The Iu Mien: the Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School Students

The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School Students

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Faculty

Drexel University

Joe Kaonai Liow

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree

Doctor of Education

May 2013

This Ed.D. Dissertation Committee from The School of Education at Drexel University certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation:

The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School Students

Joe Kaonai Liow

Committee:

______José L. Chávez, Ed.D.

______W. Edward Bureau, Ph.D.

______Salvatore V. Falletta, Ed.D.

______Date

Abstract

The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School Students

Joe Kaonai Liow, Ed.D.

Drexel University, May 2013

Chairperson: José L. Chávez, Ed.D.

This quantitative research study examined Iu Mien high school students of one high school in the Sacramento Valley for possible connections between their acculturation level and academic achievement to address the following research questions: 1. What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic success of the Iu Mien high school student? 2. What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school students? This research study utilized two established Likert-type self-rating surveys to address research questions one (East Asian Acculturation Measure, EAAM, Barry, 2001) and two (Culturally Responsive Beliefs and Practices of General and Special Education Teachers Implementing Response to Intervention in Diverse Elementary School, RCELD, Robinson, 2010). Thus this quantitative research study provided the opportunity to triangulate student acculturation level, cumulative GPA, and learning environment conducive to multicultural education. The research study identified four main findings: 1) The Iu Mien high school students rated themselves as being integrated, 2) The instructional faculty felt that they have implemented relevant multicultural education to support RCELD student needs in the following areas: Effective school-wide and classroom academic differentiated intervention pedagogy, and effective school-wide collaboration, 3) The school is participating between pervasive tolerance and pervasive acceptance level of multicultural education (Nieto, 2004), and 4) The cumulative assessment of the three previous finds indicated that there were no significant differences between Iu Mien students classified as being assimilated and integrated.

Dedication

I dedicate this dissertation to my dear mother Nailiw Saephan (10/12/1952 –

8/18/2010), who passed away during the second year of this doctoral program. May you rest in peace knowing that I have completed my highest attainable education.

To my wife Nai X. Saechao from whom I look to for inspiration, support, understanding, and the much needed guidance both in life and in academia. For my children Christopher Liow, Nicholas Phan, and Michelle Phan, I hope to make you proud and perhaps serve as your inspiration to stride and put forth your best effort to accomplish your endeavors in life.

For my in-laws, Vern X. Saechao and Liewlin Saephan, I don’t how to express to both of you my deepest appreciation and love for your continuous and unconditional support in my education and life endeavors. Thank you from the bottom of my heart for all that you do both for me personally and for our family. I hope to make you proud as your son-in-law as I am proud to be yours. Thank you!

Acknowledgments

To Dr. José L. Chávez, I appreciate your dedication and commitment to assisting and grabbing me by the hand and take me somewhere that I or most Iu Mien have never been before. But, most of all, for willing to be my dissertation committee chair and professor as you have provided me the much needed advice, guidance, and counseling.

Thank you. To Dr. Salvatore V. Falletta, I want to thank you both for being my professor and committee member especially, for so willingly accepting the responsibility to serve on the committee without any reservations. To Dr. W. Ed Bureau, thank you for recognizing the potential in my ability to effectively participate and complete this doctoral program and being my professor, program director, and fatherly figure. I thank you for the much needed guidance and counseling that you have provided me the past three years. As you were the one consistent voice that said “come on pick up the pace,”

“let me pick you up,” “let me take your hand,” “I know I’m dragging you but I want you to be called Dr. Liow,” and with that, shoved me forward to this joyful day.

To my Drexel University Sacramento campus inaugural cohort members, I thank you for your kind support, encouragement, and inspiration during the past three years, for you have given me the opportunity to learn with you and from you.

Lastly, I would like thank Principal Felisberto Cedros for your support and granting me permission to conduct my research at your school. Additionally, Vice-

Principal Kal Phan, thank you for the much needed assistance that you have provided me. To the instructional staff, I appreciate your willingness to assist me with my study especially during the last week of the school year. Thank you Dr. Rebeka Hagerty,

Garden City Unified research department, for providing me with the much needed vi

student data and support. Most importantly, a BIG THANK YOU to the Iu Mien students of the class of 2012 for allowing me to learn from your experiences. Finally, thank you to the Iu Mien parents for allowing me to learn from your children and from you. Please know that without you and your continuous support this dissertation would not be possible and without you, there can be none.

vii

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ...... iv

LIST OF TABLES ...... x

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH ...... 1

Statement of the Problem to be Researched ...... 2

Purpose and Significance of the Problem ...... 3

Research Questions Focused on Solution Finding ...... 4

Conceptual Framework ...... 4

Definition of Terms ...... 8

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations ...... 12

Summary ...... 13

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 14

Introduction to Chapter 2 ...... 14

Conceptual Framework ...... 14

Literature Review ...... 15

Summary ...... 39

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 41

Introduction ...... 41

Research Design and Rational ...... 42

Population and Site Description ...... 43

viii

Research Methods ...... 47

Ethical Considerations ...... 51

4. FINDINGS AND RESULTS ...... 52

Introduction ...... 52

Findings ...... 53

Results and Interpretations ...... 83

Summary ...... 89

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 93

Introduction ...... 93

Conclusion ...... 95

Recommendations ...... 98

Summary ...... 101

LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 104

APPENDIX A: LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION ...... 113

APPENDIX B: CONSENT FORMS ...... 116

APPENDIX C: EAST ASIAN ACCULTURATION MEASURE ...... 120

APPENDIX D: SURVEY OF SCHOOL’S AND EDUCATOR’S CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ...... 124

List of Tables

1. Data Collection Schedule ...... 48

2. Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items ...... 55

3. Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items: Assimilation ...... 59

4. Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items: Separation ...... 60

5. Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items: Integration ...... 62

6. Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items: Marginalization ...... 64

7. Comparative Overview of Student Acculturation Level and Cumulative Mean GPA ...... 65

8. School Climate/Support ...... 69

9. Academic Instruction (I), Differentiated Intervention Instruction ...... 72

10. Academic Instruction (II) ...... 75

11. Collaboration ...... 77

12. Teacher Demographic Survey (N=19) ...... 79

List of Figures

1. Iu Mien High School students’ acculturation level ...... 61

2. Iu Mien High School students’ acculturation level ...... 67

3. Climate and support of RCELD students ...... 70

4. School academic differentiated instruction for RCELD students ...... 73

5. Classroom academic differentiated instruction for RCELD students ...... 76

6. School wide collaboration to support RCELD students ...... 78

xi 1

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Research

The Iu Mien were known of as early as 1500 BC in central China; the Iu Mien resided in central China until the 1700s. In 1700, multiple waves of Iu Mien migration started into the surrounding Southeast Asian countries. The first wave of Iu Mien migrated to northern Vietnam, and the second group migrated into Laos and Thailand in the 19th century (Center for Applied Linguistics, 1981). Those Iu Mien residing in China can barely speak the Iu Mien dialect across generations. Although less assimilated, the Iu

Mien of Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam are experiencing the perilous effect of the assimilation process. As the Iu Mien surpassed three decades since the fall of Laos

(1975) and marked equal number of years since residing in the United States as refugees from Laos due to their involvement with the United States’ CIA, it is important to examine the transition and adjustment of the Iu Mien people and its culture.

More importantly, Iu Mien community members are beginning to recognize the peril of their culture and are attempting to implement strategies to stop the process. This process requires the understanding of the nature of the acculturation process, specifically those of high school aged students. Therefore, the examination of the acculturation process through the use of established acculturation assessment tools, such as that of

Barry’s East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM) (2001), can potentially foster further understanding of the problem resulting in the development of appropriate implementation strategies to impede this peril. Based on the mixed-methods study by Lee and Green

(2010), the EAAM has a validity level of 0.7, indicating high level of validity (Ravid,

2010).

Equally important, this dissertation will greatly contribute to the limited literature written on behalf of the Iu Mien people, thus giving some voice to the traditionally voiceless Iu Mien people (Downing, 2002; Gomez, 2005). Furthermore, this study will foster an understanding of the assimilation and acculturation process of Iu

Mien high school students. Additionally, the researcher suggests intervention strategies to help impede the cultural peril of other minority cultures.

Statement of the Problem to be Researched

This dissertation's primary focus is to address the problem and effects of the acculturation and assimilation processes of the Iu Mien community. Additionally, special attention was given to the examination of a possible linkage between specific high school students’ academic achievement and their levels of acculturation in the central valley of

Northern California. Furthermore, it is important to understand the level of multicultural education the educational institution provides to the racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse students.

Historically, the Iu Mien, a nomadic-like group, migrated from central China to

Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam then to the United States and has endured many cultural changes through assimilation and acculturation. Although individual experiences exist, there are similarities and significant differences between Iu

Mien communities globally. After more than 30 years, both as naturalized citizens and legal aliens of the United States, the Iu Mien are experiencing the perilous effects of the cultural assimilation and acculturation processes. The current Iu Mien high school students have developed the inability to properly speak Mien and some have developed resentment toward and are distancing themselves from the Iu Mien language and culture,

3 opting for the mainstream cultural norms. This phenomenon is recognized by the leaders, elders, and Iu Mien community members and is seen to be detrimental to the existence of their culture. A few Iu Mien non-profit organizations such as the Iu Mien

American National Coalition (IMANC), United Iu Mien, Inc. (UIM), Iu Mien Culture

Foundation (IMCF), and other community-based organizations, are attempting to implement intervention strategies to stop the devastating effect of cultural assimilation and acculturation.

Purpose and Significance of the Problem

The Iu Mien residents of the central valley of Northern California have begun to realize their culture is in danger of perishing. Understanding the acculturation and assimilation process and the current cultural health of the Iu Mien can potentially foster intervention strategies to stop the process. Although the Iu Mien have been in the United

States more than 30 years, they are the least known and written about when compared to other Southeast Asian ethnic group such as the Hmong, Lao, and Vietnamese. Existing literature tends to lump the Iu Mien with the other ethnic groups and classify them as being similar (Gomez, 2005). Ultimately, research findings on the Iu Mien people tend to be inaccurate (Saechao, 2010).

Therefore, the purpose of this quantitative study is to provide understanding of the

Iu Mien culture through an examination of the acculturation and assimilation process.

This study has five main goals: First, to provide an in-depth understanding of the acculturation process of the Iu Mien high school students through the use of established instruments such as the EAAM (Barry, 2001). Secondly, a comparative analysis was employed to examine possible connections between Iu Mien high school students'

4 acculturation levels and their academic achievement. Thirdly, a Likert-type self-rating scale was employed to examine classroom instructional practices relevant to multicultural education. Fourth, the Level of Multicultural Education (Nieto, 2004) model was used to provide further understanding of existing levels of multicultural education the institution was providing to the racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse students at

Iu Mien Community High School (IMCHS), especially those of Iu Mien descent.

Finally, through the literature, the research gives voice to the less fortunate and often ignored Iu Mien American and challenges the stereotypical notion that all Asian Pacific

Americans are similar and have similar needs and cultural norms (Downing, 2002;

Gomez, 2005; Saechao, 2001).

Research Questions Focused on Solution Finding

This quantitative research study was conducted to provide greater understanding of the problems of assimilation and acculturation facing the Iu Mien community and, thus addressed the following research questions:

1. What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic

success of the Iu Mien high school student?

2. What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high

school students?

Conceptual Framework

As an Iu Mien individual cognizant of the peril of the Iu Mien culture, the researcher focused this study on examining the acculturation and assimilation processes of Iu Mien high school students and ultimately looked for a possible connections between students’ levels of acculturation and their academic achievement. Through the use of

5 multiple Likert-type surveys – EAAM (Barry, 2001) and Survey of Schools’ and

Educators’ Culturally Responsive Beliefs and Practices (RCELD; Robinson, 2010) – and the descriptive analytic approach, the dissertation research emphasizes the social constructivism views of the researcher, thus assisting the researcher in addressing the problem facing the Iu Mien community. Furthermore, the philosophical ontological approach allowed the researcher to identify and describe themes relevant to the acculturation and assimilation processes of the Iu Mien community, ultimately addressing the previously stated research questions.

This quantitative research study was based upon the conceptual framework of cultural pluralism. According to Bennett (1990), the cultural pluralism theory involves two or more individual cultural groups exhibiting characteristics of mutual respect and appreciation of one another. Nieto (2004) defined cultural pluralism (salad bowl, mosaic, or tapestry) as, “A model based on the premise that people of all backgrounds have a right to maintain their language and cultures while combining with others to form a new society reflective of all our differences” (p. 437). To understand cultural pluralism, a brief discussion of pluralism or cultural assimilation is a necessity. The melting pot theory of assimilation is commonly labeled as the cultural assimilation model whereby the interaction of multiple groups results in one large group with the minority groups losing their ethnic heritage and being immersed in the mainstream culture (Carpenter,

Zarate, & Garza, 2007). Conversely, cultural pluralism assumed the position of biculturalism, integration, and acculturation, thus the theoretical framework of cultural pluralism encompasses four streams: assimilation, acculturation, biculturalism, and multicultural education.

Assimilation, as suggested by the literature, is a process by which one ethnic group acquires and fuses values, sentiments, memories, and attitudes of another ethnic group through the sharing and incorporation of cultures (Duncan, 1929; Gordon, 1964;

Hirsch, 1942; Johnson, 1963; Simons, 1901; Teske & Nelson, 1974; Woolston, 1945).

Assimilation results in the acceptance of the cultural norm of the majority culture.

Assimilation based on the melting pot theory is not appropriate for all ethnic cultural communities, including those from Southeast Asia. Acculturation is a more favorable process as it has the capacity for the retention of certain elements of the guest culture.

According to Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits (1936), acculturation:

Acculturation comprehends those phenomena which result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups. (p. 149)

Additionally, Berry (2005) referred to acculturation as the dual process change, both psychologically and culturally, as a result of contact with individuals of two cultural groups. Furthermore, researchers such as Berry (1980), Berry (1998), Lee and Leu

(2006), and Barry (2001) described four distinct processes of acculturation: assimilation

(identifies mostly with dominant culture), integration or biculturalism (identifies with both cultures), separation (identifies with ethnic culture), and marginalization (low identification with both cultures).

As reported by Berry and Szapocznik, Kurtines, and Fernandez (as cited in

Schwartz and Unger, 2010), biculturalism originated from the assimilation theory.

Others such as Keefe and Padilla (1987) and Smokowski, Rose, and Bacallao (2008) defined biculturalism as the integration of the host and native cultural group of language,

7 food, media use, norms, and traditions. Lee and Leu (2006) indicated that other researchers such as Berry and Sam (1997) referred to biculturalism or integration as an individual identifying with both cultures.

In a culturally pluralistic society, multicultural education prepares and educates individuals to function in more than one culture (Dilger, 1994). In the multicultural setting, conventional wisdom needs to be unlearned, and policies and practice that proved to be advantageous for some at the expense of others need to be dismantled (Nieto,

2004). Piland, Piland, and Hess (1999) referred to multicultural education and cultural pluralism as the study of ethnic, race, and gender awareness. Gay (2004) further alluded to multicultural education as “an instrument of educational equity and excellence” (p.

216) and in Nieto's (2004) “Multicultural Education and School Reform” chapter, citing

James Banks, she stated:

The main goal of a multicultural curriculum is to help students develop decision- making and social action skills. By doing so, students learn to view events and situations from a variety of perspectives. A multicultural approach values diversity and encourages critical thinking, reflection, and action. Through this process, students can be empowered as well. (p. 358)

Multicultural education proponents such as Bennett (1990) and Sleeter and McLaren

(1995) referred to it as the commitment to cultural pluralism through the learning and teaching based upon the democratic values and beliefs within our very diverse societies.

Cumulatively, biculturalism and multicultural education may be ideal for the Iu Mien high school students as they participate in the acculturation continuum.

Definition of Terms

Acculturation

As stated by the American Heritage Dictionary (n.d.), acculturation is the

modification of the culture of a group or individual due to contact with a different

culture. It refers to changes in cultural patterns when two different cultural

groups have ongoing contact with one another.

Assimilation

The dual process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result

of contact between two or more cultural groups and their individual members

(Berry, 2005).

Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS)

Roessingh (2006), citing Cummins’ (1982) Framework for the Development of

Language Proficiency, referred to it as the basic communicative fluency achieved

by all normal native speakers of a language.

Biculturalism

The process by which individuals are competent and have knowledge of two

cultures; their ethnic culture and majority culture (Nieto, 2004).

California English Language Development Test (CELDT)

An annual assessment instituted by Education Code sections 313 and 60810(d) to

identify English limited proficient students, determine the level of English

language proficiency of students, and to assess the progress of LEP students in

acquiring skills of listening, reading, speaking, and writing English (CDE, 2013).

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)

Cummins defined CALP as the ability to manipulate language using abstractions

in a sophisticated manner.

Cooperative Learning

Teaching approach that provides opportunities for children to socially interact as

they work towards a common goal (Portal & Sampson, 2000)

CRSBI

Caring, communication, curriculum, instruction, and a focus on California content

standards: Five components of effective culturally responsive instruction (Banks,

1991; Gay, 2000).

Culture

The value; traditions; social and political relationships; and worldview created,

shared, and transformed by a group of people bound together by a common

history, geographic location, language, social class, and/or religion (Nieto, 2002,

p. 436)

Cultural Identity

A sense of belonging to a certain culture or ethnic group

Cultural Pluralism

A model based on the premise that people of all backgrounds have a right to

maintain their languages and cultures while combining with others to form a new

society reflective of all our differences (Nieto, 2004).

Cultural Responsive Learning

Refers to the delivery of content standard instruction relevant to students’ cultural

background

East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM)

A 29-item self-report inventory tool measuring assimilation, separation,

integration, and marginalization. Items are scored based on a seven-point Likert-

type scale (Barry, 2001).

English Learner (EL)

A K-12 student who, based on objective assessment, has not developed listening,

speaking, reading, and writing proficiencies in English sufficient for participation

in the regular school program. These students are sometimes referred to as

Limited English Proficient (LEP). The process for identification is described in

the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) (California

Department of Education [CDE], 2013).

Ethnic Identity

“This construct focuses on what people learn about their culture from family and

community passed down from one generation to the next. Ethnic identity

develops from sharing culture, religion, geography, and language with individuals

who are often connected by strong loyalty and kinship” (Evans, Forney, Guido,

Patton, & Renn, 2010, p. 277).

Experiential Learning

A process by which a learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct

experience

Integration

An individual or group retaining its primary culture but accept and integrating

cultural beliefs and values from the mainstream culture (Barry, 2001; Berry, 1980,

1988).

Iu Mien American National Coalition (IMANC; 2013)

Non-profit 501 c organization established in the late 1980s by Iu Mien leaders

with a mission to promote solidarity, education, justice, and peace to Iu Mien

communities in the United States of America.

Iu Mien, Iu-Mienh, Yao, Mien or Mienh

Hill tribe people from central China across Southeast Asia in countries such as

Laos, Burma, Vietnam, and Thailand. Iu means “unique” and Mien means

“people.”

Marginalization

Referred to as exhibiting the lack of identification with any culture (Barry, 2001;

Berry, 1980, 1988).

Melting Pot

A model that maintains differences need to be wiped out to form an amalgam that

is uniquely American, but without obvious traits of the original cultures (Nieto,

2004).

Multicultural Education

“A process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students.

