WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
DELIVERABLE 7.1 Document 1. Report
ANALYSIS OF THE PRESENT CONTRIBUTION OF WATER RELATED ECOSYSTEM SERVICES TO THE HUMAN WELL-BEING AT THE WATER BODY SCALE
TECHNICAL DETAILS
Description: Report corresponding to the deliverable 7.1 of the Work Package 7: ECONOMY (Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065)
Elaboration: Francesc La Roca, Graciela Ferrer, Miquel Gual, Sherman Farhad (led by the University of Valencia)
Contact: Francesc La Roca ([email protected])
Delivery date: July 18th, 2011 / Revised version: December, 2011
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 1
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 2
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
INDEX
Figure captions ……………………………………………………………………………… 11 Table captions ………………………………………………………………………………. 15
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY …………………………………………………………………... 17
1 INTRODUCTION ...... 18
2 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES CONCEPT AND THEIR VALUATION ...... 18
2.1 Research approach ...... 25
3 ANOIA CASE STUDY ...... 29
3.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case ...... 29
3.2 Living in the basin. General social characterization ...... 32
3.2.1 The picture today ...... 32
3.2.1.1 Demography & settlement ...... 33
3.2.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services and domestic uses ...... 36
3.2.1.2.1 Drinking water provision ...... 36
3.2.1.2.2 Treatment of wastewater ...... 41
3.2.2 Main social changes (~1970-2010) ...... 43
3.2.2.1 Structure and lifestyle ...... 43
3.2.2.1.1 The Anoia county ...... 43
3.2.2.1.2 The Alt Penedès county inside the Anoia river basin: the Mediona- Anoia axis 44
3.2.2.1.3 The Baix Llobregat county inside the Anoia river basin: Martorell and its area of influence...... 45
3.3 Producing, exchanging and consuming ...... 47
3.3.1 The picture today ...... 47
3.3.1.1 Economic structure ...... 47
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 3
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
3.3.1.1.1 The Anoia county ...... 47
3.3.1.1.2 The Anoia lower river basin: The Alt Penedès county into the Anoia watershed 55
3.3.1.1.3 The Anoia mouth: Martorell ...... 57
3.3.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services for production and business ...... 57
3.3.2 Relevant economic changes since ~1970 ...... 58
3.3.2.1 Economic evolution ...... 58
3.4 Contribution of aquatic ecosystem services to the human wellbeing: a summary ...... 59
3.4.1 Provisioning ...... 59
3.4.1.1 Water for food crops ...... 59
3.4.1.2 Livestock farming ...... 59
3.4.1.3 Water for energy ...... 59
3.4.1.4 Fisheries ...... 59
3.4.1.5 Water for transportation ...... 59
3.4.1.6 Drinking and domestic uses ...... 59
3.4.1.7 Water for wood & fuel ...... 60
3.4.1.8 Water for industrial crops ...... 60
3.4.1.9 Water for other economic activities (Industry, Tourism…) ...... 60
3.4.2 Regulating ...... 60
3.4.2.1 Climate regulation ...... 60
3.4.2.2 Hydrological regimes ...... 61
3.4.2.3 Depuration ...... 61
3.4.2.4 Soil & sediment dynamics ...... 61
3.4.2.5 Extreme climatic events protection ...... 61
3.4.3 Habitat ...... 62
3.4.3.1 Maintenance of ecosystems integrity ...... 62
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 4
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
3.4.3.2 Maintenance of genetic heritage ...... 62
3.4.4 Cultural & Amenities ...... 62
3.4.4.1 Aesthetics ...... 62
3.4.4.2 Recreational ...... 62
3.4.4.3 Spiritual and inspirational ...... 63
3.4.4.4 Psychological benefit ...... 63
3.4.4.5 Educational & scientific ...... 63
4 NOGUERA DE TOR CASE STUDY ...... 65
4.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case ...... 65
4.2 Living in the basin. Social characterization (general) ...... 69
4.2.1 The picture today ...... 69
4.2.1.1 Demography & settlement ...... 69
4.2.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services and domestic uses ...... 72
4.2.1.2.1 Provisioning of drinking water ...... 72
4.2.1.2.2 Treatment of wastewater ...... 75
4.2.2 Main social changes (~1970-2010) ...... 76
4.2.2.1 Structure and lifestyle ...... 76
4.3 Producing, exchanging and consuming ...... 77
4.3.1 The picture today ...... 77
4.3.1.1 Economic structure ...... 77
4.3.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services for production and business ...... 82
4.3.2 Relevant economic changes since ~1970 ...... 84
4.3.2.1 Economic evolution ...... 84
4.3.2.2 Relation to aquatic ecosystems services ...... 85
4.3.2.2.1 Tourism pioneers ...... 85
4.3.2.2.2 Hydropower ...... 86
4.3.2.2.3 National park ...... 87
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 5
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
4.3.2.2.4 The snow and building business ...... 88
4.4 Contribution of aquatic ecosystem services to the human wellbeing: a summary ...... 89
4.4.1 Provisioning ...... 89
4.4.1.1 Water for food crops ...... 89
4.4.1.2 Livestock farming ...... 89
4.4.1.3 Water for energy ...... 89
4.4.1.4 Fisheries ...... 90
4.4.1.5 Water for transportation ...... 90
4.4.1.6 Drinking and domestic uses ...... 90
4.4.1.7 Water for wood & fuel ...... 90
4.4.1.8 Water for industrial crops ...... 90
4.4.1.9 Water for other economic activities (Industry, Tourism…) ...... 90
4.4.2 Regulating ...... 91
4.4.2.1 Climate regulation ...... 91
4.4.2.2 Hydrological regimes ...... 91
4.4.2.3 Depuration ...... 91
4.4.2.4 Soil & sediment dynamics ...... 91
4.4.2.5 Extreme climatic events protection ...... 92
4.4.3 Habitat ...... 92
4.4.3.1 Maintenance of ecosystems integrity ...... 92
4.4.3.2 Maintenance of genetic heritage ...... 92
4.4.4 Cultural & Amenities ...... 92
4.4.4.1 Aesthetics ...... 92
4.4.4.2 Recreational ...... 93
4.4.4.3 Spiritual and inspirational ...... 93
4.4.4.4 Psychological benefit ...... 93
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 6
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
4.4.4.5 Educational & scientific ...... 93
5 ARGA CASE STUDY ...... 95
5.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case ...... 95
5.2 Living in the basin. Social characterization (general) ...... 100
5.2.1 The picture today ...... 100
5.2.1.1 Demography & settlement ...... 100
5.2.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services and domestic uses ...... 103
5.2.1.2.1 Water supply ...... 103
5.2.1.2.2 Wastewater treatment ...... 106
5.2.1.2.3 Fishing...... 108
5.3 Producing, exchanging and consuming ...... 111
5.3.1 The picture today ...... 111
5.3.1.1 Economic structure ...... 111
5.3.1.1.1 Agriculture ...... 114
5.3.1.1.2 Industry ...... 116
5.3.1.1.3 Energy ...... 120
5.3.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services for production and business ...... 123
5.3.2 Relevant economic changes since ~1970 ...... 123
5.3.2.1 Economic evolution ...... 123
5.4 Contribution of aquatic ecosystem services to the human wellbeing: a summary ...... 125
5.4.1 Provisioning ...... 125
5.4.1.1 Water for food crops ...... 125
5.4.1.2 Livestock farming ...... 125
5.4.1.3 Water for energy ...... 125
5.4.1.4 Fisheries ...... 126
5.4.1.5 Water for transportation ...... 126
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 7
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
5.4.1.6 Drinking and domestic uses ...... 126
5.4.1.7 Water for wood & fuel ...... 126
5.4.1.8 Water for industrial crops ...... 126
5.4.1.9 Water for other economic activities (Industry, Tourism…) ...... 126
5.4.2 Regulating ...... 127
5.4.2.1 Climate regulation ...... 127
5.4.2.2 Hydrological regimes ...... 127
5.4.2.3 Depuration ...... 127
5.4.2.4 Soil & sediment dynamics ...... 127
5.4.2.5 Extreme climatic events protection ...... 127
5.4.3 Habitat ...... 128
5.4.3.1 Maintenance of ecosystems integrity ...... 128
5.4.3.2 Maintenance of genetic heritage ...... 128
5.4.4 Cultural & Amenities ...... 128
5.4.4.1 Aesthetics ...... 128
5.4.4.2 Recreational ...... 128
5.4.4.3 Spiritual and inspirational ...... 129
5.4.4.4 Psychological benefit ...... 129
5.4.4.5 Educational & scientific ...... 129
6 ISLA MAYOR CASE STUDY ...... 131
6.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case ...... 131
6.2 Living in the river basin ...... 133
6.2.1 The picture today ...... 133
6.2.1.1 Demography & settlement ...... 133
6.2.2 Main social changes (~1970-2010) ...... 134
6.2.2.1 Demography & settlement ...... 134
6.3 Producing, exchanging and consuming ...... 136
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 8
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
6.3.1 The picture today ...... 136
6.3.1.1 Economic structure ...... 136
6.3.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services for production and business ...... 138
6.3.1.2.1 Main biophysical characteristics of the river-basin site ...... 139
6.4 Main social actors ...... 146
6.5 Contribution of aquatic ecosystem services to the human wellbeing: a summary ...... 147
6.5.1 Provisioning ...... 148
6.5.1.1 Water for food crops ...... 148
6.5.1.2 Livestock farming ...... 148
6.5.1.3 Water for energy ...... 148
6.5.1.4 Fisheries ...... 148
6.5.1.5 Water for transportation ...... 148
6.5.1.6 Drinking and domestic uses ...... 148
6.5.1.7 Water for wood & fuel ...... 148
6.5.1.8 Water for industrial crops ...... 149
6.5.1.9 Water for other economic activities (Industry, Tourism…) ...... 149
6.5.2 Regulating ...... 149
6.5.2.1 Climate regulation ...... 149
6.5.2.2 Hydrological regimes ...... 149
6.5.2.3 Depuration ...... 149
6.5.2.4 Soil & sediment dynamics ...... 149
6.5.2.5 Extreme climatic events protection ...... 149
6.5.3 Habitat ...... 150
6.5.3.1 Maintenance of ecosystems integrity ...... 150
6.5.3.2 Maintenance of genetic heritage ...... 150
6.5.4 Cultural & Amenities ...... 150
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 9
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
6.5.4.1 Aesthetics ...... 150
6.5.4.2 Recreational ...... 150
6.5.4.3 Spiritual and inspirational ...... 150
6.5.4.4 Psychological benefit ...... 150
6.5.4.5 Educational & scientific ...... 151
7 JUCAR LOWER RIVER BASIN CASE STUDY...... 152
7.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case ...... 152
7.2 Living in the Jucar floodplain ...... 156
7.3 Evolution of land use during the last 20 years ...... 159
7.4 The current configuration of flooding risk in the Jucar floodplain ...... 167
7.5 Economic structure ...... 171
7.6 The flooding protection service ...... 172
8 FINAL REMARKS ...... 173
9 REFERENCES ...... 175
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 10
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
Figure captions Figure 1. Template ...... 28 Figure 2. The Anoia river basin ...... 29 Figure 3. The longitudinal profile of the Anoia river ...... 30 Figure 4. Anoia river basin’s water bodies with their basins (several colours) and main urban settlements (in black) ...... 32 Figure 5. Counties territories overlapping (orange) the Anoia river basin (stripped, lighter shade)...... 35 Figure 6. Seasonal variation of daily water consumption and of population, at municipal level, for the year 2008...... 37 Figure 7. Delimitation of the Carme-Capellades aquifer, including its recharging zone (P1) and discharging zone (P2), both zones are overexploited (ACA 2007)...... 38 Figure 8. Demonstration at the empty Bassa de Capellades (November 2001) ...... 39 Figure 9. Anoia’s water supply network from the Ter-Llobregat system ...... 40 Figure 10. ACA’s evaluation of risk of not meeting the WFD’s objectives by 2015 due to urban wastewater pressures on the Anoia river basin water bodies...... 42 Figure 11. Population evolution in the Anoia county, grouped by urban subsystems, 1877-2001 ...... 43 Figure 12. Population evolution in the Mediona-Anoia subsystem, 1990-2009 ...... 44 Figure 13. Evolution of population in the Baix Llobregat county municipalities included into the Anoia river basin, 1900-2010 ...... 46 Figure 14. Evolution of the population growth rate in the Baix Llobregat county municipalities included into the Anoia river basin, 1900-2010 ...... 46 Figure 15. Territorial distribution agrarian surface and of crops in the Anoia river basin, 1999 ...... 48 Figure 16. Evolution of Anoia county’s total occupied population and occupation per economic sector (2000-2008), in percentages ...... 49 Figure 17. Evolution of dwellings and their use, 1991-2010 ...... 50 Figure 18. Evolution of annual finished and under construction houses, 1992-2010 ... 51 Figure 19. Comparison of territorial distribution of housing in 2001 and 2010 ...... 52 Figure 20. Comparison of the sectoral distribution of industrial occupation in 1978 and 2008 ...... 53 Figure 21. Comparison of the Anoia county’s industrial specialization coefficients in 1978 and 2008 ...... 55
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 11
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
Figure 22. Location of the Noguera de Tor river basin in the context of the Catalonian Region ...... 65 Figure 23. Noguera de Tor river basin’s water bodies (several colours) and main human settlements (in red) ...... 67 Figure 24. Mean annual values of the main climatic variables: precipitation, temperature and evapotranspiration ...... 68 Figure 25. The Noguera de Tor river basin (striped) and the Alta Ribagorça territory (orange) ...... 69 Figure 26. Evolution of the Alta Ribargoçana county’s population, 1900-2010 ...... 76 Figure 27. Use of Noguera de Tor water resources for hydropower production...... 82 Figure 28. Topographical model of the Arga river basin, including main rivers and streams, reservoirs and urban settlements of more than 30 people...... 95 Figure 29. Main towns and cities located in the Arga river basin ...... 96 Figure 30. Mean annual values of the main climatic variables: precipitation, temperature and evapotranspiration ...... 97 Figure 31. Water bodies that conform the Arga river basin ...... 98 Figure 32. Geographical distribution of ecotypes through the Arga basin...... 99 Figure 33. Map of hydrogeological water bodies in the Arga river basin ...... 100 Figure 34. Territorial distribution of municipal population in the Arga river basin, 2005 ...... 101 Figure 35. Evolution of population in the Arga river basin, 1900-2005 ...... 102 Figure 36. Evolution of population in Pamplona municipality, 1900-2005 ...... 102 Figure 37. Territorial distribution of the municipal population variation between 1900- 2005 ...... 103 Figure 38. Geographical location of drinking water intakes in the Arga river basin .... 105 Figure 39. Geographical distribution of wastewater treatment plants in the Arga river basin ...... 108 Figure 40. Official fishing zoning of the Navarra region ...... 109 Figure 41. Official fishing zoning of the Arga river sub-basin ...... 110 Figure 42. Official fishing zoning of the Arakil river sub-basin ...... 111 Figure 43. Territorial distribution of jobs in the Navarra region and number of workers as percentage of the municipal population, 2008 ...... 113 Figure 44. Land use of the Arga river basin, 2000 ...... 115
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 12
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
Figure 45. Distribution of irrigated land in the Arga river basin according to cadastral registers, 2006 ...... 116 Figure 46. Number of the main Navarre industrial firms in the Arga river basin, classified per industrial activity ...... 118 Figure 47. Geographical distribution of the main Navarre industrial areas grouped per industrial activity ...... 119 Figure 48. Entrepreneurial structure of the Arga river basin, 2003 ...... 120 Figure 49. Geographical distribution of hydropower plants in the Arga river basin .... 122 Figure 50. Overlapping of the provincial structure on the Guadalquivir river basin territory ...... 131 Figure 51. Social uses of water ...... 132 Figure 52. Location of Isla Mayor ...... 133 Figure 53. Population growth in Puebla del Río (including Isla Mayor) ...... 135 Figure 54. Isla Mayor rice paddies (2006) ...... 137 Figure 55. Rice-producing municipalities in the province of Seville ...... 138 Figure 56. The Guadalquivir estuary ...... 139 Figure 57. Components of the biogeochemical cycle ...... 142 Figure 58. Fish species in the Guadalquivir estuary (caught during study 2008) ...... 143 Figure 59. Relative abundance of different fish species in the estuary ...... 144 Figure 60. Land use in rice paddies and relative presence of avifauna ...... 145 Figure 61 “Fangueo” of a rice paddy and presence of birds ...... 146 Figure 62. Main hydrological network, towns and infrastructures in the Jucar’s coastal valley...... 153 Figure 63. Map of the flooded area generated by the Jucar river flash-flood in 1982 155 Figure 64. Municipalities areas inside the Jucar floodplain ...... 157 Figure 65. Main urban settlements inside the Jucar’s floodplain ...... 158 Figure 66. Population evolution in the main urban settlements of the Jucar’s floodplain, 1960-2010 ...... 158 Figure 67. Land use pattern in 1990 ...... 160 Figure 68. Land use pattern in 2000 ...... 161 Figure 69. Land use pattern in 2006 ...... 162 Figure 70. Detail of land use of the coastal zone at the South of the Jucar mouth and a simulated flood with a return period of 250 years...... 163
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 13
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
Figure 71. Composition of topographic maps corresponding to the Jucar floodplain in the Ribera Alta County, middle of the XXth century...... 165 Figure 72. Composition of topographic maps corresponding to the Jucar floodplain in the Ribera Alta County, beginning of the XXIst century ...... 166 Figure 73. Land use in 1990 and water heights of a Jucar flood with 100 years as return period...... 167 Figure 74. Land use in 2000 and water heights of a Jucar flood with 100 years as return period...... 168 Figure 75. Land use 2006 and water heights of a Jucar flood with 100 years as return period...... 168 Figure 76. Comparison of three models’s estimations of areas affected by different levels of flooding risk in the Jucar floodplain ...... 169 Figure 77. The most recent map of flooding risk, model GUAD 2D (2008)...... 170
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 14
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
Table captions
Table 1. Summary and comparison of existing epistemological, theoretical and methodological approaches to ecosystem services and their valuation...... 24 Table 2. Results of the selection of case studies under the criteria applied ...... 25 Table 3. Checklist of water related ecosystem services ...... 27 Table 4. Population in municipalities included in the Anoia river basin (year 2010) ..... 34 Table 5. Annual water supply from the Ter-Llobregat system to municipalities in the Anoia River basin, 2003-2008 ...... 41 Table 6. Operative wastewater treatment plants in the Anoia river basin ...... 42 Table 7. Anoia county’s gross added value at basic prices, per economic sectors, in percentages ...... 50 Table 8. Comparison of the economic structure of the Mediona-Anoia subsystem with that of Alt Penedès county in which it is contained, 2001 ...... 56 Table 9. Anoia River Basin Ecosystem Services ...... 64 Table 10. Territorial distribution of familiar houses, resident and seasonal population in Noguera de Tor river basin, 2008...... 72 Table 11. Inventory of drinking water supply facilities in the Noguera de Tor river basin, 2008 ...... 73 Table 12. Estimation of average daily water consumption of villages in summer and winter, 2008 ...... 73 Table 13. Villages served and storage capacity of Vall de Boí’s drinking water reservoirs ...... 74 Table 14. Structure of the annual fee for drinking water use corresponding to the year 2010 ...... 74 Table 15. . Main features of the wastewater treatment plans in the Noguera de Tor river basin ...... 75 Table 16. Alta Ribagorça county’s gross domestic product at market prices (GDP), 2001 and 2006 ...... 78 Table 17. Economic structure of the Alta Ribagorça county, 2006 ...... 78 Table 18. Detailed branch structure of industrial and services sectors of the Alta Ribagorça county, 2006 ...... 78 Table 19. Economic structure of Pont the Suert municipality, 2006 ...... 79
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 15
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
Table 20. Comparison of jobs per economic sector in the municipality of Vall de Boí and in the Alta Ribagorça county ...... 80 Table 21. Number of economic activities per sectors and indexes of economic activity for the municipalities of Vall de Boí and Pont de Suert, 2009 ...... 80 Table 22. Lodging capacity in the Vall de Boí municipality as compared to that of Alta Ribagorça county ...... 81 Table 23. Hydropower production facilities in the Noguera de Tor river basin ...... 81 Table 24. Noguera de Tor River Basin Ecosystem Services ...... 94 Table 25. Water resources in the Arga river basin ...... 98 Table 26. Drinking water supply entities in the Arga river basin ...... 104 Table 27. Wastewater treatment plants in the Arga river basin ...... 107 Table 28 The available fishable species in Navarre rivers cover native and invasive species...... 111 Table 29. Geographic distribution of the most important Navarre firms per economic sector, 2009 ...... 112 Table 30. Employees in economic sectors in the Arga river basin, 2006 ...... 112 Table 31. Dimension and sectoral structure of the Navarre economy ...... 113 Table 32. Territorial and sectoral distribution of the main Navarre industrial firms based in the Arga river basin, 2009 ...... 117 Table 33. Hydropower plants in the Arga river basin, 2003 ...... 121 Table 34. Arga River Basin Ecosystem Services ...... 130 Table 35. Comparison of Guadalquivir estuary with the most relevant rivers ...... 141 Table 36. Arga River Basin Ecosystem Services ...... 151 Table 37. Muncipal areas inside the Jucar floodplain ...... 157 Table 38. Evolution of the main categories of land use in the Jucar’s floodplain, 1990- 2006 ...... 159 Table 39. Evolution of the land use pattern in the Jucar’s floodplain, 1990-2006 ...... 159 Table 40. Official classification of the flooding risk levels ...... 169 Table 41. Number of workers (x1000) per sector. Ribera Alta, Ribera Baixa, Comunitat Valenciana and Spain. 2007 ...... 171
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 16
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report, as an intermediate deliverable in a relative early phase of the project (month 18), is intended to provide a proof of the research’s advance, more precisely of work package 7 Economy, but also, and more relevant, to put the basis for (continuing) the discussion with other members of the team, not directly involved in WP7.
This paper is structured in two main parts: the first one, more theoretical and addressed to the concept of ecosystem services and the approach to their study; the second one, contains an analysis of the present contribution of water related ecosystem services to the human well-being at the water body scale in the different cases selected for their study: Anoia river basin, Noguera de Tor river basin, Arga river basin, Jucar Lower river basin, and Isla Mayor (Guadalquivir’s Estuary).
Findings are presented aggregated for each case study area.
The structure of case studies have tried to account for the differences in the availability of information and methodological approach of the two wide fields in which ecosystem services contribution to human well-being was conceived. That is, the human appropriation of ecosystem services through the standard economic frame -i.e. the production, exchange and consumption system-, on the one hand, and the ecosystem’s contribution to human wellbeing performed outside of the abovementioned system, on the other one.
The report has been drafted basing primarily on published information and some secondary literature. A direct knowledge of the basins, with different degrees of depth, exists in all cases, gathered through visits to the territory and the contact with key informants (except in the case of the Noguera de Tor, where till now no contact has been initiated).
Department for Applied Economics, University of Valencia. Campus dels Tarongers, Av. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 València. Tel. 34 963828418- Fax. 34 963828415 17
WP7: ECONOMY
Assessing and predicting effects on water quantity and quality in Iberian rivers caused by global change (2009-2014). Consolider-Ingenio 2010 CSD2009-00065
1 INTRODUCTION
This document, as an intermediate deliverable in a relative early phase of the project (month 18), is intended to provide a proof of the research’s advance, more precisely of work package 7 Economy, but also, and more relevant, to put the basis for (continuing) the discussion with other members of the team, not directly involved in WP7.
This document is structured in two main parts: the first one, more theoretical and addressed to the concept of ecosystem services and the approach to their study; the second one, constituted by the research’s findings in the selected five case studies.
2 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES CONCEPT AND THEIR VALUATION
An ecosystem is a dynamic complex formed by the interaction of living organisms (biotic factors) with their physical environment (abiotic factors) as a functional unit (United Nations [UN], 1992). When present, humans are, of course, part of the biotic factors in ecosystems, and so included in this definition. However, given that human societies have become such a strong selection force in ecosystem change, in this paper we will make a distinction between socio-systems and ecosystems in order to improve our understanding of how human activities have an effect on ecosystem dynamics and, in turn, how (socio)-ecosystem dynamics (and processes) generate ecosystem services valuable for human societies. In a broad sense, ecosystem services have been defined as “the benefits people obtain from ecosystems” (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MEA], 2005a: 49), or “the direct or indirect contributions ecosystems make to the well-being of human populations” (US Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] Science Advisory Board [EPA-SAB], 2009).
