Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015

Aspects of Language Change in Iu Mien and Their Implication for Language Maintenance: A Case Study of the Iu Mien Students’ Story Writing Workshop1

T. Daniel Arisawa The Faculty of Humanities, Chiang Rai Rajabhat University, .

ABSTRACT reveals their unfamiliarity with the This paper discusses some treatment of the sandhi, the low aspects of language change rise falling tone, and legitimate Thai happening in Iu Mien in Thailand. tone rules. Besides the phonology and The changes were found in the Iu orthography, the proofreading and Mien stories written by the students revision process of the book by seven of Chiang Rai Rajabhat University mature speakers of Iu Mien (in their 40‟ 70‟ and others who attended the Story s to s) has revealed that Writers Workshop organized by the language change is underway among Linguistics Institute, Payap Univer- the young generation through contact sity, Chiang Mai. Nine stories, with Standard Thai. The aspects of including legends and newly written shift include wrong lexical choice ones, were compiled into a 46 page due to lack of cultural knowledge, book. It was a significant phrase level word order change, achievement in that it was the first unnaturalness and wrong colloquia- attempt by the Iu Mien at the lism, unnecessary insertion of university level to document tradi- complement clause introducer k‟ tional legends and to write stories of (gorngv „spea ), lack/redundancy of their own creation. discourse particles, and distortion of As such, their use of Thai- narrative formulaic expression. The based Iu Mien orthography therein original and correct forms of these grammatical and usage changes are

1I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Makha Khittasangka for retrieving this old paper for reprinting providing me with an opportunity to make some corrections. New references could have been added since then but it was decided to keep the original ones. To re-state my obligation to many who helped me at the time of conducting the project, I would like to thank Dr Sornchai Mungthaisong, then the Dean of the Faculty of Humanities, the present Vice President of Chiang Rai Rajabhat University, for encouraging the Iu Mien students who were working with me. Both students and I are grateful to the instructors at the Linguistics Institute, Payap University, in Chiang Mai. Many thanks go to those students who studied and had fun together. 44 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 culturally conditioned. The phenol- course of these activities, they begun menon, therefore, indicates the shift, to notice the way they wrote stories or even the potential loss, of cultural was strongly influenced by Thai. By knowledge, heritage, and environ- comparing the old primers ment. produced some thirty years back, they The implications of such a realized their way of saying or situation are the need of systematic Iu writing Iu Mien had changed some Mien literacy program for Thai- from the original Iu Mien in terms of literate young Iu Mien as a basis for pronunciation, word order, discourse language documentation, teaching of level particles, collocation, and narrative art, and conservation of colloquialism. It is obvious that Iu community life as a milieu for Iu Mien is changing through contact Mien language vitality. In the light of with Standard Thai. the Royal Institute‟s present drafting Due to the nature of exercising work toward the new national the writing in the 1956 version of language policy of Thailand, it is Thai-based orthography (Callaway feasible and desirable that such a and Callaway 1976), many mistakes language maintenance program in using certain conventions should be inaugurated for their regarding consonant symbols which communities. are non-existent in Thai, confusion in the tone rules, and the use of diacritics are naturally found in the INTRODUCTION students‟ works. As some of these This story book was a result of aspects were already discussed in the Writers Workshop, which was a Arisawa (2010, 2010a, and 2011b)we part of the whole series of Mother will only selectively present the some Tongue-based Multilingual Education other aspects of language changes, (MT-based MLE) workshop run by mainly at the levels of phonology and the Linguistics Institute, Payap grammar as revealed through the ‟ University, Chiang Mai, from proof readers corrections, in the October 2007 to January 2009. following sections of 2 and 3. Subsequently, the Iu Mien students who attended these workshops continued their practices, by getting PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES together once a week as an extra In section 2, we will discuss curricula activity, in writing stories in phenomena in phonology including the Thai-based Iu Mien orthography, inadequate transcription of tone2 translating short stories written in sandhi, lack of consonant cluster, Thai to Iu Mien; sometimes inviting merger of tone 4 (low rise falling instructors from the Linguistics tone /˨˧˩/) with tone 5 (mid-low rising Institute of Payap University. In the

45 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 tone/˨˧/), hypercorrection of tone 5 to sandhi in the compound noun while tone 4, and treatment of . the proof reader correctly inserted a hyphen5 which indicates both the 2.1 Tone Sandhi3 original tone indicated by májtrii()๊๊ The following two sets of and the result tone of mid-falling 4 ʨ ˧˩ examples, (1a-b) and (2a-b), are (/ au /)indicated by the hyphen somewhat opposite in nature. The according to the convention of the first set shows that the students‟ work Thai-based Iu Mien orthography (1a) does not represent the tone (Arisawa 2011b: 222-3) as in (1b).