It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and

society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious,

economic, and gender, among others) students, their communities, and teachers

reflect” (Nieto, 2004, pp. 436-437).

Separation

Individual or group is fully immersed in their primary culture and refuses to

participate in the mainstream culture (Barry, 2001; Berry, 1980, 1988).

United Iu Mien Incorporated (UIM)

The mission of United Iu-Mien Community, Inc. is to “support and develop

healthy Iu-Mien families and communities through culturally responsive

programs and services” (United Iu Mien Incorporated, 2013, para. 1).

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

An assumption of the study is that a similar study in another Iu Mien community will demonstrate some parallels of the acculturation process. It is also assumed Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation levels will highly correlate with their academic success. Conversely, since the result of this quantitative research study of the acculturation process of the Iu Mien high school students is confined to 65 students attending the local high school of Northern California, specifically the Garden Valley, the results may not be applicable to other Iu Mien communities elsewhere. Additionally, the three multicultural instructional practices included in the self-rating questionnaire may not yield similar result nor are they the only appropriate instructional pedagogies. The delimitating factor is that the researcher is from the same culture and had to be reminded not to instill a biased attitude while conducting this research study. In addition, the data gathering process was conducted toward the closing of the school year and contributed to the low level of staff participation.

Summary

The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School Students is a descriptive analysis quantitative research study based upon the theoretical framework of cultural pluralism. To address the acculturation and assimilation problem facing the Iu

Mien community, this study adopted and administered the East Asian Acculturation

Measure (EAAM) to 27 volunteers out of the 65 Iu Mien high school students to assess their levels of acculturation. The study also employed a Likert-type self-rating frequency-of-use survey to the 19 out of 90 volunteer teachers to elicit classroom instructional practices relevant to multicultural education. Additionally, a comparative analysis of their acculturation level and academic achievement was conducted to address the following dissertation research questions and to foster understanding of the Iu Mien culture by all stakeholders:

1. What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic

success of the Iu Mien high school students?

2. What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high

school students?

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction to Chapter 2

The Iu-Mienh, or Mien, are also known as Yao (the Chinese translation means dogs or barbarians). The Iu-Mienh, Iu-Mien, Iu Mien, Iu Mienh, or Mien are terms used interchangeably by societal communities worldwide. Literally, Iu Mien means unique people (Iu means unique and Mien means people). Historically, the Iu Mien, as a group of people, are predated back to the early 1500s BC in central China (Saechao, 2010).

Life for the Iu Mien refugees in the United States has been particularly harsh because of their recent immigration status compared to other Southeast Asian immigrants. They moved from a preliterate society to a highly technological one, and the nontransferable agricultural skills they brought to the United States were rendered non effective in the highly technological society of America (Fitzpatrick, 2009).

Moreover, the Iu Mien do not have a voice in the larger American society, and they lack representation on multiple levels of society’s infrastructure, such as the K-12 and higher educational institutions (Downing, 2002; Gomez, 2005). Furthermore, empirical and peer review literature written on the Iu Mien's behalf is minimal at best.

Therefore, the remainder of this chapter is dedicated to the exploration of the processes of assimilation, acculturation, pluralism, and multicultural education, specifically those of the Iu Mien descendants residing in the Garden Valley.

Conceptual Framework

The influx of European immigrants from 1820-1970 (45 million strong) to the

United States resulted in the conceptualization of the melting pot or cultural assimilation

15 theory (Bennett, 1990). Throughout the history of the United States, the melting pot, or cultural assimilation theory, has been a strong theme and widely accepted in education.

However, the theory does require one culture to give up its primary culture to be absorbed into the host culture, thus exhibiting a critical flaw with relevance to the classroom teacher and instructional pedagogy. In an effort to educate ethnic minority students the “American way,” classroom educators can be blinded by individual students’ personal and cultural strengths (Bennett, 1990). Such blindness ultimately allowed others in the educational field to develop an alternative to the cultural assimilation theory, identified as cultural pluralism, to further understand and address the academic learning needs of minority students.

Cultural pluralism, according to Bennett (1990), is an alternative to the widely accepted melting pot theory. The cultural pluralism theory defines two or more individual cultural groups as exhibiting the characteristic of mutual respect and appreciation of one another. Similarly, Nieto (2004) asserted cultural pluralism operates under the premise that individuals from all cultures incorporate cultural norms from our diverse culture into theirs while maintaining their language and culture. The incorporation results in the formation of a new society reflective of individual cultural differences. Therefore, the basis of this quantitative research study of the acculturation process of Iu Mien high school students is the cultural pluralism framework inclusive of four streams: assimilation, acculturation, biculturalism, and multicultural education.

Literature Review

The history of the immigration process of the United States began in earnest 1820 and the major waves lasted until the 1970s when approximately 45 million individuals

16 immigrated to the United States (Bennett, 1990). Hence, the origin of the cultural assimilation or melting pot theory was formulated in the early 19th. Century. Due to individual differences and individual ethnic groups retaining their cultures, the educational system found it difficult to educate these students, many of whom were unable to assimilate and perform academically. Hence, they were often classified as having learning disabilities without considering the student’s individual needs or cultural assets. As a counteractive measure to accurately identify and serve the influx of ethnic minority students, cultural pluralism theory was developed (Bennett, 1990). Therefore, this literature review examines issues of the culture pluralism theoretical framework encompassing four streams: assimilation, acculturation, biculturalism, and multiculturalism education.

Cultural Pluralism

For clarification purposes, a brief discussion of assimilation pluralism or cultural assimilation is necessary to foster further understanding of cultural pluralism. The melting pot theory of assimilation is commonly labeled as the cultural assimilation model whereby multiple groups interact, resulting in one large group with the assumption that the minority groups lose their ethnic heritage and be immersed in the mainstream culture

(Carpenter et al., 2007). On the contrary, cultural pluralism assumed the position of biculturalism, integration, and acculturation. Proponents of multicultural and bilingual education, such as Nieto (2004), referred to cultural pluralism as, “a model based on the premise that people of all backgrounds have a right to maintain their languages and cultures while combining with others to form a new society reflective of all our differences” (p. 437). Furthermore, Sleeter and McLaren (1995) further defined cultural

17 pluralism as, “there is no single criterion of human potential applicable to all. Instead, complex and varied sets of coherent values, motives, attitudes, and attributes-which determine behavior patterns-exist among cultural groups” (p. 159). Bennett (1990) crystallized cultural pluralism and associated its characteristics as:

Retain[ing] many of its traditions, such as language, religion, artistic expression, and social customs adopts many aspects of the predominant Anglo-Western European culture such as language; monogamy; military service; local, state, and federal laws; and full civil rights of citizenship develops an ethnic perspective and also identifies with the nation as a whole respects and appreciates different ethnic traditions that it may or may not choose to experience. (p. 91)

Furthermore, Carpenter et al. (2007), in the quantitative study “Cultural Pluralism and

Prejudice Reduction,” concluded individual functioning in a cultural pluralism environment stressed heightened awareness of group boundaries and exhibited strong ethnic and cultural identification. The studies conducted by Liow (2008), Saelee (2005),

Lee and Green (2010), and Downing (2002) further exemplified the very notion of ethnic and cultural identification as being important to ethnic minority groups such as the Iu

Mien and Hmong, thus, the Iu Mien’s and Hmong’s preference of integration or biculturalism rather than assimilation. Therefore, they are more comfortable functioning and navigating in a multicultural environment and desire multicultural education for their children (Liow, 2008; Nieto, 2004).

Cultural identity. Cultural identity, in essence, is an individual's understanding and belonging of and to a particular culture. As a nation of diverse communities attempting to educate our future leaders, we need to understand the natures of cultural identity and ethnic identity. Evans et al. (2010) referred to ethnic identity as:

Constructs focus on what people learn about their culture from family and community passed down from one generation to the next. Ethnic identity

develops from sharing culture, religion, geography, and language with individuals who are often connected by strong loyalty and kinship. (p. 277)

Furthermore, Bennett (1990) referred to it as the degrees to which individual learned and retained from the original culture. Nieto (2002) indicated young people whose culture is different from the dominant group often struggle with a clear image of themselves.

Without a clear image of oneself, there exists a sense of cloudiness of one's cultural and ethnic identity, thus, creating difficulties for helping teachers understand who they are.

Without an understanding of the student's culture, an educator may, by default, perceive the students as having academic disabilities. Historically, this process has allowed the misdiagnosis of many ethnic minority students and thus, prompted the development of cultural pluralism theory (Bennett, 1990).

Understanding one's ethnic culture and ethnic language contributes to the affirmation of one's cultural identity thus, promoting the understanding of the acculturation process; such affirmation serves as beneficial to Iu Mien and Latino families. Holli (as cited in Saelee, 2005) stressed:

The ethnic language plays a crucial role in helping individuals retain and understand their culture of origin, so when individuals do not know how to speak their ethnic language, a big portion of their ethnic culture is lot. (p. 11)

As reported by Smokowski et al. (2008), “in multiple regression and hierarchical linear models of study suggest that culture-of-origin involvement and biculturalism were cultural assets related to positive outcomes” (p. 295). Additionally, Saelee (2005) indicated 97% of her respondents preferred biculturalism or integration because it fostered the ability to effectively navigate and negotiate between the Iu Mien and the mainstream culture. Furthermore, the notion of biculturalism or integration indicated a

19 level of understanding of one's cultural and ethnic identity. Similarly, the mixed- method study by Lee and Green (2010) of the acculturation process of the Eastern

Wisconsin Hmong family concluded they acculturated at the integration (biculturalism) level. The results of the mentioned Iu Mien and Hmong acculturation research studies are ideal examples of ethnic groups exhibiting validation and high levels of ethnic identity; thus, indicating their preference for acculturation rather than assimilation.

Furthermore, Miller (2007) stated, “Overtime, Asian Americans may incorporate a second cultural orientation but not necessarily at the expense of their culture of origin”

(p. 127). Conversely, those immigrants who abandoned and adapted the cultural and custom of the prevailing culture are considered assimilated.

Assimilation

In the words of Bennett (1990), “assimilation is not for everyone” (p. 88) and especially not for those of the Asian culture for their culture stresses groups over individuality. Assimilation, as defined by Teske and Nelson (1974), Simons (1901),

Hirsch (1942), Duncan (1929), Woolston (1945), Johnson (1963), and Gordon (1964), requires new customs and attitudes are accessed and communicated to both the host and guest cultural group. Assimilation theory, as suggested by numerous researchers, is the process by which one ethic group acquired and fused values, sentiments, memories, and attitudes with another ethnic group through the sharing and incorporation of cultures, thus, resulting in the acceptance of another’s cultural norms. Furthermore, after a careful analysis of literature, Hirsch suggested assimilation is the process of members of one culture becoming a member of the dominant cultural community (Teske & Nelson,

1974). A more recent reference to assimilation is a high level of host culture involvement lacking the critical notion of ethnic identity (Berry, 1980; Smokowski &

Bacallao, 2006).

The ideal cultural assimilation (melting-pot) theory proved to be more successful for some ethnic groups than others. In fact, Gay (2004) referred to the melting-pot’s

“American Way” as destroying multicultural education. Groups such as the Asians and

Hispanics have generational struggles within the family units when experiencing the process of both acculturation and assimilation. For these cultural groups, the retention of their culture is important; therefore, preferring biculturalism over assimilation meant they had to face being discriminated against and marginalized by Americans (Harker, 2001;

Saelee, 2005). Those who chose to be assimilated participated in the continuum in opposition on one end and cultural suppression at other end (Bennett, 1990). Others referred to assimilation as a unidirectional process (Broom & Kitsuse, 1955; Dohrenwend

& Smith, 1962; Duncan, 1929; Eaton, 1952 Spiro, 1955: Woolston, 1945) where the guest culture forgoes its unique cultural norms to fully immerse in the host culture.

The Asians historically came in waves. The first waves were the Chinese sojourners of the early 1800s, then the Japanese of the mid-1800s, and the later

Indochinese immigrants who were of refugee status due to the Vietnam War. According to Bennett (1990), the war of Vietnam produced a mass exodus of refugees involved with the war. The first wave began before 1975, having a better social-economic background, education, and familiarity with the Western culture; thus, they were better educated and from well-to-do families and better adapted to the acculturation and assimilation processes. In contrast, the second wave of refugees such as the Iu Mien and Hmong

21 suffered from low education and low socioeconomic status. These “boat people” were associated with experiences of the traumatic ordeal and harrowing escape, leaving family behind; thus, they suffered from guilt, depression, and loneliness. They were less successful in their participation of the acculturation and assimilation processes. As a result, they chose biculturalism over assimilation and faced consequences of not being accepted by the dominant culture (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Gerton, 1993). Other conflicts included the conflicts between Americanized youth and their parents due to cultural differences such as values and behaviors (Goodenow & Espin, 1993; Saelee,

2005). Furthermore, it was suggested by Ying and Chao (1996) that Iu Mien and Hmong

(Ngo, 2002) families suffered from intergenerational conflicts due to parental pressure for the retention of their traditional culture and over fear of being assimilated in the wake of the rapid acculturation and assimilation. Conversely, assimilation for all intents and purposes, historically, has been more successful for European Anglo-Saxon immigrants of the early 1820s.

Although not fully assimilated, European Anglo-Saxon immigrants such as the

Irish, Italian, and Jewish are considered most assimilated. All three ethnic groups’ migrations was different and yet they were absorbed in similar ways (Levine, 2005).

Granted, it took from 50 years to a century for these ethnic groups to assimilate; however, they are still the most successful in the assimilation process. These ethnic groups have both been socially and politically assimilated as they have their ethnic presences at all levels of our government, media, and social life (i.e., St. Patrick's Day is celebrated by the dominant culture). Furthermore, in 1928 Al Smith, an Irishman, was a democratic candidate for the office of presidency of the United Sates implying widespread

22 acceptance (Levine, 2005) of minority representations in the political arena by the mainstream culture.

Through intermarriage, the Italians (60%) and Jews (50%) produced well known businesses and famous leaders such as Martin Scorsese (director, screen writer, producer, and recipient of the Oscar, Golden globe, and Emmy), Philip Roth (Novelist, recipient of the Pulitzer Award and National Book Award), Lee Iacocca (former president of

Chrysler), and president Lawrence Summer of Harvard University (Levine, 2005). Of the Asian group, the Japanese are considered to be most assimilated and thus, were labeled as an American success story and the model for other Indochinese Asian immigrants to follow. This is the typical misconception seeded in society and literature – that all Asians are alike, function similarly, and exhibit similar needs, especially the Iu

Mien. The contributing factors of being the better assimilated Asian groups included time in the United States, more educated, hard-working, strong sense of family values, and higher socioeconomic status as immigrants.

In the political arena, the Irish elected government officials had surpassed 25 individuals by the 1940s. As of 2005, their representation has become too big to count

(Levine, 2005). Levine further indicated there were 26 Jewish and 10 Italian senators by the 1990s. Groups such as the Irish, Italian, and Jews were small business owners, craftsmen such as tailors, scholars, and debaters (Levin, 2005), thus, alluding to our prior assumption that they are more successfully assimilated based upon a higher education level, better socioeconomic status, and of being European Anglo-Saxon immigrants.

Although the Hispanics are not as successful in the assimilation process as the European

Anglo-Saxon, they do have high political presence in our government. As of 2005, there

23 were 25 Hispanic Representatives in the House, indicating the Hispanics' political assimilation was moving at a much faster rate than that of the Irish, Italians, and Jews.

There is a reported 29 of 120 state legislators of Hispanic background. A few examples of Hispanic politicians include Mel Martinez of Florida, Ken Salazar of Colorado,

Governor Bill Richardson of New Mexico, and attorney general Alberto Gonzales.

Acculturation

The voluntary immigration process of the United States began in the 1820s thus, forming and shaping the cultural pluralistic society of today. With the influx of

Europeans and a fear of their dominance over indigenous people, the concept of acculturation was conceptualized (Berry, 2005). Berry further indicated acculturation is the contact and interaction occurring between individuals of two different cultures. In an earlier formulation of acculturation, Redfield et al. (1936) theorized it as:

In another formulation, Kottak (2005) and Evans et al. (2010) referred to acculturation as the exchange of cultural features that results when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first hand contact; the original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be altered, but the groups remain distinct. Other researchers such as

Thurnwald (as cited in Teske & Nelson, 1974) emphasized acculturation as “a process of adaptation to new conditions of life” (p. 351). Furthermore, literature indicated acculturation exhibited reciprocity where assimilation does not. As in the case study of

15- and 16-year-old Hispanic students in a study conducted by Siatkowski (2007),

24 acculturation was a multidimensional concept involving individuals of a specific ethnic culture interacting with individuals of other cultures. This study further confirmed the occurrence of reciprocity in the acculturation process. Similarly, researchers such as

Flaskerud (2007) further stated, “Acculturation is acquiring the capability to function within the dominant culture while retaining the values, beliefs, and language of one's original culture” (p. 534). As reported by Lee and Leu (2006), researchers such as Barry had four distinct positions: assimilation (identifies mostly with dominant culture), integration or biculturalism (identifies with both cultures), separation (identifies with ethnic culture), and marginalization (low identification with both cultures). Based on his acculturation positions, Barry (2001) developed the East Asian Acculturation Measure

(EAAM) to measure the culture process of East Asians.

The EAAM was further adopted to use in multiple mixed-methods studies examining the acculturation process of Hmong people residing in Eastern Wisconsin by

Lee and Green (2010). Therefore, the EAAM is the instrument of choice for this study of the Iu Mien due to the multiple cultural similarities between them and the Hmong. This quantitative research study concluded the Hmong of Eastern Wisconsin have gradually adapted well to the mainstream culture and acculturated highest at the integration level.

Integration level is referred to as an individual’s ability to maintain and adapt to cultural norms of the host culture (Lee & Green, 2010). This idea paralleled the biculturalism concept discussed previously. With reference to the acculturation process of the

Indochinese families, bicultural competency is an adaptive characteristic serving as a protective factor against the stress of acculturation (Chun & Akutu, 2003).

The process of acculturation is often associated with acculturation stress of the family and contributes to the academic attainment of minority family due to the instability of the family to cope with this stressor. Understanding the value of cultural and ethnic identity is critical as it can potentially ease the acculturation and assimilation process of individual minority groups, especially the Iu Mien. Nieto (2004) referred to culture as, “The values; traditions; social and political relationships and worldview created, shared, and transformed by a group of people bounded together by a common history, geographic location, language, social class, and/or religion” (p. 436). Therefore, cultural identity refers to an individual identifying with cultural values and traditions.

Biculturalism

Literature defined biculturalism as the integration of the host and guest culture through language, food, and cultural norms (Keefe & Padilla, 1987; Smokowski et al.,

2008). Similarly, others such as Lee and Leu (2006), Berry and Sam (1997), and Berry

(1990) defined biculturalism as the integration of the host and native cultural group of language, food, media use, norms, and traditions, thus identifying with both cultures.

Other such as Berry and Szapocznik, Kurtines, and Fernandez (as cited in Schwartz and

Unger, 2010) indicated biculturalism originated from the assimilation theory as a focus of the primary cultural behaviors. Due to the complexity of biculturalism, individual groups such as the Iu Mien, Hmong, Chinese, and Hispanics, who are traditionally from a low socioeconomic status, find it difficult to function within the process of acculturation and assimilation.