These valuable ecosystem services have been functionally organized as (MEA, 2005b):
Provisioning services. Including all products obtained from ecosystems such as food, fresh water, fuel-wood, fiber, bio-chemicals, and genetic resources.
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Regulating services. Referred to benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes such as, climate regulation, disease regulation, water regulation, water purification, and pollination.
Cultural services. Referred to nonmaterial benefits obtained from ecosystems: spiritual and religious, recreation and ecotourism, aesthetics, inspirational, educational, sense of place, and cultural heritage.
Supporting services. Those necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services, including: soil formation, nutrient cycling and primary production.
The institutions and researchers proposing these definitions recognize that “the importance of ecosystems goes beyond their role for human well-being. Non-utilitarian sources of value must also be taken into consideration in order to make appropriate management decisions” (MEA, 2005a: 147). Nonetheless, their working definitions of ecosystem services are instrumental and exclusively based on anthropocentric ethics. This raises an important question about the validity of other ethics and epistemologies in valuation problems. Faber et al, (2002: 376) note that “the value of any action or object is measured by its contribution to maintaining the health and integrity of an ecosystem or species, per se, irrespective of human satisfaction”. This bio-ethical proposal makes us reconsider the working definition of ecosystem services as the contribution of ecosystems to the evolutionary viability of life on Earth, including human life and well-being. This new definition complicates our analysis since conflicts arise, for instance, between the value of conservation and the value of provisioning services. Furthermore, feedbacks, provoked by the provision of different services, travel through scales (time and space) making the assessment of their impact on human well-being more difficult to assess. Here, it is also important to put forward the problems of linear thinking with regards to short-term and long-term benefits. For instance, the short-term economic value of food production as an ecosystem service (accounted as beneficial for human well-being), might not only be detrimental for the continuity of certain ecosystem characteristics, but in the long-term might turn out to be also detrimental for human well-being.
Human valuation of resources and services provided by ecosystems has varied significantly throughout history. The perception of human benefits gained from natural resources and services, the time horizon and the individual/collective character of
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The development of human civilization has been based on its ability to identify relevant ecological processes and structures for the provision of ecosystem goods and services considered “valuable” and to intervene on them for enhance such ecosystem goods and services. This has been possible through the ever-increasing exploitation capabilities of innovation-based technologies. As ecosystems structures and processes are complex, nested, overlapped, adaptive and running at different time and spatial scales (Gunderson et al. 1995, Allen and Holling 2010, Kay et al. 1999, Gual and Norgaard 2010, Walker et al. 2004), the intensified use or conservation of a subset of ecosystem goods or services can give rise to unforeseen and/or undesirable side- effects due to interactions with more basic ecosystem functions (Holling 1996, Kay et al. 1999, Chu et al. 2003, Wilson 2002). This, in turn, could affect the provision of “valuable” ecosystem services to humans, now or in the future (Chu et al. 2003). In managing ecosystem services, trade-offs with Nature’s provision of other ecosystem services are made. Even time trade-offs for one ecosystem service could take place if ecosystem resilience is lost (Holling 1996, Holling and Gunderson 2002). Sustainable management of social-ecological systems requires taking into account these trade-offs and cautiously managing them having in mind their inherent uncertainty (Faber et al. 1996, Walters 1986, Funtowicz and Ravetz, 1993, Mayumi and Giampietro 2001) as well as their socio-economic, institutional and ecological context (Fisher et al. 2009, Ostrom et al. 2007).
These time-lags and feedbacks are very difficult to deal with, and almost impossible to incorporate in single metric paradigms. For this reason, we intend to follow a pluralistic perspective and a post-normal science approach to the valuation of ecosystem services. Funtowitz and Ravetz (1991) introduced the concept of post-normal science as a way of reconciling “normal science” as described by Kuhn (1962), with the need to address new global situations characterized by high uncertainty and high stakes. They put forward at least four elements of a post-normal science (Funtowicz and Ravetz,
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1994): (1) the scientific management of uncertainty, (2) the appropriate management of science quality, (3) the plurality of perspectives and commitments, and (4) the intellectual and social structures that reflect the varied sorts of problem-solving activities. All these elements are of particular importance when trying to assess the value of ecosystem services in the realm of climate change scenarios at a river basin scale. The Table 1 summarizes and compares the existing epistemological, theoretical and methodological approaches to ecosystem services and their valuation.
Epistemological level Axiomatic approach Complex Systems approach Ecosystem services can be “perfectly” identified, The ability to detect and isolate policy relevant isolated and valued by “perfectly” knowledgeable ecosystem services, depends on our knowledge and rational human beings in an “uncertainty free” about the complex interactions within ecosystems context. (socio-ecosystems). Their valuation requires multiple languages and metrics, since humans are incapable of “rational” outputs in presence of slight uncertainty (Simon, 1980). Only Anthropocentric mechanistic perspectives Anthropocentric and ecocentric complex systems perspectives “the economic value of resource-environment Mauss (1954: 3) “…what they exchange is not systems resides in the contributions that the exclusively goods and wealth, real and personal ecosystem functions and services make to human property, and things of economic value. They well-being” (Freeman, 2003) exchange rather courtesies, entertainments, ritual, military assistance, women, children, dances, and feasts; and fairs in which market is but one element and the circulation of wealth but one part of a wide and enduring contract” “The final outputs of these systems – final Norgaard (2010:1220): “The ecosystem service ecosystem services – are biophysical outcomes metaphor now blinds us to the complexity of which directly enhance the welfare of at least one natural systems, the ecological knowledge human beneficiary” (Johnston and Russell, available to work with that complexity, and the 2011:2244). amount of effort, or transaction costs, necessary to seriously and effectively engage with ecosystem management” (…) “…ecology in fact is very rich and that much of the ecology we know does not support the ecosystem service perspective (…). An emphasis on interpreting and responding through a stock-flow framework sets other patterns of understanding off to the side and increases the
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likelihood of making serious mistakes. The ecosystem service perspective suggests we can achieve gains by further fine-tuning along our current path while the heterogeneity of ecological knowledge questions the current course.”
Mcauley (2006:28): “To make ecosystem services the foundation of our conservation strategies is to imply (…) that nature is only worth conserving when it is, or can be made, profitable (…) How can we protect nature from liquidation?” (…) “Are there socially viable paths for conservationists besides the commodification of nature? Yes. Nature has an intrinsic value that makes it priceless, and this is reason enough to protect it” Kosoy and Corbera (2010: 1231): “commodity fetishism consists of itemising ecosystem services for the purpose of monetary valuation and exchange, thus obscuring ecosystems’ complexity and establishing boundaries within ecosystems which are difficult, if not impossible to draw”.
Theoretical approach to valuation Utility theory Heterodox approach to valuation Total Economic Value. Biophysical metrics, Direct economic values, Ability to detect changes in the provision of the socio-cultural values, Context dependent service and, thus, on utility. valuation, Deliberative valuation. Main assumptions: commensurability of values, Main assumptions: Weak commensurability of stability of variables, all utility assumptions values (Martínez-Alier et al, 1998), relevance of (completeness, transitivity, convexity, …) existing power structures and lobbies, distributional issues, institutional settings (Muradian et al, 2010; Martínez-Alier, 2004) Only Risk is considered (uncertainty is transformed Treatment of risk, uncertainty and ignorance into risk through discount rates or by probability (Funtowicz and Ravetz, 1991, 1994) proxies). “For biophysical outcome h to serve as an Critique to “utility theory”, (Khaneman, 2003a:165): ecosystem service for beneficiary j, changes in h “The evidence of grave deficiencies in taste must influence the welfare of beneficiary j, so that a prediction appears to pose a significant challenge fully informed, rational beneficiary j would be willing to many applications of the rational-agent model, to pay for increases in h rather than go without.” (…) If these agents do not necessarily maximize
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(Johnston and Russell, 2011:2245) the quality of their outcomes, then choice is no longer the sole relevant measure of utility” Consistent experimental evidence shows the breaking down of the most fundamental assumptions behind the theoretical constructs of Demand curves. These include (Kahneman, 2003b): violations of monotonicity where, for instance, value choices change with visual recognition of objects; scope and duration neglects reflecting dimensional restrictions in the assessment of economic values; or violations of dominance suggesting the intuitive character of value choices. “For endpoint h to serve as a final ecosystem "Game theory experiments and laboratory results service for rational beneficiary j, the beneficiary involving actual human behaviour have cast doubt must be willing to pay for increases in h, assuming on the general validity of the neoclassical rational that all other ecosystem outputs and conditions i ≠ actor. These findings indicate that preferences are h are held constant.” (Johnston and Russell, endogenous, that is, they depend on social 2011:2246) context, individual histories, and conscious preference development (…), the Rational Actor Model is not a good predictor of human behavior" (Gowdy & Erikson 2005: 214) Four elements of a post-normal science (Funtowicz and Ravetz, 1994): (1) the scientific management of uncertainty, (2) the appropriate management of quality, (3) the plurality of perspectives and commitments, and (4) the intellectual and social structures that reflect the varied sorts of problem-solving activities. Faber et al, (2002: 376) note that “the value of any action or object is measured by its contribution to maintaining the health and integrity of an ecosystem or species, per se, irrespective of human satisfaction” Methodological level Utility functions, Cost-benefit Analysis (Net Present Multiple criteria Analysis, Ethnographies, Value), travel cost method, hedonic pricing, deliberative scenarios, heritage approaches, direct contingent valuation, choice modelling. economic values (NPV?) PES Schemes “…monetary values are highly attractive because “Attaching explicit (monetary) values to things can
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they allow for comparisons with financial costs on provide rational basis for ignoring them” (Marris, the basis of single currency (…). Even incomplete 2009:pp) valuation not covering the full range of ecosystem As Robertson (2006: 382) points out, “the scientific services can provide useful information for decision techniques for the metrical evaluation of makers (…). Values that are not overtly part of a commodities in even the oldest ecosystem service financial equation are too often ignored.” (Brink, P., market have not reached the level of stability Berghöfer, A. et al, 2009: 10). expected in most commodity markets. The difference between selling ecosystem services and “Prices are only useful indicators of changes in selling loaves of bread is that legal and capital resource scarcity if they capture all significant logics require information about ecosystem effects of resource use.” (Kinzig et al., 2011:603) services that scientists cannot provide in an uncontroversial way” “This process of commodification (i.e. the transformation of goods and services into objects meant for trading commodities) involves three necessary stages. First, it involves narrowing down an ecological function to the level of an ecosystem service, hence separating the latter from the whole ecosystem. Second, it assigns a single exchange-value to this service and, third, it links ‘providers’ and ‘consumers’ of these services in market or market-like exchanges.” (Kosoy and Corbera, 2010: 1229) “To date, EPA analyses have primarily sought to measure economic values, as required by some statutes and executive orders. However, the committee believes that information based on other concepts of value can also be an important input into Agency decisions affecting ecosystems. Recognizing the significance of multiple concepts of value is an important first step in valuing the protection of ecological systems and services.” (EPA-SAB, 2009: 15) “Where it is not possible to use prices as indicators of the scarcity of ESs we need other metrics. Physical indicators of the state of ecosystems need to be integrated” (Kinzig et al., 2011:604) Table 1. Summary and comparison of existing epistemological, theoretical and methodological approaches to ecosystem services and their valuation. Source: elaborated from several authors (see the section of References)
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2.1 Research approach The SCARCE WP 7 team has adopted a complexity based analytical approach for investigating ecosystem services’ contribution to human well-being.
Having in mind the contextual feature of ecosystem services, a case study approach has been adopted.
The first criterion considered in the case selection process was the distribution among the four great basins chosen for the SCARCE project: Llobregat, Ebro, Júcar (or Xúquer) and Guadalquivir. In second place, different criteria of size, social complexity and basin completeness were introduced (Table 2).
Case Anoia Noguera de Arga Baix Isla Mayor (Llobregat) Tor (Ebro) Xúquer (Guadalquivir) Criterion (Ebro) (Júcar) Size Medium Small Medium Does not Small apply Complexity High Reduced High High Reduced Completeness Yes Yes Yes No No One/all All All All One All services Table 2. Results of the selection of case studies under the criteria applied
Following the size criteria we have determined small and medium cases, dismissing the big basins for the difficult to manage them without obtaining better results. Small cases allow for an in deep view of some microprocesses, but having, in principle, simpler relationships to analyse.
Complexity increases a priori with the dimension of the case. Greater diversity of socioeconomic activities and a wider variety of ecological situations can be found when studying medium sub-basins. The extension to larger basins would not add but more information treatment needs without providing substantial benefits to the research.
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Relevant to the analysis is taking into account a full set of interrelations which are present in a basin. The reduced scale –either for focusing on a small space or on a single service- does not allow for the complete appraisal of these relationships, which were considered relevant to the project. For this reason part of the cases were defined as complete (sub)basins.
The final outcome is that we have two comparable (medium sized) full basin cases – Anoia and Arga-, two small cases –Noguera de Tor and Isla Mayor- and one single- service case –Baix Xúquer.
The Baix Xúquer case study has been selected because it allows studying the relevance and complexity associated to the provision of flooding protection river basin services in a Mediterranean large coastal flood-plain.
The analysis carried out in each case-study has been based on a socio-economic appraisal linked to water ecosystem services. To do so, a water ecosystem services’ checklist (Table 3) has been elaborated taking as reference precedent research on ecosystem services (MEA, 2005; Brink, Berghöfer et al., 2009; Ranganathan et al. 2008).
The document contains the analysis of the present contribution of water related ecosystem services to the human well-being at the water body scale in the different cases selected for their study. Findings are presented aggregated for each case study area.
The originally proposed working template (Figure 1) tried to account for the differences in the availability of information and methodological approach of the two wide fields in which ecosystem services contribution to human well-being was conceived. That is, the human appropriation of ecosystem services through the standard economic frame -i.e. the production, exchange and consumption system-, on the one hand, and the ecosystem’s contribution to human wellbeing performed outside of the abovementioned system, on the other one.
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Type of ecosystem service Ecosystem service Provision services Water for food crops Livestock farming Water for energy Fisheries Water for transportation Drinking and domestic uses Water for wood & fuel Water for industrial crops Water for other economic activities (Industry, Tourism, …) Regulation services Climate regulation Hydrological regimes Self-depuration Soil & sediment dynamics Extreme climatic events protection Habitat services Maintenance of ecosystems integrity Maintenance of genetic heritage Cultural services Aesthetics Recreational Spiritual and inspirational Psychological benefit Educational & scientific Table 3. Checklist of water related ecosystem services Source: elaborated from MEA, 2005; Brink, Berghöfer et al., 2009; Ranganathan et al. 2008.
The report has been drafted basing primarily on published information and some secondary literature. A direct knowledge of the basins, with different degrees of depth, exists in all cases, gathered through visits to the territory and the contact with key informants (except in the case of the Noguera de Tor, where till now no contact has been initiated).
The document we present here covers points 1 to 3 of the template, leaving point 4, the identification of relevant social actors, power relations and governance for being treated once the local scenarios are defined.
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1. General description of the area and relevance of the case 2. Living in the basin. Social characterization (general) 2.1 The picture today 2.1.1 Demography & settlement 2.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services and domestic uses 2.2 Main social changes (~1970-2010) 2.2.1 Structure and lifestyle 2.2.2 Relation to aquatic ecosystems services 2.3 Looking at the future 3. Producing, exchanging and consuming 3.1 The picture today 3.1.1 Economic structure 3.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services for production and business 3.2 Relevant economic changes since ~1970 3.2.1 Economic evolution 3.2.1 Relation to aquatic ecosystems services 3.3 Looking at the future 4. Social actors, power and governance Figure 1. Template
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3 ANOIA CASE STUDY 3.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case The Anoia river basin is located in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, belonging almost integrally to the Barcelona province. This river is a tributary of the Llobregat river, flowing into it by the town of Martorell. The Anoia river flows from the Depresión Central Catalana in direction northeast-southeast, goes through the Cordillera Prelitoral up to Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, and in the Depresión Prelitoral changes its direction flowing in southwest-northeast direction up to its confluence into the Llobregat river, by Martorell.
IGUALADA
MARTORELL
Figure 2. The Anoia river basin Source: elaborated from Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino’s Spatial Data Infrastructure (2011) and Instituto Geográfico Nacional’s Aereal Ortophotography National Plan (2011).
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The confluence of small streams gives rise to the beginning of the Anoia river in the plateau of Calaf, Montmaneu and Argençola, located between the 600-800 m of altitude, between the Llobregat and Segre river basins. This area is the main recharging zone inside the Depresión Central Catalana.
The Anoia river basin covers an area of 930 km2 (Institut Cartogràfic de Catalunya, 2011) and the Anoia river has a length of 65 km. The river flows from an altitude of around 700 m over sea level (Calaf) to 56 m at the confluence with the Llobregat at Martorell. Igualada, at the middle river stretch, lies at 284 m over sea level.
Figure 3. The longitudinal profile of the Anoia river Source: Rosas (2001; 59)
The Anoia river has several tributary rivers and streams. In the upper river basin (up to Igualada), the river receives water flows from the Copons stream (on its left side), the Clariana and Tous streams (on its right side). At the Pobla de Claramunt (downstream Igualada), the Carme stream flows into the Anoia river. Three kilometers before the Anoia river reaches Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, the Bitlles river, the main Anoia’s tributary, joins it from its right side. Two kilometers downstream this point, l’Averno stream flows into the Anoia, also by its right side. Downstream, the river flows through the Depresión
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Litoral up to its confluence with the Llobregat river. In its lower basin, the last tributary stream is the Hortons stream, on its left side.
The Anoia river basin includes almost completely the Anoia county and the north part of the Alt Penedès county, a reduced area of the north of the Baix Llobregat county, and minor border zones of Segarra, Bages and Conca de Barberà counties –included into the Lleida province.
The average annual precipitation of the river basin varies between 450-600 mm. Its average water resources are estimated in 58 hm3/year (Sant Sadurni d’Anoia gauge station), which supposes the 9% of the Llobregat river basin water resources (ACA, 2009). The maximum annual volume registered is of 197 hm3/year and the minimum one of 14 hm3/year, showing a great irregularity of flows (coefficient of irregularity: 13.8) (ACA, 2009). The Anoia river basin presents a Mediterranean hydrological regime, very dependent on precipitations in the upper river basin, but with important influence of groundwaters in the middle and lower basin. That is the case of the Carme-Capellades hydrogeological unit which springs to the Carme stream basin (tributary of the Anoia river), in natural conditions.
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CALAF
COPONS
IGUALADA
CAPELLADES
MARTORELL
GELIDA SANT SADURNÍ D’ANOIA
Figure 4. Anoia river basin’s water bodies with their basins (several colours) and main urban settlements (in black) Source: elaborated from Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino’s Spatial Data Infrastructure (2011) and Instituto Geográfico Nacional’s Aereal Ortophotography National Plan (2011).
3.2 Living in the basin. General social characterization 3.2.1 The picture today The Anoia basin, is integrated in the so called Central Catalan Counties (Comarques centrals de Catalunya). This territory is connected to the neighboring Barcelona’s Metropolitan Area through the lower Llobregat corridor, after Martorell, where the Anoia flows into the Llobregat. The proximity to the gravitational centre of Catalonia conditions a lot of aspects of the lower Anoia’s social life, but decreases with the distance to the Barcelona centre. The spillover effects of the Metropolitan area can be appreciated in locations such as Martorell and to a lesser extent in Sant Sadurní or
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Igualada (70 Km from Barcelona): industry, services, residences dislocated respect the workplace; that is to say, a peripheral urban space, the so called Metropolitan Region or Second (and Third) Metropolitan Crown.
In contrast to this urban space, the upper side of the basin has a marked rural character, dominated by a decadent agriculture activity and a regressive demographic dynamic.
3.2.1.1 Demography & settlement The Anoia river basin includes the territory of 52 municipalities (completely or partially) (Table 4). The main part of these municipalities (31) belongs to the Anoia county (Figure 5), another important part (14 municipalities) belongs to the Alt Penedès county, and 7 municipalities are part of other four counties (Baix Llobregat, Segarra, Bagès and Conca de Barberà). Only two municipalities of the Anoia county have no territory in the Anoia river Basin.
Municipalities with territory inside the Anoia river County Estimated basin population living into the Anoia river basin (2010) 100% of the territory inside de Anoia river basin El Pla del Penedés ALT PENEDÈS 1103 Mediona ALT PENEDÈS 2363 Puigdalber ALT PENEDÈS 522 Sant Llorenç d'Hortons ALT PENEDÈS 2416 Sant Pere Riudebitlles ALT PENEDÈS 2381 Sant Quintí de Mediona ALT PENEDÈS 2188 Sant Sadurní d'Anoia ALT PENEDÈS 12323 Santa Fe del Penedès ALT PENEDÈS 384 Torrelavit ALT PENEDÈS 1383 Argençola ANOIA 245 Cabrera d'Igualada/Cabrera d'Anoia ANOIA 1343 Capellades ANOIA 5498 Carme ANOIA 828 Copons ANOIA 320 Igualada ANOIA 39149 Jorba ANOIA 823 La Pobla de Claramunt ANOIA 2295 La Torre de Claramunt ANOIA 3757 Òdena ANOIA 3442 Orpi ANOIA 179
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Municipalities with territory inside the Anoia river County Estimated basin population living into the Anoia river basin (2010) Sant Martí de Tous ANOIA 1164 Sant Martí Sesgueioles ANOIA 381 Santa Margarida de Montbui ANOIA 9811 Santa Maria de Miralles ANOIA 133 Vallbona d'Anoia ANOIA 1423 Vilanova del Camí ANOIA 12644 Between 75% and 99% of the territory inside de Anoia river basin Gelida ALT PENEDÈS 6945 Calaf ANOIA 3611 Castellolí ANOIA 519 Els Prats de Rei ANOIA 549 La Llacuna ANOIA 937 Piera ANOIA 14576 Veciana ANOIA 173 Between 50% and 74% of the territory inside de Anoia river basin Castellví de Rosanes BAIX LLOBREGAT 1755 Subirats ALT PENEDÈS 3076 Masquefa (1) ANOIA 8295 Rubió ANOIA 218 Less than 50% of the territory inside the Anoia river basin Avinyonet del Penedès ALT PENEDÈS 1685 Font-rubí (2) ALT PENEDÈS 0 La Granada (2) ALT PENEDÈS 0 Bellprat (2) ANOIA 0 Castellfollit del Boix (2) ANOIA 0 El Bruc (2) ANOIA 0 Montmaneu ANOIA 184 Pujalt (2) ANOIA 0 Sant Pere Sallavinera (2) ANOIA 0 Aguilar de Segarra (2) BAGES 0 Martorell (3) BAIX LLOBREGAT 12000 Sant Esteve Sesrovires (2) BAIX LLOBREGAT 0 Santa Coloma de Queralt (2) CONCA DE 0 BARBERÀ Sant Guim de Freixenet (2) SEGARRA 0 Talavera (2) SEGARRA 0 Table 4. Population in municipalities included in the Anoia river basin (year 2010) Source: data estimated from INE (2011) and ACA online geo-visor. Notes: (1) half of the urban settlement; (2) the urban population centre is out of the river basin; (3) only the old town is considered into the Anoia river basin
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BAGES
SEGARRA
L’ANOIA
CONCA DE BARBERÀ
ALT PENEDÈS BAIX LLOBREGAT ALT CAMP
Figure 5. Counties territories overlapping (orange) the Anoia river basin (stripped, lighter shade). Source: elaborated from Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino’s Spatial Data Infrastructure (2011) and Instituto Geográfico Nacional’s Aereal Ortophotography National Plan (2011).
The total population living in the Anoia river basin is estimated at around 163,000 inhabitants, in 2010.