Lacking Explicit Mark of Tone Sandhi (1a) /ʨau˦˥˧ 6l̥ en˦ / (by students)

2Iu Mien has eight tones:

3To recapitulate what the tone sandhi (or “tone change” in Purnell‟s term) is, Purnell‟s description is drawn on here: “Tone change occurs on the first member of a compound expression and is phonetically regular: with stop finals become the c tone [i.e. low], and all non-stopped syllables become the h tone [i.e. mid-falling]” (2002:304-5). 4In the following examples, (Xa) of each pair represents work by the students, which is a non-standard usage, and (Xb) is proofread and corrected by the mature speakers who know both Iu Mien and Thai well. 5Callway and Callaway (1976) do not mention tone Sandhi. Purnell (2002:304-5) discusses the hyphenated compound words under the title of “tone change” in the context of Romanized Iu Mien orthography or sometimes called “Unified Script”. An adaption of the use of hyphen into the Thai-based Iu Mien orthography is exemplified in Arisawa (2011b:222-3).

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The comparison between (1a) ignore the tone sandhi in compounds; and (1b) shows that students are not even though they may write , conscious of expressing tone sandhi they still naturally pronounce in the compound word, while the [ʨau˧˩ l̥ en˦ ]. This phenomenon proof readers know the original tone can be demonstrated in (2a-b), where of each element and the result tone of the actual pronunciation as a result of the first element together with the tone sandhi is written phonetically in writing convention. However, this the orthography. does not mean that young speakers

Phonetic Transcription of Tone Sandhi (2a) /pjau˧˩ l̥ en˦ / (2b) /pjau˧˩ l̥ en˦ / „beside the house‟ (proofread)

As a compound word for „side The omission or simplification of the house‟ or „beside the house‟, to occurs both in actual speech and say [pjau˧˩ l̥ en˦ ] is correct as writing of young people, suggesting found in both the speech of young that the consonant cluster / / and old Iu Mien. But the student‟s psychologically might have been lost writing in (2a) does not from the mind of younger speakers. indicate the original tone 3 (high rise falling /˦˥˧/) in the first element of the compound, i.e. เปย๊า/pjau˦˥˧/ „house‟. In other words, though their transcription is phonetically correct, There is a word [ ] it is deficient in „to wash‟, but the context in the story terms of phonology and orthography. requires „wind‟, for which (3b) is correct. The loss of the consonant 2.2 Loss of Consonant Cluster cluster with regard to the palatal point of articulation causes a semantic In (3a) palatalized consonant, ambiguity. which should be expressed by C+ย, is absent.

6Traditionally, and presently by some older speakers, the word /cau˦˥˧ / „path, road‟ begins with a . However, due to the purpose of presenting the young Iu Mien‟s variety with an post-alveolar stop /ʨ/, as in /ʨau˦˥˧ /,

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In addition to [ ] „to markings. The only wash‟, another frequently mistaken adaptation required was the pronunciation /ʥaːu˨˧/ „to teach‟ can addition of the extra tone marker <>,๊์ which was be heard among the young people in substitution for / / „wind‟. chosen after experi- mentation with various 2.3 Merger of Tone 4 (Low rise other symbols. (Callaway & falling /˨˧˩/) with Tone5 (Mid-low Callaway 1976:234) rising /˨˧/) As their comment that the Iu Mien has six tones (eight if karaan <>๊์ is “the only adaptation two tones in checked are required” suggests, it must be quite included) whereas Thai does five. easy for young Iu Mien who are One unique tone in Iu Mien is tone 4 educated in the Thai five tone system ˨˧˩ or low rise falling tone / /. This tone to make mistake in tone 4 in Iu Mien. is difficult for the Iu Mien who grew On the other hand, that they are over up in cities or in Iu Mine villages conscious in an attempt to pronounce where a contact with Thai or this unique tone aright might be the Northern Thai is frequent. (4a) shows reason for the strange situation hich lack of tone 4 (with the incorrect will be discussed in section 2.4, i.e. substitution of [j] for /ɲ/ for this word hypercorrection. „raw‟), merging with tone 5, i.e. mid- low rising /˨˧/. 2.4 Hypercorrection of Tone 5 (Mid-low rising tone) to Tone 4 (Low rise falling) Many students tend to pronounce a word whose original The use of karaan<>๊์ symbol tone is 5 (mid-low rising /˨˧/) with the representing tone 4 is explained by wrong replacement of tone 4 (low Callaway & Callaway (1976): rise falling /˨˧˩/). In each pair of the following examples, the words like The fact that the tonal (5a) and (6a) do not exist in Iu Mien, system of [Iu-]Mien is so but can occur in some young people‟s much like the five written speech. tones of Thai certainly simplifies the tone