As noted previously, the cultural assimilation or melting pot theory, with its good intentions and purposes, did not address the learning needs of all individual but instead

26 often misdiagnosed minority students as being academically challenged or having academic disabilities. In recognition of this flaw, the cultural pluralism theory was developed. Cultural pluralism theory suggests individual ethnic minorities have different learning abilities and needs. Examples of teaching and learning pedagogies may include the considerations of Garner's eight multiple intelligences or Krashen's Second Language

Acquisition Theory as indicated by Bennett (1990) and Liow (2008).

In the wake of multicultural educational backlash, an example of such intervention strategy employed by both the Hispanic and Asian communities is the dual language immersion programs existent in the local elementary schools and illustrating the viability of functioning components of minority groups existing with the cultural pluralism theory concept. Furthermore, the dual language immersion instructional program has recently been the product of the local Hmong community as being the first program adopted by the local school district. Furthermore, the Iu Mien have developed a pre-premier curriculum to instruct high school students.

Groups such as the Chinese and Japanese have a more lengthy history in the

United States and, therefore, have instilled a strong and more effective program to promote and retain biculturalism through Saturday schools among other cultural activities; hence, unlike the Iu Mien, they are more successful. Biculturalism is viewed as a contribution for the betterment of the Iu Mien culture as indicated by Saelee’s (2005) master thesis in which 97% of Iu Mien parents and 95% of her respondents preferred biculturalism and viewed it as a positive cultural tool for the Iu Mien youth to be successful cultural negotiators while residing in the United States. The Iu Mien culture, without an official governmentally recognized language, faces an uphill battle; the ability

27 to coexist in both cultures with smooth transitions from primary to mainstream culture is minimal.

In recognition of the issues facing the Iu Mien community, a few community non- profit organizations have attempted to instill programs similar to the Chinese's Saturday school. Locally, organization such the United Iu Mien Incorporated of Sacramento (n.d.) have implemented programs such as the yearly youth conferences, elders social interaction group, and Mien language classes both at the community center and school district level in the form of afterschool classes. At the national level, the Iu Mien

American National Coalition (IMANC, 2013) addressed cultural and academic issues through its biannual leadership conference and fund raising efforts. At IMANC’s 2009 leadership conference, a significant amount of program time was allocated to issues relevant to Iu Mien ethnic identity, understanding of CST data results, and equity and accessibility of higher education. These sessions were presented by local Iu Mien community leaders, veteran k-12 Iu Mien educators, and local community college presidents. The main goal of the annual leadership conference is to address issues of the acculturation of its community members as well as to promote solidarity and create a collaborative functioning relationship between the elders, youth, and women (IMANC,

2013).

Multicultural Education

Multicultural education is historically traced to specific struggles such as the Civil

Rights movement in the United States (Sleeter & McLaren, 1995). Other contributing struggles include the strengthening women's movement of the early 1970s, and the passage of Title IX in 1972 was credited to the multicultural education movement. In a

28 cultural pluralist society, multicultural education prepares and educates individuals to function in diverse environments like that of the United States (Dilger, 1994). With parallels, Piland et al. (1999) referred to multicultural education and cultural pluralism as the studies of ethnicity, race, and gender awareness. Gay (2004) further alluded to multicultural education as “an instrument of educational equity and excellence” (p. 216).

Furthermore, Sonia Nieto (2004), a more recent advocate and theorist of multicultural education, described multicultural education as:

A process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students. It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, and gender, among others) that students, their communities, and teachers reflect. Multicultural education permeates the schools' curriculum and instructional strategies, as well as the interactions among teachers, students, and families, and the very way that schools conceptualize the nature of teaching and learning. Because it uses critical pedagogy as its underlying philosophy and focuses on knowledge, reflection, and action (praxis) as the basis for social change, multicultural education promotes democratic principles of social justice. (pp. 436-437)

The understanding of ethnic and cultural identity is critical to many immigrants, especially those from Southeast Asia such as the Iu Mien and Hmong. Multicultural education pedagogy, such as cultural responsive teaching and cooperative learning, fosters the opportunity for Iu Mien students to seek relevance, inclusiveness, and establish conformity resulting in the strengthening of their group and cultural identity

(Lenaghan, 2000). As reported previously in the unpublished master theses by Saelee

(2005) and Downing (2002), it is important to recognize culture and identity as being a critical part of the acculturation and assimilation process of Iu Mien people.

Furthermore, Zeichner (1996) argued that building upon students’ life experiences expands student knowledge and capacities and thus, promotes a feeling of belonging to

29 both the academic and cultural worlds (Lenaghan, 2000). This notion is particularly relevant to the Iu Mien students, for they are from a culture without an official language and have had to rely on life experiences, cultural experiences, and cultural identity to build comprehension of our mainstream curriculum in our k-12 classrooms. Moreover, multicultural education programs implement teaching pedagogy both culturally and linguistically relevant in a purposefully created multicultural environment, which have proven to support minority students (Bennett, 1990; Gay, 2004; Nieto, 2004; Sleeter &

McLaren, 1995), especially the Iu Mien students (Liow, 2008).

For the Iu Mien students, language and culture are inseparable; therefore, multicultural education has its relevance, as it emphasized and advocated for the retention of individual ethnic culture previously illustrated in Nieto's definition of multicultural education. Thus, multicultural education adopts and implements many components and teachings from Krashen (Language Acquisition Theory) (2003), Gardner’s Eight Multiple

Intelligences (1983), Cummins (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills, BICS and

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency, CALP) (1982), and Gay (2000) and Banks

(Cultural Responsive Teaching) (1991) complemented with a multicultural learning environment to promote academic achievement for minority students. As reported by

Liow (2008) in an unpublished thesis project, the Iu Mien middle school students made academic gains in multicultural education classrooms practicing the previously mentioned learning environment and curriculum. This is an indication that multicultural education is effective and comprises valid teaching pedagogies for Iu Mien students participating in the acculturation and assimilation process. Multicultural education pedagogy such as experiential learning, cooperative learning, and cultural responsive

30 teaching and learning with components of Language Acquisition Theory, Eight

Multiple Intelligences, Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS), Cognitive

Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), and Cultural Responsive Teaching embedded are appropriate for Iu Mien students (Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010).

Experiential learning. Experiential learning goes hand in hand with hands-on learning in the sense that both methods usually involve the use of manipulative and are teaching pedagogy and learning styles of multicultural classrooms. Opportunities to explore through the use of manipulative may range from that of micro-environment

(exploration of a small piece of ground) to the larger global environmental processes, ultimately fostering environmental stewardship. As illustrated by Haluza-DeLay’s

(2001) discussion in “Remystifying the City: Reawakening the Sense of Wonder in Our

Own Backyards,” stewardship can be fostered by awakening urban youth to their proximal relation of the natural world to their urban setting. In multicultural educational settings, experiential learning can be conducted through the observation of the schoolyard, blacktops, or school garden utilizing Gardner’s naturalistic intelligence.

Examples of projects include bird and insect census work, stream and pond sampling, exotic plant removal, plant classification, fractions, measurement, and the manipulation of integers.

Similarly, as in the case of the multicultural elementary school classroom environment in West Sacramento, California, students opportunistically conducted experiments and mathematical activities in their classrooms, parents’ garden plots, and their classroom plots. The students from diverse ethnic backgrounds classified plants and insects, performed a daily insect census, and monitored plant growth. They were, thus,

31 provided with exceptional learning opportunities to practice the scientific method as a logical method of inquiry and to foster multiple aspects of the mathematics content standards (Hammond & Liow, 1997). Students utilized the collected data to analyze and formulate mathematical diagrams and figures, thus providing opportunities for students to learn through multiple intelligences such as bodily-kinesthetic, visual-spatial, interpersonal, verbal-linguistic, and logical-mathematical. Furthermore, Basile (1997) stated that experiential learning activities have the capacity to, “kindle students’ curiosity and wonder about the interdependent world of nature of which they are a part, and to foster their responsibility toward the environment” (p. 161), thus fostering stewardship.

In a multicultural education classroom, participants are offered the opportunity to practice Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences, as reported in “Learning and Teaching through the Naturalist Intelligence” (Meyer, 1998), citing Gardner’s multiple intelligences. It stated that a naturalist is a person who recognizes flora and fauna and has intuitive ability to productively make distinctions in the natural world. Experiential learning provides opportunities for students to acquire academic comprehension through multiple modalities, pedagogies, and paradigms such as Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences, and fine-tune their language acquisition skills.

Naturalistic intelligence, as reported by Gardner (1983), pertains to those having greater sensitivity to nature and their place within it, the ability to nurture and grow things, and greater ease in caring for, taming, and interacting with animals. They are also good at recognizing and classifying different species. “Naturalists” learn best when the subject involves collecting and analyzing or is closely related to something prominent in nature; they also do not enjoy learning unfamiliar or seemingly useless subjects with little

32 or no connections to nature. Therefore, Gardner's naturalistic intelligence has relevance to the Iu Mien culture due to their agrarian culture and learning style.

Additionally, as reported by Portal and Sampson (2000), utilizing manipulative proves to be an effective tool in the classroom by providing students a different perspective and opportunity to learn kinesthetically. Portal and Sampson further stated:

Manipulative can sometimes open the eyes of a student to math concepts previously not understood because of that student’s learning style. In mathematics, the use of the graphing calculator has been shown to improve motivation. Finally, students tend to enjoy hands-on learning because they are able to be actively involved in solving various problems. (p. 39)

In addition, the use of manipulative and real-life applications, as well as hands-on and experiential learning, often make learning more enjoyable for the students, according to Middleton (as cited in Portal & Sampson, 2000), which are components or teaching and learning in a multicultural education environment (Liow, 2008). It also provides ample opportunities for students to engage in problem-solving enrichment leading to the application of classroom learning to practical learning. Furthermore, hands-on or experiential learning activities often lead to the promotion of cooperative group work promoting cooperative learning (Portal & Sampson, 2000). More importantly, cooperative group work in the classroom provides opportunities for students to learn how science and mathematics are applicable to daily living and the added value to future education and employment. Group work fosters student development and understanding of the coexistence of the micro and macro environmental issues relevant to their lives, thus promoting environmental ownership and stewardship.

Cooperative learning. As previously discussed, multicultural education curriculum incorporating Howard Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences and Stephen

Krashen’s five levels of language acquisition theory may potentially contribute to students’ academic learning in the form of cooperative learning. As reported by Pajkos and Klein-Collins (2001), cooperative learning allows students to use manipulative to foster academic learning via Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences. Cooperative learning provides students the opportunity to learn and apply their multiple intelligences, such as linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, and interpersonal intelligences. Cooperative learning is applicable to multiple disciplines including mathematics and science.

Furthermore, research by Kuntz and McLaughlin (2001), in “A Comparison of

Cooperative Learning and Small Group Individualized Instruction for Math in a Self-

Contained Classroom for Elementary Students with Disabilities,” indicated that work produced by students with mild learning disabilities in mathematics was more accurate when cooperative learning, as opposed to individual learning, was utilized. As suggested by Burpo and Wheeler (1994), effective cooperative learning strategies grant students the opportunity to share ideas, experiences, and backgrounds with one another while they study various topics in the standard curriculum. “When children work together to discover, create, solve problems, observe, and record data, they also learn how to communicate and cooperate with each other” (Burpo & Wheeler, 1994, p. 76).

Additionally, cooperative learning is a teaching approach that provides opportunities for children to socially interact as they work toward a common goal (Portal

& Sampson, 2000; Schniederwind & Davidson, 1987; Stoner, 2004). In a multicultural learning environment where students are placed in cooperative groups, the students are given opportunities to question, discuss ideas, make mistakes, learn to listen to others’ ideas, offer constructive criticism, summarize their discoveries in writing, and give

34 positive and correct feedback (Ding, Li, Kulm, & Piccolo, 2007). As students converse with each other cooperatively, individual leadership skill becomes more apparent and knowledge of leadership skills will help students in social situations later in life (Burpo & Wheeler, 1994).

Furthermore, Johnson and Johnson (1986) discussed the implications of academic achievement through a cooperative group learning process that provides opportunities for students to analyze their work and enhance their quality of learning. They classified the pedagogical concept as being one of the four basic elements of successful cooperative learning strategies. For example, students could work cooperatively in a group to solve complex word problems or write a “how-to-solve fractions” book in elementary or middle school. As reported by Dossey, McCrone, Giordano, and Weir (2002) and

Brahier (2000), cooperative group learning is a powerful learning pedagogy that elicits creative cognitive thought processes and ideas from students resulting in a win-win situation for all students. Furthermore, study by Kroeger and Kouche (2006) on a cooperative group learning mathematics intervention program called peer-assisted learning indicated this pedagogy increases engagement and positive responses in content areas that have traditionally been challenging for middle school students and those identified with mathematics learning disabilities. Guyton (1991) further stated cooperative work helped students increase achievement and long-term retention, develop higher-order processing skills, improve psychological health, increase like and respect for other students, and increase self-esteem.

In a multicultural classroom, the effectiveness of cooperative group learning is further evidenced by Dekker and Elshot-Mohr’s (2004) study titled “Teacher

Interventions Aimed At Mathematical Level Raising During Collaborative Learning” during which they used two types of intervention studies: interaction between the students and the mathematical content of the tasks. Their study indicated both conditions allowed students to raise their mathematical level on the subject matter of mathematical transformations. Furthermore, their analysis indicated interventions focused on students’ interactions were more effective in terms of students’ learning outcomes. Gibbon (2002) further stated that children working cooperatively with others allow students to learn and perform beyond what they are able to achieve alone. Additionally, Nattiv (1994), in

“Helping Behaviors and Math Achievement Gain of Students Using Cooperative

Learning,” concluded, “it would be beneficial to teach students in cooperative learning groups how to help one another and how to ask for and received help” (p. 296). For ELL students, it provides the opportunity for them to practice new language acquisition, social, and conversational skills. The positive implication of cooperative learning is illustrated by Vygotsky (as cited in Gibbon, 2002):

Vygotsky sees the development of cognition itself also as the result of participation with others in goal-directed activity. A child initially engages in joint thinking with others through the talk that accompanies problem solving and social participation in everyday activity. (p. 8)

In a multicultural education setting, cooperative learning incorporates multiple learning intelligences, as demonstrated by Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences.

Cooperative learning provides students opportunities to give and take constructive criticism, develop leadership skills, foster a healthy learning community, experience creative cognitive thought processes, analyze their work, enhance their quality of learning, discover, create, solve problems, observe and record data, develop effective

36 communication and cooperative skills, and, most importantly, share personal experiences and backgrounds with one another.

Culturally responsive teaching. The landmark court case, U.S. Supreme Court case Lau v. Nicholas in 1974 where the court ruled that Title VI of the Civil Rights Act was violated for Chinese-speaking students (Nieto, 2004), thus mandates the educational institution to reexamine its instructional practices. Culturally responsive teaching is well written and validated as an appropriate multicultural education teaching pedagogy.

Culturally responsive teaching strategy implemented in a multicultural curriculum classroom not only met the needs of students and provided equal educational opportunity for our diverse student body, but does so for the Iu Mien (Liow, 2008).

For many educators of color, culturally responsive teaching is well used within their culture as well as in the multicultural education setting. But for mainstream culture educators, this may mitigate the academic instruction for content comprehension for non- mainstream students. Based on the statistics provided by Allison and Rehm (2007), by

2040, the number of students whose primary language is other than English will increase by approximately 40%. The U.S. Bureau of Census 2000 (as cited in Allison & Rehm,

2007) indicated that if the trend continues, “almost half of our nation’s school population will consist of members from non-Caucasian cultural groups by 2020” (p. 12). As evidenced by the preceding statistic, our country is becoming increasingly diverse.

Students may discover that mathematics is a common language spoken by all cultures and thus “allows children to view and appreciate the similarities and differences that exist among all people” (Adeeb, Bosnic, & Terrell, 1999, p. 32).

Culturally responsive teaching’s effectiveness is rooted in numerous culturally relevant instructional approaches (such as culturally compatible, culturally congruent, culturally appropriate, culturally responsive, or culturally relevant instruction), to accommodate the educational needs of diverse ethnic students (Nieto, 2004). As multicultural education pedagogy, culturally responsive teaching allows effective instructors to value and meet individual students’ academic levels, thus applying

Vogotsky’s ZPD learning approach. The approach provides the child opportunities to follow an adult's example and guidance, thus gradually developing the ability to do certain tasks without help or assistance. Additionally, research indicated students are capable of learning mathematics, science, and other disciplines on a daily basis provided the lesson contained some cultural relevance to the students.

Research also indicated that a multicultural integrated and ethnocentric curriculum has the capacity to foster academic learning across disciplines. The approach ensures the students have some reference and relevancy to practical classroom instruction, thus providing equitable access to academic learning (Ganesh & Middleton,

2008; Tobias, 1992). Furthermore, culturally responsive teaching provides the teacher opportunities to incorporate students’ cultural backgrounds, ethnic histories, and current social interests into standards-based curricula. Banks (1991) and Gay (2000) indicated five components of standards-based culturally responsive educational instruction, or

CRSBI, (caring, communication, curriculum, instruction, and a focus on California content standards). The five components have the potential to explicitly address the underlying racial and cultural disconnect between educators and minority students (Jones,

2007).

Caring, feeling, and acceptance provide opportunities for students to feel safe, thus breaking down barriers and allowing students to take necessary risks in the learning environment (Alder, 2002; Klingner, Artiles, & Barletta, 2006; Nieto, 2004; Xu &

Drame, 2008). This notion includes the traditional paradigms of communication between educators and parents in the form of newsletters and phone calls home to update progress, give current events, or report unruly behavior. In a multicultural learning environment, effective direct parent communication is critical. Furthermore, Jones (2007) indicated,

“communication involves how teachers relate with families as well as how instruction is communicated to the students” (p. 15). Jones further indicated that the communication of instruction is extremely important and widely misunderstood.

Culturally responsive curricula may be in the form of recognizing the contributions ethnic minorities have made to the current bank of knowledge. As indicated by Gay (2000), effective culturally responsive teaching requires deliberate incorporation of specific aspects of different ethnic groups’ cultural systems into the instructional process so positive impacts on student achievement are fostered. Lastly,

CRSBI’s fifth component is standards-based instruction. This component ensures all daily and minute instruction is of state standards-based curriculum as best illustrated in

Jones (2007) who stated, “infusing the culturally relevant aspects of learning to strong, standards-based instruction, with continuous assessments producing data that is used to improve that instruction, is the element of CRSBI that will drastically increase student achievement” (p. 17).

Culturally responsive instruction requires the educator to respect students’ differences while utilizing multiple teaching and learning resources (Lee, 2007; Lee,

Rosenfeld, Mendenhall, Rivers, & Tynes, 2004), thus fostering equitable and accelerated learning opportunities for all students, especially students of color (Banks,

2004). As reported by Gay (2000), the preceding approach is empowering for students whose culture and language may not be so visible in the classroom, such as the Iu Mien culture. A cultural responsive educator is most “effective when that educator acquires a broad and in-depth understanding of students’ cultural and linguistic history and out of school experiences” (Risko & Walker-Dalhouse, 2007, p. 98).