Population concentrates in cities and towns close to the main streams of the Anoia river basin (Anoia river, Bitlles stream and l’Averno stream), and particularly near the confluence of tributary streams to the Anoia river. The Anoia upper river basin shows a lower population density, characterized by rural settlements, being Calaf the main town with 3611 inhabitants (2010). The great part of the river basin population lives in the middle river basin, characterized by urban settlements specialized in industrial and services economic activities (Igualada -Anoia county’s capital-, Vilanova del Camí, Santa Margarida de Montbúi, la Pobla de Claramunt, la Torre de Claramunt, Capellades and Piera). In the lower basin, in the confluence of Anoia river to the Llobregat river the city of Martorell is located. Its old town and 1950-1960’s urban expansion is inside the Anoia river basin, but the industrial sites and the posterior
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3.2.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services and domestic uses
3.2.1.2.1 Drinking water provision According to the Encuesta de Infraestructuras y Equipamientos Locales (Ministerio de Política Territorial y Administración Pública, 2008), groundwater is the main source of water for urban water supply in the Anoia river basin. A number of 110 intakes were accounted for serving the 38 municipalities whose urban settlements are (partially or completely) inside de Anoia river basin.1
In aggregated terms, the seasonal increase of population in the Anoia river basin is not relevant (around a 16%). However, municipal water consumption during summer is, in aggregated terms, a 41% larger than it is during winter. The Figure 6 shows the relationship between the seasonal increase population and the differential water consumption in summer and winter, at municipal level, for the year 2008.
1 See the Annex 1 for detailed data about the municipal water supply in the Anoia river basin.
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Residential and seasonal population and daily urban water consumptions (in winter and in summer) of municipalities with its territory (partial or completely) in the Anoia river basin, 2008 20000 40000
18000 35000
16000 30000 14000
25000 12000
10000 20000
8000
15000 number of inhabitants
6000
Consumption per municipality (m3/day) 10000 4000
5000 2000
0 0
Orpí
Calaf
Piera
Jorba
Pujalt
Rubió
Gelida
Carme
Òdena
Copons
Veciana
Subirats
Brull (El)
Igualada
Mediona
Castellolí
Font-rubí
Martorell
Torrelavit
Masquefa
Argençola
Puigdàlber
Capellades
Llacuna (La)
Granada (La)
Prats Rei de (Els)
Vallbona d'Anoia
Vilanova Camí del
Cabrera d'Igualada
Sant Martí de Tous
Pla del Penedès (El)
Castellfollit Boix del
Castellví de Rosanes
Sant Sadurní d'Anoia
Santa Fe del Penedès
Sant Esteve Sesrovires
Sant Martí Sesgueioles
Sant Llorenç d'Hortons
Avinyonet del Penedès
Sant Quintí Mediona de
Torre de Claramunt (La)
Pobla de Claramunt (La)
Sant Pere Riudebitlles de Santa Margarida Montbui de
URBAN WATER CONSUMPTION IN WINTER URBAN WATER CONSUMPTION IN SUMMER RESIDENTIAL POPULATION RESIDENTIAL + SEASONAL POPULATION Figure 6. Seasonal variation of daily water consumption and of population, at municipal level, for the year 2008. Source: Ministerio de Política Territorial y Administración Pública (2008)
The Carme-Capellades aquifer (Figure 7) is the source of water for fifteen municipalities located in the Anoia middle river basin: Cabrera d’Anoia, Capellades, Carme, Igualada, Jorba, Mediona, La Llacuna, La Pobla de Claramunt, La Torre de Claramunt, Òdena, Orpí, Sant Quintí de Mediona, Santa Maria de Miralles, Santa Margarida de Montbui and Capellades Vilanova del Camí.
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368341.6 397115.6 4604106.5 4604106.5 Santa Margarida de Montbui Vilanova del Camí els Hostalets de Pierola N
Sant Martí de Tous la Pobla de Claramunt
Santa Coloma de Queralt
Carme
P2 CapelladesVallbona d'Anoia Orpí
Bellprat Piera
la Torre de Claramunt
Santa Maria de Miralles Cabrera d'Igualada
P1
Pontils Mediona la Llacuna
Sant Quintí de MedionaSant Pere de Riudebitlles Torrelavit
Torrelles de Foix Pontons
Font-rubí
el Pla del Penedès
1:100000 Puigdàlber 4584027.5 4584027.5 368341.6 397115.6 Figure 7. Delimitation of the Carme-Capellades aquifer, including its recharging zone (P1) and discharging zone (P2), both zones are overexploited (ACA 2007). Source: ACA (2007)
This aquifer was provisionally declared overexploited in 2001 and the extraction management plan (Plan de Ordenación de Extracciones - POE) has been enforced in 2006. The recharge of this water body comes from pluvial precipitation filtered in the zone of municipalities of La Llacuna, Mediona, Santa Maria de Miralles and Orpí, and the main part of the groundwater flows in direction southwest-northeast, giving rise to springs in its eastern zone, to the Carme stream and near to the Capellades town. Since 1997, the average recharge volume has been reduced while human extractions remained or increased.
The Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua (2008) has estimated that the human uses of water from this aquifer are distributed as follows: 56% for industrial uses, 43% for urban uses, and 1% for agricultural uses.
The aquifer’s water resources balance carried out in 2003 indicated an average overexploitation volume of 2.8 hm3/year. According to the Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua
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The extraction management plan (POE) includes the reduction of groundwater abstractions together with the construction of a pipe for transferring and storing water from the Ter-Llobregat water supply system as substitute for groundwater. Also, several local reservoirs are planned to storing transferred water in the Anoia’s middle river basin. The maximum planned volume of water to be transferred through this infrastructure is 8.2 hm3/year.
Figure 8. Demonstration at the empty Bassa de Capellades (November 2001) Source: http://www.panageos.es/fotos/capellades_3181/la-bassa-novembre- 2001_243481.html
By May 2008, the channel infrastructure was finalized up to La Pobla de Claramunt. It was planned to be complete by 2010 (Figure 9).
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Figure 9. Anoia’s water supply network from the Ter-Llobregat system Source: ACA (2008)
The Ter-Llobregat system is also supplying water for urban uses for other municipalities of the Anoia and Alt Penedès counties included into the Anoia river basin (Table 5): Piera, Castellolí, Els Hostalets de Pierola, Masquefa and Pobla de Claramunt (in the Anoia county); Sant Llorenç d’Hortons, Gelida, Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, Subirats, El Pla del Penedès, Avinyonet del Llobregat, Puigdàlber and Santa Fe del Penedès (Alt Penedès county).
Municipalities with the 3 main urban settlement Yearly water supplied by the Ter-Llobregat system (m /year) (total or partially) in the Anoia river basin 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Avinyonet del Penedès 68.739 104.346 125.153 118.184 151.247 121.117 Pla del Penedès, El 83.727 37.966 55.827 43.321 69.357 63.940 Gelida 96.512 Masquefa 746.519 809.009 849.278 815.214 861.716 748.295 Piera 667.405 676.635 801.104 745.618 726.175 788.921 Puigdàlber 39.400 44.400 23.367 26.659 27.190 27.256
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Sant Llorenç d’Hortons 127.573 117.366 124.347 159.961 160.941 178.320 Sant Sadurní d’Anoia 95.343 184.697 198.238 186.765 168.733 133.149 Santa Fe del Penedès 24.185 22.604 23.839 26.295 23.572 19.792 Table 5. Annual water supply from the Ter-Llobregat system to municipalities in the Anoia River basin, 2003-2008 Source: ATLL (2009)
3.2.1.2.2 Treatment of wastewater In the Anoia river basin there are 11 urban wastewater treatment plants serving a population of 115,000 people (Table 6). Even though, the Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua (ACA) (2005) found an elevated risk of not meeting the objectives of the WFD by 2015 in a main part of the Anoia river basin as a consequence of the excessive organic charge (BOD5) released to the basin streams, derived from the joint pressured due to the release of treated domestic wastewater, not treated domestic wastewater and treated industrial wastewater in urban settlements (Figure 10, left side). Another important pressure on the water quality of the Anoia river basin’s water bodies has to do with the water run-off during raining and flash-floods episodes in artificialized areas. In general, these flows of water are collected and directed to the treatment plant for urban wastewater, which usually is not dimensioned for treating such a high amount of water received in a short period. The ACA (2005) considers that several tributaries to the Anoia river basin are in elevated risk of not accomplishing the WFD’s objectives for 2015 due to this pressure (Figure 10, right side).
WWTP’s name Receiving Served Served Design Design Treatment Start up year water body municipalities population capacity capacity (m3/day) (equivalent inhabitants) Mediona Ruidebitlles Mediona 834 300 1500 Biological 1980 stream Igualada Anoia river Igualada 61375 20000 285666 Biological 1985 Vilanova del with N & P 1995 Camí removing (widening) Òdena Santa Margarida de Montbui Piera Ginovarda Piera 13652 4000 18333 Biological 1995 stream with N removing and tertiary treatment
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WWTP’s name Receiving Served Served Design Design Treatment Start up year water body municipalities population capacity capacity (m3/day) (equivalent inhabitants) Riudebitlles Ruidebitlles Sant Pere de 5785 1800 16500 Biological 1997 stream Riudebitlles Torrelavit Sant Quintí de Mediona Sant Sadurní Laverno river Sant Sadurní 11790 4018 45134 Biological 1997 d’Anoia d’Anoia with N removing Sant Martí de Sant Martí de Sant Martí de 385 150 550 Soft 1999 Sesgueioles Sesgueioles Sesgueioles treatment stream Gelida Anoia river Gelida 6151 1440 7200 Biological 2000 with N removing Vallbona Anoia river Vallbona 12382 7592 45552 Biological 2008 d’Anoia d’Anoia with N & P Capellades removing La Pobla de Claramunt La Torre de Claramunt Carme Carme stream Carme 801 518 4023 Biological 2010 with N removing Jorba Anoia river Jorba 827 200 833 Biological 2010 Plà del No specified Pla del 1041 250 1041 Biological 2010 Penedès Penedès Table 6. Operative wastewater treatment plants in the Anoia river basin Source: ACA – Online inventory of wastewater treatment plants (consulted in May 2011)
Risk of not meeting the WFD’s objectives by 2015 Risk of not meeting the WFD’s objectives by 2015 due to organic (BOD5) charge release (domestic due to organic (QOD) charge release derived from and industrial sources) urban water run-off (raining and flash-floods) LLOBREGAT LLOBREGAT river & river & tributaries tributaries
ANOIA river ANOIA river & tributaries & tributaries Figure 10. ACA’s evaluation of risk of not meeting the WFD’s objectives by 2015 due to urban wastewater pressures on the Anoia river basin water bodies. Legend: in red, elevated risk; in orange, moderate risk; in yellow, low risk; in blue, no risk. Source: ACA (2005)
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3.2.2 Main social changes (~1970-2010)
3.2.2.1 Structure and lifestyle Whereas the upper parts of the basin remain historically agrarian, the middle and lower part of it –between Igualada and Martorell- host since early times (in the XVII & XVIII centuries) manufactures which get later transformed into industries. For expositive reasons we describe here the population dynamics basing on the county’s share in the basin.
3.2.2.1.1 The Anoia county In the early twenty century, four towns –Igualada, Odena, Santa Margarida de Montbui and Vilanona del Camí- all of them located in the Odena river basin, close to the Anoia river, concentrated the 43% of the Anoia county population (approx. corresponding to the upper and middle Anoia river basin). Between 1950 and 1970 the Anoia county population grew by a 50%, mainly concentrated in these urban areas, whose population represented the 70.6% of that of the Anoia county in 1970. The increase of industrial activities was the driver of the population growth during these decades.
Figure 11. Population evolution in the Anoia county, grouped by urban subsystems, 1877-2001 Source: Generalitat de Catalunya (2008)
Since the eighties, growth of population in the Anoia county has been driven by the population deconcentration of the Barcelona metropolitan area. While population showed a certain stabilization in Igualada and its urban area of influence, it is remarkable the increase of population in Piera, particularly between years 1990 and 2000. This dynamics contrasts with that of Calaf urban system (in the North of the
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Anoia river basin) and the Ponent system (in the West of the Anoia river basin), which showed depopulation.
3.2.2.1.2 The Alt Penedès county inside the Anoia river basin: the Mediona-Anoia axis The Barcelona’s metropolitan land planning includes the Alt Penedès county into the Barcelona’s metropolitan region and identifies the Mediona-Anoia territorial axis as a subsystem of it. This territorial axis concentrates the 93% of population living in the part of the Alt Penedès county inside the Anoia river basin. The Mediona-Anoia territorial subsystem consists of municipalities of Gelida, Mediona, el Pla del Penedès, Sant Llorenç d’Hortons, Sant Pere de Riudebitlles, Sant Quintí de Mediona, Sant Sadurní d’Anoia, Subirats and Torrelavit.
Figure 12. Population evolution in the Mediona-Anoia subsystem, 1990-2009 Source: Generalitat de Catalunya (2010)
In 2009, the Mediona-Anoia subsystem had almost 34,000 inhabitants, more than a half of them concentrated in two towns: Sant Sadurní d’Anoia (with 12,237 inhabitants) and Gelida (with 6,801 inhabitants). The rest of population settled in small towns (like Pla del Penedès –1,041 inhabitants) and villages of less than 1000 inhabitants. Between 1981 and 2009, Mediona-Anoia population increased by a 50.1%, with an accelerating rhythm of growth: between 1981 and 1991, the growth rate was 4.1%; the next decade this rate increased up to 11.5%; and, the last decade it reached the 32.3%. During the 1990’s, the highest growth rates were those of Mediona (45%) and Sant Llorenç d’Hortons (62%), while Sant Sadurní d’Anoia increased in a 5.9%. Although the population growth dynamics continued in all towns and villages of the
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Like in the case of Anoia county, the main driver for population in the last three decades is the deconcentration of urban population from the Barcelona Metropolitan Area to the interior.
3.2.2.1.3 The Baix Llobregat county inside the Anoia river basin: Martorell and its area of influence. The three Baix Llobregat county’s municipalities whose territories are located partially into the Anoia river basin are Martorell (the old town and urban expansion during 1950’s and 1960’s), Castellví de Rosanes and Sant Esteve de Sesrovires (the Brians prision). The evolution of population (Figure 13 and Figure 14) shows that Martorell was the most populated municipality at the beginning of the twenty century, but that its concentration of population was sensibly accelerated during the 1950’s and 1960’s, in coincidence with the general industrial development of Catalonia, basing on diverse manufacturing branches with tradition in the area. In the early seventies SEAT bought a large quantity of land and created a research and development plant, which contributed to further population growth. This growing dynamics continued during the 1970’s and population grew more slowly during the 1980’s. During the decade of 1990’s and 2000’s the other two towns showed the highest rates of population growth, although Martorell continued leading the increase of population in absolute terms. This second phase of population growth was mainly driven by the dynamics of deconcentration of population from the Barcelona metropolitan area rather than by industrial attraction of immigrant labor. Determinant for the renewed population growth acceleration was the transfer of the SEAT assembling plant from the Zona Franca (near the Barcelona port) to the site the firm bought in the early seventies. A main part of the new urban settlements in these municipalities are located outside the Anoia river basin.
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Figure 13. Evolution of population in the Baix Llobregat county municipalities included into the Anoia river basin, 1900-2010 Source: INE
Figure 14. Evolution of the population growth rate in the Baix Llobregat county municipalities included into the Anoia river basin, 1900-2010 Source: INE
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3.3 Producing, exchanging and consuming 3.3.1 The picture today
3.3.1.1 Economic structure
Given the diversity of sources of economic data used and its availability at different territorial aggregated scales, scarcely coincident with that of the Anoia river basin, information reflected in this section will combine different scales of reference in order to map the Anoia river basin’s economic structure.
The Anoia river basin is characterized by a territorial specialization in agricultural and industrial activities. Agricultural activities are concentrated in the Anoia upper and lower river basin (upper Anoia county and the part of the Alt Penedès included into the Anoia river basin) (Figure 15). While in the upper river basin cereals growing and pig farming are predominant activities, in the lower basin (Mediona-Sant Sadurní d’Anoia axis) vineyards are the most important ones. Rain fed agriculture is predominant, whereas; irrigated land is marginal (only a 1.8% (IDESCAT,1999)).
In 2009, three agrarian subsectors contributed to the 65% of the primary sector gross added value of the Anoia county: herbaceous crops (cereals) (31%); vine growing (29,5%) and pig farming (15,4%) (Caixa Catalunya, 2010). This economic structure is contrasting with that of the Alt Penedès county, where the 82% of the primary gross added value comes from wine.
3.3.1.1.1 The Anoia county
The Anoia county’s territory is almost completely included into the Anoia river basin. Therefore, the economic structure of the county may be a good proxy for characterizing the Anoia upper and middle river basin. On the other side, the upper part of the Anoia’s lower basin coincides with almost a half of the territory of the Alt Penedés county. In this case, we will focus our attention in the Sant Sadurní d’Anoia municipality and its area of influence for characterizing the economic structure of this part of the Anoia river basin. Finally, less attention will be paid to the Martorell zone given that its industrial area and the urban expansion are out of the Anoia river basin, and there are no
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Distribution of the Useful Agrarian Surface in the Anoia river basin (1999)
3432 ha
9431 ha
7828 ha TOTAL: 33027 ha
1075 ha
4777 ha 6484 ha
Upper Anoia river Carme river Middle Anoia river Bitlles river Laverno river Low Anoia river
Crops and its distribution in the Anoia river basin, 1999
12180 ha Vineyards
Olive trees
Fruit trees
Herbaceous crops
0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500 15000 17500 20000 hectars Upper Anoia river Carme river Middle Anoia river Bitlles river Laverno river Low Anoia river Figure 15. Territorial distribution agrarian surface and of crops in the Anoia river basin, 1999 Source: IDESCAT
The Anoia county’s GIP mp (gross interior product at market prices) in 2006 –last available statistical data- was of 2,401.8 M€, what means 1.2% of the Catalonian GIP mp for that year (IDESCAT, 2011). In recent years the importance of the Anoia’s economy has declined, as its growth rate has been inferior to the Catalonian one (Caixa Catalunya, 2008, 2009, 2010).
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Since the late 1990s the economic structure of the Anoia county (Figure 16 and Table 7) is characterized by a steady declining of industrial weight in terms of production and occupation, together with the increase of importance of construction and services. Since 2008, however, there is a desacceleration in the construction sector and a reduction of its capacity for creating occupation. Agriculture has a very limited importance in terms of production and occupation, in aggregated terms.
Evolution of occupied population in the Anoia county, 2000-2009 60,00% 40000
50,00% 38000
40,00% 36000
30,00% 34000
20,00% 32000 Total Total occupied population (absolute terms)
10,00% 30000 Percentual distribution occupied of population among sectors
0,00% 28000 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Agriculture 0,73% 0,73% 0,77% 0,81% 0,85% 0,94% 0,94% 1,00% 1,86% 1,62% Industry 45,58% 44,11% 41,98% 41,39% 39,12% 36,77% 34,90% 34,01% 32,79% 29,73% Construction 10,46% 10,82% 11,20% 11,80% 12,28% 13,50% 14,42% 14,58% 12,66% 12,05% Services 43,23% 44,35% 46,04% 46,00% 47,76% 48,79% 49,73% 50,42% 52,69% 56,60% Total 32985 33250 34026 35488 35928 37281 38366 39180 36043 32668
Agriculture Industry Construction Services Total
Figure 16. Evolution of Anoia county’s total occupied population and occupation per economic sector (2000-2008), in percentages Source: elaborated from Ajuntament d’Igualada (2009, 2010)
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Year Primary Industry Construction Services Total sector 1991* 2.5 52.6 6.7 38.2 100 1996* 2.7 43.9 6.9 46.5 100 2001** 2 40 9.8 48.3 100 2006** 1.5 31.6 16 50.9 100 Table 7. Anoia county’s gross added value at basic prices, per economic sectors, in percentages Notes: * Base 1995; ** Base 2000 Source: IDESCAT (2011)
During the last 20 years, the economic structural pattern of the Anoia county has changed from one centered in the industrial production to a new one focused on a growing importance of services activities and construction. The increase of the construction sector has been accelerated since the late 1990s up to 2007, when the real estate and financial bubbles exploded giving rise to the current economic and financial crisis.
Figure 17. Evolution of dwellings and their use, 1991-2010 Source: IDESCAT (Building Census, 1981, 1991, 2001); estimation for the 2010 datum from building annual statistics 2001-2010 (IDESCAT).
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Figure 18. Evolution of annual finished and under construction houses, 1992-2010 Source: IDESCAT, Annual Building statistics (1992-2010)
The official territorial strategy based on residential growth released in 2003 was contested by different actors in the area, opposing an intensification of the use of the territory and the massive attraction of foreign people into the area. (Recio, 2006). Despite local opposition the Plan Director Urbanístic de la Conca d’Ódena was approved in 2008 without major changes. Nevertheless, the explosion of the speculative bubble has act as a brake to the provision in the Plan.
During the last 10 years, the smallest towns of the Anoia watershed presented the highest rates of residential building increase, although the most important urban concentration in the river basin continued increasing at elevated rates.
The comparison of the territorial distribution of housing in 2001 and 2010 shows that the most populated cities and town at the beginning of the period have registered the most important increases in absolute terms; however, small towns and villages have registered the highest growth in relative terms.
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Territorial distribution of housing in 2001 and 2010, and its rate of increase between 2001 and 2010 in municipalities of Alt Penedès and Anoia counties with urban areas included into the Anoia river basin. 25000 60,0%
22500 50,0% 20000
17500 40,0% 15000
12500 30,0%
Houses (units) 10000 20,0%
7500 Increase Increase with respect 2001(%) 5000 10,0% 2500
0 0,0%
Orpí
Calaf
Piera
Jorba
Rubió
Gelida
Carme
Òdena
Copons
Veciana
Subirats
Igualada
Mediona
Castellolí
Torrelavit
Masquefa
Argençola
Llacuna, la
Puigdàlber
Capellades
Prats Rei, de els
Cabrera d'Anoia
Vallbona d'Anoia
Vilanova Camí del
Pla del Penedès, el
Sant Martí de Tous
Sant Sadurní d'Anoia
Santa Fe del Penedès
Torre de Claramunt, la
Pobla de Claramunt, la
Sant Martí Sesgueioles
Sant Llorenç d'Hortons
Avinyonet del Penedès
Santa Maria de Miralles
Sant Quintí Mediona de
Sant Pere Riudebitlles de Santa Margarida Montbui de 1 2 4 5 6 8 9 10 13 16 18 19 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 33 34 35 36 37 3 7 11 12 14 15 17 20 21 22 31 32 Anoia county Alt Penedés county
Number of houses in 2001. Estimated number of houses in 2010. Increase of number of houses with respect 2001 (%).
Figure 19. Comparison of territorial distribution of housing in 2001 and 2010 Source: elaborated from IDESCAT
Regarding the industrial sector, four industrial subsectors concentrate almost the 80% of the 11,888 people occupied in the Anoia county’s industry in 2008: textile, metal and electronic products, paper and graphic arts and rubber processing and plastic materials.
The comparison of these figures with those of 1978 shows a loss of importance of the textile and leather tanning and footwear sectors as generators of industrial jobs, while paper and metal and electronic industries increase its relative importance. Also, rubber processing and plastic materials industries emerge as new sectors with capacity for generating jobs and the industrial structure is more diversified.
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Figure 20. Comparison of the sectoral distribution of industrial occupation in 1978 and 2008 Source: elaborated from Ajuntament d’Igualada (2009)
Taking into account the specialization coefficient, which relates the relative importance of labor occupied in an industrial sector in the Anoia county with the relative importance of labor occupied in the same branch in Catalonia, it is possible to identify which are the most important industrial branch in which the Anoia county is specialized. These coefficients calculated for the year 2008 show that the Anoia county is specialized in the following industrial branches: textile, leather tanning and footwear, paper and graphic arts, rubber processing and plastic materials, processing of other not metallic materials, extraction of minerals and building materials and metal product manufacturing. Textile manufacturing and leather tanning and shoes are considered main industrial districts in the Anoia county, both located at the middle Anoia river basin in Igualada and its area of influence (Òdena basin) (Hernández Gascón, J. et al., 2005)2. These are traditional manufacturing branches present in this area since the late XIX century and the XVIII century, respectively. In spite of their place at the top of the area’s specialization ranking, they have been losing economic importance during the last two decades, as sources for generating added value and jobs.
2 Data reflected in the Mapa del sistemes productius locals industrials a Catalunya (Map of Local Industrial Systems of Catalonia) correspond to the year 2004.
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At the beginning of the nineties, the Anoia’s leather industry was sunk in a deep crisis. The emergence of new competitors from the developing countries and the pressure to internalize environmental costs as a consequence of the Spanish incorporation to the European Union, were important factors that urged a strategic change. In 1993, the Catalan government promoted a support program for industrial clusters in troubles, and the leather one, with centre in Igualada was chosen for action. A recent evaluation of this program, published by the Generalitat de Catalunya, (Hernandez Gascón et al 2010), rates as successful the implemented strategy and considers it a necessary condition for the survival of the branch. One of the strategic key elements to be highlighted here is the recognition of the environmental impact of the activity as a responsibility to be assumed by the firms. As a consequence, a shared WWTP for the tanneries was built with the perspective of closing the water loop of all the factories3.