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presented in section 2.3, the tendency that tone 4 merges with 5 (i.e. loss of tone 4) is also certainly underway.

2.5 Correction of Glottal Stop Expressed in Thai Symbol

The fact that (5a) and (6a) Because the four of seven proof phonetically do occur among some readers/consultants are well educated young people indicates that it is not in Thai writing system as well as that they have completely lost the conscientious and accurate in the use phonemic tone 4 from their variety of of Iu Mien orthography, they . This seems to sometimes correct the students‟ demonstrate that this generation of wrong use of Thai letters. (7a) is an the speakers are in confusion with attempt by a student to transcribe a regard to the choice of tones 4 and 5, sentence final particle in their spoken in the sense that they want to keep expression but do not pay enough their identity of being the Iu Mien by attention that อ๊would insert a glottal making effort to pronounce tone 4 stop [ʔ], resulted in an unnatural correctly so much to the extent that pronunciation. The proof readers then they use it in unnecessary places replaced it with ย[j]in order to sustain where tone 5 is actually correct. The a characteristic slur of this particle as situation can be referred to as hyper- in (7b). correction. On the other hand, as

2.6 Phonetic Transcription of are colloquially pronounced at the Colloquialism expense of full spelling. In (8a) the ก๊อง /kɔŋ˦˥˧/. What is represented here in word for „if” is spelled In section 2.6 is something opposite to the place where the full spelling that of section 2.5 in a sense that the should be สี๊ก๊อง/si˨˧kɔŋ˦˥˧/ as (8b). students like to write words as they

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As a colloquialism in the are commonly heard in both young context of (8a), ก๊อง /kɔŋ˦˥˧/ is and older people‟s speech. acceptable to mean „if‟ even though Another example of this type the word by itself means „to say‟. is in (9a), where เต๋/te˨˧/ „some‟ is a Also the weak formsซี๊ก๊อง/si˦kɔŋ˦˥˧/ and phonetic transcription of weaker form เซ๊ก๊อง/se˦kɔŋ˦˥˧/(cf. (11a)) to mean „if‟ of the original/fuller spelling เต๋ย /tei˨˧/ as in proofread (9b):

Though the spellings in (8a) To summarize section 2, the and (9a) are intelligible, the phonological changes exhibited enunciation of these words show that among the young speakers of Iu Mien orthodox pronunciations for them are concerned with unfamiliarity with should be like the ones indicated in the Thai-based Iu Mien orthography, the phonemic values by IPA in (8b) simplification of palatalized con- and (9b); therefore the fuller spellings sonant clusters, over familiarity with should also be as they are proofread Thai five-tone system causing loss of and corrected. As the goal of the tone 4, hypercorrection of tone 5 to whole project is language tone 4, inaccuracy in use of Thai documentation in the form of letters, and phonetic transcription of collecting narratives from Iu Mien colloquialism. elders in villages and the expected outcome is a production of story books for children‟s literacy GRAMMATICAL AND education, it is right that students SEMANTIC CHANGES should be able to use both types of In section 3, examples of spelling. For standardization, the changes at word, phrase, clause, examples in bare ideal. sentence, discourse levels are

