews Sanz the Car UP, 1981. Columbia L.Braham, Randolph Littland Bergen,L. Doris, W Bauer, Yehuda. Bauman,Zygmunt. 1982. Avni, Haim. Secondary Sources Australia. FoundationInterview Shoah VisualAndrew Furst, History of Hawthorn, Archive,1996, Budapest, Hungary InterviewLang,EvaMemorialUnited States of HolocaustHistory Museum Oral 1990, Project, and theHolocaust] Guerra y Mundial el Holocausto , [ cedo, Diego. Return toSefarad:The of Policies during Spain towardsJews Twentieth her the Century],

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Rethinking theHolocaust Rethinking Un español frentealHolocausto: AsíUn español salv , .

Modernity andtheHolocaustModernity Madrid: Es Madrid: ar and Genocide: A Concise Historyar andGenocide:ofthe HolocaustA Concise

The Politics ofGenocide:The Politics Holocaust inHungary The

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feraLosLibros, 2008. De

[ Francoand Hitler:Second War Spain, Germany, World The s Cuéllar . Philadelphia: Jewish Publication. Philadelphia: Jewish , [ . New Haven:UP,2001. Yale InNameFranco: of ofthe The Embassy Heroes the . Franco y laSegunda Hitler: España,Alemania, Dialectic ofEnlightenment En Nombre De Los Franco: 84 . Itha .

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ew