The other traditional industrial sector is that of paper and graphic arts, basically located in the municipality of Capellades.
3 Aquesta instal·lació [the shared industrial WWTP] va iniciar, finalment, el seu funcionament l’any 2005, ha representat per als industrials implicats una inversió de prop de 12 milions d’euros i té un horitzó d’amortització de 15 anys. Cal ressaltar que, més enllà de la pròpia pervivència de la indústria adobera d’Igualada, la creació d’aquesta infraestructura ha suposat el guany d’un immillorable coneixement sobre el procés de gestió de les aigües que ha repercutit en una rebaixa del 40% de la càrrega de les empreses per aquest concepte. (Hernandez Gascón et al 2010; 58)
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Industrial specialization coeffients of Anoia county with respect to Catalonia, 1978 and 2008
Rubber processing and plastic materials
Processing of other mineral products (non metallic)
Mineral extraction and building materials
Paper and graphic arts
Leather tanning and footwear
Textile
0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 7,00 8,00 9,00
1978 2008
Figure 21. Comparison of the Anoia county’s industrial specialization coefficients in 1978 and 2008 Source: elaborated from Informe Economic Anual – L’Anoia 2009
3.3.1.1.2 The Anoia lower river basin: The Alt Penedès county into the Anoia watershed Given the limited available data on economic indicators for characterizing the economic structure at municipal scale, we will make an estimation of the economic structure of the Alt Penedès county’s part which is included into Anoia watershed. The Barcelona Metropolitan Territorial Plan defines a set of territorial subsystems, one of which is that of Mediona-Anoia. We will use the economic data elaborated at the scale of this territorial subsystem as a proxy for characterizing the economic structure of the area dominated by Bitlles-L’Avern-Lower Anoia rivers pertaining to the Alt Penedès county. The Mediona-Anoia subsystem can be considered as representative due to the fact that it concentrates the 93% of population living in the Alt Penedès county located into the Anoia river basin.
Taking into account the geographical distribution of the gross added value at basic prices of the Alt Penedès county in 2001, approximately the 30% of it is imputable to the Mediona-Anoia subsystem (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2010). Assuming the same distribution of gross added value by sectors than in 2001, this 30% would represent
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780 M€ in 20064. At county scale, this subsystem produces the 36% of the agricultural and industrial added value generated in the county, the 31% of that is produced by the construction sector, and the 23% of that of generated by the services sector.
The Mediona-Anoia subsystem shows more intensity in industrial activities and less intensity in services activities as compared to the economic structure of the Alt Penedès county.
Mediona-Anoia subsystem Alt Penedès county Economic sector % of the gross added value % of the gross added value Agriculture 3% 3% Industry 51% 41% Construction 7% 7% Services 39% 49% Table 8. Comparison of the economic structure of the Mediona-Anoia subsystem with that of Alt Penedès county in which it is contained, 2001 Source: estimated from IDESCAT and Pla Territorial Metropolità de Barcelona (2010)
In this area there are two towns with more than 5000 inhabitants, Sant Sadurní d’Anoia (more than 12000 inhabitants) and Gelida (almost 7000 inhabitants), which concentrate the 58% of the added value produced by the economy of the Mediona-Anoia subsystem (IDESCAT 2006). Sant Sadurni d’Anoia acts as the urban center of the territorial subsystem, concentrating industrial and services economic activities.
The most important industrial sector in the Mediona-Anoia subsystem is the production of cava, the characteristic sparkling wine of the area, obtained following a double fermentation process (methode champagnoise). Cava production constitutes an important economic cluster (vineyards – cava elaboration – cava manufacturing – commercialization) in the area. It is estimated that the 85% of the cava produced in Spain is manufactured in Sant Sadurní d’Anoia and this percentage reaches the 90% if its area of influence is included (Gabinet d’Estudis Economics, 2006). The number of people occupied in 2006 in the cava industry in Sant Sadurní d’Anoia was estimated in
4 The Alt Penedès county’s gross added value at basic prices in the year 2006 is estimated in 2,600 M€ (IDESCAT).
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1,800 people, equivalent to the 29% of the occupied people in this town (Gabinet d’Estudis Economics, 2006).
It is worth noting that the cava sector has shown a sensible increase during the last thirty years, being the production in 2004 of 221 million of bottles, more than fourth times the production in 1974, 50 million of bottles (Gabinet d’Estudis Economics, 2006).
3.3.1.1.3 The Anoia mouth: Martorell In Martorell, the zone of confluence of the Anoia river into the Llobregat river, the industrial predominant activities are those of automotive (Seat industrial complex) and chemical (Solvay) industries. These activities are settled outside the Anoia river basin and water flows (intake and discharge) are related to the Llobregat river and its dependent groundwater body (Cubeta d’Abrera).
3.3.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services for production and business
The Anoia’s basin industry has its origin and main localization factor in the water availability, both for energy provision as for its direct use in the productive process, mainly in cleaning activities. The leather manufacture in Igualada’s –the roman Aqua Lata, i.e. profuse water- benefited from the water abundance for its processes of tanning and dying.
The Capellades paper factories moved their mills thanks to the disposal of source water, which was used in cascade by successive mills. Not only energy, but also as a determining production factor water, especially high quality water, was necessary for achieving a high quality product.
Once used, water was released into the Anoia river. Due to the scarce flow, especially during the dry season and in drought periods, and to the high organic load of waste waters, the Anoia became one of the most polluted rivers in Catalonia. The damage caused by Igualada’s waste water dumping into the Anoia to downstream populations was a source of conflict for more than a century. With the growing of the leather
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Only since 1989, with the getting in service of the Vilanova del Camí WWTP, and later with the addition of depuration processes in it and the building (2005) of the industrial WWTP for the tanneries, the situation started to improve (Riba i Gabarró, 2006).
It is worth mentioning here the indirect appraisal that tanners made of the economic contribution of the river as a dump, when they were forced to look for an alternative.
3.3.2 Relevant economic changes since ~1970
3.3.2.1 Economic evolution Broadly speaking, the economic evolution in the area since the seventies has been characterized by the declining of traditional agrarian and industrial activities in the whole basin with the notorious exception of the cava business at Sant Sadurní’s surroundings. Traditional branches have only partially been substituted by other more dynamic industrial activities, while services and construction have increased their share in the economy, as in the rest of Catalunya.
Agriculture in the upper part of the basin has shown unable to maintain the population although it is true that in the last decade the flow of new immigrants has reversed the declining trend. So Calaf, for instance, had in 2010 a 23% of people coming from outside Spain (822 of a total of 3611 inhabitants) whereas the same ratio was of 0.03 in 2000 (87 of 3016) (IDESCAT).
The formerly prosperous textile and leather industry in Igualada or the paper fabrics in Capellades were hardly beaten by the seventies crisis and never recovered again. Despite the loss of relevance of these activities, both in the region’s economic structure
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3.4 Contribution of aquatic ecosystem services to the human wellbeing: a summary 3.4.1 Provisioning
3.4.1.1 Water for food crops The 98.2% of the Anoia basin is not artificially irrigated (~ 32,500 Ha). This agriculture is possible thanks to green water, i.e. rainwater and soil moisture. Crops like dry farming herbaceous (mostly barley and wheat) and vineyard are dominant. Woods and pastures which benefit from green water are not considered here.
3.4.1.2 Livestock farming
There are both extensive and intensive cattle farming in the basin. Natural pastures and stubble.
3.4.1.3 Water for energy The use of water for energy production for different purposes is present in the Anoia basin since long. The industrial development of Igualada, Capellades or Martorell was only possible thanks to the water availability for hydraulic power (and cleaning). No reference of current hydropower production.
3.4.1.4 Fisheries Sport fishing is a minor activity in the basin. No reference of fish-farming.
3.4.1.5 Water for transportation No references
3.4.1.6 Drinking and domestic uses Groundwater has been the traditional source of drinking water in the Anoia river basin; however, nowadays, a main part of the population is importing water from the Ter- Llobregat system. This is due to the exhaustion of local resources (like the case of Carme-Capellades aquifer), the loss of quality of groundwater as a consequence of contamination, or the increase of population and competing uses in the river basin.
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3.4.1.7 Water for wood & fuel There are no important forests in the area which could sustain a commercial timber activity. Firewood has been traditionally obtained from pine woods, wild shrub and the pruning of cultivated trees.
3.4.1.8 Water for industrial crops The information used doesn’t allow for the detection of water uses for industrial crops (feed are not considered here as such). Apparently there is no relevant cultivation of biofuel or fiber crops.
3.4.1.9 Water for other economic activities (Industry, Tourism…) Relevant industrial branches in the basin, like tanneries, use relative high amounts of water. Industrials around the Gremi de Blanquers d’Igualada have developed different projects in order to rationalize the water use, reducing the amount of water consumption and, principally, looking for solutions to costly depuration of industrial waste water polluted with heavy metals and a high organic load.
Tourism in the Anoia basin is not a concentrated intensive activity. There are some tourism businesses, mainly rural and related to open air activities, in the upper part of the basin. At the Mediona-Sant Sadurní-Gelida axis the part -closer to Barcelona- where the cava industry (and vineyards) is located, disseminated secondary residences have a remarkable territorial impact. These “urbanizaciones” repeat a unique model: agglomeration of one family houses with garden and swimming pool.
Rivers cannot be counted as a component of tourism appeal in the area. Only a natural spa has been identified in the basin (La Puda de Francolí a Castellolí).
3.4.2 Regulating
3.4.2.1 Climate regulation Microclimatic services, like humidity and freshness, are associated to good state of riparian woods. In the Anoia river basin, almost all water bodies have a riparian woods quality bellow than good as assessed by the QBR index (ACA, 2005; 352).
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3.4.2.2 Hydrological regimes Anoia river’s hydrological regime is not regulated by dams. Nevertheless, barriers and excessive water outlets, mainly during the summer time, have consequences for the hydrological regime, indirectly affecting other ecosystem services like the maintenance of habitats or aesthetic and recreational ones.
3.4.2.3 Depuration Natural river’s depuration capacities allow riparian populations to reuse water downstream of other populations, as well as the availability of habitat for flora and fauna. Weaken or destruction of these capacities by an excess of pollution charge calls for artificial depuration to restore the natural functioning of the river system and with it, the depuration service. When rivers are safe, WWTPs discharges are further depurated after their dumping into the river. In the Anoia river basin, the ACA identified several water bodies affected by toxic substances pollution (ACA, 2005): the Anoia river at Jorba, Vilanova del Camí and Martorell; the Riudebitlles stream at Sant Sadurní d’Anoia; and, Avernó stream at Subirats. Main contaminants found were non-ionized ammonia and ammonium, and chlorpyrifos and dichloromethane (only in Vilanova del Camí).
3.4.2.4 Soil & sediment dynamics Erosion and sediment transport and deposition are clearly ambivalent processes from a human perspective. Its distributional character –taken from upper parts and depositing in the lower ones- draws a clear trade-off between (upper) soil protection and (lower) soil formation.
3.4.2.5 Extreme climatic events protection Natural water storage in aquifers is an ecosystem service which –when well managed- can be of extraordinary importance in drought periods. There are in the basin important underground water bodies like Carme-Capellades one or the aquifer called Aluvial de l’Alt Penedès.
On the other side, flood plains –when maintained free of obstacles- contribute to the energy dissipation of floods, such preserving objects outside the plain and
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3.4.3 Habitat
3.4.3.1 Maintenance of ecosystems integrity From the quantity, quality and dynamics of the water flowing in rivers depends the ecosystems health and integrity, which in turn allows for the provision of services relevant for human well-being like, for instance, depuration or fishing. In the Anoia river basin, this service is affected by the loss of ecological quality (physic-chemical, hydromorphological and biological quality) (ACA, 2005).
3.4.3.2 Maintenance of genetic heritage Maintenance of biological diversity depends on the good status of the ecosystems. From a human point of view conservation of species can be seen as an option value, i.e. a stake for a future –not yet determined- use of existing organisms. The maintenance of genetic heritage widens future opportunities of use and, as a consequence, its present value. On the other hand, species extinction can lead to a reduction of the ecosystem complexity, thus decreasing the services supply.
3.4.4 Cultural & Amenities
3.4.4.1 Aesthetics Aesthetics is always present when talking about water. Even in the case of deteriorated water bodies, one can attain aesthetic services of them. The small dimension of the rivers and streams in the Anoia do not allow for spectacular scenarios –except with high water. Nevertheless water courses create small picturesque corners and contribute to the structure of open landscape scenery.
3.4.4.2 Recreational Due to the loss of ecological quality (ACA, 2005), in spite of recent recovery efforts, there are little recreational uses around the Anoia rivers.
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3.4.4.3 Spiritual and inspirational Spiritual and inspirational services are a pure example of non-marketable services. Regardless of the difficult of appraising this kind of services, and the much bigger of assigning an economic value to them, their existence can, at least, be recognised. Rivers –flowing still or rough- have inspired painters, literates or -now in massive way- photographers.
3.4.4.4 Psychological benefit Psychological benefits from aquatic ecosystems in the Anoia basin can be associated with the relaxing properties of its contemplation, particularly for urban dwellers. Historical use of rivers as sewers has made riparian populations turn the back of them. There is a clear will of recovering this kind of services by restoring the river banks and creating urban promenades, in cities like Igualada or Martorell.
3.4.4.5 Educational & scientific Related to water ecosystems there are a lot of cultural elements which are relevant for the identity of the basin inhabitants and also for visitors. Bridges, mills, ancient factories are unanimated testimonies of past uses, technologies and trades. Immaterial elements like toponyms, legends or rites are frequently related to water and a part of the common cultural heritage. In the Anoia basin, where water has been, along history, a production factor of first magnitude, the hydraulic industrial heritage is of great importance.
Education in its dimension of cultural transmission, but also in other dimensions of the learning process, for instance the scientific worldview, benefits directly and indirectly from ecosystem services.
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Ecosystem Ecosystem Services Presence in the study area Services Group Category Provisioning Water for food crops Market-oriented and self-consumption Green water, small scale irrigation Livestock farming Market-oriented and self-consumption Farm supply Water for energy Market-oriented in the past Paper mills Fisheries Not detected
Water for transportation Not detected
Drinking and domestic uses Affected (water import) Groundwater wells and surface water uptakes; drinking water supply network Water for wood & fuel Market-oriented and self-consumption Green water Water for industrial crops Not detected
Water for other economic activities (Industry, Market-oriented Tourism, …) Paper, leather, textile, food (cava) Regulation Climate regulation Detected Hydrological regimes Affected Threatened by Water for Drinking and domestic uses & Water for other economic activities Depuration Very affected by Water for other economic activities Soil & sediment dynamics Local dis-service Erosion & sediment transport Extreme climatic events protection Affected Regarding floods: Loss of river forest, modification of river channel, loss of floodplain Regarding droughts: loss of groundwater reservoirs / water pollution / expansion of water uses Habitat Maintenance of ecosystems integrity Affected Species diversity/population Threatened by Water for Drinking and domestic uses & Water for other economic activities Maintenance of genetic heritage Affected Loss of endemic species / Invasive species Cultural / Aesthetics Affected Loss of river forests / Urbanization / Amenities Infrastructures / Loss of water quality and biodiversity (+) Historical heritage (+) Landscape Recreational Affected Loss of water quality Spiritual and inspirational Affected Loss of positive qualities Psychological benefit Affected Loss of positive qualities Educational & scientific Affected Loss of positive qualities Table 9. Anoia River Basin Ecosystem Services
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4 NOGUERA DE TOR CASE STUDY 4.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case Noguera de Tor is a small river basin (31204.66 ha)5 located at the north of the Lleida province, in the north-west of Catalonia (Figure 22). The river flows on the south side of the Catalonian Pyrenees to the Mediterranean. It is a tributary of the Noguera Ribagorçana river, which in turn is a tributary of the Segre, which flows into the Ebro river by the Ribarroja reservoir.
Noguera de Tor river basin
Catalonia Region
Mediterranean Sea
Figure 22. Location of the Noguera de Tor river basin in the context of the Catalonian Region Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua
The small scale of the basin allows a detailed analysis of the changing role of ecosystem services in economic and social life during the study period. Despite the reduced size of the case, as compared to the Arga or Anoia ones, it is possible to approach complete interactive processes due to the inclusion of the whole basin in the study. Ecosystem services and, more precisely, water ecosystem services have been central to the economic dynamics of the basin during the XXth century, when the valley
5 ACA, 2004. 249 km2 (CEDRICAT, 2006 – Agenda 21)
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The Noguera de Tor river is 30 km long with three tributary streams on its left bank: Sant Nicolau (the most important one with a watershed of 64 km2), Sant Martí and Foixas. Noguera de Tor is a mountain river with a transitional snow regime and strong flow variability: minimum flows are registered in February (due to snow retention), while pick flows are typical in spring (derived from snow smelting). The flow regime also shows some influence from Mediterranean rain precipitation patterns, with secondary pick flows in November and lower flows in the summer. Average annual natural water resources are estimated in 244 hm3/year 6 (CHE, 2007).
The Noguera de Tor watershed is constituted by the Vall (valley) de Boi, limited at the North by the Vall de Aran, at the West by the Noguera Ribagorçana, which at this stretch flows mainly parallel to its tributary, and at the East by different affluents to the Ribagorçana river (Barrancs (gullies) de l’Oratori, Raons, Malpàs and rivers Manyanet, Valiri and Flamisell).
6 Average of natural flow for the period 1962-1997. Since October 1997, the three CHE’s gauging stations installed at the Noguera de Tor watershed have been inoperative.
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Figure 23. Noguera de Tor river basin’s water bodies (several colours) and main human settlements (in red) Source: elaborated from Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y de Medio Rural y Marino’s spatial data infrastructure (2011) and Instituto Geográfico Nacional’s Aereal Ortophotography National Plan (2011)
The basin’s rainfall gradient varies in direction North-South: from 1100-1200 mm/year in the upper basin to 950-1000 mm/year in the lower basin (ACA, 2004). The variation of the temperature gradient follows the same pattern than that of rainfall: average temperature of 5ºC in the upper basin to 9 – 10 ºC in the lower one (CHE, 2007). Evapotranspiration varies between 500 mm/year in the upper basin to 600-650 mm/year in the lower one (Figure 24).
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NOGUERA NOGUERA NOGUERA DE TOR DE TOR DE TOR
Figure 24. Mean annual values of the main climatic variables: precipitation, temperature and evapotranspiration Source: CHE (2007)
The Noguera de Tor river basin falls completely into the West domain of the Massís Axial Pirenaic groundwater body (3253 km2). From the administrative point of view, this basin is part of the Comarca (county) Alta Ribagorça. The county is divided into three municipalities: Vall de Boí, Pont de Suert and Vilaller. Around the 80% of the watershed is occupied by the Vall de Boí municipality, and the other 20% is included in the Pont de Suert municipality (at the North of the Pont de Suert town). The capital of the county is the town of Pont de Suert, which is on the Noguera Ribagorça river, downstream the confluence of the Noguera de Tor with it.
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VILALLER
VALL DE BOÍ
PONT DE SUERT
Figure 25. The Noguera de Tor river basin (striped) and the Alta Ribagorça territory (orange) Source: elaborated from Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y de Medio Rural y Marino’s spatial data infrastructure (2011), Institut Cartogràfic Català’s spatial data infrastructure (2011) and Instituto Geográfico Nacional’s Aereal Ortophotography National Plan (2011)
4.2 Living in the basin. Social characterization (general) 4.2.1 The picture today
4.2.1.1 Demography & settlement People live in small villages and hamlets dispersed throughout the main valley and small valleys that form the river basin. These settlements are administratively grouped into the abovementioned municipalities.
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The population settled in the basin is of 1170 people (2010), with the following distribution: - All the villages and hamlets belonging to the municipality of Vall de Boi (1076 inhab.) are into the Noguera de Tor river basin:7 o Caldes de Boí (4 inhab.) o Erill la Vall (97 inhab.) o Boí (226 inhab.) o Taüll (278 inhab.) o El Pla de l’Ermita (108 inhab.) o Barruera (235 inhab.) o Durro (95 inhab.) o Cardet (9 inhab.) o Cóll (32 inhab.) o Saràis (6 inhab.) - Only 5 villages and hamlets belonging to the municipality of El Pont de Suert (2506 inhab.) are into the Noguera de Tor river basin:8 o Llesp (65 inhab) o Iran (11 inhab) o Irgo (4 inhab) o Sarroqueta (7 inhab) o Castilló de Tor (7 inhab) - There is no hamlet belonging to Vilaller in the Noguera de Tor basin
The main part of population and economic activities in the basin are located in La Vall de Boí municipality. Due to statistical availability of data, we will consider the features of this municipality as representative of the socio-economic dimension of the river basin. Additional data regarding the settlements belonging to El Pont de Suert will be reflected if they are available and relevant for conducting this characterization of the watershed.
The population density in La Vall de Boí (2010) is of 4.9 inhabitats per km2 (in an area of 219 km2), half of the Alta Ribagorça county population density (10 inhabitants per km2).
7 Data from the Vall de Boí municipatity (http://www.valldeboi.cat/ca/ElsMunicipis/Index.aspx), consulted on 30/05/2011 8 INE. Data corresponding to January 2010.
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The Vall de Boí structure of population attending to sex shows a predominance of man (54%) over women (46%) (IDESCAT, 2010). Regarding age, a 75% of population is between 15 and 64 years old, a 10% is younger than 15 years old, and the remaining 15% is older than 64 years old. The elderly index –which compares population older than 64 years old with population younger than 15 years old- is of 142% in 2010 (slightly lower than that of the county, 147 % in 2010). The dependence index –which compares the youngest and the oldest groups of population with the group between 15 and 64 years old- is of 33% at municipal level in 2010, while it reaches the 42% at the county level. The structure index –which compares mature working population (people between 40 and 64 years old) with young working population (people between 15 and 39 years old)- reaches the 110% at municipal level, in 2010, while at county level is of 96%. This index shows younger working population in La Vall de Boí is inferior to the mature one, in contrast with the situation at county level.
Seasonal variation of population is very important in this basin, given the importance of tourism. Seasonal population uses to be 4 times resident population. Regarding housing, the EIEL (2008) counts 1448 familiar houses distributed throughout the La Vall de Boí’s villages, while 108 additional houses are disseminated through the municipal territory. The same source counts 76 familiar houses in three villages inside the Noguera de Tor river basin, belonging to Pont de Suert. The comparison of resident population and houses distribution shows the importance of second residential housing, which is mainly concentrated in Pla de l’Ermita, Taüll, Barruera and Boí (Table 10).
Familiar Resident Resident + Seasonal houses population population Municipalities and villages (2008) (2008) (2008) Vall de Boí 1656 1258 4.718 Barruera 221 184 200 Boí 214 214 230 Cardet 8 18 18 Cóll 15 40 50 Durro 76 104 120 Erill la Vall 54 79 100 Taúll 300 246 450 Pla de l'Ermita 560 106 3,000 Disseminated population 108 267 450
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Pont de Suert (inside Noguera de Tor) 76 72 261 Iran 5 5 5 Irgo 45 15 60 Llesp 26 52 150 Noguera de Tor river basin 1732 1330 4979 Table 10. Territorial distribution of familiar houses, resident and seasonal population in Noguera de Tor river basin, 2008 Source: Ministerio de Política Territorial y Administración Pública (2008) Encuesta de Infraestructuras y Equipamientos Locales – EIEL (2008)
4.2.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services and domestic uses
4.2.1.2.1 Provisioning of drinking water According to the Encuesta de Infraestructura y Equipamientos Locales (Ministerio de Política Territorial y Administración Pública, 2008), the drinking water supply in the Noguera de Tor river basin can be estimated in 0.3 hm3/year. The main source of drinking water is the big Massís Axial Pirenaic groundwater body, the Noguera de Tor watershed is part of this system. All villages belonging to Vall de Boí are provisioned from springs and wells. Only two of them (Durro and Taüll) catch also water from surface water streams. The drinking water distribution network has a length of 16.1 km. Water provision in case of Pont de Suert villages inside the Noguera de Tor watershed comes from groundwater and other undetermined sources of water. The drinking water distribution network has a length of 1.25 km.