50 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 reported. They are analysed in In the similar vein, a noun relation to some semantic and phrase เหยียด*นอม๊แก้ง /ʔiet˩nɔːm˧ kɛŋ˧˩/ cultural aspects, e.g. wrong use of (one + classifier + classifiers, collocation clash and door) for „one door‟ with the unnaturalness. wrong classifier / / can often be heard in young people‟s speech. The 3.1 Wrong Lexical Choice at correct classifier for a door is เต้า๊ Word Level [tau˧˩] as inเหยียด๊เต้า๊แก้ง /jet˩ tau˧˩ kɛŋ˧˩/ The first example at the word „one door‟. Since classifiers are level is classifier. As is the case with closely related to cultural aspects of many other languages of the region, the speech community, those young Iu Mien uses classifier to define and Iu Mien who have been away from count nouns. Classifiers are a their original village environments reflection of the speakers‟ semantic, due to their study or work in cities are cultural, and psychological ways of not able to use them correctly. They cognition of things in the world. The are in the process of forgetting the students‟ work reflects that there is an standard use of various rich stocks of uncertainty in the use of classifiers in the classifiers. the present day Iu Mien. In (10a), The second example of where the constituent order in noun correction by the proofreaders at the phrase is correct, (i.e. Demonstrative word level is concerned with Pronoun+ Classifier + Head preciseness in a choice between Noun),the choice of classifier / similar words. There is a slight / for „forest‟ is not. The semantic difference between กั้มเหฑีย proofread classifier for this noun is / /kam˧˩ ʣiə˨˧/ „to fear‟ in (11a) and มเห / as in (10b), which can also be ฑีย /m̩ .ʣiə˨˧/ „perhaps‟ in (11b) used for „land‟. despite the phonetic similarity.

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7

It may be true that /m̩ .ʣiə˨˧/ can be felt to be a of /kam˧˩ ʣiə˨˧/ by young speakers, but there is a subtle difference in meaning and this subtlety or accuracy in lexical choice is lacking among them. A variation of /m̩ .ʣiə˨˧/ is /ʣiə˨˧/ „perhaps, probably, maybe‟ (Panh 2002: 228).

7 NSIT =New Situation Aspect. Others abbriviations indicating grammarical terms include: AFM = Present Affirmative/Stative Aspect, NEG = Negative Particle, ONOMA = Onomatopoeia,PL = Plural, POS = Possessive Particle, RP = Relativiser Particle, SG = Singular. 1, 2, 3 = First, second, third persons.

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3.2 Phrase Level head noun as in (12b), i.e. Mod + In section 3.2, the ways of Head Noun, where the Mod can be constructing phrases are examined; filled with an adjective, a noun, or a one is a noun phrase and the other is verb phrase. In (12a), however, the a verb phrase. constituent order is Head Noun + In a standard NP construction Mod. in Iu Mien, a modifier proceeds a

It can be seen that (12a) is language into another” (Aikhenvald influenced by Thai grammar, i.e. 2006:24). „Head Noun  Modifying NP‟ as in Turning to a verb phrase, *เธง หนังสือเรื่องเล่า „book(story กั้นโฮล/ʦʰeŋ˦kan˧˩ l̥oː˦ /„praise + (=matterto tell))‟. This may be self + big‟ (lit.) in(13a) shows considered as one of “loan redundancy. In such a situation translations” as defined by referring to someone who dares to be Aikhenvald that “involve mostly arrogant, either of the two colloquial adhoc word-for-word or morpheme- expressions in (13b) or (13c) is per-morpheme translations from one sufficient.

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Though (13a) is intelligible, it is that they insert an unnecessary more natural to use (13b) or (13c). complement introducer / / „to say‟ under an influence of ว่า„to say‟ 3.3 Clause and Sentence Level in Thai. Unlike (14a), /tau˦ / „to As was mentioned briefly in answer‟ in (14b) is enough to lead the Arisawa (2010:247), there is a strong content of the answer. tendency among the young Iu Mien

There may be a felt reason that analogy” (Aikhenvald 2006:23) and an insertion of /kɔ ŋ˦˥˧ / „to say‟ is /kɔ ŋ˦˥˧ / „to say‟ might be in a easy and natural because the verb process toward grammaticalization as /tau˦ / „to answer‟ is a verb of verbal a complement marker. action. Other verbs of cognition, e.g. /hiu˦˥˧tuʔ˥/ „to know‟, /puət˩/ „to see‟, 3.4 Discourse Level fun˨˧ ‟ / / „to recon are very often In (15a),and its proofread ɔ ˦˥˧ ‟ followed by /k ŋ / „to say version (15b), four issues are nowadays, which used to be involved: discourse connector and unnecessary in standard usage. This narrative formulaic expression at the may be due to “extension by discourse level, and locative and

54 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 onomatopoeic expressions at the expectation, however, the students‟ phrase level. work containsหย่า /jaː˩/ „also‟, which (15a) is meant to be a is a discourse developmental concluding statement of the whole connector.In other words, an odd narrative discourse, hence the feeling of semantic clash between „in conjunction เหว่ยน้าย /wei˩naːi ˦˥˧/ conclusion‟ and „furthermoe‟ is „therefore‟ is an appropriate evoked here. See that /jaː˩/ „also‟ is placement.Led by it, the following ommitted by the proof readers in sentence is expected to conclude the (15b). whole narrative. Contrary to the