Our country’s educational institution has experienced the influx of an ever- increasingly diverse student body; education practices, as they used to be, continually prove to be ineffective. Numerous research documents have indicated that educator and the educational institution must approach education with a different paradigm to provide adequate education for the children. One effective and appropriate strategy is through culturally responsive teaching. Culturally responsive teaching is the pedagogy that incorporates students’ language, culture, and experiences within the state’s content standards to foster a meaningful and relevant education for the diverse student body

(Banks, 2004; Gay, 2000; Nieto, 2004). For the Iu Miens, these theories, learning, and teaching pedagogy are appropriate, relevant, and critical to their academic achievements as well as the maintenance of their cultural and ethnic identities.

Summary

The Iu Mien people from the mountainous terrain of Southeast Asia have been in the United States for approximately 30 years and are gradually experiencing the effects of acculturation and assimilation process. Literature indicates the acculturation process occurs when two cultures come into contact with each other and the minority culture

40 adapts to the host culture, but retains elements of their own culture. Conversely, assimilation is the process when the guest culture forgoes its cultural norms and values and becomes fully immersed in the host culture, thus, becoming fully assimilated.

Assimilation is not preferred by ethnic minority cultures, especially the Southeast Asian such as the Iu Mien and Hmong. As indicated in Saelee (2005) and Lee and Green

(2010) studies, the Iu Mien and Hmong preferred the integration (biculturalism) level of acculturation based upon Berry's East Asian Acculturation Measurement.

Biculturalism, as defined by Lee and Leu (2006), Berry and Sam (1997), and

Berry (1990), is the integration of the host and native cultural groups’ language, food, media use, norms, and traditions; thus, a person identifies with both cultures.

Biculturalism and integration offer opportunities for minority cultural groups to maintain their cultural and ethnic identities while navigating the cultural norms of the host culture.

In an academic sense, the children participating in biculturalism have the opportunity to learn and excel in a multicultural environment. Therefore, they participate and are being immersed in multicultural teaching and learning pedagogy. Furthermore, multicultural education exposed these students to the second language learning theories such as those of Krashen (2003) and Cummins (1982). In addition, multicultural education immerses the students in culturally responsive teaching and learning pedagogy. Furthermore, they are encouraged and provided the opportunity to utilize one or more of Gardner's (1983) eight multiple intelligences.

For the Iu Miens, the theories of Krashen, Cummins, and Gardner, as well as the culturally responsive teaching and learning pedagogy of Banks and Gay, are appropriate and relevant; thus, is critical to the academic achievement (Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010)

41 of the Iu Mien students as well as to the maintenance of their cultural and ethnic identities.

Chapter 3: Methodology

Introduction

The purpose of this quantitative research study is to provide understanding and explore the implications of the acculturation and assimilation process of the Iu Mien students attending Iu Mien Community High School (IMCHS), a pseudonym, located in

Northern California. A self-rating Likert-type scale survey was disseminated to 27 out of

65 volunteer high school students assessing their acculturation levels. Additionally, to address instructional practices, a Likert-type self-rating frequency-of-use scale was disseminated all 90 members of the classroom teachers to elicit classroom pedagogies relevant to multicultural education. Of the 90 members 19 agreed to participate thus appropriate data were collected from these individuals.

This quantitative research study focused on the Iu Mien students of IMCHS from all four grade levels. Quantitative research “is a type of educational research in which the researcher decides what to study; asks specific, narrow questions; collects quantifiable data from participants; analyzes these numbers using statistics and conducts the inquiry in an unbiased, objective manner” (Creswell, 2008, p. 46). Due to the nature of quantitative data collection, a self-rating survey disseminated to the teaching staff members will foster understanding of the instructional practices at the site thus addressing the appropriateness of instructional practices in assisting the Iu Mien students.

This quantitative study was based on data from the participants at the school. A

Likert-type self-rating surveys acculturation assessment tool, EAAM (Barry, 2001), was used to assess and identify Iu Mien students’ acculturation levels. Furthermore, a

43 comparative analysis was conducted for possible connections. Specifically, a descriptive analysis research method was employed to analyze available academic statistical data for possible connection between the students' acculturation levels and academic achievement. To address the researcher's second question, a frequency-of-use

Likert-type self-rating scale survey was disseminated to the teaching staff to assess instructional practices at the high school and provide both breadth and depth to the understanding of the topic. Additionally, the Level of Multicultural Education (Nieto,

2004) model was used to identify and gauge the level of multicultural environment the institution provides to the racial, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse students at IMCHS. This chapter concludes with a brief summary of the protection of the participants’ rights through the IRB certification process.

Research Design and Rational

The research of the acculturation and assimilation process was conducted in the form of quantitative research. A quantitative study allows the researcher to collect quantifiable and statistical data for statistical analysis of number data to answer a specific research question or questions (Creswell, 2008). Thus the descriptive analysis of available academic data and students' acculturation levels allowed the researcher to discover any possible linkages between the two variables.

Therefore, this quantitative method research study employed a self-rating survey

(EAAM) design approach to provide a deeper understanding and explore the implication of the acculturation and assimilation process of the Iu Mien students attending Iu Mien

Community High School (IMCHS) located in Northern California. Additionally, a

Likert-type self-rating frequency-of-use scale was implemented to elicit classroom pedagogies relevant to multicultural education.

This quantitative research design approach was appropriate for this particular study due to the quantitative design's ability to allow for an understanding of the research questions. Creswell (2008) indicated quantitative research fostered the ability for researchers to collect quantifiable and statistical data for analysis to answer a specific research question or questions. Thus, this research design method provides the opportunity to conduct a self-rating survey/questionnaire through both survey and descriptive designs to answer the research questions relevant to the Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation process.

Population and Site Description

The Iu Mien (unique people) is an indigenous group of people forced to migrate from northern China into various countries in Southeast Asia namely into Vietnam,

Thailand, and Laos. As recently as 1975, the Iu Mien began arriving in the United States due to their involvement as CIA informants as refugees. The implication of the Iu Mien fighting alongside CIA agents and the Hmong in the Secret War of Laos created resentment for the Pathos Lao Government. The fall of Laos to the socialist view and ideology of current communist Laos resulted in the government’s persecution of the Iu

Mien for their oppositional involvement. As refugees, they came to the United States.

The majority of the Iu Mien resides in Northern California, specifically in Garden valley.

Thus, the participants were volunteer IMCHS students from the Iu Mien community of

Garden City Valley (pseudonym). The participants included freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors residing in the jurisdiction of Garden City Unified School District.

These participants help provide a deeper understanding of the research question and strategies for cultural preservation. To further understand and answer the research question, a frequency-of-use Likert-type scale questionnaire solicited teaching practices from the volunteer teaching staff members.

Sample

The student participants were all Iu Mien High School students attending the Iu

Mien Community High School (IMCHS) and the adult participants were the instructional staff. The sample consisted of 65 Iu Mien students classified into two different categories as English learners (15 students) and fluent English proficient (50 students) which comprised 5.8% of the student body (CDE, 2013). English learner (EL) is defined by CDE (2013) as:

A K-12 student who, based on objective assessment, has not developed listening, speaking, reading, and writing proficiencies in English sufficient for participation in the regular school program. These students are sometimes referred to as Limited English Proficient (LEP). The process for identification is described in the California English Language Development Test (CELDT). (p. 43)

Fluent-English-Proficient (FLP) students are those students whose primary language is other than English and are classified as proficient in listening, speaking, reading, and writing based upon the CELDT. A final sampling of participants was based upon the number of volunteer respondents. California Department of Education (2013) reported

98 Iu Mien students, but the site administrator indicated that only 65 students were enrolled. Although there were 65 Iu Mien students, 42% (27) agreed and were granted permission from their parents to participate in the study.

To address the instructional practice research question, the classroom teachers were solicited as volunteers to participate in a Likert-type frequency-of-use scale relevant

46 to multicultural instructional pedagogies. The comprehensive high school classroom instructional staff comprised 90 members. The male to female teacher ratio was 49 to 41 and the ratio of minority and white teachers is 18 to 72 respectively. A letter of introduction and invitation was disseminated during the staff meeting (see Appendix A).

The participants were all those who returned the signed volunteer consent form (see

Appendix B).

Site Description

Upon resettlement in the United States, the majority of the Iu Mien seemed to prefer and be attracted to Northern California's Central Valley. Initially, in the early to late-1980s, the Iu Mien tended to reside in group clusters for community security. They congregated and resided mainly in the Garden City Valley. As the individual family became more adaptive and acculturated, they began to venture out to the outlying suburb cities, thus becoming homeowners and claiming a small piece of the American dream they sought as refugees. Hence, it is the ideal community to conduct this research study in an attempt to understand the acculturation and assimilation process of the Iu Mien people.

IMCHS is a comprehensive high school located in Northern California enrolling

1130 students in the following ethnic breakdown: Black or African American – 118

(10.4%), American Indian or Alaska Native – 10 (0.009%), Asian – 361 (31.9%),

Filipino – 8 (0.007%), Hispanic or Latino – 455 (40.3%), Native Hawaiian or Pacific

Islander – 12 (1%), White – 102 (9%), and Two or More Races – 64 (6%). There were

986 socioeconomically Disadvantaged, 599 English Learners, and 145 Students with

Disabilities. A frequency-of-use Likert-type scale was administered to the instructional

47 staff participants. The comprehensive high school classroom instructional staff comprised 90 members, 54% males and 46% females. The male to female teacher ratios was 49 to 41 and the ratio of minority and white teachers was 18 to 72 with 20% to 80%, respectively. The majority of the classroom instructional staff taught the core curriculum such as math, science, social studies, and English. The remaining teachers taught electives, art, ROTC, choir, art, PE, drama, and RSP.

Site Access

The most commonly known site access issue was the skepticism by the community regarding the intent and purpose of the research study by individuals. Access to the Iu Mien students of one particular high school of Garden City Valley Unified was dealt with by building trust between the researcher and the community members through the non-profit organization such as the United Iu Mien Incorporated. The research site is located a few miles from the State Capital building, California State University, Garden

City, multiple community colleges, and in proximity to UC Davis. It is generally considered to be between midtown and south Garden City.

An integral relationship was developed with the United Iu Mien Incorporated

(UIM), Iu Mien American National Coalition (IMANC), and Iu Mien Cultural

Foundation (IMCF). Furthermore, the researcher was the Program Chairperson of

IMANC and now the President and has been an active participant of UIM and IMCF’s yearly cultural events for multiple years. In addition, the students’ families were affiliated with either one or more of the non-profit organization in one form or another.

Furthermore, the researcher identified and established a relationship with one of the gate keepers (vice principal of curriculum), as indicated by Creswell (2007) and Maxwell

(2005) as being a critical component of negotiating, gaining, and maintaining access to the identified research site. Through the researcher’s affiliation with the community groups, the site of this research study was of convenience. Other issues such as human rights subject protection was assured by providing the successful completion of the IRB certification and strictly adhered to. As indicated by Ravid (2010), participants were continuously informed regarding the intent and purpose of this research study and that their participation was private and they would not receive any type of compensations.

Research Methods

This quantitative research study was conducted in a descriptive analysis approach to provide a greater understanding of the problem facing the Iu Mien community in the acculturation process. A self-rating questionnaire approach (EAAM) was implemented to examine for a possible connection between students’ acculturation levels and academic achievement as well as to assess the level of acculturation of the Iu Mien high school students. Furthermore, an additional self-rating Likert-type scale questionnaire was administered to the volunteer staff members to address the research question relevant to appropriate instruction practices with regard to multicultural education. Thus, the following research questions provide both breadth and depth of the problem facing the Iu

Mien community:

1. What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic

success of the Iu Mien high school students?

2. What are the appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high

school students?

For this specific research study’s data collection methods, two self-rating Likert-type scale surveys (EAAM and Teaching Practices) were the primary means of data collection.

The data collection process was conducted over a three month period consisted of three phases beginning with the survey (EAAM) and concluding identifying the school’s level of multicultural education. The first phase of data collection began May 23, 2012 and concluded on June 30, 2012. The second phase of data collection began with the solicitation of staff volunteers to address the teaching practices at the site. This phase began simultaneously with the EAAM survey beginning May 23, 2012 and concluded

June 30, 2012. The survey collection process was extended to no later than August 10,

2012 for participants who requested the option of mailing their survey to the researcher.

Table 1 illustrates the data collection process.

Table 1

Data Collection Schedule

Phase Participant Group Data Collection Month Data Analysis Methods IMCHS students Survey May 23, June 30, 2012 grades 9, 10, 11, and East Asian Acculturation 2012 I 12 Measure (EAAM) Self-Rating Likert scale relevant to instruction practices

IMCHS Teaching Survey May 23, June 30, 2012 Staff 2012 II Robinson’s (2010), Survey of School’s and Educator’s Culturally Responsive Beliefs and Practices.

Iu Mien Student Survey

The acculturation process survey instrument was adopted from Barry’s (2001)

East Asian Acculturation Measurement (EAAM) to question 42% (N=27) Iu Mien high school students from IMCHS in Garden Valley located in Northern California regarding their acculturation processes within the four categories of the EAAM. The categories include assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. The subjects were asked to respond to a series of leveled agreement questions, a 7-point Likert-type scale

(Ravid, 2011) as follows:

1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Disagree somewhat 4 = Neutral 5 = Agree somewhat 6 = Agree 7 = Agree strongly

Individual subjects were identified through convenience sampling based upon public data from the school district and a local non-profit organization. Identified individuals received a personal letter of invitation at IMCHS requesting their volunteer participation with a one-week window to respond as to whether they were interested in participating before the survey was collected. Specifically, a self-rating survey/questionnaire was the primary data collection instruments. Utilizing existing data for analysis is considered by Creswell (2007) as descriptive analysis methodology.

East Asian Acculturation Measure

The East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM) (Barry, 2001) is an instrument capable of assessing acculturation patterns of various ethnic groups classified as East

Asians. Lee and Green (2010) and Ravid (2010) reported it to have a validity of 0.77, demonstrating a high level of validity, thus explaining the choice of instrument for this

51 particular research study. The result of this particular assessment tool yielded quantitative data used to inform the Iu Mien community and education institutions relevant to their acculturation process. The quantitative research data are in the form of descriptive statistics and, per Ravid (2010), descriptive statistics allow the researcher to classify, organize, and summarize numerical data on the observation of groups of people.

The EAAM was used primarily to assess the Iu Mien acculturation patterns based on four acculturation scales: assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization (see

Appendix C). Each item consisted of a self-rating Likert-type scale from 1-7 (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=somewhat disagree, 4=neutral, 5=somewhat agree, 6=agree, and

7=strongly agree). The assimilation component consisted of eight questions while the separation consisted of seven questions. Five questions comprised the third component, integration, and nine questions comprised the final scale, marginalization.

The EAAM instrument was used to develop a more in-depth understanding of the mindset of the IMCHS students with regard to the acculturation process as it relates to the cultural preservation of the Iu Mien people. Administration of the EAAM to the participants was conducted at their school of study. Specifically, data were collected during school hours consisting of four individual sessions beginning with the freshman class and concluding with the senior class. Participants were notified by personal phone call or by a letter of invitation a few weeks prior to the initial data collection date.

Teaching Staff Survey

The staff survey design employed the 5-point self-rating Likert-type frequency- of-use scale beginning with two questions garnering the total years of teaching experience and years of experience at IMCHS (see Appendix D). The Likert-type scale

52 survey was composed of five possible responses (Robinson, 2010): 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), 4 (strongly agree), and 5 (no basis to respond).

Teachers responded to questions relevant to three possible instructional practices. A comparative analysis of the resulting data will foster alignment of instructional practices to the practices of multicultural pedagogy and its environment, thus addressing the appropriate instructional practices research question.

Ethical Considerations

As this research study involved human subjects, the researcher sought and completed the Institutional Review Board (IRB) process. This process assured all ethical principles and IRB protocols were followed to protect the human subjects. The proposed research followed all IRB guidelines, including but not limited to the observation of openness of data, availability of individual access and correction, data collection has limitations and relevance, use of limitation, disclosure of limitation, and securely guarding personal data. The researcher understands individual privacy was of the utmost important and was not breeched (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). Additionally, the data collected does not misrepresent nor any harm or distress the subjects. Furthermore, data interpretation is objective and not bias thus only include the facts. Never in any way did the researcher put the subjects in compromising positions that could potentially be dangerous.

Chapter 4: Findings and Results

Introduction

Iu Mien, Mien, Iu Mienh, Yao Tzu, Yao, Zao, and Dao are used interchangeable both in the micro and macro communities as well as in the education community. In parts of Southeast Asia such as Thailand, Laos, Northern Vietnam, and China, Yao Tzu,

Yao, Zao, Dao, or Iu Mien are used in reference to the ethnic Iu Mien, whereas in the

United States, Iu Mien or Mien or Iu Mienh are more common. Regardless of the geographical region in which the Iu Mien reside, the education history of Iu Mien remains the same, that is, little or no education. Education and literacy are obtained by the few Sharmen to conduct religious ceremonies in Chinese characters but minimally at most.

Therefore, it is important to study the educational attainment of the Iu Mien, specifically those of high school-aged students. It is also important to understand the connection between these students’ acculturation processes and their academic achievement. Equally important is the instructional pedagogy implemented to instruct these students, particularly ones that are relevant to multicultural education. Based on multiple studies (Banks, 2004; Bennett, 1990; Nieto, 2004; Roche, 1997; Sleeter &

McLaren, 1995), academic success of minority students is dependent upon the educators’ understanding and knowledge of the students’ cultural background. For the Iu Mien, this is particularly critical for they are from a preliterate self-sustaining farming society.

Roche (1997) further emphasized that this is not prevalent in the educational classroom citing Trueba, Cheng, and Ima’s study titled “Myth or Reality; Adaptive Strategies of

Asian Americans in California.” Therefore, this chapter is divided into two categories; one addresses the classroom pedagogy and the other examines the linkage between students’ acculturation levels and academic achievement of Iu Mien Community High

School students. Therefore EAAM (Barry, 2001) was implemented to address the first dissertation question, “What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic success of Iu Mien high school students?” A Likert-type survey by Robinson

(2010) was modified to address the second research question, “What are the appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school students?”

The first research question surveyed 27 of the 65 (N = 27) volunteer Iu Mien students at Iu Mien Community High School (IMCHS) assessing their acculturation levels. A comparative analysis was then conducted to examine a possible linkage between their acculturation levels and their academic achievement during the 2011-2012 school year. The second research question adapts an existing Likert-type self-rating survey (Robinson, 2007) to address classroom instructional practices and school culture relevant to multicultural education. For this particular survey, 19 out of 90 instructional staff members participated.

Findings

In addressing the first question, it was necessary to survey the Iu Mien students to assess their acculturation level using the East Asian Assessment Measure (EAAM) by

Barry (2001). The assessment measured students’ acculturation levels in the following categories: Assimilation, Separation, Integration, and Marginalization. A comparative analysis was then conducted for a possible linkage between individual acculturation levels and their academic levels based upon their 2011-2012 cumulative mean GPA.

Findings to Research Question One: What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic success of the Iu Mien high school students?

The self-rating survey asked the subjects to respond to a series of leveled self- rating agreement questions based on a 7-point Likert-type scale. A score of one indicates a strong disagreement, two indicates a disagreement, three indicates a somewhat disagreement, four indicates neutral, five indicates somewhat agree, six indicates agreement, and seven indicates a strong agreement response. Assimilation questions are scattered throughout the survey to prevent categorical bias in individual responses. As indicated in Table 2, assimilation questions are 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 24, and 27. Table 2 displays the means and standard deviation of individual questions for n=27 respondents.