Sources of drinking water Type of water intake Municipalities and villages (code and name) Vall de Boí Barruera 001 – FONT SPRING 001 – FONT SPRING Boí 002 - POU WELL Cardet 001 – FONT SPRING 001 – FONT SPRING Cóll 003 - FONT SPRING 001 – FONT SPRING Durro 004 - RIU STREAM 001 – FONT SPRING Erill la Vall 005 - FONT SPRING 001 – FONT SPRING Taúll 006 - RIU STREAM
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001 – FONT SPRING Pla de l'Ermita 008 - FONT SPRING Pont de Suert (inside Noguera de Tor) Iran 011 - FONT OTHER TYPES Irgo 001 - FONT DE RINYO SPRING 005 - BARRANC D'AIGÜRES OTHER TYPES Llesp 012 - ABASTIMENT OTHER TYPES Table 11. Inventory of drinking water supply facilities in the Noguera de Tor river basin, 2008 Source: Ministerio de Política Territorial y Administración Pública (2008) - EIEL (2008)
Given the good quality of water, a disinfection treatment is the only treatment performed to make the water drinkable. The Table 12 shows that the water consumption in summer doubles the one registered in winter.
Average village’s water Average village’s water consumption in summer consumption in winter Municipalities and villages (m3/day) (m3/day) Vall de Boí Barruera 49 25 Boí 61 31 Cardet 3 2 Cóll 10 5 Durro 31 15 Erill la Vall 25 13 Taúll 120 60 Pla de l'Ermita 450 225 Pont de Suert (inside Noguera de Tor) Iran 75 50 Irgo 300 100 Llesp 16 8 Table 12. Estimation of average daily water consumption of villages in summer and winter, 2008 Source: Source: Ministerio de Política Territorial y Administración Pública (2008) - EIEL (2008)
In La Vall de Boí, there are 8 drinking water small reservoirs distributed near the villages for regulating the water supply. In the case of the Pont de Suert’s villages inside the watershed, one reservoir is serving Iran, Irgo and Llesp. It has a capacity of 350 m3.
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Reservoir Vall de Boí’s village code Capacity (m3) Barruera Cardet Cóll Durro DE-25043001 250 Erill la Vall Taúll Pla de l’Ermita Boí DE-25043002 250 Boí DE-25043003 150 Cóll DE-25043004 200 Durro DE-25043005 150 Erill la Vall DE-25043006 250 Taúll DE-25043008 500 Boí DE-25043009 250 Table 13. Villages served and storage capacity of Vall de Boí’s drinking water reservoirs Source: Ministerio de Política Territorial y Administración Pública (2008) - EIEL (2008)
Type of user Fee (€/year) Homes 22,77 Shops 26,75 Hostels, hotels and holiday homes up to 20 people 103,79 Hotels, campings and holiday homes up to 50 people 156,76 Hotels, campings and holiday homes for more than 50 people 208,30 Tourist apartments, rural homes and holiday homes up to 15 77,04 people Bars 124,55 Restaurants 177,41 Hairdresser shops 28,89 Workshops 89,77 Small industries or other activities 156,76 Bank branches and public administration centers 28,61 Table 14. Structure of the annual fee for drinking water use corresponding to the year 2010 Source: Municipality of Vall de Boí (webpage)
In both municipalities, the city council is the responsible for the management of the drinking water supply system. In 2009, both city councils approved, respectively,
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4.2.1.2.2 Treatment of wastewater In the Noguera de Tor watershed, almost the 100% of houses in villages are connected to a sanitation network, managed by the city council (EIEL, 2008). In the river basin, there are three plants for treating urban wastewater, all of them in the Vall de Boí municipality: Barruera (2002), Boí (2002) and Durro (2010).
WWTP Villages Capacity Capacity Population Type of denomination served (m3/day) (equivalent served treatment population) Barruera Barruera 192 768 198 Biological with N and P removing Boí Plà de 1310 5240 711 Biological l’Ermita, Taüll, Boí, Erill la Vall Durro Durro 80 n.a. n.a. Biological Table 15. . Main features of the wastewater treatment plans in the Noguera de Tor river basin Source: Agència Catalana de l’Aigua (2011)
The Programa de Sanejament d’Aigües Residuals (PSARU – Program for Wastewater Sanitation), approved in 2005, plans additional sanitation infrastructures in the river basin: - Horizon 2009-2011: wastewater treatment plant and collector for serving the Irgo village (Pont de Suert). - Horizon 2012-2014: wastewater treatment plants and collectors for serving the villages of Llesp (Pont de Suert), Coll and Cardet (both inside Vall de Boí municipality).
9 Pla Director de la xarxa d’abastament d’aigües de l’Alta Ribagorça al municipi de El Pont de Suert and Pla Director de la xarxa d’abastament d’aigües de l’alta Ribagorça al municipi de La Vall de Boí.
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4.2.2 Main social changes (~1970-2010)
4.2.2.1 Structure and lifestyle
The declining secular population trend in the Vallde Boí during the XXth century was abruptely broken by the hydropower colonization initiated by ENHER in 1946. The building phase of dams, channels and electric plants was driven by an immigrant working force, mainly settled at Pont de Suert, whose population was multiplied by a factor 7, between 1940 (489 inhab.) and 1960 (3502 inhab.). The Vall de Boí, however did not participate in this demographic revival. The population decline continued steadily till reaching a minimum in 1981, with only 583 inhabitants in the whole valley. Only after the launching of the snow and building business and the creation of the Boí Taüll Resort, the declining tendency was reversed allowing to near a duplication of the population figures between 1981 (583 inhab.) and 2010 (1076 inhab.).
Figure 26. Evolution of the Alta Ribargoçana county’s population, 1900-2010 Source: elaborated from INE.
These demographic changes are obviously exogenous and different in its main features from the growth dynamics linked to the hydropower boom. Besides the recent
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The changes occurred in the valley since the seventies affect all the dimensions of life. Most of them were absolutely unforeseeable at the beginning of the period, although others can be described as the extension of trends, which were observable since long ago.
Road communications have been steadily improved, bringing the valley nearer to the high density area of Barcelona. Rural electrification and domestic water provision as well as waste water collection (and more recently treatment) have been generalized to the main part of the households. As in the rest of the world the new information and communication technologies have penetrated into the social body creating new opportunities and problems.
One of the features of the evolution during the last four decades is the renewal of the population composition. If the electric colonization brought an important number of new workers to the valley (as mentioned, mainly settled down in Pont de Suert) the automation of the power stations reduced the operative workload and population started again to decrease. (Generalitat de Catalunya 2009a; El Portarró 2008).
4.3 Producing, exchanging and consuming 4.3.1 The picture today
4.3.1.1 Economic structure The most relevant part of the economic activity in the Noguera de Tor watershed is developed into the territory of the Vall de Boí municipality. Outside this municipality, the only remarkable activities are related to hydropower production in the Llesp facility.
10 114 (10.59%) of total registered population in 2010, compared to 8 inhabitants (0.92%) in 2000
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The nearest geographical scale to the Noguera de Tor river basin regarding economic statistical data is the Alta Ribagorça county. The territory of this county covers the municipalities of Vilaller, Vall de Boí and Pont de Suert (the county’s capital). The most recent available economic statistical indicators for the Alta Ribagorçana county refer to years 2001 and 2006 (Table 16, Table 17 and Table 18).
Alta Ribagorça county 2001 2006 GDP m.p. (base 2000) 66.05 M€ 115.04 M€ GDP m.p. per capita (base 18.300 € 28.100 € 2000) GDP m.p. per capita compared n.d. 103% to the Catalan GDP m.p. per capita Table 16. Alta Ribagorça county’s gross domestic product at market prices (GDP), 2001 and 2006 Source: IDESCAT
Alta Ribagorça - 2006 In absolute terms As a % GAV b.p. (base 2000) 103 M€ - Agriculture 8.5 M€ 8,3% - Industry 10.9 M€ 10,6% - Building 20.3 M€ 19,7% - Services 63.3 M€ 61,5% Table 17. Economic structure of the Alta Ribagorça county, 2006 Source: IDESCAT
Alta Ribagorça 2006 Industrial GAV b.p. (base 2000) 10.9 M€ - Energy, chemicals, rubber, metals 8.8 M€ - Food, textile, Wood, paper and edition 1.3 M€ - Machines, electric material, transport material and other 0.9 M€ manufactures Services GAV b.p. (base 2000) 63.3 M€ - Trade and repair 10,7 M€ - Accommodation 15,2 M€ - Transport and communications 2,6 M€ - Financial services 5,3 M€ - Renting, real state and business services 12,3 M€ - Other services 17,3 M€ Table 18. Detailed branch structure of industrial and services sectors of the Alta Ribagorça county, 2006 Source: IDESCAT
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In the context of the Catalonian region, the economic relevance of the Alta Ribagorça’s is very limited, representing only 0.06% of the Catalan GDP. The monetary standard of life index in the county is slightly superior (a 3%) to the Catalan average one (Table 16) and service activities are the main source of added value in this county (Table 17), mainly accommodation; renting, real state and business services; and other services (Table 18).
Population and economic activities in the Noguera de Tor river basin concentrates in the Vall de Boí municipality, for which disaggregated statistical data are not available. A first approach to the economic importance of the Vall de Boí municipality is to consider it as the difference between the Alta Ribagorça county and Pont de Suert municipality (Table 19). Bearing in mind the limited economic activity set in Vilaller, Vall de Boí municipality accounts for less than 50% of the added value generated at the Alta Ribagorça county.
Pont de Suert - 2006 In absolute As a % of terms county GAV b.p. GAV b.p. (base 2000) 48.6 M€ 47.2% - Agriculture 4.6 M€ 54,1% - Industry 3.5 M€ 32,1% - Building 9.7 M€ 47,8% - Services 30.7 M€ 48,5% Table 19. Economic structure of Pont the Suert municipality, 2006 Source: IDESCAT
In 2010, jobs in Vall de Boí represented the 45% of the county’s (Table 20). The only sector in which the comparison between Vall de Boí and the county as a whole is clearly below this average was that of building sector (30% of the county’s jobs in the building sector).
Additional available economic data at municipal level refers to Vall de Boí and Pont de Suert, as they are municipalities with more than 1,000 inhabitants (Table 21). These indicators show the importance of tourism oriented services followed by commercial ones in the Vall de Boí town. The economic activity index together with the importance
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Jobs (Year 2010) Vall de Boí Alta Ribagorça % Vall de Boí with municipality county respect to Alta Ribagorça Agriculture 37 83 45% Industry 35 79 44% Building 64 210 30% Services 499 1035 48% Total 635 1407 45% Table 20. Comparison of jobs per economic sector in the municipality of Vall de Boí and in the Alta Ribagorça county Source: INESCAT - Banc d'estadístiques de municipis i comarques. Data from Seguridad Social.
Number of activities11 Vall de Boí Pont de Suert Industrial activities 12 10 - Energy and water 4 3 - Extraction and transformation of 1 3 mineral, energy and derivatives; chemical industry - Metal transformation industry; precision 1 2 mechanics - Manufacturing 6 2 Building activities 28 36 Commercial activities 44 76 - Wholesale 1 5 - Retail 43 71 Bars and restaurants 44 18 Index of economic activity12 6 5 - Index of tourism 34 4 - Index of bars and restaurants 5 3 - Index of commercial activities 1 3 - Industrial & building index 13 8 Table 21. Number of economic activities per sectors and indexes of economic activity for the municipalities of Vall de Boí and Pont de Suert, 2009 Source: La Caixa (2010)
11 Data based on economic activities tax declarations with revenues superior to 1 M€. Agriculture is not subject of this tax 12 These indexes measure the municipal participation (X of 100,000 parts) regarding the respective total at national level (100,000 parts).
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Vall de Boí concentrates the 68% of the county’s tourist infrastructure for lodging (Table 22), as well as the main tourist attractions which are located at the middle and upper basin of Noguera de Tor river: - The thermal waters spa Caldes de Boí - 44 km of sky courses and the tourist complex of Boí-Taüll Resort - Trekking / mountain routes through the Parc Nacional d’Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici - A set of Romanic churches declared UNESCO’s human heritage in 2000.
Year 2010 Vall de Boí Alta Ribagorça Number of hotels 31 48 - Beds 1.622 2.066 Number of campings 2 5 - Beds 398 926 Rural tourist houses 54 75 - Beds 315 445 Total number of beds 2335 3437 Table 22. Lodging capacity in the Vall de Boí municipality as compared to that of Alta Ribagorça county Source: La Caixa (2010)
Regarding the industrial sector, a main activity is the hydropower production. There are three hydropower plants located at the Noguera de Tor river basin (Table 23 and Figure 27).
HYDROPOWER CALDAS BOÍ LLESP PLANTS Municipality (village) Vall de Boí (near to Vall de Boí (near to Pont de Suert (Llesp) Caldes de Boí) Barruera) Potential (kW) 32,640 16,000 12,480 Maxim usable flow 8 m3/s 10 m3/s 9.4 m3/s (m3/s) Annual energy 89.95 GWh / Year 53.49 GWh / Year 48.27 GWh / Year production (year 2003) (year 2003) (year 2003) Average annual 92.5 GWh / Year 55.9 GWh / Year 49 GWh / Year energy production (a) Water source (a) Sant Nicolas river Reuse of flows Noguera de Tor river and Cavallers coming from Caldas (Llesp dam located reservoir plant and Noguera de near to Barruera) Tort river (Pressa de Boí) Table 23. Hydropower production facilities in the Noguera de Tor river basin Sources: CHE, Sistema de Información Territorial del Ebro (2011) (last update 2003) and (a) CEDRICAT (2006)
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Moreover, downstream the Llesp hydropower plant there is a new intake in the Noguera de Tor river for diverting water through a channel up to the Pont de Suert hydropower plant located on the Noguera Ribagorça river, downstream the confluence of Noguera de Tor into this river.
Sant Nicolau river
Hydropower Plant CALDAS
Noguera de Tor river
Hydropower Plant BOI
Intakes and channels for water supply to hydropower plants Hydropower Plant LLESP
Noguera Ribargoça Hydropower Plant river PONT DE SUERT
Figure 27. Use of Noguera de Tor water resources for hydropower production Source: CHE, Sistema de Información Territorial del Ebro (2011)
4.3.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services for production and business The main economic activities in the Noguera de Tor watershed –tourism and hydropower production- depend on aquatic ecosystem services:
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- Provisioning of water for artificial snow provision (205 snow canyons and 20.2 km of ski courses, almost a half of the total ski available area). According to the online Public Water Register of the Ebro river basin authority,13 there is an authorization for using up to 305,100 m3/year (until the year 2077) from the Ginerebrell stream and the Pas d’Erta lake to produce artificial snow and to supply the ski station restaurant. However, in the draft of the Ebro river basin program of measures it is said that the current water use authorization allows using up to 450,100 m3/year, and a duplication of such a volume is foreseen in the near future (CHE, 2011). - Provisioning of water for hydropower production, which has an authorized volume of use up to 30 m3/s from the Noguera de Tor river and its tributaries.14 - Provisioning of water for thermal water tourism. The thermal spa complex Caldes de Boí has an authorization for using up to 261,749 m3/year from the Noguera de Tor river for ornamental and non-drinking domestic uses.15 Besides it benefits from the mineral and thermal waters complex Caldes de Boí consisting of 37 springs. - Provisioning of water for production of bottled mineral water. Close to the thermal spa complex Caldes de Boí, a firm produces around 30,000 m3/year of bottled mineral water from the Font de Bou spring (belonging to the Caldes de Boí mineral and thermal complex).16 - Provisioning water for aquaculture. The fish farm settled near to Barruera has an authorization for using up to 1,576,800 m3/year from the Noguera de Tor river and the Fuente Pedregana spring.17 - Recreational services of water ecosystems (snowed mountains (ski), lakes and rivers (bathing, fishing, etc.), thermal waters (spa)) are very important for the tourist sector.
13 Available on the Internet: http://iber.chebro.es/webche/raInfo.aspx (consulted october 2011) 14 Online Public Water Register of the Ebro river basin authority, available on the Internet: http://iber.chebro.es/webche/raInfo.aspx (consulted october 2011) 15 Online Public Water Register of the Ebro river basin authority, available on the Internet: http://iber.chebro.es/webche/raInfo.aspx (consulted october 2011) 16 Segre newspaper (10-01-2010): “La embotelladora de Caldes de Boí duplica su plantilla por el aumento de la producción, ahora de 30 millones litros”. 17 Online Public Water Register of the Ebro river basin authority, available on the Internet: http://iber.chebro.es/webche/raInfo.aspx (consulted october 2011)
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- Maintenance of genetic heritage. Sport fishing and fishing tourism is relaying on the availability of salvage trouts. Noguera de Tor and San Nicolas rivers are genetic reservoirs for trouts. - Esthetic services (landscape, naturalness) are very important for the tourist sector: a main part of tourist activities are concentrated in the area near to the National Park Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici, and in the own National Park territory (294,547 visitors in 2010; maximum number of visitors in 2001: 410,427 (Red de Parques Nacionales, 2011)18).
Irrigation has a testimonial presence in the Noguera de Tor river basin: according to the Online Public Water Register of the Ebro river basin authority, there are 87.5 ha of irrigated land, with authorization for using up to 412,283 m3/year.
4.3.2 Relevant economic changes since ~1970
4.3.2.1 Economic evolution Till the beginning of the XXth century the Vall de Boí was an unknown valley for the main part of Catalans, not to say Spaniards or French. The valley was discovered by urban Catalans, in 1907, through a scientific expedition of the Institute d’Estudis Catalans the Missió arqueológica-jurídica de l’Institut a la ratlla d’Aragó looking for the Romanic heritage. Since then, the middle class interest in this lost corner in the deep heart of Catalonia grew and the visit to the valley became fashion. Besides Romanic frescos –which soon were dragged away and taken to Barcelona- one of the appealing features of the place was the spa of Caldas de Boí. Built on a primitive Casa de baños (1817) The Baños were arranged for the new clients with the building of a hotel. Despite the renewed activity around the healthy waters, access to the spa remained difficult, but the trip was perceived, at least by some, as an additional element of the adventurous character of the excursion.
This relative isolated status was to last till the building of a road by the electrical company ENHER in the late forties. The hydropower exploitation of the Noguera de Tor
18 http://reddeparquesnacionales.mma.es/parques/org_auto/visitas/pdf/total_visitantes.pdf (consulted octuber 2011)
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Before the settlement of the electric company, the local economy was -as many other parts of the Pyrenees- to a great extent self-sufficient, even autarchic. Subsistence agriculture coexisted with cattle and forestry. Due to the transport difficulties only a limited commercial exchange existed, mainly based on cattle and forestry products.
4.3.2.2 Relation to aquatic ecosystems services
4.3.2.2.1 Tourism pioneers At present, the main economic activity in the basin is tourism and related activities like second residence building. The first tourism exploitation of the valley resources are linked to water –the spa-; to Romanic art, since the discovering of the Missió arqueològica, and to Nature, especially after the creation of the Parc Nacional d’Aigües Tortes i Estany de Sant Maurici in 1955.
The Caldes de Boí spa benefits from a great variety of medicinal waters sources (37 springs), welling up in a wide thermal range from 6 to 50 centigrade. Low mineralization is the main characteristic of these waters which chemical composition includes chloride, sulphide and fluoride as well as sodium and lithium as cations. (López de Azcona, 1989; Garcia Puertas et al., 1989)
After the Spanish Civil War the existing hotel was enlarged and benefited from the building of the road in the late forties. Following López de Azcona, in 1989 there were two the hotels in Caldes de Boí, with a total capacity of around 450 people19. At present, after the modernisation of hotels and spa facilities, made possible by the boom of the spa fashion, both hotels are run under the trade mark “Caldes de Boí.
19 The ancient hotel Caldas, with a capacity for 216 people, and the new built in 1956 El Manantial for 226 persons. López de Azcona estimates in 121 the number of employees.
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Balneari20”, which offers complementary tourism services, like trekking in the natural park or rafting in the Noguera Ribagorçana.
Besides tourism and body care uses, mineral water is also bottled and commercialised since 1955. After modernisation in 1975, the bottling capacity raised to 4.000 bottles/hour for one litre bottles and 5.500 b/h for the half and the quarter bottles. In 2010, it has arrived to a production of 30000 m3/year of bottled mineral water, giving employment to 25 people.21
4.3.2.2.2 Hydropower The great transformation of Vall de Boí came with hydropower exploitation. A company, ENHER22, and its manager during more the 20 years, Victoriano Muñoz Oms, were the undisputable protagonists of the changes occurred since 1948. Muñoz, who before this date carried out mining projects in the area, was aware of the hydropower potential of the valley. The increasing demand in the recovering Catalan industry and the example of the neighbour hydropower station (Central de Cabdella in the Flamisell basin, Noguera Pallaresa), the first in the area, were convincing arguments in favour of the project. In addition, the existence of detailed plans dating from the second decade of the XXth century, made the task easier. The main hindrance -and the reason why the plans had not been developed- was the lack of roads. Building roads was the first task undertaken by the new firm in the Vall de Boí, simoultaneously to the construction of the electric stations in the main course of the Ribagorça and an in deep revision of the existing use plans. (Alayo i Manubens, 2007; 299-311).
20 http://www.caldesdeboi.com/html/boi/ 21 Segre newspaper (10-01-2010): “La embotelladora de Caldes de Boí duplica su plantilla por el aumento de la producción, ahora de 30 millones litros”. 22 Empresa Nacional Hidroeléctrica del Ribagorzana S.A. was created by the Instituto Nacional de Industria (INI) as a public company in 1946, for the integral exploitation of the Noguera Ribagorçana. Victoriano Muñoz Oms was a Catalan engineer at the service of the revolted army since the times of Franco’s provisional government in Burgos (1938).
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In few years the physiognomy of the valley –and the whole county (comarca)- changed dramatically. New camps grew around the building sites, with a capacity of more than 1000 workers in the Noguera de Tor area. (Farrús i Petit, 2004; 43). These camps were dismantled after the finishing of works, opposite to the permanent settlements built in Pont de Suert, outside the Tor basin. Pont de Suert, in the main axe of the Ribagorça valley was chosen by ENHER for locating its headquarters. Different new quarters were placed around the village segregating manual workers from technicians and directives.
The social effects of the hydropower activity in the Vall de Boi were small after the station’s building boom. Workers, who had been attracted by the works, went again and only a small fraction of the locals remained employed by the ENHER during the first years of operation. In the seventies, the company changed to automatic management, reducing even more the occupation of labour force in the valley and in Pont de Suert.
4.3.2.2.3 National park The Parc Nacional d’Aigües Tortes i Estany de Sant Maurici, one of Valley’s main tourism drivers was created by Franco’s regime in 1955. To believe the documentary for the Catalan television (TV3) made under the historical supervision of Borja de Riquer23, the protection of the area was a tactic element in the fight between two powerful economic personages: Ventosa i Calvell, since 1946 the owner of a wide forest property on the one side, and Muñoz Oms, promoter of coal mining in the Ribagorça, first, and later of the hydropower exploitation, on the other one.
Electricity production was considered of “national interest” and, as a consequence, the timber needed by the firm for the power company facilities could be bought in the area to a lower price. Ventosa i Calvell was harmed by this privilege because whenever he felled his trees he was forced to sell them to Muñoz’s firm with a very low yield. So he decided not to exploit his wood -he could afford it- with a great damage of Muñoz’s interests.
23 http://www.tv3.cat/pecatscapitals/historia19.html
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September 1955, Franco came to the Vall de Boí for visiting the new electric facilities promoted by Muñoz. This one asked Franco to declare Aigüestortes as a national park. And he got it. Joan Ventosa, knowing Muñoz’s friendship with the Dictator had anticipated his move. Using his influence in the Madrid administration he had got an exploitation plan for his property which allowed him continuing with the forest exploitation even if the area would be protected.
The economic influence of the park in the Noguera de Tor basin grew slowly. In any case, slower than in the Noguera Pallaresa side. The twin summits of Els Encantats - the emblematic image of the Park when reflected in the Sant Maurici Lake waters- were (and are) easier to be reached from Espot, in the Pallaresa basin. And Espot was, for long time, far better communicated with Barcelona.
Nevertheless, the existence of the park has been a synergic element, together with the spa and the Romanic monuments, in the posterior development of the snow and building business.