Another issue at the discourse might not be true, but it certainly level is concerned with the use of gives an impression of closing, narrative formulaic expression น่อ settlement and resolution. It should /nɔ˧˩/ „they say‟, which is typically be noted that the enclosure structure used at the end of a story telling. In a of {/wei˩naːi ˦˥˧/ „that‟s why‟ … /nɔ˧˩/ conversation it is also used as an „that‟s what they say‟}is carefully evidential marker „I hear that‟ or arranged in (15b).Such a routine „that‟s what they say‟. In a narrative combination in a narrative art, typical discourse, /nɔ˧˩/ tells the audience that among good Iu Mien story tellers, is a story just been told is a long- missing from the young Iu Mien as passed-on tale and that might or exemplified in (15a).

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The amendments provided by base’. In standard usage, however, the proof readers in (15b)show two /fiu˦˥˧/ + N:Obj means to draw more items to be mentioned: locative attention from someone by whistling and onomatopoeic expressions. In (Panh 2002: 61), not the following (15a),the verb/fiu˦˥˧/ ‘to whistle’ in noun acting as a locative noun as in /fiu˦˥˧ buə˦ ɲei˦m̩ .nɔːm˧˩ kɔːn˦ / (15a). The locative clause, corrected ‘whistle-we-POS-ear-base’ acts as a by the proof readers, a part of (15b),is transitive verb taking the object repeated as (15c) below, where the /buə˦ɲei˦m̩ .nɔːm˧˩kɔːn˦/‘our ear elaboration of the location and the action is clear (Cf. yiem „to be located‟ in Arisawa 2009).

Lastly, the proper main verb เห่ว /heu˩/ „to cry‟ (15b and 15c), in place of „to whistle‟ (15a), is accompanied by the onomatopoeic complementation แง์น- แง์น /ŋɛn˧˩ŋɛn˨˧˩/. A particular animal or situation goes with particular onomatopoeia, which is often missing in compositions by young Iu Mien, as the next item in section 3.6 shows.

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3.5 Collocation Clash and Un- speakers into laughter saying naturalness “Impossible!” A main figure of the It is notoriously awkward or story in (16a) is a piglet, which เหน่าง่าวง่าว nau˩ ŋaːu˧˩ humorous to have a wrong should never / collocation, particularly in the case of ŋaːu˧˩/„shout-wail-wail‟; only humans onomatopoeic expressions. Example do so in agony. (16a) naturally puts adult Iu Mien

The proper onomatopoeic expression for young pigs (middle size) is เห่ว แว้ดแว้ด/heu˩ wɛːt˦˥ wɛːt˦˥/asin(16b)

In fact, according to the pig‟s goes together was pointed out. These size different ways of making noise expressions are highly intertwined are available. A new born, very small with an experience of speakers who one goes /wiːt˥ wiːt˥/, young are saturated in an actual situation of one /wɛːt˥ wɛːt˥ /, and a grown village life involving in farming. up one /ŋɔŋ˧˩ŋɔŋ˦/. In (15a) the In summary of section 3, the absent of onomatopoeia was changes from the type of Iu Mien observed, and in (16a) the collocation among the proof readers to a new clash between the one which makes variety of young people turned out to noise and the onomatopoeia which include the following items: the 57 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 simplification/limitation of choices in since Thai has no tone sandhi, nor classifiers, paying less attention to such consonants as / /, / /, /ʥ/, and semantics in lexical choice for only has five tones, lacking the low accuracy, the loan translation rise falling. However, whether or not influenced by Thai constituent order, the young Iu Mien have completely the redundancy in an idiomatic lost Tone 4 is not definite yet. (4) expression causing unnaturalness at suggests that they have ambivalent word to phrase levels, and the attitude of losing it and keeping it insertion of the unnecessary over-consciously. complement clause introducer at the clause level. Further, at the discourse 4.2 Syntactic and semantic level and semantics, the lack/misuse changes of discourse connectors and typical (5) The incorrect use of narrative formulaic expressions, the classifiers shows the limited cultural collocation clash in onomatopoeias understanding or loss of it; and causing unnaturalness were found. possibly suggests a change in cognition pattern of things in the

world. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION (6) Precision and nuance in Among the young Iu Mien, lexical choice is difficult for the moving away from the type of young people. This also suggests the standard language used by the proof insufficient cultural appreciation. readers‟ generation (i.e. 40s to 70s), (7) The constituent order the following changes are underway. change in the noun and verb phrases, and the extended use of the 4.1 Phonological changes complement introducer are observed. (1) The characteristic tone The latter is quite forceful. sandhi, which gives people‟s speech (8) The very rare use of naturalness and fluency, is confused. discourse connectors can suggest the (2) Simplification of some lack of logical thinking and cohesion palatalized consonants, unique to this in composing a longer piece of language, is taking place. literature. The limited use of the (3) Tone 4 (low rise falling) is narrative formulae indicates the loss on the way to merger with Tone 5 of narrative art and deep part of their (mid-low rising), therefore is cultural heritage. disappearing. (9) Confusion and collocation (4) At the same time, the clash in the use of onomatopoeia hypercorrection of Tone 5 to Tone 4 reveals the dislocation of the young can often be found. people from the original living (1)-(3) are contact-induced environment or disappearance of changes under the influence of Thai, 58 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 cultural/linguistic milieu of the Iu richness, accuracy, clear logic, Mien. naturalness, and artistic heritage. Two changes in (7) can and culture are so deeply called “contact-induced meta-type” interrelated that the loss of these following LaPolla (2001:243). He features in Iu Mien is very likely an says “When people learn some aspect omen that their cultural and of another language, if the influence environmental assets are vanishing. of the culture associated with that language is not great, the borrowers 4.3 Orthography for language will assimilate the borrowed form to maintenance their way of thinking” (Ibid:242). The Through comparison between situation of (7) is totally opposite to the students‟ works and the proof his comment, showing the strong readers‟ corrections, it has been influence of Thai on Iu Mien of obvious that students are not yet young people. LaPolla‟s further skilled in using the Thai-based explanation readily fits the situation orthography. Areas that need to be of the Iu Mien: trained include the representation of the tone sandhi, the consonant cluster When people are used by using big raphemes with regard to to using a particular palatalized sounds, the distinction linguistic category in a between Tone 4 and Tone 5, some language they use regularly diacritics, and the use of Thai tone [e.g. young Iu Mien may rules regarding three classes of spend twelve to sixteen consonants. years in Thai education Although the Thai-based Iu system], they will try to use Mien orthography the students are it in any language they speak practicing has been developed since [e.g. the Iu Mien use Thai 1956 (Arisawa 2011a, 2011b, way of speaking when trying Callaway and Callaway 1976, Purnell to speak English, and even 1985), it is hard to say that it has their mother tongue] permeated the Iu Mien society as a (LaPolla 2001: 242). whole. A part of the reasons, perhaps the very large part, for that is that a The changes in (5)-(6) and (8)- majority of the Iu Mien is so strongly (9)are not only due to the contact but convinced that learning Standard also dislocation of the young Iu Mien Thai is the only way toward better from their home villages, almost education and income that they abandoning them. When they do not seldom thought of learning how to live in the original cultural read and write in their own language. environment, it is impossible to learn In fact the Thai-based minority and use the words and expressions in orthography is capable of enhancing their proper meanings with subtlety, two-way development, i.e. mother 59 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 tongue as well as national language. well-educated in Thai and were able As early as 1972, Smalley pointed to correct the Iu Mien students‟ out the overriding advantages of the wrong practice or understanding of Thai-based minority language writing Thai orthography including the tone system: rules. At the same time they are 1. The purpose of efficient in writing their own writing the minority language in the 1956 version of Thai- languages is not only to based Iu Mien orthography. foster internal commu- Although a solution to the Iu nication within the group but Mien students‟ unfamiliarity with the also to tie up with the wider Thai-based orthography is a matter of communication networks of time and practice, an even bigger the country. Thai script is responsibility should be taken by less divisive and more educators and policy makers who conducive to immediate use “have forced ethnic minority outside the minority communities to sacrifice their language than Romanized heritage languages and cultures in would be. order to succeed in the majority 2. When the script are society” (Krasae Chanawongse, the same, learning to read advisor to the Prime Minister, one‟s own language and Thailand. 2003). In this respect, the education in the national Thailand‟s current effort in drafting language are mutually the new (in fact the “first”) National reinforcing. Thai is, someone Language Policy is earnestly awaited who learns to read in his own toward its implementation (cf. Person language finds it easier to 2011).One of the six committees in read Thai (if he can speak it), writing draft by the Royal Institute, and someone who learn to approved by the former Prime read in Thai school can then Minister Abhisit Vejajiva on the 7th read his own language with of February, 2010, is concentrating little difficulty. To use a on the policy regarding the Romanized writing system preservation and revitalization of for minority language would ethnic minority languages in not have much mutual Thailand. reinforcing effect with Thai While waiting for that to be education. (Smalley issued and implemented in laws and 1972:133-4) practice in schools, the 1956 version of the Thai-based Iu Mien These are the points that the orthography should be taught, proof readers for the present study exercised, and used at a local level. would agree wholeheartedly. Indeed Indeed it is desirable to have four of the seven proof readers are systematic teaching of it and training 60 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 toward documentation of different advocates in language revitalization stories by using it. Several successful and maintenance in Thailand (1996, results of Mother Tongue-based 2007, 2011a, 2011b, passim).One of Multilingual Education (MT-based her recent talks was at the 11th MLE) using Thai-based orthography International Conference on Thai in other language groups have been Studies, 26th – 28th July, 2011. There reported, e.g. Pwo Karen of Omkoi she put forth the need of new concept Distirict, Chiang Mai, (UNESCO of Thainess which embraces the Bangkok 2007:144-59), Patani Malay country‟s unique linguistic diversity in Southern Thailand (Suwilai and (taking MT-based MLE in Patani Uniansasmits 2011), and others. Malay as an example) to preserve Orthographic accuracy and fluency national unity. are needed for the ultimate goal of Out of 70 languages of using it in documentation of narrative Thailand, 48 are spoken in Northern stories, legends, history, personal Thailand, where Chiang Rai Rajabhat experiences, cultural knowledge and University is located. CRU is highly wisdom, etc. for future generation privileged in getting easy access to and their society now. The the source of linguistic data. Iu Mien effectiveness in using Thai-based in this study is just one of many other minority orthography for the purpose languages that are gradually, rapidly of language revitalization and in some cases, changing due to maintenance is discussed by Suwilai contact with Thai. Changes can lead (2007). to loss; once lost irretrievable forever. To reiterate the urgency in this matter, language maintenance and CONCLUSION revitalization are the concern of the whole humanity; hence numerous Language preservation and international conferences on this revitalization which are directly subject are held recently. related to the life and death of It should be remembered that cultural heritage are the concerns of the world is watching now, with a the humanity. At least 15 languages hope to learn from good examples, out of over 70 spoken in Thailand are whether Thailand will do this noble seriously endangered. To do research task well or not. on them in view of revitalization, the Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia, (formerly Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development), Mahidol University has been tremendously active, chiefly led by Professor Suwilai Premsrirat. She has been one of the main