Acculturation level and cumulative academic GPA.

Individual acculturation question data. Assimilation, as reported by Santisteban and Mitrani (2005) in Acculturation: Advance in Theory, Measurement, and Applied

Research, “refers to accepting the value and beliefs of the new culture while rejecting the original culture” (pp. 121-135). In addressing the acculturation level of the Iu Mien students, question one asked the students to respond to the written language they felt most proficient (n=27, M=6.7), and a standard of deviation of 0.4 indicated a high level of agreement. A classification criterion corresponds with the self-rating scale where a rating of 4.8 or higher would indicate an agreement to a particular question or agreement to a certain category. The data indicate by consistent agreement response, their preferential language spoken and written at home is English. The standard deviations for the two questions are 1.1 and 0.9, respectively. Conversely, the mean of 1.5 (strongly disagree) and standard deviation of 1.1 indicated these students get along better with

Asian rather than American students regardless of their preferential written or spoken language. Additionally, the data indicate the Iu Mien students are less comfortable socializing with American students (M=3.3 and SD=1.1) and most of their friends are non-Americans (M=3.3 and SD = 1.6) (see Table 2).

Table 2

Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items

Question Acculturation Item M SD Assimilation 1 I write better in English than in my native language. 6.7 0.4 5 When I am in my apartment/house, I typically speak English. 5.3 1.1 9 If I were asked to write poetry. I would prefer to write it in English. 6.4 0.9 13 I get along better with Americans than Asian 1.5 1.1 17 I feel that American understands me better than Asians do. 3.3 1.3 21 I find it easier to communicate my feelings to Americans than to Asians. 3.3 24 I feel more comfortable socializing with Americans than I do with 3.3 1.1 Asians. 27 Most of my friends at work/school are American. 3.3 1.6 Separation 2 Most of the music I listen to is Asian. 2.8 2.1 6 My closest friends are Asian. 5.6 1.4 10 I prefer going to social gatherings where most of the people are Asian. 4.4 1.2 14 I feel that Asians treat me as an equal more so than Americans do. 3.8 1.3 18 I would prefer to go out on a date with an Asian than with an American. 4.3 1.6 22 I feel more relaxed when I am with an Asian than when I am with an 3.9 1.2 American 25 Asians should not date non-Asians. 2.4 1.4 Integration 3 I tell jokes both in English and in my native language. 3.7 1.8 7 I think as well in English as I do in my native language. 4.3 1.6 11 I have both American and Asian friends. 6.3 1.0 15 I feel that both Asians and Americans value me. 6.6 1.0 19 I feel very comfortable around both Americans and Asians. 6.0 1.4

Table 2 (continued)

Question Acculturation Item M SD Marginalization 4 Generally, I find it difficult to socialize with anybody, Asian or 2.8 2.0 American. 8 I sometimes feel that neither Americans nor Asians like me. 2.3 1.4 12 There are times when I think no one understands me. 4.1 0.9 16 I sometimes find it hard to communicate with people. 3.3 1.7 20 I sometimes find it hard to make friends. 2.6 1.4 23 Sometimes I feel that Asians and Americans do not accept me. 2.3 1.3 26 Sometimes I find it hard to trust both Americans and Asians. 3.4 1.7 28 I find that both Asians and Americans often have difficulty 2.9 1.6 understanding me. 29 I find that I do not feel comfortable when I am with other people. 2.9 1.8 Note: n=27 East Asian Iu Mien High School Students. M = means, SD = Standard Deviation. High school students were informed that the study is only of Iu Mien descent attending this specific high school.

An individual or group is considered separated when they become fully immersed in their primary culture and refuse to participate in the mainstream culture (Santisteban &

Mitrani, 2005). Table 2 indicates the majority of the respondents (n=27) felt either neutral, somewhat disagreed, or disagreed, except for question six to which they agreed somewhat that they were closer to their Asian friends with regard to the category of separation. This category also indicates the Iu Mien students disagreed that they mostly listened to Asian music (M = 2.8 and SD of 2.1). Conversely, they felt their closest friends were Asian (M=5.6), but they felt neutral with regard to social gathering preferences at which most of the people were Asian. Additionally, the students somewhat disagreed about Asians treating them as equals more so than Americans did

(M=3.8 and SD=1.3). They were neutral with regard to dating preferences (M=4.3 and

SD=1.6). Surprisingly, they felt somewhat relaxed with Asians more than Americans

(M=3.9 and SD=1.2) rather than feeling comfortably relaxed as one would expect of people being integrated. The data also indicate they disagreed that Asians should not

58 date non-Asians (M=2.4 and SD=1.4), thus implying their flexibility and tolerance of inter-culture dating while rating themselves as being culturally separated.

Integration, according to Santisteban and Mitrani (2005) is defined as an individual or group retaining its primary culture but accepting and integrating cultural beliefs and values from the mainstream culture. Similarly, Nieto (2004), Bennett (1990), and Sleeter and McLaren (1995) referred to integration as biculturalism. In this category, the students reported they were somewhat in disagreement (M=3.7 and SD=1.8) when asked if they told jokes both in English and in their native language. With respect to the ability to think equally well in both languages, the students rated themselves as being neutral (M=4.3 and SD=1.6). The Iu Mien high school students indicated they were more integrated as having both American and Asian friends (M=6.3 and SD=1.0).

Additionally, their feelings of validation by both groups (M=6.0 and SD=1.0) further indicated they regarded themselves as being integrated. Furthermore, they reported feeling very comfortable around both Americans and Asians (M=6.0 and SD=1.4).

According to Barry (2001) and Santisteban and Mitrani (2005), marginalization is referred to as exhibiting the lack of identification with any culture. The individual survey questions from this category indicated the high school Iu Mien students rated themselves as being not marginalized; thus, the nine marginalization questions have means ranging from 2.3 to 4.1 based on the following criteria: disagreement 2.0-2.9, somewhat disagree

(3.0-3.9), and neutral (4.0-4.9). Students responded with a slightly higher means of 4.1 and standard deviation of 0.9 when asked if there were times when they thought no one understood them. Furthermore, they also found it hard sometimes to communicate with people in general. Thus, an examination of categorical means and standards of deviation

59 will provide further insight into and understanding of the Iu Mien students’ acculturation levels.

Categorical acculturation. The categorical data were necessary to specifically identify general acculturation levels by calculating a categorical means and standard deviation. In the category of assimilation, there were eight questions and seven possible points per question, thus N=56. Within the separation category, there were seven question also with a possible of seven points per question, thus N=49. The third category, integration, consisted of five questions with seven possible points per question, thus N=35. The last category, marginalization, consisted of nine questions with a possible seven points per question, thus N=63.

Assimilation. The categorical data in Table 3 reflect the following criteria: a means of 1 indicated a strong disagreement, 2 indicated disagreement, 3 indicated a feeling of somewhat disagree, 4 corresponded with a neutral feeling, and 5, 6, and 7 would indicate agree somewhat, agree, and strongly agree, respectively. With regard to their preferential communicative language, the students rated themselves as somewhat agreeing or agreeing that English was their preference. For the Iu Mien, an ethnic group without an official written language, English is probably their only preference by default.

Although a more recently developed written system is commonly used today, its intent and purpose was developed for religious reasons. Truthfully, it was developed to help the newly converted Christian Iu Mien practice Christianity and read the Bible. Therefore, those traditional Iu Mien who practice Animism are not able to read this written form of the Iu Mien language (Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010). Conversely, the data also illustrate they prefer to socialize with other Asians rather than American students; they rated

60 themselves as somewhat disagreeing that an American student would understand them better. Furthermore, the data indicate most of their friends at school are not Americans.

Therefore, a categorical mean of 4.1 and SD of 0.4 indicate they rate themselves as being neutral with regard to whether they were assimilated or not. Categorically, the Iu Mien students rate themselves as neutral in terms of being assimilated with regard to their acculturation level.

Table 3

Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items: Assimilation

Question Acculturation Item M SD Assimilation 1 I write better in English than in my native language 6.7 0.4 5 When I am in my apartment/house, I typically speak English. 5.3 1.1 9 If I were asked to write poetry. I would prefer to write it in English. 6.4 0.9 13 I get along better with Americans than Asian. 1.5 1.1 17 I feel that American understands me better than Asians do. 3.3 1.3 21 I find it easier to communicate my feelings to Americans than to Asians. 3.3 1.5 24 I feel more comfortable socializing with Americans than I do with 3.3 1.1 Asians. 27 Most of my friends at work/school are American. 3.3 1.6 Categorical Means and SD 4.1 0.4 Note: n=56 Total score possible. East Asian Iu Mien High School Students. M = means, SD = Standard Deviation. High school students were informed that the study is only of Iu Mien descent attending this specific high school.

Separation. The means for assimilation (Table 3) and separation (Table 4) are

4.1 and 3.9, respectively, indicating the Iu Mien high school students are neutral

(assimilation) and in high disagreement with regard to separation from their culture. The separation category indicates they do not listen to Asian music but their closest friends

61 are Asians; thus they would rather gather, date, and socialize with other Asians. On the contrary, they somewhat disagreed that other Asians do not treat them as equals or that they felt more relaxed and at ease compared to their American counterparts. A categorical mean of 3.9 and standard deviation of 0.3 would indicate the Iu Mien students rated themselves as not being separated from their culture with regard to their acculturation level.

Table 4

Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items: Separation

Question Acculturation Item M SD Separation 2 Most of the music I listen to is Asian. 2.8 2.1 6 My closes friends are Asian. 5.6 1.4 10 10 I prefer going to social gatherings where most of the people are 4.4 1.2 Asian 14 I feel that Asians treat me as an equal more so than Americans do. 3.8 1.3 18 I would prefer to go out on a date with an Asian than with an American. 4.3 1.6 22 I feel more relaxed when I am with an Asian than when I am with an 3.9 1.2 American. 25 Asians should not date non-Asians. 2.4 1.4 Categorical Means and SD 3.9 0.3 Note: n=49 Total score possible. East Asian Iu Mien High School Students. M = means, SD = Standard Deviation. High school students were informed that the study is only of Iu Mien descent attending this specific high school.

Integration. According to Figure 1 and Table 5, 74% of Iu Mien respondents rated themselves as being culturally integrated. Evidently, integration is the only category in which the students consistently rated themselves in agreement; thus it has a mean of 5.3 and standard of deviation of 0.4 indicating they are culturally integrated with regard to their acculturation levels. This data indicate the Iu Mien students have adapted

62 and integrated skills from both cultures, which is consistent with the study conducted by Lee and Green (2010) on the Hmong of Wisconsin; both ethnic groups are from similar geographic region of Southeast Asia such as Laos and have close relationships.

Note: N = 27

Assimilation Marginalization 7% 4% Separation 15%

Integration 74%

Figure 1. Iu Mien High School students’ acculturation level.

Table 5

Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items: Integration

Question Acculturation Item M SD Integration 3 I tell jokes both in English and in my native language. 3.7 1.8 7 I think as well in English as I do in my native language. 4.3 1.6 11 I have both American and Asian friends. 6.3 1.0 15 I feel that both Asians and Americans value me. 6.0 1.0 18 I feel very comfortable around both Americans and Asians 6.0 1.4 Categorical Means and SD 5.3 0.4 Note: n=35 Total score possible. East Asian Iu Mien High School Students. M = means, SD = Standard Deviation. High school students were informed that the study is only of Iu Mien descent attending this specific high school.

Barry (2001) and Berry (2005) further indicated the integration process also exhibited the adaptation and incorporation of certain cultural characteristics from one culture into another. Strikingly similar in definition, one can possibly reference integration and biculturalism as identical to one another. Biculturalism, according to

Nieto (2004), is the ability and right of individual ethnic groups to incorporate and adapt cultural characteristics from other cultures while maintaining aspects of their languages and cultures, thus, forming an integrated culture reflective of our multicultural societal differences. The Iu Mien high school students who rated themselves as being integrated responded to the question as being either highly neutral or in agreement.

As evident in their responses, they have both American and Asian friends.

Furthermore, they felt that both Americans and Asians value them equally; hence, they were comfortable around both groups. Additionally, their thoughts were still in their primary language rather than in English, and their ability to tell jokes in both languages

64 was either neutral or at somewhat disagree, indicating the usage of both languages is less integrated than their socialization skills.

Marginalization. Similar to participants in the Lee and Green’s (2010) study of the Hmong of Wisconsin, the Iu Mien students scored the lowest in the category of marginalization. Understandably so, due to the cultural similarity of the two mountainous ethnic groups (Hmong and Iu Mien) from Laos. Eight of the responses to the nine questions, or 89%, were in disagreement (see Table 6). Therefore, the categorical mean of 3.0 and SD of 0.2 indicates these students are not culturally marginalized with regard to their acculturation level. Based upon the EAAM acculturation assessment scale, the Iu Mien students rated themselves highest in the category of integration (N=27, integration means = 5.3, and SD = 0.4). Thus, the finding of the Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation level indicates these students rated themselves as being culturally integrated or bicultural.

Table 6

Means and Standard of Deviations of the East Asian Acculturation (Iu Mien) Measure Items: Marginalization

Question Acculturation Item M SD Marginalization 4 Generally, I find it difficult to socialize with anybody, Asian or 2.8 2.0 American. 8 I sometimes feel that neither Americans nor Asians like me. 2.3 1.4 12 There are times when I think no one understands me. 4.1 0.9 16 I sometimes find it hard to communicate with people. 3.3 1.7 20 I sometimes find it hard to make friends. 2.6 1.4 23 Sometimes I feel that Asians and Americans do not accept me. 2.3 1.3 26 Sometimes I find it hard to trust both Americans and Asians. 3.4 1.7 28 I find that both Asians and Americans often have difficulty 2.9 1.6 understanding me. 29 I find that I do not feel comfortable when I am with other people. 2.9 1.8 Categorical Means and SD 3.0 0.2 Note: n=63 Total score possible. East Asian Iu Mien High School Students. M = means, SD = Standard Deviation. High school students were informed that the study is only of Iu Mien descent attending this specific high school.

Individual acculturation level and cumulative mean GPA. As a component of the triangulation process, Table 7 provides a cumulative and comparative overview of the students’ acculturation levels and their cumulative mean GPAs. Table 7 illustrates the students’ acculturation levels based on the categorical means. A mean of 4.5-4.9 indicates the students are in the process of moving toward being culturally integrated and are, thus considered integrated. Students with a mean of five or greater are classified as fully integrated. The following data from Table 2 indicate that 2 of 27, or 7%, are culturally assimilated, 4 of 27, or 15%, are culturally separated, 20 of 27, or 74%, are culturally integrated, and 1 of 27, or 4%, are classified as being culturally marginalized.

Table 7 displays individual acculturation levels and cumulative mean GPAs.

Table 7

Comparative Overview of Student Acculturation Level and Cumulative Mean GPA

Acculturation Level Numerical Acculturation Level Cumulative GPA Student 1 Integration 5 0.2 2 Integration 4.8 1.9 3 Integration 5.8 3.2 4 Integration 6.0 3.2 5 Integration 6.4 3.5 6 Integration 5.2 1.7 7 Integration 5.8 1.7 8 Integration 5.4 3.7 9 Integration 4.6 3.9 10 Assimilation 5.0 3.3 11 Integration 5.2 4.0 12 Integration 6.2 3.9 13 Integration 5.6 3.4 14 Marginalization 5.8 2.3 15 Separation 6.3 3.3 16 Integration 5.6 2.3 17 Integration 5.4 3.6 18 Separation 3.9 2.3 19 Integration 7.0 2.1 20 Integration 5.4 3.8 21 Assimilation 4.6 2.4 22 Integration 5.8 2.3 23 Integration 5.8 3.6 24 Separation 5.6 1.0 25 Integration 5.4 1.5 26 Separation 4.9 2.5 27 Integration 6.8 3.2 Note: Integration M=5.7, Separation M=5.2, Assimilation M=4.8, and Marginalization M=5.8 where N=27

The data from Table 7 indicate the Iu Mien students’ mean cumulative GPA for students classified as be culturally integrated (N=20 and M=5.7) is 2.8. Seven percent of

67 the students classified as culturally assimilated (N=2 and M=4.8) and have a cumulative mean GPA of 2.9, slightly higher than culturally integrated students. Twenty- seven percent of the students classified as being culturally separated (N=4 and M=5.2) hold a cumulative mean GPA of 2.3. The remaining four percent are classified as being culturally marginalized (N=1 and M=5.8) with a cumulative mean GPA of 2.3, identical to that of those who are culturally separated.

Based upon the data from Figure 2 (Students’ Acculturation Level) and Table 7, the finding for research question one indicate students classified as being assimilated and integrated showed no significant differences (assimilated = 2.9 GPA and integrated = 2.8

GPA) in their cumulative academic performance. However, there was significant difference of GPA within the students who are classified as being integrated. Of the total integrated students 63% held a 3.0 GPA (mean = 3.6) or higher while 37% held 2.9 or less (mean = 1.7). The Notable consistency lies within the students classified as being separated or marginalized but they hold a much lower cumulative academic GPA of 2.3.

Note: N = 27

Assimilation Marginalization 7% 4% Separation 15%

Integration 74%

Figure 2. Iu Mien High School students’ acculturation level.

Findings to Research Question Two

What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school students? In addressing the second research question, a second instrument by Robinson’s

(2010), Culturally Responsive Beliefs and Practices of General and Special Education

Teachers Implementing Response to Intervention (RTI) in Diverse Elementary School was adopted and slightly modified to survey the teaching staff regarding their instructional practices, school climate, sensitivity to diverse student academic needs, and staff collaboration. This two-part instructional staff survey assessed classroom instructional practices relevant to multicultural education to address, “What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school students?” The first section examined the school environment and instruction pedagogy by examining school climate and support, academic instruction, and collaboration relevant to multicultural education environment. The second part solicited teaching experiences.

School climate and support. To foster a deeper understand, the teaching staff was surveyed using section of Robinson’s (2010), RCELD, as illustrated in Table 8.

With regard to how the staff felt about the school climate and support in general, they responded to question 1 (My school makes little or no attempt to acknowledge and celebrate diversity) with 73.7% of staff responding either strongly disagree or disagree, indicating they felt the school attempted to acknowledge and celebrate diversity. In addition, 63.2% of the staff respondents indicated the administrative team provided support and resources to address students of racial, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity (RCELD) at the school. Furthermore, 68.4% of the instructional staff respondents indicated evidence of school wide acknowledgement and celebration of diversity while 84.2% of the respondents indicated the school maintained high achievement expectations of racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse

(RCELD) students. Table 8 further illustrates the indication that 68.4% of respondents felt there was effective administrative support/advocacy including additional resources and the promotion of problem solving to address the needs of RCELD students on a regular basis.

Table 8

School Climate/Support

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No Basis to Disagree Agree Respond

1. My school makes little or no attempt to acknowledge and 5 12 2 0 0 celebrate diversity. 2. There is little or no administrative support or additional resources provided to 2 10 5 0 2 address the needs of students of RCELD. 3. Frequent and varied examples acknowledging and celebrating diversity are evident throughout 0 6 9 4 0 my school and in my classroom. 3. 4. High expectations for the achievement of students of 6 10 3 0 0 RCELD are NOT maintained. 5. There is effective administrative support/advocacy including additional resources and the promotion of problem solving to 0 5 10 3 1 address the needs of students of RCELD on a regular basis. 6. High expectations for the achievement of students of RCELD are regularly 0 3 10 6 0 maintained.