4.3.2.2.4 The snow and building business The first ski lift in Spain was inaugurated in La Molina (Cerdanya) in 1943, but the veritable ski boom started in the sixties, with the economic development of Franco’s regime after the 1959’s economic plan (Plan de Estabilización) and the military and political alliance with the USA. In the Pyrenees a westward snow colonisation was set in motion, in search of less congested places -but farther from Barcelona that the existing resorts.
After the big success of Baqueira at the Val d’Aran, the possibilities of the snow business in the Vall de Boí, among other places, were studied. The story has been told in detail by Josep Jané i Solà, economics professor at the University of Barcelona and one of the founders of the Boí-Taüll Resort. As he explains (Jané i Solà, 2004; 169) the real business was urbanisation: the resort was not economically viable without the
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The project started in the late seventies and in 1989 the resort was opened. In the view of Jané i Solà a key piece of the whole project was missing for it economic sustainability: the improvement of the communication of the resort with the main road to Lleida and Barcelona (N230). In 1994 the road was inaugurated.
4.4 Contribution of aquatic ecosystem services to the human wellbeing: a summary
4.4.1 Provisioning
4.4.1.1 Water for food crops Irrigation has very little relevance in the area. It is limited to small domestic vegetable gardens and some pastures located immediately to water courses.
Other crops and the main part of pastures benefit from green water.
4.4.1.2 Livestock farming Extensive cattle farming is one of the main (and traditional) economic activities in the basin, besides hydropower and tourism and building.
4.4.1.3 Water for energy Production of hydropower is the objective of the first colonisation of the basin in recent times. It supposed the connection by car of the valley to the outside. At present hydropower is obtained in the plants of Caldas, Boí and Llesp.
24 [El resort] era impossible econòmicament sense el recolzament d’un desenvolupament urbanístic. (our translation). In fact, only the public (Generalitat de Catalunya) subsidies make the snow business viable. It is considered as a necessary aid for maintaining population in the skiing areas.
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Historically hydraulic power was used for small scale facilities like mills.
4.4.1.4 Fisheries
Sport fishing is an important activity in the basin. Fishfarming is also present.
4.4.1.5 Water for transportation Prior to the regulation of the Noguera de Tor timber was transported using the natural river courses. At present, no transport services have been identified.
4.4.1.6 Drinking and domestic uses At present all the villages in the Vall de Boí municipality are supplied with water through local distribution nets.
4.4.1.7 Water for wood & fuel A relevant part of the basin is covered by forests. Timber, firewood and other forests products, like mushrooms and berries, are got out of them.
4.4.1.8 Water for industrial crops No water uses for industrial crops (feed are not considered here as such) have been detected.
4.4.1.9 Water for other economic activities (Industry, Tourism…) The Caldes de Boí spa was one of the most important economic activities in the Valley prior to the electricity production. It is still one of them at present together with other tourism activities (and in the last decade building).
Water related tourism in the basin centres today around the ski resort, which feeds its slopes with artificial snow. Fishing and “lake tours” are appealing visitors too.
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4.4.2 Regulating
4.4.2.1 Climate regulation
At local level, aquatic ecosystems in a good conservation state provide microclimatic regulation services, such as freshness and humidity conditions, which are appreciate features by people, particularly during summer.
4.4.2.2 Hydrological regimes The hydrological regime of the Noguera de Tor is heavily altered from its very top. The existence of dams, other barriers and water outlets modify the hydrological regimes, indirectly affecting other ecosystem services like the maintenance of habitats or aesthetic and recreational ones.
4.4.2.3 Depuration Natural river’s depuration capacities were the only (aquatic) water depuration service for riparian populations till very recently. With the creation of domestic water provision systems, first, and the increasing of population in the valley, later, the collection of domestic waste water and its treatment in WWTPs was necessary to reduce the impact on the integrity of the river ecology. Given that the impact of organic discharge from urban setlements on Noguera de Tor basin’s water bodies has been evaluated as null (CHE, 2011), it can be said that the natural water purification function of these ecosystem is not affected
4.4.2.4 Soil & sediment dynamics Erosion and sediment transport and deposition are clearly ambivalent processes from a human perspective. Its distributional character –taken from upper parts and depositing in the lower ones- draws a clear trade-off between (upper) soil protection and (lower) soil formation: This under natural conditions. When dams are built in the river, new elements appear in favour of erosion protection in the higher part of the basin in order to avoid the filling of the reservoirs.
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4.4.2.5 Extreme climatic events protection The whole Noguera de Tor basin, with its lakes, snowdrifts and infiltration and underground storage acts as a natural reservoir during drought periods, providing thus an ecosystem service to lower parts of the Ribagorça basin.
4.4.3 Habitat
4.4.3.1 Maintenance of ecosystems integrity The ecosystems health and integrity depends on the quantity, quality and dynamics of the water flowing in rivers, which in turn allows for the provision of services relevant for human well-being like, for instance, depuration or fishing. This ecosystem service is affected in water bodies downstream dams by alterations of the hydrological regime and the river morphology due to the provisioning of water for energy. By the other side, weirs have created wetlands areas like that of Salencar de Barruera with important flora and fauna (including birds) biodiversity.
4.4.3.2 Maintenance of genetic heritage Maintenance of biological diversity depends on the good status of ecosystems. One of the goals of protected areas, like the Parc Nacional d’Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici, is the protection of biodiversity through the conservation of habitats. Important elements of these habitats in the basin are lakes, rivers and wetland areas, which contribute not only to the maintenance of aquatic species but also of terrestrial organisms. The gathering of botanic species for medical use (v.gr. Arnica Montana) has been a traditional activity in the area.
4.4.4 Cultural & Amenities
4.4.4.1 Aesthetics Aesthetics is always present when talking about water. Lakes and cascades are constitutive elements of the Pyrenean scenic landscape. Visitors of the National Park are attracted, among others, by these beauties.
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4.4.4.2 Recreational Bathing, fishing, lake touring, skiing and more are recreational activities made possible by the existence (in an acceptable status) of different aquatic ecosystems.
4.4.4.3 Spiritual and inspirational Spiritual and inspirational services are a pure example of non-marketable services. Regardless of the difficult of appraising this kind of services, and the much bigger of assigning an economic value to them, their existence can be, at least, recognised. Rivers –flowing still or rough- have inspired painters, literates or -now in a massive way- photographers.
4.4.4.4 Psychological benefit As psychological benefits from aquatic ecosystems in the Noguera de Tor basin the relaxing properties of its mere contemplation, particularly for urban dwellers, can be mentioned. Other activities related to aquatic ecosystems practised during holidays are also a source of psychological benefits. Worth mentioned among them are the spa services.
4.4.4.5 Educational & scientific There are a lot of immaterial cultural elements -like toponyms, legends, rites and trades- relevant for the identity of the basin inhabitants, which are related to water. Joint with the material legacy, in form of bridges, mills or ancient hydraulic facilities, they define a common cultural heritage. Education is a way of transmitting this heritage to visitors and young generations.
The ever renewing scientific worldview finds in the valley a source of knowledge and new questions.
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Ecosystem Ecosystem Services Group Presence in the study area Services Category Provisioning Water for food crops Market-oriented and self-consumption Green water, small scale irrigation Livestock farming Market-oriented and self-consumption Green water Water for energy Market-oriented Hydropower Self-consumption in the past Mills Fisheries Market-oriented Fish farm, sport fishing Water for transportation Market-oriented in the past Timber transport Drinking and domestic uses Detected Groundwater wells; drinking water supply network; self-consumption Water for wood & fuel Market-oriented and self-consumption Green water Water for industrial crops Not detected
Water for other economic activities Market-oriented Tourism (Industry, Tourism, …) (Spa, Ski, Nature leisure, Sport fishing) Regulation Climate regulation Detected Hydrological regimes Affected Threatened by Water for energy Depuration Detected Locally threatened by Water for other economic activities & Water for energy Soil & sediment dynamics Local dis-service Erosion & sediment transport Extreme climatic events protection Detected
Habitat Maintenance of ecosystems integrity Detected Species diversity/population Threatened by Water for Energy & Water for other economic activities Maintenance of genetic heritage Detected Collection of medicinal plants Cultural / Aesthetics Detected Landscape Amenities Historical heritage Recreational Detected Nature leisure, swimming, camping, sky Spiritual and inspirational Detected Psychological benefit Detected Educational & scientific Detected Table 24. Noguera de Tor River Basin Ecosystem Services
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5 ARGA CASE STUDY 5.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case The Arga river basin is a sub-basin belonging to the Ebro river basin, located almost integrally in the autonomous community of Navarre. It covers a total area of 2760 Km2. Only 210 Km2 of them belong to the Basque Country; the resting 2550 Km2 being Navarre. The Arga river has a length of 150 km, flowing predominantly in direction north-south from its source in the Collado de Urkiaga hill (at 900 m.a.s.l.) up to the Funes municipality (at 275 m.a.s.l.), where it flows into the Aragon river, an Ebro affluent (Figure 28).
Figure 28. Topographical model of the Arga river basin, including main rivers and streams, reservoirs and urban settlements of more than 30 people. Source: CHE (2008)
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The main tributary river basins to the Arga river are the Ultzama, Arakil (which collects water from the Larraun river) and Salado, on its right bank; and, the Elorz, on its left bank.
Figure 29. Main towns and cities located in the Arga river basin Source: CRANA (2007)
Average annual temperatures vary following a north-south gradient: from the 6 ºC in the Pyrenean zone (upper river basin) to the 14 ºC in the Arga river’s mouth. July and August register the highest temperatures, and the lowest ones are registered in January and February. The average evapotranspiration gradient is reversal of that of the temperature. In the upper river basin, it reaches values around 700 mm/year, increasing up to 750 mm/year in the lower river basin. The average watershed
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Figure 30. Mean annual values of the main climatic variables: precipitation, temperature and evapotranspiration Source: CHE (2008)
In natural conditions, the Arga river basin’s average annual water resource is estimated in 1559 hm3/year (1940-2000) (CRANA, 2007) (Table 25). Approximately a half of this flow comes from the Arakil river.
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River or stretch of river Average annual water resources Arga up to Ultzama 188 hm3 Ultzama 219 hm3 Elorz 70 hm3 Arakil 757 hm3 Salado 103 hm3 Arga from Salado up to Aragón 222 hm3 Arga river basin 1559 hm3 Table 25. Water resources in the Arga river basin Source: CRANA (2007)
For water management reasons, the Arga river basin’s hydrological network is divided into 22 water bodies.
Figure 31. Water bodies that conform the Arga river basin Source: CHE(2008)
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In the Arga river basin 5 types of rivers can be differentiated, attending to their climatic, geologic and geomorphologic features (Figure 32): - High mountain rivers (ecotype code 27)25 - Calcareous wet mountain rivers (ecotype code 26) - Calcareous Mediterranean mountain rivers (ecotype code 12) - Low Mediterranean mountain mineralized rivers (ecotype code 9) - Low mineralized rivers of Mediterranean-continental axes (ecotype code 15)
Figure 32. Geographical distribution of ecotypes through the Arga basin. Source: CHE (2008)
The river basin authority (CHE, 2008) has identified 11 groundwater bodies partially or totally located in the Arga river basin (Figure 33): Cuartango-Salvatierra, Altube-Urkilla, Sierra de Aizkorri, Sierra de Urbasa, Sierra de Andía, Sierra de Aralar, Basaburúa- Ultzama, Alto Arga-Alto Irati, Sierra de Alaiz, Sinclinal de Jaca-Pamplona, Aluvial del Ebro-Arga (Lodosa-Tudela) and Aluvial del Arga medio. The following map shows the main groundwater discharge points into the Arga river basin.
25 Code number refers to the code set at the map in Figure 32.
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Figure 33. Map of hydrogeological water bodies in the Arga river basin Source: CHE (2008)
5.2 Living in the basin. Social characterization (general) 5.2.1 The picture today
5.2.1.1 Demography & settlement The territory of the Arga river basin is divided into 86 municipalities (82 belongs to Navarra and 4 to the Basque Country) (CRANA, 2007). In 2005, 364,000 people lived in the river basin, around the 80% concentrated in Pamplona and its area of influence (the territorial subsystem called Cuenca de Pamplona) (Figure 34). The Arga river basin population in 2005 multiplied that of 1900 by a factor of 3.5 (Figure 35) strongly conditioned by the evolution dynamics of the Pamplona municipality (Figure 36).
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Figure 34. Territorial distribution of municipal population in the Arga river basin, 2005 Source: CRANA (2007)
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Figure 35. Evolution of population in the Arga river basin, 1900-2005 Source: CHE (2008)
Figure 36. Evolution of population in Pamplona municipality, 1900-2005 Source: CHE (2008)
However, this increase of population is unevenly distributed through the territory (Figure 37): a main part of small rural towns lost population between 1950 and 2005, while cities and its area of influence concentrated the industrial and services activities as well as population. Thus, municipalities that showed a sensible increase of population during the second half of the XXth century were those belonging to the territorial subsystems of Cuenca de Pamplona (particularly, the Pamplona metropolitan area) and Puente de la Reina; the biggest municipalities in the Aralkil river basin (Altsasu, Arbizu, Lakuntza, Etxarri-Aranaz, Uharte-Arakil, Olazti, Irurtzun and Lekunberri), together with Funes and Peralta municipalities in the Arga lower watershed.
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Figure 37. Territorial distribution of the municipal population variation between 1900-2005
5.2.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services and domestic uses
5.2.1.2.1 Water supply Freshwater supply to urban settlements in the Arga basin is managed through several associations of municipalities (Mancomunidades), serving water to 80 municipalities (Table 26).
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Association of Served population Member municipalities municipalities (2005) 49 municipalities: Adiós, Ansoáin, Añorbe, Aranguren, Barañain, Belascoáin, Beriáin, Berrioplano, Berriozar, Bidaurreta, Biurrun-Olcoz, Burlada/Burlata, Ciriza, Echarri, Egüés, Enériz, Esteribar, Etxauri, Mancomunidad Comarca Ezcabarte, Galar, Goñi, Huarte/ 276,224 inhabitants de Pamplona Uharte, Ibargoiti, Iza, Juslapeña, Legarda, Monreal, Muruzábal, Noáin (Valle de Elorz)/Noain (Elortzibar,) Olza, Ollo, Orkoien, Pamplona/Iruña, Tiebas-Muruarte de Reta, Tirapu, Ucar, Uterga, Villava/Atarrabia, Zabalza, Zizur Mayor/Zizur, Nagusia 15 municipalities: Altsasu/Alsasua, Arakil, Arbizu, Arruazu, Mancomunidad de Sakana Bakaiku, Ergoiena, Etxarri-Aranatz, 15,185 inhabitants Irañeta, Irurtzun, Iturmendi, Lakuntza, Olazti/Olazagutía, Uharte-Arakil, Urdiain y Ziordia 13 municipalities: Artajona, Artazu, Berbinzana, Cirauqui, Mancomunidad de Guesálaz, Guirguillano, Larraga, 10,482 inhabitants Valdizarbe Mañeru, Mendigorría, Miranda de Arga, Obanos, Puente la Reina/Gares, Salinas de Oro Mancomunidad de La 3 municipalities: 4,557 inhabitants Santa Cruz Artajona, Larraga, Mendigorría Mancomunidad de Falces- 2 municipalities: 7,223 inhabitants Peralta Falces, Peralta Table 26. Drinking water supply entities in the Arga river basin Source: CRANA (2007)
According to the available data (CRANA 2007), in the case of the Mancomunidad de la Comarca de Pamplona, the domestic water use per inhabitant and day is estimated in 152 liters26 and water consumption for inside domestic uses was of 13.67 hm3 in 2005
26 The average water consumption by domestic users in the Navarre region is estimated in 134 l/inhab/day (Observatorio de la Sostenibilidad, 2008 - http://www.sostenibilidad- es.org/sites/default/files/1.1.2._consumo_de_agua_en_los_hogares.pdf). The
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Figure 38. Geographical location of drinking water intakes in the Arga river basin Source: CHE (2008)
divergence between this figure and that of the Mancomunidad de la Comarca de Pamplona can be derived from a different definition of the “domestic water use” concept.
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The sources for producing drinking water are both groundwater and surface water. The Confederación Hidrográfica del Ebro (2008) has identified 125 intakes (111 from groundwater and 14 from surface water) (Figure 38). The most important ones are: - Eugui reservoir (119)27 - Arteta spring (43) - Uldarlur reservoir (12) - Auriz spring (85) - Riezu spring (26) - Ubagua stream (27)
The Mancomunidad de la Comarca de Pamplona organizes the water supply network through three systems: - Arteta-Eguillor: the Arteta spring (average flow 3 m3/s) supplies Pamplona with drinking water since 1895. Water is channelized up to the Eguillor water treatment plant. - Eugui-Urtasun: the Eugui reservoir built in 1972 completed Pamplona’s freshwater supply. Water is transported up to the Urtasun treatment plant. - Itoiz reservoir-Canal de Navarra-Tiebas: water from the Itoiz reservoir (located outside the Arga river basin) is transported through the Canal de Navarra channel up to the Tiebas water treatment plant.
Additionally, from the Subiza spring an average flow of 6 dm3/s is pumped to complement the water supply of the Comarca de Pamplona’s southern settlements. Drinking water sources for the Mancomunidad of Sakana are the Urdalur reservoir and the following springs: Arbara, Urbasa, Leziza, Urruntzurre and Iribas. Water is treated in the Urdalur and Urritza plants. Water from the Urdalur reservoir and the Arbara and Urbasa springs is used for supplying four towns: Ziordia, Olazti, Altsasu and Urdiain. The Urdalur reservoir together with the Leziza spring is used as supply water source for the towns of Arbizu, Lakuntza and Dorrao. Towns of Ihabar, Hiriberri, Satrustegi, Zuhatzu, Ekai, Egiarreta and Etxarren are supplied from the Urruntzurre spring; and, the Iribas spring supplies Irurtzun, Etxeberri, Izurdiaga, Urritzola and Errotz.
5.2.1.2.2 Wastewater treatment In the Arga river basin there are 21 urban wastewater treatment plants, serving 55 towns and cities and covering approximately the 90% of the river basin’s population
27 The number into brackets is the code reflected in the map.
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(CHE, 2008). Many of these plants receive also industrial wastewaters as well as runoff waters.
WWTP name Treatment Receptor stream Design flow Treated flow Inhabitants m3/day m3/day served Ultzama Biological Ultzama 1,363 1,672 1,500 Eugi Biological Arga 340 167 347 Arazuri Biological Arga 129,600 95,552 273,392 Lekunberri-Larraun Biological Larraun 2,124 1,807 986 Aiarotz Biological Larraun 110 43 250 Irurtzun Biological Arakil 1,485 1,512 2,244 Olazagutia Biological Arakil 746 600 1,711 Alsasua-Urdain Biological Arakil 4,000 3,447 7,908 Iturmendi-Bakaiku Biological Arakil 475 403 727 Etxarri-Aranatz Biological Arakil 1,144 922 2,394 Arbizu-Lakuntza Biological Arakil 2,198 1,193 1,940 Uharte-Arakil Biological Arakil 734 826 792 Riezu Biological Ubagua (a 80 90 119 tributary of the Salado river) Lerate Biological Salado 60 45 26 Puente La Reina Biological Arga 1,507 1,377 2,463 Mendigorria Biological Arga 585 233 937 Artajona Biological Arga 705 502 1,717 Larraga Biological Arga 500 368 1,969 Miranda de Arga Biological Arga 585 367 1,031 Bajo Arga Biological Ebro 8,500 4,833 15,907 Araia Physical- n.d. 1,040 n.d. 5,000 chemical Table 27. Wastewater treatment plants in the Arga river basin Source: NILSA (http://www.nilsa.com – June 2011) and D.A.M. (http://www.dam- aguas.es - June 2011)
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Figure 39. Geographical distribution of wastewater treatment plants in the Arga river basin Source: NILSA (http://www.nilsa.com – June 2011)
5.2.1.2.3 Fishing The regional government of Navarra has elaborated a fishery zoning for Navarre inland waters, according to the salmonid or cyprinid character of water bodies. The salmonid zone is split in two parts: the superior zone (green stretches in Figure 40) and the mix zone (orange stretches in Figure 40). The former refers to stretches whose management objective is the self-maintenance of wild fish population; therefore, in this water bodies, fish re-population is not allowed. Fishing in this zone is yearly regulated
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The Arga upper river basin (including the Ultzama sub-basin) together with the Arakil river sub-basin belongs to the salmonid zone (blue area in Figure 40). The Arga middle-lower basin belongs to the cyprinid zone (yellow area in Figure 40).
Figure 40. Official fishing zoning of the Navarra region Source: Gobierno de Navarra (2011)
In 2011, the Navarre government established a stock of 1,286 specific permits for fishing in the Arga-Ultzama salmonid superior zone; and another of 2,358 ones in the Arakil-Larraun salmonid superior zone.
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In salmonid mix and cyprinid zones there are several reserves for intensive fishing of trout and for fishing signal crayfish28. The required permits for using these reserves are released by authorized fishing organizations.
Figure 41. Official fishing zoning of the Arga river sub-basin Source: Gobierno de Navarra (2011)
28 Also known as American crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus
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Figure 42. Official fishing zoning of the Arakil river sub-basin Source: Gobierno de Navarra (2011)
Native Salmonid (Salmo salar) and other migratory species: Salmo trutta, Anguilla Anguilla, Alosa alosa, Chelon labrosus, Platichthys flesus. Cyprinid species: Parachondrostoma miegii, Luciobarbus graellsii, Barbus haasi, Phoxinus bigerri, Gobio lozanoi, Tinca tinca. Invasive Fish species: Oncorhynchus mykiss, Cyprinus carpio, Carassius auratus, Alburnus alburnus, Ameiurus melas, Micropterus salmoides, Silurus glanis, Esox lucius. Crayfish: Procambarus clarkii, Pacifastacus leniusculus. Table 28 The available fishable species in Navarre rivers cover native and invasive species. Source: Gobierno de Navarra (2011)
5.3 Producing, exchanging and consuming 5.3.1 The picture today
5.3.1.1 Economic structure The economic structure of the Arga river basin is featured by the importance of services and industrial activities, and a reduced weight of agriculture (in economic and employment terms). Both, services and industry are very concentrated in the Comarca de Pamplona (Arga middle basin) and the Comarca La Barranca / Sakana (covering the Arakil river basin). The Gobierno de Navarra (2010) has estimated that the 60.8% of the employees working in Navarra are located in the Comarca de Pamplona. The
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Navarre Camara de Comercio’s last report (Gobierno de Navarra, 2010) presents a list of the 785 most important firms of the region; 67% (525) of them are located inside the Arga river basin, particularly in the Comarca de Pamplona (435 firms).
Most important Navarre firms: Comarca Pamplona Economic sector Navarra Arga river (inside the Arga river distribution region basin basin) Arga / Navarra Agriculture 8 6 6 75% Industry 434 251 175 58% Construction 88 60 59 68% Services 255 208 195 82% Total 785 525 435 67% Table 29. Geographic distribution of the most important Navarre firms per economic sector, 2009 Source: elaborated from Gobierno de Navarra (2010) – Cámara de Comercio
The sectoral distribution of employees working in the Arga river basin shows that service and industrial activities are the main sources of employment (CHE, 2008). According to the inscriptions in the Tesorería de la Seguridad Social, occupied people in the Arga river basin represent around the 68% of the total jobs of the Navarre region in 2006 (CHE, 2008).
Economic sector Number of employees inside % employees per sector of the Arga river basin activity inside the Arga river basin Agriculture 4,067 2.2% Industry 34,934 18.8% Construction 19,084 10.3% Services 127,822 68.8% Total 185,907 100.0% Table 30. Employees in economic sectors in the Arga river basin, 2006 Source: data from CHE (2008) - Inscriptions in the Tesorería de la Seguridad Social referred to 2006.
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Figure 43. Territorial distribution of jobs in the Navarra region and number of workers as percentage of the municipal population, 2008 Source: Gobierno de Navarra (2010) Observaciones Territoriales de Navarra.
Gross added value at % of the total Navarre Economic sector basic prices, 2008 gross added value (thousand €) Agriculture & Livestock 469,932 2.8% Energy 436,640 2.6% Industry 4,361,184 25.8% Construction 1,806,810 10.7% Services 9,841,707 58.2% Total Navarra 16,916,273 100.0% Table 31. Dimension and sectoral structure of the Navarre economy Source: INE (2010) Contabilidad Regional de España
Considering the great economic importance of the Arga river basin into the Navarra region, and the lack of economic statistic data at geographical scales smaller than that
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5.3.1.1.1 Agriculture A 29% of the land included into the Arga river basin is occupied by rainfed agricultural activities, while only a 2.2% is used for irrigated agricultural production (Corine Land Cover, 2000; cited in CHE, 2008). Agricultural land is located in the middle and lower river basin.