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APPENDICES

Figure 1. An Iu Mien story book Figure 2. A sample page from the written and edited by Iu Mien story book with proof reader‟s students. corrections.

Figure 3. Regularly getting together Figure 4. Production of teaching to practice writing story. materials for Iu Mien children.

Figure 5. A CRRU student practices Figure 6. Children‟s attentiveness: telling an Iu Mien story at an Early This was the very first and a shocking Childhood Care Center, Baan experience for the Iu Mien children to Takuwan, Chiang Rai. be taught Iu Mien language by the Iu Mien teachers using Iu Mien as a language of medium. Before this experiment, Iu Mien teachers had been teaching only using Thai.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY presented at the 11th Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 2006. International Conference on th th July Grammars in contact: A cross- Thai Studies, 26 – 28 2011, organized by the linguistic perspective. In Research Institute for Grammars in Contact: A Languages and Cultures of Cross-Linguistic Typology, ed. Asia, Mahidol University, by Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald Thailand. and R. M. W. Dixon, 1-66. ______. 2011b. A Thai-based Iu Oxford: Oxford University Mien orthography as a tool for Press. ethnic and national identity, and Arisawa, T. Daniel. 2009. A recent language maintenance/revita- constituent order change in Iu lization. In Toward Enhance- Mien through contact with ment of Economic, Social, Thai: A case of yiem “to be Technological and Environ- located”. In GMS News: mental Development for Quarterly news magazine of the Welfare Implications in the International College of Greater Mekong Sub-region Mekong Region, Chiang Rai and Asia-Pacific, eds. by Rajabhat University, ed. by Manop Pasitwilaitham, et. al., Makha Khittasangka, 3:12- 209-32. [The Best Practice [no.4], 20-23. Award winning research paper ______. 2010. Preparing a Mother recognized by Chiang Rai Tongue-based Multilingual Rajabhat University] Education (MLE) program for Callaway, Lois, and C. W. Callaway. the Iu Mien in Thailand: From 1976. Mien (Yao). In university setting to the and Orthography: communities. In Toward Language Planning in Ten knowledge networks for the Minority Languages of economy, society, culture, Thailand, ed. by William A. environment and health for the Smalley, Pacific Linguistics, GMS and Asia-Pacific, ed. by Series C – No. 43,221-37. Makha Khittasangkaet.al. 231- Canberra: Department of 54. Chiangrai: Chiang Rai Linguistics, School of Pacific Rajabhat University. Studies, The Australian ______. 2011a. An evaluation of the National University. 1980 version of Thai-based Krasae Chanawongse. 2003. Opening Writing System used in Chob remarks. Addressed at the First Kacha-Anant‟s “Conversation International Conference on Lessons in Yao” (Iu Mien) in Language Development, view of language maintenance Language Revitalization, and for their community. Paper Multilingual Education in 63 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015