Figure 3 provides a cumulative overview of the respondents’ responses to whether the school has an effective school climate and support for RCELD students who account for the majority of the diverse student body. According to the instructional staff respondents, 74% believed the school maintained an effective school wide culture to support RCELD students. A component of this support is to have high achievement expectations of the RCELD students by both the administrative and instructional staff.

The remaining 26% disagreed the school is not providing enough support for the RCELD students. Therefore, it is important to examine the teachers’ opinions regarding the

71 implementation of RCELD-related intervention pedagogy to meet the needs of the diverse student body.

26% Disagreement

74% Agreement

Figure 3. Climate and support of RCELD students.

Academic instruction I. Academic instruction consisted of two parts, school wide and individual, and is used to understand whether differentiated intervention instruction was being implemented at the high school (see Table 9). With regard to whether the school implemented a multi-tiered intervention and prevention pedagogy to support the RCELD students, 78.9% of the instructional staff indicated the school provided differentiated instruction in the form of support and intervention to support the needs of the RCELD students.

When asked to respond to whether consultation and direct services from specialists were provided on a regular and consistent basis to assist in carrying out differentiated interventions for RCELD students, a proportional representation surfaced

72 whereby 52.6% either strongly agreed or agreed the school did provide consultation and direct services to assist the implementation of differentiated interventions for

RCELD students while 42% either strongly disagreed or disagreed. Additionally, 52.6% of the instructional staff respondents believed the classroom teachers provided differentiated interventions to support the RCELD students. For a Title I school with an extremely diverse population, the number of classrooms practicing differentiated instruction is surprisingly low.

Slightly three quarters, or 78.9%, of the instructional respondents indicated differentiated instruction for RCELD students was occurring in individual classrooms.

Furthermore, 94.7% of the respondents indicated they regularly provided differentiated instruction by making adaptions in the needed areas such as content (what is taught), process (how content is taught), product (how students demonstrate content mastery), affect (how students connect their thinking and feelings), and learning environment (how the classroom is designed and students are grouped). A little more than half (57.9%) the instructional staff respondents considered the school implemented a multi-tiered model of intervention services and that the extent of differentiated interventions for students was significant (see Table 9).

Table 9

Academic Instruction (I), Differentiated Intervention Instruction

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No Basis to Disagree Agree Respond

1. My school has not implemented a multi- tiered (e.g., prevention, intervention, and specialized support) model of intervention 5 10 3 0 1 services. (reverse coding used) 2. Consultation and direct services from specialists are provided on a regular and consistent basis to assist in carrying out 2 6 8 2 1 differentiated interventions for students of RCELD. 3. I believe teachers at my high school provide differentiated intervention to students of RCELD. 0 7 8 2 2

4. There is little or no differentiated instruction for students of RCELD in my classroom. (reverse coding used) 3 12 0 0 1

5. I regularly provide differentiated instruction by making adaptions in the following areas as needed: 0 1 9 9 0

(a) Content = what is taught, (b) process = how content is taught, (c) product = how students demonstrate content mastery, (d) affect = how students connect their thinking and feelings, and (e) learning environment = how the classroom is designed and students are grouped. 6. My school has implemented a multi-tiered model of intervention services and the extent of differentiated interventions for 0 6 10 1 2 students is significant.

A categorical analysis of the school’s academic instruction (I) relevant to differentiated instruction intervention is illustrated in Figure 4. The figure indicates the school implemented school wide multi-tiered interventions and specialized support for

RCELD students. Sixty-nine (69%) percent of the instructional staff respondents either

74 agreed or strongly agreed the school implemented differentiated instruction intervention pedagogy. Approximately a third (31%) of the instructional staff believed the implementation of differentiated interventions was either not being implemented or not implemented enough to provide the needs of the RCELD students of the school.

31% Disagreement

69% Agreement

Figure 4. School academic differentiated instruction for RCELD students.

Academic instruction II. The academic instruction II category examined the classroom instructional practices with regard to differentiated interventions to support

RCELD student needs (see Table 10). Seventy-eight and nine-tenths percent of the instructional staff respondents indicated they utilized peer supports in their classroom. In addition, 89.5% indicated they regularly used the following:

1. Explicit language to teach learning strategies and thinking skills

2. Peer supports to empower students to take responsibility for their

learning and support one another

3. Culturally responsive materials, content, and teaching practices to

support RCELD students’ academic needs.

Seventy-three and seven-tenths percents responded negatively when asked if they rarely used culturally responsive material, content, and teaching practices in their classroom. When asked to say whether they provided a carefully planned system of instruction in learning strategies to their students, only 26.3% indicated they conducted this type of planning. Thirty-six and eight-tenths percent indicated they did not plan that particular way, and the remaining 36.8% did not respond or said they had no basis to respond. This may be a contributor to the students’ low academic GPA.

Table 10

Academic Instruction (II)

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No Basis Disagree Agree to Respond

1. I do NOT use peer supports in my classroom. 6 9 1 1 2 2. I regularly and explicitly teach learning strategies and thinking skills to students of racial, cultural, ethnic, & linguistic 1 0 9 8 1 diversity (RCELD) in my classroom. 3. I regularly use culturally responsive materials, content, and teaching practices in my classroom. 0 2 11 6 0 4. 4. I regularly use peer supports in my classroom to empower my students to 0 1 9 8 1 take responsibility for their learning and to support t each other. 5. I rarely use culturally responsive materials, content, and teaching practices in my classroom. 6 8 3 0 2

6. I rarely, if ever, provide a carefully planned system of instruction in learning strategies to students of RCELD in my 1 4 3 4 7 classroom.

A cumulative analysis of whether the instructional staff respondents felt they planned and implemented effective academic differentiated intervention pedagogy to support RCELD students in their classrooms yielded 75% agreement (see Figure 5). The remaining 25% did not feel they had implemented or planned effective differentiated intervention instructional pedagogy to support their RCELD students’ needs in their individual classrooms.

25% Disagreement

75% Agreement

Figure 5. Classroom academic differentiated instruction for RCELD students.

Collaboration. Lastly, a survey was utilized to solicit and understand whether school wide collaboration existed to support the RCELD students’ academic learning needs with regard to differentiated intervention pedagogy (see Table 11). Forty-seven and four-tenths percent of the instructional staff respondents felt there was extensive and effective collaboration between general education teachers, special education teachers, and other support staff. Furthermore, 84.2% disagreed the school had made little or no effort to collaborate with students’ families, and 78.9% disagreed there was little or no collaboration between teachers and other support staff. In addition, 73.3% disagreed the prevailing attitude of school staff fostered isolation and little or no collaborative interaction between general education teachers, special education teachers, and other support staff (e.g., related services, ESL). Conversely, 52.6% felt the prevailing attitude of the school staff fostered effective collaborative interactions. Forty-seven and four-

78 tenths percent felt the school actively sought involvement and decision making input from families of RCELD students and were committed to learning about the culture of those families and empowering them. Categorically speaking, the teacher collaboration category pertinent to agreement and none agreement was split almost equally compared to other categories.

Table 11

Collaboration

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No Basis Disagree Agree to Respond

1. There is extensive and effective collaboration between general education 3 7 7 2 0 teachers, special education teachers, and other support staff. 2. My school has made little or no effort to collaborate with families of students of RCELD. 1 14 2 1 0

3. The prevailing attitude of school staff fosters extensive and effective collaborative interaction between general 1 8 8 2 0 education teachers, special education teachers, and other support staff. 5. 4. There is little or no collaboration between teachers, other support staff (e.g., related 2 13 3 1 0 services, ESL). 5. My school actively seeks involvement and decision making input from families of students of RCELD and is committed to learning about the culture of those families 1 6 6 4 2 and empowering them. 6. The prevailing attitude of school staff fosters isolation and little or no collaborative interaction between general 3 11 3 0 2 education teachers, special education teachers, and other support staff (e.g., related services, ESL).

Respondents responded to the survey regarding whether they felt the school implemented effective school wide collaboration to support RCELD student family and their academic needs. As illustrated in Figure 6, 36% of the respondents felt the school failed to collaboratively meet both the academic needs of the RCELD students and the needs of their families. The remaining 64% felt a school wide collaborative environment did exist to properly support both the RCELD students’ academic needs and their families’ needs.

36% Disagreement

64% Agreement

Figure 6. School wide collaboration to support RCELD students.

Teacher demographics. Part two of the instructional staff survey was conducted to gather teacher demographic information relevant to their educational services (see

Table 12). It consisted of eight aspects of teaching experiences including their current teaching position, the number of years they had been in the educational profession,

80 number of years in the district, number of years teaching their current grade level, grade level they currently taught and subject/s, any leadership related responsibility, and how they obtained the knowledge of the Iu Mien students.

Table 12

Teacher Demographic Survey (N=19)

Position N Current Teaching Assignment General Education 13 Department Chair 1 Teacher-in-charge/Lead Teacher 4 Years in Education Profession Less than 5 years 4 5 to 10 years 6 More than 10 years 9 Years with the District Less than 5 years 6 5 to 10 years 5 More than 10 years 8 Years Taught at Current Grade Level Less than 5 years 6 5 to 10 years 6 More than 10 years 7 Grade Level Teach 9th 13 10th 15 11th 15 12th 14 Current Teaching Assignment Math 5 Art/Computer 1 Social Science 1 Biology 1 English 2 Spanish 1 Science/Earth Science 2 World Geography 1 Criminal Justice 1 Adjunct Assignment/s Grade Level Team 3 Problem-Solving/Leadership Team 1 Other (Subject Team Lead, Social Committee, Healthy Start 7 Program, Math Tutorial, Curriculum, and Small Learning Committee) Not serve on any team 6

Table 12 (continued)

Position N Knowledge of Cultural Relevant Practice Pertinent to Iu Mien Students University Coursework 11 General Professional Development 9 District Professional Development 6 Mentoring 3 Website, blogs, wiki, and etc. 2 Other (Books, Iu Mien Conferences, 10 Students, Self, and Multicultural Education) No knowledge at all 1

Note: The sum of categories not equal to 19 indicate teacher assuming multiple responsibilities or the teacher did not respond

The surveyed data indicated 17 of the 19 respondents were general education teachers. One served as department chair and five served as either the teacher-in-charge or lead teachers. With regard to grade level and subject taught, multiple teachers taught multiple grade levels, with 14 indicating they taught ninth grade. Sixteen, 16, and 15 taught 10th, 11th, and 12th grades respectively. The respondents also reported they taught math (6), art, social science (2), biology, English (2), Spanish, earth science (3), world history, and criminal justice. The respondents also indicated they served in other capacities such as grade level teams (3) and problem-solving or leadership teams (2).

Seven respondents indicated they served in other non-listed categories such as subject team lead, social committee, healthy start program math tutorial, curriculum, and small learning committee. Of the 19 respondents, seven reported they did not serve on any extra-curricular committees or teams.

With regard to teaching experiences, five had been in the education profession for fewer than five years, five were in it for between five and 10 years, and nine had been teaching for more than 10 years. Specifically, seven were with the current district for

82 fewer than five years, four were employed with the district for between five and 10 years, and eight had been there for more than 10 years. The data indicated six teachers had taught in their current grade level for fewer than five years and six taught at their current grade level for between five and 10 years while seven taught at their current grade level for more than 10 years. The data also indicated the respondents were teaching multiple grades. For example, 14 indicated they either taught or were teaching ninth grade, equal numbers of teachers (16) either taught or were teaching 10th or 11th grades, and 15 were either teaching or had taught 12th grade.

Survey question 8 surveyed the different avenues through which the teachers obtained information of and experiences with the Iu Mien students. The majority of the knowledge relevant to the Iu Mien students was obtained either through university course work (12), professional development in general (9), and professional development provided by the school district (6). Three respondents were mentored and three learned though websites, blogs, or wikis while 12 learned via books, Iu Mien conferences, students, and multicultural education courses. One respondent indicated he or she had not learned anything relevant to the Iu Mien students the school served. It is also important to note the study school has the highest Iu Mien student enrollment and has the best faculty to Iu Mien student ratio. This ratio is significantly higher than any other school in the district. The school has both an Iu Mien history teacher and an administrator.

The cumulative analysis of the four different categories indicates the level of school wide differentiated intervention pedagogy implemented to meet the needs of the

RCELD students. The data indicated that in all four categories, the respondents felt the

83 school was successful. For example, in the category of the implementation and effectiveness of a school wide climate and support to address the needs of RCELD students, 74% of the instruction staff respondents agreed there was success while only

26% disagreed. The second category solicited whether the instruction staff felt if a school wide academic differentiated intervention program was in place and viewed it as an effective intervention strategy serving racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse students at IMCHS. Sixty-nine percent agreed the intervention was both implemented and shows success while 31% disagreed. The third category was more specific as it solicited classroom academic differentiated intervention pedagogy.

Seventy-five percent of the instructional staff respondents indicated they implemented academic differentiated instruction pedagogy in their classroom and had success providing the RCELD students’ needs while 25% disagreed.

Lastly, whether a school wide collaborative environment is in place to serve the academic needs of the RCELD students, 64% indicated the school is meeting the needs of the RCELD students’ needs while 37% disagreed. Based upon the quantitative data, the instructional staff at IMCHS felt they were appropriately serving the racial, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of the Iu Mien students in all four categories (school climate and support, academic instruction I and II, and teacher collaboration) such as or similar to that of multicultural education. Multicultural education, as indicated by Nieto

(2004), is a process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students.

It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, and gender, among others) students, their communities, and teachers reflect.

Results and Interpretations

As indicated previously, the Iu Mien have very different needs than other Asians.

More often than not, they are not fully understood but instead grouped and associated with other Asians such as the Japanese or Chinese who are here under different circumstances and possess significantly higher education levels or socioeconomic statuses (Downing, 2002; Gomez, 2005; Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010; Saelee, 2005).

Additionally, few studies have been written on the Iu Mien’s behalf, especially literature speaking to their educational needs and attainment. Research studies in the field of education are the least often conducted and the findings of this study may provide some insights on the educational status, learning styles, and needs of Iu Mien people relevant to their academic achievement. This quantitative research study may provide some useful perspective on the education of Iu Mien people residing in the Garden City Valley and foster further understanding on the existing complexity of this indigenous ethnic minority group.

This research study assessed the Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation levels and analyzed them for a possible connection between them and their cumulative academic GPA for the 2011-2012 school year. In doing so, the researcher adopted

Barry’s (2001) EAAM to assess the students’ acculturation level. It was also important to examine the instructional pedagogy the teachers and school implemented to meet the needs of the racial, cultural, and linguistic diverse school serving Iu Mien high school students with regard to multicultural education, such as Nieto’s (2004) levels of multicultural education. As a triangulation method, the researcher also adopted

Robinson’s (2010) Culturally Responsive Beliefs and Practices of General and Special

Education Teachers Implementing Response to Intervention (RTI) in Diverse

Elementary School assessment tool to assess instructional pedagogy at a culturally diverse school. It is important to recognize other factors such as teacher demographics, as teachers have continuous contact with the Iu Mien students. Upon conducting, assessing, and analyzing the data of the self-rating Likert-type surveys (EAAM and

RCELD), and the results of the teacher demographics, a few findings surfaced that may provide further understanding of Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation levels and their academic achievement.

In assessing the acculturation levels of Iu Mien students, it was found that 74% of the Iu Mien student participants classified themselves as being culturally integrated or practicing biculturalism. This finding paralleled the research studies conducted by Saelee

(2005), Saechao (2010), and Lee and Greene (2010). In the Saelee study, she indicated most of her Iu Mien respondents felt it was most beneficial for their children (Iu Mien students) to participate in the mainstream culture for acceptance and benefits. They also felt cultural preservation was critical. Similarly, Gomez (2005) reported that:

They maintain the cultural and ethnic practices that are essential to their identities. The Mien American population is no exception. Through an analysis of gender roles and expectations, which I found were the foundational elements to the Mien American identity, the Mien parents have developed a way for their children to main their cultural roots and function in the larger American society. (p. 157)

Consequently, a blend of the two cultures, otherwise known as integration or biculturalism, was most beneficial in the process of acculturation and cultural preservation. Lee and Greene’s (2010) research study further found the Hmong of

Wisconsin, from the same region and living together with the Iu Mien, preferred integration over the other categories of acculturation.

The second finding surfaced from analyzing the RCELD survey solicited response relevant to school climate and support, classroom and school-wide differentiated instruction, and teacher demographics. The data indicate the teachers felt they appropriately addressed the learning needs of the students in the following categories of academic differentiated instruction: School-wide (69% agreement), classroom (75% agreement), and collaboration (64% agreement). Both the assessment of the acculturation level and multicultural education “use critical pedagogy as its underlining philosophy and focuses on knowledge, reflection, and action (praxis) as the basis for social change, multicultural education promotes democratic principles of social justice” (Nieto, 2004, p. 437). It is then important to examine whether the school is participating in a multicultural environment or not through the use of existing multicultural education models such as Nieto’s (2004), levels of multicultural education.

Hence, Nieto’s model was adopted and used to described and gauge IMCHS’s level of multicultural education participation.

Nieto’s levels of multicultural education consist of seven aspects with five corresponding characteristic levels. The levels of multicultural education include critical pedagogy, a process education for social justice, it is important for all students, pervasive, basic, and antiracist/anti-discriminatory. The five characteristics include monoculture education, tolerance, acceptance respect, affirmation, solidarity, and critique. Examples of the different multicultural education levels ranged from Antiracist/Anti-discriminatory monocultural education to critical pedagogy affirmation, solidarity, and critique in a multicultural education environment. Antiracist/Anti-discriminatory monocultural exhibits the least desirable and inappropriate learning environment for racially, culturally,

87 ethnically, and linguistically diverse learning institutions. The opposite end of the spectrum of the level of multicultural education model is referred to as critical pedagogy/affirmation, solidarity, and critique and is considered to be the most desirable and appropriate learning environment for racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse learning institutions such as IMCHS. On Antiracist/Anti-discriminatory monocultural education, “racism is unacknowledged. Policies and practices that support discrimination are left in place. These include low expectations a refusal to use students’ national resources (such as language and culture) in instruction. Only a sanitized and

‘safe’ curriculum is in place” (Nieto, 2004, p. 388). Critical pedagogy affirmation, solidarity, and critique is “students and teachers are involved in a ‘subversive.’ Decision- making and social action skills are the basis of the curriculum (Nieto, 2004, p. 389).

Based on Nieto’s levels of multicultural education and the analysis of the school wide culture, teacher survey, instructional programs, and existing diversity tolerance activities, the school is functioning between tolerance pervasive and acceptance pervasive. A tolerance pervasive environment is “A multicultural perspective is evident in some activities, such as Black History Month and Cinco de Mayo, and some curriculum and materials. There may be an itinerant “multicultural teachers,” (Nieto,

2004, pp. 388-389). Acceptance pervasive is, “Student diversity is acknowledged, as can be seen not only in ‘Holidays and Heroes’ but also in consideration of different learning styles, values, and languages. A ‘multicultural program’ may be in place” (Nieto, 2004, pp. 388-389). Evidently, the instructional staff respondents (69%) felt the school made efforts to celebrate diversity. Additionally, both classroom teachers and administrators had high achievement expectations of the very diverse student body they served, as

88 indicated by the RCELD survey data. In fact, 74% of the respondents indicated the school accepted, acknowledged, promoted, and implemented a school climate supporting racial, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity (RCELD). Furthermore, 69% indicated a school wide implementation of an academic intervention strategy to address RCELD students. Additionally, 75% of the respondents reported they implemented differentiated intervention pedagogy to address the learning needs of RCELD students by making adaptions of their lessons in the following areas: a) Content = what is taught, b) process = how content is taught, c) product = how students demonstrate content mastery, d) affect = how students connect their thinking and feelings, and e) learning environment = how the classroom is designed and students are grouped.