According to the public firm Riegos de Navarra, S.A. (2011), irrigated land depending on water from the Arga river basin spreads over 5,446 Ha.; that is, the 4.9% of the total irrigated land in Navarra (112.006 Ha). 85% of the Arga’s irrigated land is located in the municipalities of Larraga, Miranda de Arga, Falces, Funes and Peralta. Besides, there are small irrigated areas in the municipalities of Burlada, Huarte, Vidaurreta and Zabalza.
According to the cadastre register (2006), in the Arga river basin there were 10,181 Ha of irrigated land: 8,752 Ha irrigated using water resources of the Arga watershed; and, the other 1,429 Ha irrigated with water from the Aragon river. The river basin authority has released water use permits for irrigation, for a maximum aggregated volume of 8.48 m3/s in the Arga river basin (around 20% of the average water resources of the river basin) (CHE, 2008).
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Figure 44. Land use of the Arga river basin, 2000 Source: CHE (2008)
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Figure 45. Distribution of irrigated land in the Arga river basin according to cadastral registers, 2006 Source: CHE (2008)
5.3.1.1.2 Industry As can be derived from the analysis of location of the main Navarre firms, industrial activities in the Arga river basin are mainly concentrated in the Comarca de Pamplona, and to a less extent in the Comarca La Barranca (Table 32 and Figure 47), and they are focused to metal based industries, including remarkably the automotive industry (Table 32 and Figure 46).
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Number of main Navarre industrial firms. Territorial distribution inside the Arga river basin. Comarca La Comarca Comarca Puente Norte de Ribera Arga- Total inside Outside Arga Total Industrial activities Auñamendi Barranca / Sakana Pamplona La Reina Aralar Aragón Tafalla Ultzamaldea Arga river basin river basin Navarra 13. Mining of metal ores 1 1 0 1 14. Mining and quarrying 1 4 5 5 10 15. Manufacture of food products and beverages 1 21 3 2 4 1 2 34 62 96 17. Textile industry 1 8 9 3 12 18. Manufacture of wearing apparel and fur 2 2 3 5 19. Tanning and dressing of leather, manufacture of leather goods and travel, saddlery harness and footwear 0 1 1 20. Manufacture of wood and cork, except furniture, straw and plaiting 1 1 1 3 8 11 21. Paper Industry 6 6 8 14 22. Publishing, printing and reproduction of recorded media 3 3 8 11 24. Chemical industry 6 6 3 9 25. Manufacture of rubber and plastic products 2 10 1 1 14 17 31 26. Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products 4 11 15 13 28 27. Metallurgy 8 3 1 12 8 20 28. Fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment 5 32 2 39 15 54 29. Building industry machinery and equipment 6 21 1 2 30 8 38 31. Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus 7 1 2 10 9 19 32. Manufacture of electronic equipment, manufacturing equipment and radio, television and communication 1 2 3 2 5 33. Manufacture of medical and surgical instruments, precision optics and watchmaking 4 4 4 34. Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers 2 30 1 33 6 39 35. Manufacture of other transport equipment 2 2 2 36. Manufacture of furniture, manufacturing nec 2 2 4 7 11 37. Recycling 2 2 0 2 40. Production and distribution of electricity, gas, steam and hot water 4 4 3 7 41. Collection, purification and distribution of water 1 1 2 2 4 Total at territorial scale 1 31 181 5 3 16 1 5 243 191 434 Table 32. Territorial and sectoral distribution of the main Navarre industrial firms based in the Arga river basin, 2009 Source: elaborated from Gobierno de Navarra (2010)
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Number of the main Navarre industrial firms classified per industrial activity located inside the Arga river basin
41. Collection, purification and distribution of water
40. Production and distribution of electricity, gas, steam and hot water
37. Recycling
36. Manufacture of furniture, manufacturing nec
35. Manufacture of other transport equipment
34. Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers
33. Manufacture of medical and surgical instruments, precision optics and watchmaking
32. Manufacture of electronic equipment, manufacturing equipment and radio, television and communication
31. Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus
29. Building industry machinery and equipment nec
28. Fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment
27. Metallurgy
26. Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products
25. Manufacture of rubber and plastic products
24. Chemical industry
22. Publishing, printing and reproduction of recorded media
21. Paper Industry
20. Manufacture of wood and cork, except furniture, straw and plaiting
19. Tanning and dressing of leather, manufacture of leather goods and travel, saddlery harness and footwear
18. Manufacture of wearing apparel and fur
17. Textile industry
15. Manufacture of food products and beverages
14. Mining and quarrying
13. Mining of metal ores
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Auñamendi Comarca La Barranca / Sakana Comarca Pamplona Comarca Puente La Reina Norte de Aralar Ribera Arga-Aragón Tafalla Ultzamaldea Outside Arga river basin Figure 46. Number of the main Navarre industrial firms in the Arga river basin, classified per industrial activity Source: elaborated from Gobierno de Navarra (2010)
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Location of the main Navarre industrial firms inside the Arga river basin, grouped per industrial activity 28. Fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment
15. Manufacture of food products and beverages Ultzamaldea 34. Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers
29. Building industry machinery and equipment nec
Tafalla 26. Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products
25. Manufacture of rubber and plastic products
21. Paper Industry Ribera Arga-Aragón 27. Metallurgy
31. Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus
Norte de Aralar 17. Textile industry 24. Chemical industry
14. Mining and quarrying Comarca Puente La Reina 33. Manufacture of medical and surgical instruments, precision optics and watchmaking 40. Production and distribution of electricity, gas, steam and hot water
36. Manufacture of furniture, manufacturing nec Comarca Pamplona 22. Publishing, printing and reproduction of recorded media
20. Manufacture of wood and cork, except furniture, straw and plaiting
Comarca La Barranca / Sakana 32. Manufacture of electronic equipment, manufacturing equipment and radio, television and communication 18. Manufacture of wearing apparel and fur
35. Manufacture of other transport equipment Auñamendi 37. Recycling
41. Collection, purification and distribution of water 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
number of firms
Figure 47. Geographical distribution of the main Navarre industrial areas grouped per industrial activity Source: elaborated from Gobierno de Navarra (2010)
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Figure 48. Entrepreneurial structure of the Arga river basin, 2003 Source: elaborated from CRANA (2007)
The estimated industrial use of water is 20 hm3/year (2002). It is foreseen that this figure reaches the 30 hm3/year by the horizon 2018 (CRANA, 2007). Water provision for industrial uses is carried out through public water supply networks (Mancomunidades), being the Mancomunidad de la Comarca de Pamplona the most important one. Around 30% (9 Hm3/year) of the water supplied through this entity is used by the industry. There are also industries with their own intakes.
5.3.1.1.3 Energy According to the Inventory of Hydroelectric Power Plants elaborated by the Confederación Hidrográfica del Ebro (2003), in the Arga river basin there are 21 hydropower plants in operation. All of them with derivation channel, what means that
120
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Max. flow allowed to be River Power used Production Hydropower plant denomination Basin (kW) (m3/s) (GWh/year) State 1 SATRUSTEGUI ARGA 805 12 n.d. In operation 2 IRURTZUN ARGA 980 9.6 3.8 In operation 3 IBARREA ARGA 31 1.1 0.15 In operation 4 IRIBAS ARGA 584 1.2 2 In operation 5 ARITZU ARGA 200 160 n.d. In operation 6 LA FERRERIA ARGA 80 2 0.475 In operation 7 ELECTROQUÍMICA SAN MIGUEL ARGA 250 2.3 n.d. In operation 8 ARLAS ARGA 4.41 70 13.2 In operation 9 SAN MIGUEL ARGA 590 24 2 In operation 10 LA RECUEJA ARGA 70 6 n.d. In operation 11 ANDION ARGA 900 50 4.6 In operation 12 ALLOZ ARGA 6.72 16 6.52 In operation 13 MAÑERU ARGA 4,8 8 8.27 In operation 14 GARES ARGA 1.721 51 5.8 In operation 15 SARRIA ARGA 4.141 70 13 In operation 16 ECHAURI ARGA 1 15 4.293 In operation 17 MOLINO BARAZPEA ARGA 106 n.d. 0.442 In operation 18 URDANIZ ARGA 224 6 0.63 In operation 19 URTASUN ARGA 230 1.5 1.136 In operation 20 EUGUI ARGA 1.725 5.25 6.523 In operation 21 EGUILLOR ARGA 3.9 3.75 12.23 In operation 22 ARTAZCOZ ARGA 550 30 0 Abandoned 23 CABUES ARGA 2240 70 0 Abandoned 24 MOLINO DE BERBINZANA ARGA n.d. n.d. 0 Abandoned 25 LARRAGA ARGA 1024 46 0 Abandoned 26 MENDIGORRIA ARGA 563 40 0 Abandoned 27 PUENTE LA REINA ARGA n.d. n.d. 0 Abandoned 28 PUENTE LA REINA II ARGA n.d. n.d. 0 Abandoned 29 MOLINO MIRANDA DE ARGA ARGA n.d. n.d. 0 Abandoned 30 LA BURUNDESA ARGA 133 2,9 0 Projected 31 LAKUNTZA ARGA 532 10,5 0 Projected 32 ARAIA ARGA 150 0,72 0 Projected 33 ERROTZ ARAKIL 198 10 0 Projected Total electric power produced (2003) 85.069 Table 33. Hydropower plants in the Arga river basin, 2003 Source: CHE (2003)
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Figure 49. Geographical distribution of hydropower plants in the Arga river basin Source: CHE (2008)
Five of these twenty one plants have concessions that allow them to use higher flow rates than the annual average flow of the Arga river near its mouth (Funes) estimated in 50 m3/s. The hydroelectric power produced in 2003 is estimated in 85 GWh. Additionally, there are 8 hydropower plants abandoned, and it is planned the construction of other 4 (Table 33 and Figure 49).
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In 2005, the Confederación Hidrográfica del Ebro estimated the acknowledged rights to use the Arga river basin’s water resources for economic purposes reached an annual flow of 364.17 m3/s. From them, the 95% corresponds to the hydropower production (a flow of 348.6 m3/s per year). The main consumptive use in the basin is irrigated agriculture, with privative consumptive permits up to 8.48 m3/s per year, followed by the industry with privative consumptive permits for 2.22 m3/s per year. There are also 4 permits for fish-farming accounting for 1.81 m3/s per year (CHE, 2008).
5.3.2 Relevant economic changes since ~1970
5.3.2.1 Economic evolution Despite the current debate about the degree of dependence of the Navarrese economy from the automotive branch, the strategic role the automotive industry has played in the Navarre industrial development during the second half of the XXth century is out of discussion.
The combination of a preexisting small scale industrial tissue –which means the existence of entrepreneurship as well as a skilled labor force- with the exercise of political influence in a time (Franco’s dictatorship) where the state intervention in the economic sphere was omnipresent, has been considered as determinant for Navarre’s industrialization during the XXth century’s second half (de la Torre, 2005).
The exceptional degree of political autonomy of Navarre, in the context of the strong centralized Franco’s New State, represented by the Fueros and the Diputación Foral allowed for an own regional development policy. Fast industrialization and modernization of the agrarian productive structure were the pillars which sustained the regional strategy. The precedent of the present Volkswagen plant in Landaben, the centre of a diversified industrial district, was AUTHI, an automotive firm promoted by Navarre businessmen and politicians, with British technology (and later capital). After a
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The automotive firm was with Potasas de Navarra the two main employers in the area. Potasas de Navarra, belonging to the INI as well as SEAT, worked a potash exploitation 10Km south from Pamplona. At the time of its closing in 1985 Potasas de Navarra employed around 2000 workers. Potasas de Subiza was then created by the Navarre government and the INI, but the number of employees was only a quarter of that in the ancient Potasas. (Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia). Recently the firm has done an important reduction of its capital as a consequence of the bad economic results in the past years29. The potash exploitation has let a heavy inheritance in the form of contaminated sites.
The ups and downs of these big movers have obviously influenced the economic life in Navarra, more in the case of the automotive industry because of the linkages with suppliers. Nevertheless, opening to external markets and diversification of clients (for instance the important home appliances branch) have reduced the dependence of Volkswagen.
The industrial activity has concentrated in La Cuenca, the area around Pamplona, which has grown steadily in population. Pamplona’s demographic attraction has its negative consequences in other parts of the Arga basin, especially in the mountain municipalities (Montaña), which are getting depopulated and aged.
The agrarian basin’s South has benefited in the last decades from the CAP, and some productive transformations have been undertaken. However, the agrarian sector faces important challenges for the future. Among them, the aging of the rural population and the lack of generational relief, the concurrence in globalised markets and the contradictory relationship with the environmental conservation goals and industrial agriculture (PEAN 2006).
29 BORME, 19 June, 2011
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5.4.1.1 Water for food crops There are ca. 5.500 irrigated ha in the basin, mainly located in the plains close to the Arga River and principally downstream Puente de la Reina. The annual estimation of agrarian water use in the basin, considering only own resources30, was of 35Hm3 in 2002.
However, the main part of the Arga basin is not artificially irrigated (~ 78.460 Ha), but are possible thanks to green water, i.e. rainwater and soil moisture. Crops like dry farming herbaceous (mostly barley and wheat) and vineyard are dominating. Woods and pastures which benefit to from green water are not considered here.
5.4.1.2 Livestock farming There are both extensive and intensive livestock farming in the basin, benefiting from natural pastures and stubble. Detailed data for the basin area is available for the year 1999: 43.093 heads of bovine; 181.502 heads of ovine; 5.058 heads of caprine; 120.788 heads of porcine; and, 514,604 heads of poultry.
5.4.1.3 Water for energy The use of water for energy production for different purposes is present in the Arga basin since long. Flour mills, paper and cloth mills were disseminated along the rivers. Foundries using water energy have had great relevance in history and are considered as precursors of modern metal mechanic industry.
At present there are 21 hydropower plants in operation which produce 85 GWh (2003). The amount of water allowed to be used in hydropower production is equivalent to 7 folds the average annual flow of the Arga river at its mouth, in natural conditions.
30 Recently created irrigation areas are supplied with external resources (Irati basin through Canal de Navarra)
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5.4.1.5 Water for transportation No references
5.4.1.6 Drinking and domestic uses Groundwater and Arga upper and middle river basin are the main sources for drinking water supply. Recently, the Mancomunidad de la Comarca de Pamplona included also the importation of water from outside the river basin (from the Irati river basin) as an additional source for drinking water.
5.4.1.7 Water for wood & fuel
There are important forests in the upper side of the basin. Pine and beeches are the dominant species.
5.4.1.8 Water for industrial crops The information used does not allow for the detection of water uses for industrial crops (feed are not considered here as such). Apparently there is no relevant cultivation of biofuel or fibre crops.
5.4.1.9 Water for other economic activities (Industry, Tourism…) Relevant industrial branches in the basin, like the metal related ones, use relative high amounts of water. Some firms have started developing water supply programs searching possibilities of working with closed loops. Quality loss of water used in industrial processes is an important issue, for its ecologic and monetary costs.
Tourism in the Arga basin –Pamplona aside- is not a concentrated intensive activity, but mainly rural and related to open air activities. Rivers are a component of the tourism appeal in the area but not more than others. No natural spa has been identified in the basin, but there are several urban spas, a recent fashion in Spain.
Common salt mining (Arteta, Salinas de Oro) is currently a declining activity, but still a (minor) tourism attractive.
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5.4.2 Regulating
5.4.2.1 Climate regulation
Microclimatic services, like humidity and freshness, are associated to good state of riparian woods. Enjoying this kind of services, mostly during hot summer nights can be limited by a bad status of water producing unpleasant smells.
5.4.2.2 Hydrological regimes Arga River’s hydrological regime, comparatively to similar rivers in the Ebro basin, is little altered by the existence of only one big dam (Eugi). Nevertheless, barriers and excessive water outlets, mainly during the summer time, have consequences for the hydrological regimes, indirectly affecting other ecosystem services like the maintenance of habitats or aesthetic and recreational ones.
5.4.2.3 Depuration Natural river’s depuration capacities allow riparian populations to reuse water downstream of other populations. Weaken or destruction of these capacities by an excess of pollution charge calls for artificial depuration to restore the natural functioning of the river system and with it, the depuration service. When rivers are safe, WWTPs discharges are further depurated after their dumping into the river.
5.4.2.4 Soil & sediment dynamics Erosion and sediment transport and deposition are clearly ambivalent processes from a human perspective. Its distributional character –taken from upper parts and depositing in the lower ones- draws a clear trade-off between (upper) soil protection and (lower) soil formation: This under natural conditions. When dams are built in the river, new elements appear in favour of erosion protection in the higher part of the basin in order to avoid the filling of the reservoirs.
5.4.2.5 Extreme climatic events protection Natural water storage in aquifers is an ecosystem service which –when well managed- can be of extraordinary importance in drought periods. In the basin there are 11 groundwater bodies.
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5.4.3 Habitat
5.4.3.1 Maintenance of ecosystems integrity The ecosystems health and integrity depends on the quantity, quality and dynamics of the water flowing in rivers, which in turn allows for the provision of services relevant for human well-being like, for instance, depuration or fishing.
5.4.3.2 Maintenance of genetic heritage Maintenance of biological diversity depends on the good status of the ecosystems. From a human point of view conservation of species can be seen as an option value, i.e. a stake for a future –not yet determined- use of existing organisms. The maintenance of genetic heritage widens future opportunities of use and, as a consequence, its present value. On the other hand, species extinction can lead to a reduction of the ecosystem complexity, thus decreasing the services supply.
5.4.4 Cultural & Amenities
5.4.4.1 Aesthetics Aesthetics is always present when talking about water. Even in the case of deteriorated water bodies, one can attain aesthetic services of them. Dam reservoirs, when plenty, are a good example of the getting aesthetics services from an altered river. The upper parts of the river stretches in the Arga basin are an obvious source of aesthetic pleasure. One of the attractiveness of the Arga Parc at Pamplona (Mancomunidad) is undoubtedly aesthetic.
5.4.4.2 Recreational Despite the loss of ecological quality, there are a lot of recreational initiatives and uses around the Arga River. The Parque fluvial del Arga promoted by the Mancomunidad de la Cuenca de Pamplona is a good example of the variety of services provided by a river when a minimum level of quality is maintained.
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5.4.4.4 Psychological benefit Psychological benefits from aquatic ecosystems in the Arga river can be associated with the abovementioned spa activities and with the relaxing properties of it contemplation, particularly for urban dwellers.
5.4.4.5 Educational & scientific There are a lot of cultural elements Related to water ecosystems, which are relevant for the identity of the basin inhabitants and also for visitors. Bridges, mills, ancient factories are unanimated testimonies of past uses, technologies and trades. Immaterial elements like toponyms, legends or rites are frequently related to water and a part of our cultural heritage. For instance, the Way of St James, a route plenty of symbolic richness passes through the Arga basin, crossing the river at Puente de la Reina.
Education in its dimension of cultural transmission, but also in other dimensions of the learning process, for instance the scientific worldview, benefits directly and indirectly from ecosystem services.
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Ecosystem Ecosystem Services Presence in the case study area Services Group Category Provisioning Water for food crops Market-oriented and self-consumption Green water and irrigation Livestock farming Market-oriented and self-consumption Green water and farm supply Water for energy Market-oriented Hydropower Market-oriented and self-consumption in the past Iron foundries, mills Fisheries Market-oriented Fish farm, sport fishing Water for transportation Market-oriented in the past Timber transport Drinking and domestic uses Detected Groundwater wells and surface water uptakes; drinking water supply network Water for wood & fuel Market-oriented and self-consumption Green water Water for industrial crops Not detected
Water for other economic activities Market-oriented (Industry, Tourism, …) Tourism (Spa, Nature leisure) Regulation Climate regulation Detected Hydrological regimes Affected Threatened by Water for energy, Drinking and domestic uses & Water for crops Depuration Detected Locally threatened by Water for other economic activities & Water for crops Soil & sediment dynamics Detected Erosion & sediment transport Extreme climatic events protection Affected Regarding floods: Loss of river forest, modification of river channel, loss of floodplain Regarding droughts: expansion of water uses increases vulnerability Habitat Maintenance of ecosystems integrity Detected Species diversity/population Threatened by Water for Drinking and domestic uses, Water for Energy & Water for other economic activities Maintenance of genetic heritage Affected Loss of endemic species / Invasive species Cultural / Aesthetics Affected Loss of river forests / Urbanization / Amenities Infrastructures (+) Historical heritage (+) Landscape Recreational Detected Sport fishing, nature leisure, swimming Spiritual and inspirational Detected Psychological benefit Detected Educational & scientific Detected Table 34. Arga River Basin Ecosystem Services
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6 ISLA MAYOR CASE STUDY 6.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case The Guadalquivir river basin occupies an area of 57,527 Km2. The Guadalquivir river springs at Sierra Morena and the Mesetas Béticas located at the northeast of Andalusia, and flows following a southwest direction until its estuary, where the marshes of the Doñana National Park (DNP) are situated, close the Atlantic Ocean Figure 50). It holds a population of about 4 Million inhabitants basically established in cities of more than 20.000 inhabitants. The most important cities urban agglomerations are: Seville, Cordoba, Granada, Jaen and Dos Hermanas. This river basin presents a typical Mediterranean climate, with warm temperatures (16.8 ºC annual average) and relative scarce rain (annual average 78.9 l/m2), but with a pattern of droughts followed by intense raining that create erosion problems (Confederación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir (CHG), 2011).
Figure 50. Overlapping of the provincial structure on the Guadalquivir river basin territory Source: CHG (2009)
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Figure 51. Social uses of water Source: Based on CHG (2011)
The second consuming sector, with about 10% of total use (about 397 Hm3), is water supply to towns and cities or “urban demand for water”. These include: domestic consumption, tourism and urban services. From this amount, about 395 Hm3 are returns, and about 50% of them are used downstream for irrigation and, in the case of Seville, for maintaining salt levels under control in the Guadalquivir estuary. The third water-consuming sector, includes industries attached to municipal networks and “singular” industries with special contracts directly with the CHG, in total they consume about 83 Hm3.
From this river basin, we have selected as case study Isla Mayor, located in the Guadalquivir estuary, south of the city of Seville, which presents the most important 132
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The municipality of Isla Mayor belongs to the province of Seville, has an area of 114 km2 and it is located northeast of the Doñana National Park (DNP) marshes (SIMA, 2010) (Figure 52).
Isla Mayor
Doñana National Park
Figure 52. Location of Isla Mayor Source: Adapted from CHG (2008)
6.2 Living in the river basin 6.2.1 The picture today
6.2.1.1 Demography & settlement Nowadays Isla Mayor has a population of 5,930 inhabitants (INE, 2010) with a 50% gender divide, and a small but increasing number of immigrants basically from Rumania (SIMA, 2010). 133
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6.2.2 Main social changes (~1970-2010)
6.2.2.1 Demography & settlement
The Guadalquivir river marshes, given their cycles of drought and flood, salinity, and illness, represented for many centuries a faraway indomitable and demographically empty space (Sabuco, 2004). Isla Mayor, for being the only municipality located exclusively on marsh territory, has been a clear example of this extreme dynamics. For many centuries, these lands had been limited to some husbandry and recollection, with a few attempts to cultivate, but soon abandoned because of water salinity levels.
In the second half of the XXth century different colonization experiences began to take place, as well as foreign investment projects. The Compañía de Islas del Guadalquivir (1926), with capital from Switzerland, Germany and United Kingdom, but locally known as “los ingleses” (the Englishmen), made great investments in infrastructure and began to cultivate these mash-lands. After several experiments, rice finally was the selected crop, but due to lack of knowledge and experience, most of the attempts failed to meet the expected results (Muñoz-Sánchez, 2010).
But the definitive human settlement of what today is Isla Mayor came during Franco’s regime. After the Spanish civil war (1936-39), the National Institute for Colonization (Ministry of Agriculture) together with private initiative (Rafael Beca y Cia. Industrias Agricolas S.A.) undertook important hydraulic works in order to develop rice crops and promoted a new settlement named “Villafranco del Guadalquivir”, which attracted many people from Valencia, a zone with a tradition of a rice production.