Ethnic Minority Communities ______. 2002. Steps toward in Asia, 6th November, 2003, standardization of a minority co-organized by Mahidol orthography: An update on University, UNESCO, and SIL Mien (Yao). In Papers from the International in Bangkok, Tenth Annual Meeting of the Thailand. Southeast Asian Linguistics LaPolla, Randy J. 2001. The role of Society, ed. by Macken, 297- migration and language contact 316.Arizona State University, in the development of the Sino- Program for Southeast Asian Tibetan . In Studies. Areal Diffusion and Genetic Smalley, William A. Problems in Inheritance, ed. by Alexandra writing Thailand minority Y. Aikhenvald and R. M. W. languages in Thai script. In Tai Dixon, 225-54. Oxford: Oxford Phonetics and Phonology, ed. University Press. by Jimmy G. Harris and Panh, Smith. 2002. Modern English- Richard B. Noss, 131-6. Mienh and Mienh-English Bangkok: Central Institute of dictionary. Victoria, B.C.: , Office of Trafford Publishing. State Universities, Faculty of Person, Kirk R. 2011. The Royal Science, Chemistry Blds. Institute and Thailand‟s new Mahidol University. National Language Policy: A Suwilai Premsrirat. 1996. Language work in progress. A paper endangerment and language presented at the 21st Annual revitalization in Thailand. A Conference of Southeast Asian paper presented at a conference Linguistics Society, 11th - 13th on Endangered Languages and May, 2011. Kasetsart Literature in Southeast Asia, in University, Bangkok, Thailand. Leiden, 1996. Purnell, Herbert C. 1985. Developing ______. 2007. Orthography practical orthographies for the development: A tool for Iu Mien (Yao), 1932-1985: A revitalizing and maintaining case study (revised version of a ethnic minority langauges. In paper read at the 1983 Annual Journal of Language and Meeting of the American Culture, 26:1-2 (January – Association for Applied December 2007), 18-34. Linguistics, Minneapolis, Salaya, Phutthamontol, Nakorn Minnesota. Ms., revised and Pathom: Institute of Language updated for the 18th and Culture for Rural International Conference on Development, Mahidol Univer- Sino-Tibetan Language and sity. ______. 2011a. A model Linguistics, Bangkok, Thai- for the preservation of land). languages in Southeast Asia. 64 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015

Paper presented in the plenary Suwilai Premsrirat and Uniansasmita session at the 21st Annual Samoh. 2011. Implementing the Conference of Southeast Asian use of Patani Malay in Linguistics Society, 11th-13th multilingual education in May, 2011, Kasetsart Southern Thailand. A paper University, Bangkok, Thailand. presented at the 21st Annual ______. 2011b. Redefining Thainess: Conference of Southeast Asian Embracing diversity, preserving Linguistics Society, 11th - 13th unity. A keynote speech May, 2011. Kasetsart addressed at the 11th University, Bangkok, Thailand. International Conference on UNESCO Bangkok. 2007. Mother Thai Studies: Visions of the tongue-based literacy pro- Future, 26th – 28th July, 2011, grammes: Case studies of good organized by the Research practice in Asia. Bangkok: Institute for Languages and UNESCO Bangkok. Cultures of Asia, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.

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