Perhaps the category preventing the school from be classified as a more effective or desirable multicultural institution, among many factors, is teacher collaboration. Of the four categories surveyed in the research study, teacher collaboration showed the lowest level of agreement (64%) between the teaching staff with regard to collaborating on a regular basic to support RCELD students. The other three categories exhibited a much higher agreement percentage (69%, 74%, and 75%). An additional hindering factor may be in the form of low ethnic staff representation of the extremely diverse student body in which there are 10% African Americans, 33% Asians, 40% Hispanics,

9% Whites, and 6% consisting of two or more races, yet 80% of the teaching staff are

Whites.

On a more promising note, the school website reports existing activities and programs resembling those of a multicultural institution. Additionally, the school has multiple clubs and activities available to the students to promote diversity and ethnic

89 identity in a diverse multicultural institution. Clubs such as Mien, Hmong,

Vietnamese, Mandarin, Glee, Polynesian, Spanish, Keys, and Straight and Gay Alliance are fully functioning. Furthermore, this particular school also has the highest Iu Mien student to faculty representation than anywhere else in the district: one teachers and an administrator are of Iu Mein descent. Progressing toward a more prominent and effective multicultural school, Iu Mien Community High School (IMCHS) is attempting to create what Lenaghan (2000) referred to as expanding life experiences, student knowledge, and capacities, thus promoting a feeling of belonging to both academic achievement and cultural identity. IMCHS is transparent in the acknowledgement of diverse holidays, heroes, learning styles, multiethnic relevant curriculum, values, and language of the students, thus classifying the school as being accepted by Nieto’s (2004) levels of multicultural education model.

With all findings considered, there are no significant differences between the academic achievements of the Iu Mien students acculturation levels, their cumulative academic GPAs, and being in an RCELD environment with regard to the respondents of this study identified as being integrated and assimilated. More specifically, those who identified as being assimilated held a slightly higher GPA of 2.9 while those identified as being integrated held a GPA of 2.8. However it is important to note the significant difference found within the category of integration where 63% of the students held a

GPA of 3.0 or higher (mean = 3.6) while the remaining students held a mean GPA of 1.7.

This finding contradicts the assumption that Iu Mien students would perform better while integrated rather than assimilated, separated, or marginalized in a multicultural learning environment. Perhaps, the parents of these students have higher expectations of their

90 children and value education highly (Suinn, 2010) but lack the means or the education level to provide appropriate support as indicated by Liow (2008), Saechao (2010), and

Saelee (2005). It also contradicts the common finding (Suinn, 2010) that high identification with the Asian culture is associated with high academic motivation and achievement among high school Chinese students.

The findings do, however, confirm the notion that Iu Mien students from the same region of Asia do not necessarily have similar cultural or educational needs. In fact, the findings of this quantitative research study confirms that when an institution provides services to Asian students with a “one-sizes-fits-all” ideology, it does not really serve the needs of the Iu Mien high school students. Additionally, Bennett (1990) and Sleeter and

McLaren (1995) reported the different waves of Asian immigrants to the states came with different skills and socioeconomic statuses, such the Japanese, Chinese, and Europeans.

These groups were mostly well educated and had much more comfortable living conditions in their native countries, unlike the Iu Mien, who are without an official written language and are forced to relocate as refugees rather than by choice. Therefore, their needs in all aspects of life in a foreign country are much greater and needier than those of other Asians. The notion that all Asians are smart, perform extremely well academically, or have similar cultural and academic needs is not applicable to the Iu

Mien people.

Summary

To address the two research questions, the triangulation of student acculturation level, 2012 cumulative GPA, and instructional pedagogy relevant to multicultural education was utilized to gather the necessary data for analysis. The student survey was

91 employed to elicit a possible connection or linkage between the Iu Mien students’ acculturation levels and their academic GPAs. Research question 1 is addressed first.

What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic success of the Iu Mien high school students?

To address the first research question, the East Asian Acculturation Measure

(EAAM) by Barry (2001) was adapted to deepen the understanding of the Iu Mien students’ cultural level and promote the academic learning needs of the Iu Mien students.

This instrument consisted of four categories: assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization level of the students. Where N=27, assimilation means of 4.1 (neutral) and standard deviation of 0.4 indicating the students are classified as being neutral for classification of assimilation purposes. Students of this category also had a slightly higher mean cumulative GPA of 2.9 than students classified as being culturally integrated with a cumulative mean GPA of 2.8. Students classified as being culturally integrated had a categorical means of 5.3 (agreement to being integrated) and standard deviation of

0.4. Those students identified as being culturally separated had a categorical means of

3.9 (disagreement to being culturally separated) and standard deviation of 0.3 indicating they did not consider themselves to be classified in the separation category. They held a cumulative mean GPA of 2.3. Lastly, the categorical means of 3.0 (disagreement) and standard deviation of 0.2 indicates the students classified as being culturally marginalized also had a cumulative mean GPA of 2.3.

The second research question addressed whether the school met the needs of the

RCELD students, including the Iu Mien, via differentiated intervention instructional pedagogy and an ethnic diverse learning environment.

What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school students?

An additional component used to address the above research question surveyed teacher demographics relevant to their educational experiences and knowledge of the Iu

Mien students the school served. The first part of this component consisted of four categories, school climate and supports, school wide academic instruction, classroom academic instruction, and school wide collaboration to support RCELD students at the high school. The data indicate the school was implementing effective strategies to address the needs of the RCELD students. Seventy-four percent of the instructional staff respondents felt the school implemented an effective school wide climate and supportive strategies to support the academic learning needs of RCELD students. Sixty-nine percent reported the school, via school wide differentiated intervention teaching and learning pedagogy, was addressing the academic learning needs of RCELD students.

Furthermore, 75% also believed classroom-specific differentiated intervention instructional pedagogy was also successful in addressing the RCELD students’ academic learning needs. Additionally, 64% of the respondents agreed there was an effective school wide collaborative strategy in place to address the academic learning needs of

RCELD students.

The respondents were mainly general education teachers consisting of 17 out of

19 subjects while six were either department chairs, lead teachers, or teachers-in-charge.

With respect to extra-curricular duties and leadership capacity, three respondents served on grade-level teams, two served on either problem-solving or leadership teams, seven served in other capacities (subject team lead, healthy start program social committee,

93 math tutorial, curriculum, and small learning communities), and seven were not involved in any extracurricular duties.

Fourteen of the 19 respondents had been in the education profession for more than five years while five had less than five years of teaching experiences. Of the 19 respondents, 12 were employed at the district for at least five years while seven were with the district for fewer than five years. The teachers at the high school were assigned to teaching multiple subjects. For example, 14 taught ninth grade, 16 taught 10th grade, 16 taught 11th grade, and 15 taught 12th grade. The subjects being taught by the respondents included math (6), art, social science (2), biology, English (2), Spanish, earth science (3), world geography, and criminal justice. The surveyed data also indicate the majority of the respondents either knew or acquired some type of knowledge relevant to the Iu Mien students the school served. Many learned though university coursework, professional development in general, professional development conducted by the district, mentoring, websites, blogs, wikis, books, Iu Mien conferences, self (Iu Mien teacher), or multicultural education course work. One respondent did indicate he or she had no knowledge of who the Iu Mien students are or had any exposure to their ethnicity.

Based upon the levels of multicultural education model, IMCHS may be classified as progressing toward an ideal multicultural education school but its current status lies between pervasive tolerance and pervasive acceptance. According to Nieto (2004):

Pervasive Tolerance = A multicultural perspective is evident in some activities, such as Black History Month and Cinco de Mayo, and in some curriculum and materials. There may be an itinerant “multicultural teacher.” Pervasive Acceptance = Student diversity is acknowledged, as can be seen not only in “Holidays and Heroes” but also in consideration of different learning styles, values, and languages. A “multicultural program” may be in place. (pp. 388-389)

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations

Introduction

Current literature written on the Iu Mien’s behalf is extremely minimal. In an attempt to acquire a better understanding, through research, scholars, more often than not, lumped the Iu Mien with other Southeast Asian ethnic groups. As indicated by Gomez

(2005), Downing (2002), Saelee (2005), Yaangh (2008), and Liow (2008), this association provided an inaccurate and often misleading characteristic of the Iu Mien people’s needs. As discussed in the previous chapters, other Asian groups such as the

Japanese, Chinese, and Vietnamese who migrated to this country came with more education and had a much more favorable socioeconomic status (Bennett, 1990; Sleeter

& McLaren, 1995) than the Iu Mien, refugees without an official written language or formal education (Liow, 2008; Saechao, 2010; Saelee, 2005; Yaangh, 2008). Therefore, the Iu Mien residing in the Garden Valley and across the United Sates have different cultural, social, economic, and educational needs.

The purpose of this research study was to provide an understanding of the acculturation process of Iu Mien high school students and whether a possible linkage between their acculturation levels and academic achievement exits. Furthermore, this research attempted to understand the level of multicultural education at which IMCHS is participating based on Nieto’s (2005) level of multicultural education model. Another aspect of this research was considering the need to provide additional literature written on the Iu Mien’s behalf to foster an accurate understanding of the Iu Mien and their children’s learning needs and achievement.

Therefore, the study of these Iu Mien students’ acculturation level was conducted utilizing the quantitative methodology, more specifically the descriptive analysis approach, to provide an understanding of the learning needs of the Iu Mien students. As reported by Creswell (2008), the descriptive analysis approach allowed the researcher to utilize quantifiable data to investigate a possible connection between IMCHS students’ acculturation levels and their academic statistical data for academic achievement.

Hence, this quantitative research study utilized the data gathered though the adoption of existing surveys (EAAM and RCELD) to provide future researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and all stakeholders with some understanding of the acculturation process and the educational needs of the Iu Mien students participating in a culturally pluralistic society. The cultural pluralism model makes the distinction that the

“melting pot” theory is not suitable to all learners and minority learners have different learning needs (Bennett, 1990; Gay, 2004; Nieto, 2004; Sleeter & McLaren, 1995), thus curricula and instructional pedagogy should reflect the cultural differences of the students. To further understand and meet the academic needs of the Iu Mien students, it was important to assess their acculturation levels. Literature assessing the acculturation level of similar minority groups indicated integration or biculturalism preferences over assimilation, separation, and marginalization citing integration as having more desirable societal benefits (Lee & Green, 2010; Saelee, 2005). Therefore, the two research questions were posed to foster understanding of the learning needs of the Iu Mien students.

To address question #1: What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic success of the Iu Mien high school students?, the EAAM was adopted to assess the Iu Mien students’ acculturation level in four categories: assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization. To address question 2: What are appropriate instructional practices to assist Iu Mien high school students?, the RCELD was adopted to explore the educational institution’s sensitivity to the extremely diverse student body at

IMCHS in the following categories: school climate, classroom academic instruction, school-wide academic instruction, collaboration, and teacher demographic information.

The RCELD findings were used to determine the level of multicultural education based on Nieto’s (2004) model, level of multicultural education. Finally, this chapter provides a conclusion, recommendations, and concludes with the summary.

Conclusion

Rooted in the cultural pluralism theory, this quantitative research study explored the implications of Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation processes and their academic achievements. In an attempt to address the two research questions, student acculturation levels, cumulative GPAs, and school learning environment conducive to multicultural education were triangulated. Consequently, several findings have surfaced with the capacity to foster understanding of the academic needs of the Iu Mien students.

In addressing the first research question, “What impact does the degree of acculturation have on the academic success of the Iu Mien high school students?”, it was necessary to assess the students’ acculturation levels; thus, the EAAM survey was utilized. It was found the Iu Mien high school students at IMCHS rated themselves as being integrated (integrated = 74%, separated = 15%, assimilated = 7%, and

97 marginalization = 4% where N=27). This finding is consistent with multiple research studies conducted on both the Iu Mien and the Hmong of Wisconsin (Lee & Green,

2010), Washington State (Galli-Banducci, 1996), and California (Gomez, 2005; Roche,

1997; Saelee, 2005). Evidently, research studies conducted on the Iu Mien’s behalf indicate that being integrated provides the most favorable opportunity to effectively function in the mainstream society of the United States, for it fosters the opportunity to retain and adopt desirable cultural characteristics of both cultures. Most importantly, the

Iu Mien parents in these studies expressed a similar desire and viewed integration and biculturalism as the most important and beneficial for themselves to both participate and function in the increasingly diverse country.

However, the summative finding of this quantitative research study indicated there were no significant differences between acculturation levels and academic achievement (assimilated = 2.9 cumulative GPA and integrated = 2.8 cumulative GPA).

It is important to note the difference found within the integration category where 63% of the integrated students held a mean GPA of 3.5 while the other 37% held a mean GPA of

1.7. Although a significant difference was not found between the categories, one contributor may be that the Iu Mien lacked the indigenous written language component

(Galli-Banducci, 1996). Furthermore, the parents of these students have had no formal education and, thus were unable to provide the much-needed support for their children participating in the current data-driven educational system, especially a system lacking the necessary research to appropriately address the learning needs of minority children such as the Iu Mien. Perhaps the educational institution attempted to address the learning needs of the Iu Mien students by associating them with all other Asians and

98 implementing a curriculum that was, in reality, inappropriate and ineffective.

Moreover, this quantitative research study, dismissed, the one-size-fits-all or the melting pot model implying one curriculum is appropriate for addressing the needs of student from the same geographical region regardless of their cultural differences. It is especially true for the Iu Mien who are Asians, but unlike their Japanese or Chinese predecessors, did not come to the United States by choice but came instead as refugees with no formal education, an extremely low socioeconomic status, a lack of home literacy environment

(Roche, 1997), and without an indigenous written component (Galli-Banducci, 1996).

The second question of this quantitative research study examined, through the use of an adopted Likert-type self-rating survey (Robinson, 2010), the learning environment of the Iu Mien students relevant to multicultural education. It was found the teachers believed they were providing multicultural or appropriate education to the Iu Mien students at IMCHS in the following categories: Implementation of effectiveness of a school-wide academic differentiated intervention pedagogy to support RCELD student needs (69% agreement), implementation and effectiveness of classroom academic differentiated intervention pedagogy to support RCELD student needs (75% agreement), and implementation and effectiveness of school wide collaboration to support RCELD student needs (64% agreement). Accounting for the previously stated findings, teacher teaching experience, and school activities and functions, IMCHS was classified as being between pervasive tolerance and pervasive acceptance based Nieto’s (2004) level of multicultural education defined as:

Pervasive Acceptance = Student diversity is acknowledged, as can be seen not only in “Holidays and Heroes” but also in consideration of different learning styles, values, and languages. A “multicultural program” may be in place. (pp. 388-389)

Finally and perhaps the most unexpected findings of this quantitative research study through the triangulation of student acculturation levels (EAAM), cumulative

GPAs, and multicultural learning environment for RCELD students (N=27) was that the

Iu Mien students held a contradictory low cumulative GPA of 2.73. This finding contradicts the assumptions and findings of multiple studies (Lee & Green, 2010; Roche,

1997; Saechao, 2010; Saelee, 2005) that if students are classified as being integrated and attend a multicultural sensitive institution, they would perform better academically.

However a difference was found within the integration category where the majority of the students held a cumulative GPA of 3.0 or higher.

Recommendations

Upon the completion of the quantitative research study it was found that the Iu

Mien students at IMCHS rated themselves as being integrated rather than assimilated, separated, or marginalized. Furthermore, there were not significant differences when accounting for student acculturation level, cumulative GPA, and their learning environment relevant to multicultural education. Therefore, the researcher’s recommendation is divided into two considerations, one for Iu Mien community and the other for the education institution providing services to the Iu Mien children.

Recommendations for Actionable Solutions for the Research Problem

For the Iu Mien community, it is recommended they continue to support the existing 503c non-profit organizations to foster the preservation of the Iu Mien culture as

100 well as continue to foster leadership opportunities for the Iu Mien youth and women to be active members of the community to build and implement sustainable cultural preservation-related activities and programs both locally and internationally. It is also recommended the community continue to participate in the process of integration or biculturalism to increase the recognition, valuation, and validation of cultural identity of

Iu Mien youth to foster organization membership and academic achievement. The recommendations unify the promotion of biculturalism through the collaboration of Iu

Mien collectives such as the elders, youth, and women working in unison to achieve a common goal through small but achievable activities and functions. The sum of these recommendations supports and encourages the perception that integration greatly enhances and benefits ethnic minority groups rather than the other acculturation process.

Thus, minority cultures can adapt, find opportunities, and achieve goals beyond initial imaginings (Berry, 2005). Additionally, the participation and implementation of these recommendations support the Iu Mien parents (Saelee, 2005) who desire and consider integration to be most beneficial to both themselves and their children as they participate in biculturalism or a culturally pluralistic society.

With regard to the education of the Iu Mien students, it is recommended the education institution develop and implement culturally responsive curriculum specific to the Iu Mien rather than prescribing the broad curriculum and expecting to appropriately serve these students. According to multiple research studies (Galli-Banducci, 1996;

Roche, 1997; Saechao, 2010; Saelee, 2005), teachers are not knowledgeable of the Iu

Mien culture and history; therefore, it is recommended that teachers make an effort to learn about it and the educational institution provides learning opportunities for them to

101 learn the culture and history of the Iu Mien people. Lastly, the educational institution should have a more meaningful celebration of different cultures rather than the traditional classroom parties, announcements, and informal acknowledgements (Nieto, 2004).

Although the instructional faculty at IMCHS rated themselves as be sufficiently and appropriately serving a racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse student body, the school was found to be participating at the lower spectrum of Nieto’s level of multicultural education model between pervasive/tolerance and pervasive/acceptance, exhibiting evidence of a multicultural perspective and the celebration of some cultural activities, curriculum, and materials. Additionally transparent was the acknowledgement of student diversity and consideration of different learning styles, values, and languages. Nevertheless, to be classified and recognized as being an effective multicultural learning institution, IMCHS may want to be classified as containing critical pedagogy/respect or critical pedagogy/affirmation, solidarity, and critique. Nieto (2004) referred to these multicultural education environments as:

Pedagogy/respect, students and teachers use critical dialogue as the primary basis for their education. They see and understand different perspectives. Pedagogy/affirmation, solidarity, and critique, students and teachers are involved in a “subversive activity.” Decision-making and social action skills are the basis of the curriculum. (pp. 388-389)

Recommendations For Further Research

As discussed in the previous chapters, the Iu Mien ethnic group does not have an official written language; hence, the documentation and empirical research on their learning styles and academic needs are not fully understood. Therefore, future research should focus on exploring the learning styles of the Iu Mien students. Future research on

Iu Mien student achievement should be conducive to the parent, child, educators, elders,

102 leaders, and both site- and district-level perspectives. Research giving consideration to the myriad perspectives of all stakeholders can potentially provide a more explicit understanding of Iu Mien students and their learning. Additionally, a similar research study with the addition of Iu Mien perception of the teachers may provide a more in- depth understanding of the Iu Mien students learning styles and academic achievements.

Lastly, future research should be conducted on existing Iu Mien educators to explore or analyze their learning experiences, acculturation without assimilation coping mechanism, and the attainment of their education. These categories provide researchers the opportunity to understand the mechanism involved as the Iu Mien educators maneuvered around the pressure to excel academically and cultural expectations to successfully complete their higher education.

Summary

The Iu Mien, a little known and written about ethnic group of Southeast Asia, are beginning to recognize the peril of their indigenous culture. Until the last six to nine years, research literature representative and reflective of the Iu Mien culture or their academic needs was extremely limited. Due to the lack of specific literature conducted on the Iu Mien’s behalf, researchers and policymakers often associated and relied upon the research of other Asian groups whom are much more educated and stronger socioeconomically. Thus unintentionally, developed curriculum and programs to meet the needs of the general Asian public did not necessarily address the specific achievement or general needs of the Iu Mien students.

Understandably, the Iu Mien and other immigrants faced myriad barriers as they attempted to negotiate, navigate, and compete for a piece of the American pie that

103 includes one or more college degrees, respectable employment, and a comfortable income to support an individual’s immediate family. This process can be considered a dual process much like the historic continental railroad project. The Iu Mien community and the educational institution can, as a collective, strategically plan and implement programs that support equity in both academia and life as the Iu Mien participate in the biculturalism or integration ideology, contributing to the cultural preservation process of the Iu Mien people.

One avenue for the Iu Mien, as they participate in biculturalism, is to promote, disseminate, contribute, encourage, and educate the mainstream culture through research literature relevant to culture preservation and cultural identity. This is critical as Roche

(1997) indicated teachers have limited knowledge of the Iu Mien students’ culture, history, or community. More importantly, members of the educational institution’s increased knowledge of students’ cultures and histories directly contribute to the development of effective curriculum (Gomez, 2005).

Therefore, the impetus of this quantitative research study was to contribute to the literature written on the Iu Mien’s behalf to promote better understanding of the academic learning needs of the Iu Mien students. As indicated by Gomez (2003), understanding the acculturation levels influences favorable academic success and that education should support and maintain the Iu Mien ethnic identity. Thus, the surfaced findings through the triangulation of students’ acculturation levels, academic GPAs, and institutional learning environment relevant to multicultural education will both contribute to current literature and foster an understanding of the academic learning needs of the Iu Mien students.

Multicultural education models, such as Nieto’s level of multicultural education, provide

104 guidance for the assessment of the level of multicultural education an instructional institution is providing a racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse school such as IMCHS. Nieto’s level of multicultural education model illustrates and describes multicultural education from the least to most effective environment ranging from antiracist-antidiscriminatory/monocultural education to critical pedagogy/affirmation, solidarity, and critique, respectively (Nieto, 2004, pp. 388-389).

Lastly, as the researcher is of the Iu Mien ethnic minority group, the researcher found it difficult to not impose his own knowledge, ideology, and judgment and leave out his bias, similar to Gomez (2005). Though it was difficult, the researcher was able to provide literature with an objective perspective to promote further understanding of the Iu

Mien culture and the children’s academic learning needs.

105

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Appendix A: Letters of Introduction

Drexel University Recruiting Student/Parent Volunteers for a Research Study

Research Title:

The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School Students

Research Objectives:

1. To provide an in depth understanding of the acculturation process of the Iu Mien high school students through the use of established instruments such as the East Asian Acculturation Measurement (Barry, 2001). 2. To conduct a correlative analysis to examine for possible correlation between Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation level and their academic achievement. 3. To employed a Likert-type self-rating scale for teachers to examine classroom instructional practices relevant to multicultural education (Robinson, 2010). 4. To give voices through literature to the less fortunate and often ignored Iu Mien. 5. To challenge the stereotypical notion that all Asian Pacific American are similar and have similar needs and cultural norms.

The survey will conclude by August 31, 2012. Survey will be hand delivered to or sent to participants via US mail till July 31, 2012. The collection of survey will conclude no later than August 10, 2012.

Information for Research Subjects Eligibility: Provide the eligibility criteria that will be used to admit subjects into the study. Interested participants must meet the following criteria:

1. Must attend Hiram Johnson High School during the 2011-2012 school-year. 2. Of Iu Mien descent.

If you meet the above criteria and interested in participating in the survey, please contact me using the contact information provided below.

Remuneration:

You may not personally receive benefit such as monetary compensation from participating in this research study. However, your assistance in the survey may yield results that will help develop deeper understanding of the acculturation process of Iu Mien students.

Location of the research and person to contact for further information:

If you are interested in participating in this study, please contact Joe K. Liow at: (916) 230-2113 Or @[email protected] or [email protected] ______This research is conducted by a researcher who is a member of Drexel University.

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Drexel University Recruiting Instructional Staff Volunteers for a Research Study

Research Title:

The Iu Mien: The Acculturation Process of Iu Mien High School Students

Research Objectives:

6. To provide an in depth understanding of the acculturation process of the Iu Mien high school students through the use of established instruments such as the East Asian Acculturation Measurement (Barry, 2001). 7. To conduct a correlative analysis to examine for possible correlation between Iu Mien high school students’ acculturation level and their academic achievement. 8. To employed a Likert-type self-rating scale for teachers to examine classroom instructional practices relevant to multicultural education (Robinson, 2010). 9. To give voices through literature to the less fortunate and often ignored Iu Mien. 10. To challenge the stereotypical notion that all Asian Pacific American are similar and have similar needs and cultural norms.

The survey will conclude on August 31, 2012. Survey will be hand delivered to or sent to participants via US mail till July 31, 2012. The collection of survey will conclude no later than August 10, 2012.

Information for Research Subjects Eligibility:

Interested participants must meet the following criteria:

3. Must be an instructional staff member of Hiram Johnson High School during the 2011- 2012 school-year.

If you meet the above criteria and interested in participating in the survey, please contact me using the contact information provided below.

Remuneration:

Location of the research and person to contact for further information:

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Appendix B: Consent Forms

Parent Consent Form Parent Initial:______

Drexel University Center for Graduates Studies Sacramento I understand that my child is being asked as a volunteer to participate in a doctor of education degree dissertation research to be conducted by Mr. Joe Liow at Drexel University Center for Graduate Studies Sacramento. A component of this dissertation research is to assess the acculturation level of high school students and conduct a correlation analysis for correlation between acculturation level and academic achievement. I also understand that this procedure is completely safe and is not associated with any know health risks. I understand that my child and I may not personally benefit (such as monetary compensation) from participating in this research. However, my child's assistance in the survey may yield results that will help develop deeper understanding of the acculturation process of our Iu Mien students. I understand that my child's transcript record for the 2011-2012 school-year will be used and that I give permission for the school district office to provide it to Mr. Joe Liow. To protect my child’s identity, Mr. Liow will use pseudo names and numbers to correspond my child to his/her academic records. I understand the project goal and purpose as it was explained to me and that if I have any questions about this research, I can contact Mr. Joe Liow at (916) 230-2113 or by email at [email protected]. I understand that I may decline or cease my child's participant in this study without any consequences. My signature below indicates that I have read this page and agree for my child to participate in the research. Signature:______Date:______List of Individual Authorized to Obtain Assent Name Title Day Phone # 24 Hr. Phone # Joe K. Liow Doctorial Candidate 916-230-2113 916-230-2113

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Administrative Consent Form Joe K. Liow Subject Initial:______9435 Rhone Valley Way Elk Grove, CA 95624 (916) 230-2113 [email protected] or [email protected]

April 27, 2012 Principal Felisberto Cedros: My name is Joe K. Liow, I am a doctor or education degree candidate at Drexel University Center for Graduate Studies Sacramento. I am writing to request permission to conduct my dissertation research with the Iu Mien students and instructional staff at your school from May 23 to June 30, 2012. A component of this dissertation research is to assess the acculturation level of high school students and conduct a correlation analysis between acculturation level and academic (GPA) achievement. Additionally, I will employ a self-rating Likert-type scale to the instructional staff to gather instructional pedagogy data relevant to multicultural education. This procedure is completely safe and is not associated with any know health risks. Your students and staff will not personally benefit from participating in this research. However, their assistance in the survey will help the school district develop deeper understanding of Iu Mien students and meet their academic learning needs thus closing the achievement gap. I will not collect personal information and will use pseudo names instead of the students' actual names. Furthermore, the students will not receive any monetary compensation for participating in this research. If you have any questions about this research, you may contact Mr. Joe Liow at (916) 230-2113 or by email at [email protected]. You may decline or cease your students' participant in this study without any consequences. Your signature below indicates that you have read this page and agree to allow your students to participate in the research. Please sign and date this letter if permission is granted for me to conduct the study at your high school. Thank you in advance for your support.

Respectfully, Joe Liow Subject Signature: ______Date: ______

List Individual Authorized to Obtained Consent Name Title Day Phone # 24 Hr. # Joe K. Liow Doctorial Candidate 916-230-2113 916-230-2113

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Assent Form Subject Initial:______Page 1 of 1 Drexel University Center for Graduates Studies Sacramento

I understand that I am being asked as a volunteer to participate in a doctor of education degree dissertation research to be conducted by Mr. Joe Liow at Drexel University Center for Graduate Studies Sacramento. A component of this dissertation research is to assess my acculturation level and conduct a correlation analysis for correlation between my acculturation level and academic achievement. I also understand that this procedure is completely safe and is not associated with any know health risks. I understand that I may not personally benefit (such as monetary compensation) from participating in this research. However, my assistance in the survey may yield results that will help develop deeper understanding of the acculturation process of our Iu Mien students. I understand that my academic records for the 2011-2012 school-year will be used and that I give permission for the school district office to provide it to Mr. Joe Liow. To protect my identity, Mr. Liow will use pseudo names and numbers to correspond my academic records with me. I understand the project goal and purpose as it has been explained to me. I understand that if I have any questions about this research, I can contact Mr. Joe Liow at (916) 230- 2113 or by email at [email protected]. My parents are aware of and given me permission to participate in this dissertation study. I also understand that I may decline or cease my participant in this study without any consequences. My signature below indicates that I have read this page and agree to participate in the research.

Signature:______Date:______List of Individual Authorized to Obtain Assent Name Title Day Phone # 24 Hr. Phone # Joe K. Liow Doctorial Candidate 916-230-2113 916-230-2113

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Staff Consent Form Subject’s Initial______Page 1 of 1 Drexel University Center for Graduates Studies Sacramento

Dear Hiram W. Johnson Instructional Staff: My name is Joe K. Liow, I am a doctor of education degree candidate at Drexel University Center for Graduate Studies Sacramento. I am writing to request your assistance with my dissertation research with the Iu Mien students at your school from May 23 to June 30, 2012. A component of this dissertation research is to provide an understanding of the classroom instructional pedagogy that directly impacts the academic success of your Iu Mien students. You are asked to complete the Likert-type self-rating scale soliciting instructional pedagogy relevant to multicultural education. This procedure is completely safe and is not associated with any know health risks. I will not collect personal information and will use pseudo names instead of your actual names. You will not personally benefit from participating in this research. However, your assistance in the survey and its results will help develop deeper understanding and greatly contribute to the education of Iu Mienh students. If you have any questions about this research, please contact me at (916) 230-2113 or by email at [email protected]. You may decline or cease your participation in this study without any consequences. Please sign and date this letter if you agreed to be part of my dissertation study. Thank you in advance for your support.

Respectfully,

Joe Liow Signature:______Date:______List Individual Authorized to Obtained Assent Name Title Day Phone # 24 Hr. # Joe K. Liow Doctorial Candidate 916-230-2113 916-230-2113

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Appendix C: East Asian Acculturation Measure

East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM), Barry (2001, p. 195) PURPOSE I am interested in studying how you as a Iu Mien student feel about the acculturation and assimilation process that you are experiencing as a high school student. Therefore, I am trying to assess your acculturation level (assimilation, separation, integration, or marginalization) through the use of the East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM), by Barry (2001). This can potentially deepen the understanding of the Iu Mien students’ culture. Ultimately, promote and support the academic learning needs of Iu Mien students by the school district.

PART I: INSTRUCTIONS Please rate your degree of agreement or disagreement by checking the box associated with each statement on each question in each category (assimilation, separation, integration, and marginalization). Thank you for you for your help.

Thank You For Helping Me

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East Asian Acculturation Measure (EAAM), Barry (2001, p. 195) Scale 1: ASSIMILATION Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Somewhat Strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. I write better in English than in my native language 2. When I am in my apartment/ho use, I typically speak English. 3. If I were asked to write poetry. I would prefer to write it in English. 4. I get along better with Americans than Asian. 5. I feel that American understand me better than Asians do. 6. I find it easier to communicate my feelings to Americans than to Asians. 7. I feel more comfortable socializing with Americans than I do with Asians. 8. Most of my friends at work/school are American.

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Scale 2: SEPARATION Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Somewhat Strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Most of the music I listen to is Asian.

2. My closes friends are Asian.

3. I prefer going to social gatherings where most of the people are Asian.

4. I feel that Asians treat me as an equal more so than Americans do.

5. I would prefer to go out on a date with an Asian than with an American.

6. I feel more relaxed when I am with an Asian than when I am with an American.

7. Asians should jot date non- Asians.

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Scale 3: INTEGRATION Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Somewhat Strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. I tell jokes both in English and in my native language

2. I think as well in English as I do in my native language.

3. I have both American and Asian friends.

4. I feel that both Asians and Americans value me.

5. I feel very comfortable around both Americans and Asians.

Scale 4: MARGINALIZATION Strongly Disagree Somewhat Neutral Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Somewhat Strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Generally, I find it difficult to socialize with anybody, Asian or American. 2. I sometimes feel that neither Americans nor Asians like me. 3. There are times when I think no one understands me. 4. I sometimes find it hard to communicate with people. 5. I sometimes find it hard to make friends. 6. Sometimes I feel that Asians and Americans do not accept me. 7. Sometimes I find it hard to trust both Americans and Asians. 8. I find that both Asians and Americans often have difficulty understanding me. 9. I find that I do not feel comfortable when I am with other people.

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Appendix D: Survey of School’s and Educator’s Culturally Responsive Beliefs

and Practices (Robinson, 2010)

SURVEY OF SCHOOL’S AND EDUCATOR’S CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE BELIEFS AND PRACTICES (Robinson, 2010) PURPOSE I am interested in studying how students of racial, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity (RCELD) are taught in schools. To gather information for this purpose, I am surveying the teaching staff at your high school about your culturally responsive beliefs and practices related to school climate, academic instruction, and collaboration. Thank you for participating in this project.

PART I: INSTRUCTIONS Please rate your degree of agreement or disagreement with each statement in each of the categories (school climate, academic instruction I and II, collaboration, and teacher information).

Thank You For Your Participation

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A. School Climate/Support

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No Basis Disagree Agree to Respond 1. My school makes little or no attempt to acknowledge and 1 2 3 4 NB celebrate diversity. 2. There is little or no administrative support or additional resources provided to address the needs of 1 2 3 4 NB students of RCELD. 3. Frequent and varied examples acknowledging and celebrating diversity are evident throughout 1 2 3 4 NB my school and in my classroom. 4. High expectations for the achievement of students of RCELD 1 2 3 4 NB are NOT maintained. 5. There is effective administrative support/advocacy including additional resources and the promotion of problem solving to 1 2 3 4 NB address the needs of students of RCELD on a regular basis. 6. High expectations for the achievement of students of RCELD are regularly maintained. 1 2 3 4 NB

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B. Academic Instruction (I)

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No Basis Disagree Agree to Respond

7. My school has NOT implemented a multi-tiered (e.g., prevention, intervention, and specialized 1 2 3 4 NB support) model of intervention services. 8. Consultation and direct services from specialists are provided on a regular and consistent basis to 1 2 3 4 NB assist in carrying out differentiated interventions for students of RCELD. 9. I believe some teachers at my high school provide differentiated intervention to students of 1 2 3 4 NB RCELD.

10. There is little or no differentiated instruction for students of RCELD in my classroom. 1 2 3 4 NB

11. I regularly provide differentiated instruction by making adaptions in the following areas as needed: 1 2 3 4 NB

(b) Content = what is taught, (b) process = how content is taught, (c) product = how students demonstrate content mastery, (d) affect = how students connect their thinking and feelings, and (e) learning environment = how the classroom is designed and students are grouped. 12. My school has implemented a multi-tiered model of intervention services and the extent of 1 2 3 4 NB differentiated interventions for students is significant.

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C. Academic Instruction (II)

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No Basis to Disagree Agree Respond 1. I do NOT use peer supports in my classroom. 1 2 3 4 NB 2. I regularly and explicitly teach learning strategies and thinking skills to students of racial, cultural, ethnic, 1 2 3 4 NB & linguistic diversity (RCELD) in my classroom. 3. I regularly use culturally responsive materials, content, and teaching practices in my classroom. 1 2 3 4 NB 6.

4. I regularly use peer supports in my classroom to empower my students to 1 2 3 4 NB take responsibility for their learning and to support t each other. 5. I rarely use culturally responsive materials, content, and teaching practices in my classroom. 1 2 3 4 NB 6. I rarely, if ever, provide a carefully planned system of instruction in learning strategies to students of 1 2 3 4 NB RCELD in my classroom.

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D. Collaboration

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No Basis Disagree Agree to Respond 1. There is extensive and effective collaboration between general 1 2 3 4 NB education teachers, special education teachers, and other support staff. 2. My school has made little or no effort to collaborate with families of students of RCELD. 1 2 3 4 NB

3. The prevailing attitude of school staff fosters extensive and effective collaborative interaction 1 2 3 4 NB between general education teachers, special education teachers, and other support staff. 4. There is little or no collaboration between general education 1 2 3 4 NB teachers, special education teachers, and other support staff (e.g., related services, ESL). 5. My school actively seeks involvement and decision making input from families of students of RCELD and is committed to 1 2 3 4 NB learning about the culture of those families and empowering them. 6. The prevailing attitude of school staff fosters isolation and little or no collaborative interaction 1 2 3 4 NB between general education teachers, special education teachers, and other support staff (e.g., related services, ESL).

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PART II: TEACHER INFORMATION Please complete the demographic questions. This information will be used for classification purposes only. All information will be kept confidential. 1. What is your current position? □ General Education Teacher □ Department Chair □ Teacher-in-charge/Lead Teacher

2. How many years have you been in the education profession?

□ Less than 5 years □ 5 years to 10 years □ More than 10 years

3. How many years have you been with the district?

□ Less than 5 years □ 5 years to 10 years □ More than 10 years

4. How many years have you taught in your current grade level?

□ Less than 5 years □ 5 years to 10 years □ More than 10 years

5. What grade level(s) do you teach? (check all that apply)

□ 9th grade □ 10th grade □ 11th grade □ 12th grade

6. What subject do you currently teach?

______

7. I serve on the following instructional/intervention team(s): (check all that apply)

□ Grade Level Team □ Problem-Solving Team (e.g., Leadership Team) □ Other ______□ I do not serve on any team

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8. I have learned about culturally-relevant practices or culturally-relevant practices pertinent to the Iu Mien student through: (check all that apply)

□ University coursework □ Professional development in general □ Professional development by school district representative □ Mentoring □ Website, blogs, wikis, and etc. □ Other______□ I have not learned about culturally relevant practices