Thus, a mixed society with people from Valencia and Andalusia began to develop around a paddy rice culture, which generated a growing feeling of community and territoriality (Sabuco, 2005). The consolidation of this differentiated identity culminated with the Villafranco del Guadalquivir’s administrative independence from Puebla del Río municipality, in 1994. In 2001 Villafranco del Guadalquivir changed its name by that of Isla Mayor de Sevilla.
Between 1920 and 1970 Puebla del Río’s population multiplied by a factor of 6 (Figure 53), mainly due to the growing economic importance of rice production as a result of
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Population growth rates dropped down during the 70’s and 80’s as a consequence of the impact of the economic crisis in Andalusia, where the highest unemployment rates of Spain were registered. Puyol (1997) shows how the migration patterns in Spain, during the last quarter of the 20th century, were marked by the end of the rural exodus to cities. In the rice-producing regions this fact coincides with the beginning of mechanization (Muñoz-Sánchez, 2007).
The Spanish membership to the European Communities (afterwards European Union) in 1986 increased subsidies for agriculture and started a period slight increase in population in the case study area.
Figure 53. Population growth in Puebla del Río (including Isla Mayor) Source: own elaboration from Municipal census
By the time in which Isla Mayors became a municipality, a period of agricultural crisis and population growth stagnation started. Population growth rates only recovered ten years after, due to the deconcentration phenomena from Seville, derived from the the rise of real estate prices in this city (Muñoz-Sánchez, 2007).
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6.3 Producing, exchanging and consuming 6.3.1 The picture today
6.3.1.1 Economic structure The main economic activity in Isla Mayor is rice production. A closer look at the Figure 54 shows the relevance of the rice crops, confining the town right at the centre of a rice paddies’ sea.
The 93% of the Guadalquivir river basin’s rice producing area is located in the province of Seville, with a total surface of 37.366 Has. In 2006, 71,6% (26.756 Has) of this area was cultivated, and 28,4% (10.610 Has) was left fallow (barbecho) (CHG, 2006). Isla Mayor is the second rice-producing municipality in the region with 24% of total surface, about 8,850 Has. (Figure 55). The productivity of rice crops ranges from 7,000 kg/Ha to 11.500 kg/Ha. If it is assumed all cultivable area is in production, total rice production at municipal level range between 62,000 Metric tons per year (ton/year) to 100,000 ton/year. This production, at prices of the year 2008 (401 €/Mt) would generate a total revenue ranging from 25 Million € per year (M€/year) to 41 M€/year31.
Recently, the municipal government has been supporting the development of tourist businesses around the idea of bird watching in the context of rice paddies landscapes (Hernández, 2010).
31 Own calculations based on CHG (2005) and “Consejería de Agricultura y Pesca” [CAyP] (2008)
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Figure 54. Isla Mayor rice paddies (2006) Source: CHG, 2006. Note: Green areas mean rice-producing surfaces in 2006, Yellow areas mean areas not cultivated in that particular year.
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Figure 55. Rice-producing municipalities in the province of Seville Source: own elaboration from CHG, 2005 and 2006.
6.3.1.2 Aquatic ecosystem services for production and business Nowadays, this municipality has a very high dependence on rice based agriculture and related services, and therefore, it is strongly dependent on the ability of the Guadalquivir river, particularly on the availability and quality of water. The average net rice crop water demand is estimated in 10,400 m3/Ha/year (CHG, 2011). Accordingly, the average gross crop water demand (assuming an average total efficiency of 0.75 (CHG, 2011)) rise up to 13,866 m3/Ha/year. Therefore, the average gross water consumption of the Isla Mayor’s 8850 has for rice production is 122 Hm3/year 32.
32 Own calculations based on CHG, 2011. Propuesta de Proyecto de Plan Hidrológico de la Demarcación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir. Documento de Consulta. Anejo 3.
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6.3.1.2.1 Main biophysical characteristics of the river-basin site33 Isla Mayor is located in the last section, upstream Doñana National Park (DNP), of the Guadalquivir estuary. It is a transition zone characterised by impermeable flat flooding lands, drained by several artificial channels, where there are different gradients of water salinity, and a complex web of biodiversity.
Isla Mayor
Figure 56. The Guadalquivir estuary Source: ICMAN-CSIC, GDFA-UG and GDFH-UC (2010a)
The Guadalquivir estuary is about 110 km long, starting at the Alcalá del Río dam and ending in the Broa de Sanlúcar in the Atlantic Ocean. Human activities, such as agriculture and navigation have shaped this estuary throughout history. Since the middle XXth century, conservation efforts at the DNP have been a management priority.
As explained by ICMAN-CSIC et al. (2010a), this estuary shows a morpho-dynamic lack of equilibrium between sediment and hydrology dynamics, caused by a mixture of events such as continuous diggings to maintain navigation up to the port of Seville or the maintenance of water discharges from the “Alcalá del Río” Dam.
The degree of salinity in the estuary is variable and mostly controlled by tides. As ICMAN-CSIC et al (2010:10a) explain, “From its maximum values at the river mouth,
33 All this section is based on the recent report about the estate of the Guadalquivir estuary undertaken by ICMAN-CSIC (Instituto de Ciencias Marinas de Andalucía - Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas; GDFA-UG (Grupo de Dinámica de Flujos Ambientales. Centro Andaluz de Medio Ambiente - Universidad de Granada) and GDFH-UC (Grupo de Dinámica Fluvial e Hidrología - Universidad de Córdoba). Full reference can be found in the proper section.
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Table 35).
34 see Chapters 5 and 7 from ICMAN-CSIC et al, 2010
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Table 35. Comparison of Guadalquivir estuary with the most relevant rivers Source: table 7.1 from ICMAN-CSIC, GDFA-UG and GDFH-UC (2010b) (Chapter 7; p. 24)
This extreme average turbidity has very important impacts on the geochemical cycle of the estuary (Figure 57). The first consequence of these extended episodes of turbidity is the lack of light (with an extinction of light coefficient between 20 and 40 times greater than in other similar estuaries). This controls the phytoplankton photosynthetic possibilities, and thus an efficient transformation of light into biomass. This phenomenon generates hypoxia in many parts of the estuary during its annual cycles, in some specific areas, like “Don Isaías” even going 90% under the marked critical values (ICMAN-CSIC et al, 2010a).
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Figure 57. Components of the biogeochemical cycle Source: Figure 7.1 from ICMAN-CSIC, GDFA-UG and GDFH-UC (2010b) (Chapter 7; p. 12)
Another problem affecting parts of the river is hypercapnia, or partial pressure of CO2, providing elevated CO2 concentrations much above the atmospheric average. This is particularly problematic for the zooplankton community and benthonic fauna (ICMAN- CSIC et al, 2010a).
As concluded by ICMAN-CSIC et al (2010a: 15), “In the estuary one finds a very limited diversity of phytoplankton that includes important components of heterotrophic organisms and toxic phytoplankton. The main toxic species in the area is Mycrocystis aeruginosa. It is characterised by its high persistence in the water flow, catching the trophic chain and concentrating in fish and shellfish”.
Fish diversity in the estuary has been studied by Arias (2010) in the context of ICMAN- CSIC et al, 2010 (Chapter 12). The captured species during the study are shown in Figure 58.
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Figure 58. Fish species in the Guadalquivir estuary (caught during study 2008) Source: Arias(2010)
From these species, Arias (2010) found that the “Carpa” was the most abundant with an average of 6 individuals/hour/year, followed by “Albur” and “Barbo” with values of 3,3 and 3,1 individuals/hour/year. Far behind them we find “capitán, roballo, anguila and liseta” (Figure 59).
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Figure 59. Relative abundance of different fish species in the estuary Source: Arias, 2010
Arias (2010) concludes that changes in the physical dynamics (salinity, turbidity…) of the river have an impact on the spatial distribution of fish species in the estuary, however the great mobility and tolerance of these species makes it difficult to predict directions of change.
Regarding avifauna, EBD-CSIC (2009), the study carry out in the context of ICMAN- CSIC et al, 2010 (Chapter 15) focused on the role of rice paddies in the maintenance of bird food, breeding sites and biodiversity in Isla Mayor, during three consecutive seasons starting in 2005.
As it can be appreciated in Figure 60, the experienced reduction of cultivated rice areas in these three years coincided with a clear reduction on the average bird abundance.
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Figure 60. Land use in rice paddies and relative presence of avifauna Source: EBD-CSIC (2009) (figures 10 and 14)
The time of maximum presence of bird species coincides with the moments of rice harvesting and posterior rice straw puddling (known as fangueo) (see figure 71: tractor with steel tires passing through a water full paddy after harvesting) (October, November and December).
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Figure 61 “Fangueo” of a rice paddy and presence of birds Source: Miquel A. Gual
As EBD-CSIC (2009: 75) has pointed out, and can be appreciated in figure 11, “Isla Mayor presented the bigger abundance values in general, with a maximum close to 8,000 birds in the census carried out on 14 December 2005, that nonetheless was reduced until maximum values of only 2,500 individuals in 2007”. These results were reinforced with data about number of nests that went, for Charadrius alexandrinus (chortilejo patinegro), from 24 in 2005 to 12 in 2006, and only 6 in 2007. In the case of Himantopus himantopus (cigüeñuela común), the number fell even more drastically going from 32 in 2005 to just 6 in 2007. The authors conclude: “the severe reduction on the number of nests in Isla Mayor during these three years seems to be consequence of the reduction in the cultivated surface. Water scarcity provoked reductions of water full paddies at the start of the breeding season” (EBD-CSIC, 2009: 89).
6.4 Main social actors There is a dense complex of institutions related to water ecosystem services in the case of Isla Mayor. From a bottom-up perspective, we first find different forms of social and economic associations, from which the most important, without doubt, is the main
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Within the Junta de Andalucía two departments (consejerías) become particularly relevant: Consejería de Agricultura y Pesca and Consejería de Medio Ambiente. The last one coupled with The Doñana National Park (DNP) are responsible for the control and follow-up of all quality aspects and activities that may affect, in some way, the biodiversity and environment of the DNP down the river. Moreover, three institutions are of particular importance for the river management. These are: The Confederación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir in charge of managing all aspects of the river-basin, including the annual provision of water for agriculture, the Andalusian Water Agency (Agencia Andaluza del Agua) mainly in charge of research and information activities about the river basin, and finally, the port of Seville authority, in charge of navigation through the estuary.
Above them, we find the Ministry of the Environment and Rural and Marine environments, basically coordinating national policy and assuring the correct transposition of EU Directives and Laws. In particular, the management of EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the EU Water Framework Directive would be the top regulating institutions affecting rice production and river management in Isla Mayor.
6.5 Contribution of aquatic ecosystem services to the human wellbeing: a summary As we have seen Isla Mayor makes an intensive use of the Guadalquivir estuary in agriculture, using water for rice paddies and impacting some important aspects of river dynamics; however, this same rice-paddy is also indirectly a provider of food and shelter for many species. These inter-linkages are difficult to implement in the context of ecosystem services schemes; however our intention is to explore how all the RBES that we may identify obey not only to biophysical (or even monetary) stock and flow modes, but most importantly relate to one another through ecosystem functions. First
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6.5.1 Provisioning
6.5.1.1 Water for food crops The origin of the Isla Mayor town and of the surrounding landscape is the transformation of marshland into irrigated rice fields. Till very recently the economy of the area was almost exclusively centred on the rice business. Rice production with no commercial purpose, i.e. for self consumption, benefits too from this service.
6.5.1.2 Livestock farming Before the complete transformation of the marshland into rice fields, theire was some extensive ranching.
6.5.1.3 Water for energy There is no evidence of an energetic use of water in the zone.
6.5.1.4 Fisheries Small scale traditional fishing with both self consumption and commercial use is practised.
6.5.1.5 Water for transportation The Guadalquivir is navigable till Sevilla. Permanent dredge is necessary for maintaining the present depth in the navigation channel. The Port of Seville Authority intends to increase this depth in order to allow the navigation of bigger ships. The project has raised a hot debate because of the interferences with other uses and ecosystemic services.
6.5.1.6 Drinking and domestic uses At present Isla Mayor is supplied with freshwater through local distribution nets.
6.5.1.7 Water for wood & fuel The area is deforested.
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6.5.1.9 Water for other economic activities (Industry, Tourism…) Pier infrastructure has been built for commercial and tourism uses.
6.5.2 Regulating
6.5.2.1 Climate regulation The water management of the rice growing area with its seasonal flooding may have an influence on the local microclimate which can be worth studying.
6.5.2.2 Hydrological regimes
The low position occupied by the study area in the whole of the Guadalquivir basin implies a high dependence of the hydrological behaviour upstream. The interface with the marine environment, more precisely with the tidal dynamics, increases the hydrological complexity. A clear concurrence between incompatible services characterises the Guadalquivir’s estuary.
6.5.2.3 Depuration Isla Mayor (both the principal settlement as well as the Alfonso XIII village) entrusts the river with its waste water depuration. In the urban plan (PGOU initially approved by December 2006) the building of a WWTP at the east side of the main settlement and the completing of the waste water collection network are foreseen.
6.5.2.4 Soil & sediment dynamics The study area was formed during the Quaternary by alluvial (fluvial and tidal) sedimentation. Its future evolution depends among others on the sediment dynamics of the Guadalquivir basin.
6.5.2.5 Extreme climatic events protection Isla Mayor’s territory is integrated in the Guadalquivir’s natural floodplain. Rice growing does no’t interfere significantly in the flood dynamics, in comparison to other human
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6.5.3 Habitat
6.5.3.1 Maintenance of ecosystems integrity The domestication of the river (with “cortas” and dikes) and the colonisation of the marshland have modified seriously the ecosystem integrity of the area, affecting the equilibrium of the whole estuarine space.
6.5.3.2 Maintenance of genetic heritage Despite the alteration of the marshland ecosystem, rice growing is compatible with the presence of a rich avifauna. Birds nesting in Doñana find their nourishment in the rice fields. However, the use of pesticides and other human activities may change the population dynamics of the different species.
6.5.4 Cultural & Amenities
6.5.4.1 Aesthetics The flat perspectives of the rice fields, their changing colours with the pass of seasons or reflections on the still water surface when the fields are flooded are all elements of a high aesthetic value.
6.5.4.2 Recreational Bird watching, navigation and hunting are recreational activities made possible by the existence (in an acceptable status) of different aquatic ecosystems.
6.5.4.3 Spiritual and inspirational Open flat landscapes with the additional contribution of water on the flooded fields inspire painters, literates or -now in a massive way- photographers.
6.5.4.4 Psychological benefit Recreational activities related to aquatic ecosystems are a source of psychological benefits. However, empty spaces can be also emotionally disturbing.
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Ecosystem Ecosystem Services Presence in the case study area Services Group Category Provisioning Water for food crops Market-oriented and self-consumption Irrigation Livestock farming In the past, Market-oriented and self- consumption Water for energy Not detected
Fisheries Market-oriented and self-consumption Traditional fishing Water for transportation Market-oriented Navigation Drinking and domestic uses Detected Surface water uptakes; drinking water through main city supply network Water for wood & fuel Not detected
Water for industrial crops Not detected
Water for other economic activities Market-oriented (Industry, Tourism, …) Pier infrastructure for tourism… Regulation Climate regulation Detected Hydrological regimes Affected Threatened by Water for energy, Water for crops & Water for transport Depuration Detected
Soil & sediment dynamics Detected Erosion of riverbanks & sediment deposition Extreme climatic events protection Detected
Habitat Maintenance of ecosystems integrity Detected Species diversity/population Threatened by Water for energy, Water for crops & Water for transport Maintenance of genetic heritage Affected Loss of endemic species / Invasive species Cultural / Aesthetics Detected Landscape Amenities Historical heritage Recreational Detected Bird watching, navigation, hunting Spiritual and inspirational Detected Psychological benefit Detected Educational & scientific Detected Table 36. Arga River Basin Ecosystem Services
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7 JUCAR LOWER RIVER BASIN CASE STUDY 7.1 General description of the area and relevance of the case Contrasting the rest of case studies, in the Jucar lower river basin one the focus of interest is on the flood protection service. This is the reason why the structure of this section difers from the previous ones.
The Jucar river basin is located in the central East of the Iberian Peninsula covering around 21,600 km2 (CHJ, 2009), from Tragacete (Cuenca) up to Cullera (Valencia). The geographical focus of this case study is the Jucar river’s coastal valley, located in the Jucar lower river basin (around 39º N latitude, and an area of 2,822 km2 downstream the Tous dam until the river mouth in Cullera (Roselló, 1983).
The valley has an orientation Southwest-Northeast, with the shape of a funnel, widening an alluvial plain opened to the Mediterranean Sea. It is limited by two mountain ranges, the Sistema Ibérico on the North and the Sistema Bético on the South, and presents a slight slope (0.06‰) giving rise to a meandering configuration of the Jucar’s course. In the lower river basin, the Jucar River receives flows from three main rivers: the Sellent and Albaida rivers, from the Sistema Bético, inflowing in its right bank; and the Magre River, from the Sistema Ibérico, in its left bank. Additionally, between the confluences of rivers Albaida and Magre, there are several minor tributaries: Río Verde and Barxeta streams (in its left and right banks, respectively) and a set of gullies, located on its right bank, between the towns of Carcaixent and Alzira (Figure 62).
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Figure 62. Main hydrological network, towns and infrastructures in the Jucar’s coastal valley. Source: CHJ (2009)
The dominant hydrological regime of the Jucar lower river basin is Mediterranean, characterized by concentrating rains in autumn and winter and a dry season in summer. Torrential rains are characteristic to hold in October and November. By this season, a phenomenon of cut-off low (gota fría) is frequent in the hinterland of the coastal zone, consisting in a cold high-altitude depression surrounded by warm moist air evaporated from the Mediterranean sea and transported to the hinterland by Eastern winds. The coincidence of this phenomenon with strong winds from the East/Northeast increases dramatically the available energy in the cut-off low and, therefore, its instability grows, giving rise to very strong precipitations and electric storms in the Massís del Caroig plateau, upstream the Tous dam. Besides, this meteorological phenomenon is also enhanced by the lower basin’s orographic arrangement, which facilitates the penetration of the air masses into the hinterland, upstream the Tous dam (Perez and Armengot, 1983). Extreme cut-off low episodes generate extreme increases of flows of the Jucar river and its tributaries (rivers and gulches), producing flash floods in the Jucar’s coastal valley.
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The most important flash flood registered in the Jucar’s coastal valley up to now has been that of October of 1982, produced by a cut-off low phenomenon aggravated by the breakdown of the Tous dam. Also, the land use pattern of the Jucar flooding plain and the existence of transversal lineal infrastructures in it (the highway A7 and the railway track Valencia-Gandia) contributed to the catastrophic consequences of this extreme event (La Roca and Carmona, 1983). This event delimited the maximum flooding area in the Jucar lower river basin (Figure 63).
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Mountain frame
Alluvial fan
Glacis
Cultivated old course
Cut meander Coastal chain
Marsh Flow directions
Flooded area Railway track
Figure 63. Map of the flooded area generated by the Jucar river flash-flood in 1982 Source: extracted from La Roca and Carmona (1983)
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7.2 Living in the Jucar floodplain The Jucar floodplain covers an area of 370 km2 (CEDEX 2002), including the main part of municipalities of the Ribera Alta and Ribera Baixa counties, several ones belonging to the La Safor county, and a small extent of the Valencia municipality (Figure 64 and Table 37).
Municipal area into Municipal area Municipal area into County Municipality 2 flooding area (km ) 2 flooding area (%) (km ) LA SAFOR GANDIA 60,78 0,29 0,48% TAVERNES DE LA LA SAFOR VALLDIGNA 50,49 23,82 47,18% LA SAFOR XERACO 20,01 7,96 39,80% L'HORTA VALENCIA 131,67 3,04 2,31% RIBERA ALTA ALBERIQUE 26,87 15,46 57,52% ALCANTERA DE RIBERA ALTA XUQUER 3,58 2,08 58,00% RIBERA ALTA ALCUDIA (L') 1,53 0,11 6,96% RIBERA ALTA ALGEMESI 41,95 28,42 67,74% RIBERA ALTA ALGINET 24,50 0,30 1,21% RIBERA ALTA ALZIRA 84,61 31,16 36,83% RIBERA ALTA ANTELLA 17,70 4,98 28,15% RIBERA ALTA BENEIXIDA 2,99 2,57 85,67% RIBERA ALTA BENIMODO 28,15 0,32 1,14% RIBERA ALTA BENIMUSLEM 4,17 4,17 100,00% RIBERA ALTA CARCAIXENT 59,57 21,05 35,33% RIBERA ALTA CARCER 7,71 2,79 36,26% RIBERA ALTA COTES 6,35 1,88 29,68% RIBERA ALTA GABARDA 7,39 3,26 44,14% RIBERA ALTA GUADASUAR 35,36 5,14 14,54% RIBERA ALTA L’ ÈNOVA 1,73 0,12 6,97% RIBERA ALTA SUMACARCEL 19,81 4,07 20,56% RIBERA ALTA TOUS 128,72 0,78 0,60% VILLANUEVA DE RIBERA ALTA CASTELLON 20,25 12,64 62,39% ALBALAT DE LA RIBERA BAIXA RIBERA 14,07 14,07 100,00% RIBERA BAIXA CORBERA 20,08 10,54 52,47% RIBERA BAIXA CULLERA 53,99 44,66 82,73% RIBERA BAIXA FAVARA 9,40 3,21 34,14% RIBERA BAIXA FORTALENY 4,67 4,67 100,00% RIBERA BAIXA LLAURI 13,39 4,22 31,51% RIBERA BAIXA MASALAVES 7,38 3,29 44,57% POBLA LLARGA RIBERA BAIXA (LA) 9,99 4,82 48,29% 156
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Figure 64. Municipalities areas inside the Jucar floodplain Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002)
According to CEDEX (2002), the main urban settlements in the Jucar’s floodplain are the towns of Alzira, Algemesí, Carcaixent, Alberic, Villanueva de Castellón, Albalat de la Ribera, Polinyà de Xúquer, Riola, Alcàntera de Xúquer, Gavarda and Fortaleny (Figure 65).
In 1960, these 11 towns concentrated a population of almost 90,000 people, while in 2010 such figure has increased up to 125,000 people (Figure 66). The most populated and growing towns (Alzira, Algemesí and Carcaixent) are located in one of the most flood-prone areas of the floodplain.
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Figure 65. Main urban settlements inside the Jucar’s floodplain Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002)
Figure 66. Population evolution in the main urban settlements of the Jucar’s floodplain, 1960- 2010 Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002) and Caja de España-Caja Duero (2011)
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Area Area Area Use of occupied in occupied in occupied in Diference land in Type of land use (a) 1990 (ha) 2000 (ha) 2006 (ha) 2006-1990 2006 Artificial areas (111;112;121;131;133) 1581,51 1986,66 2466,56 885,05 4,29% Agricultural areas (212;213;242;243) 34716,53 34295,93 33913,30 -803,23 94,25% Forest and semi-natural areas (312;323;324;331) 493,39 494,06 394,20 -99,19 1,34% Table 38. Evolution of the main categories of land use in the Jucar’s floodplain, 1990-2006 Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002), Corine Land Cover (1990, 2000, 2006). Note: (a) The numbers into brackets are the Corine Land Cover’s three digit codes.
It is interesting to appreciate that the composition of agricultural areas has varied too (Table 39). Fruit trees areas have gained surface at expense of permanent irrigated areas, mosaic of crops areas and semi-natural and forest areas. This feature can be explained by the transformation of horticultural paddies into citrus and khaki plantations in the last decades.
Area Area Area CLC occupied in occupied in occupied in Diference code DESCRIPTION 1990 (ha) 2000 (ha) 2006 (ha) 2006-1990 111 Continous urban area 1163,35 1388,60 1568,18 404,83 112 Discontinous urban area 151,55 184,06 183,43 31,88 121 Industrial and commercial zones 243,26 382,35 505,42 262,15 131 Mining areas 23,34 0,00 0,00 -23,34 133 Escombreras and Landfills 0,01 31,65 209,53 209,52 212 Permanent irrigated areas 1415,80 1265,58 286,41 -1129,39 213 Rice areas 10030,71 9981,48 9952,86 -77,85 222 Fruit trees 18372,61 18672,13 21377,26 3004,64 242 Mosaic of crops 4897,41 4376,74 2179,94 -2717,47 Agricultural land with important 243 zones of natural vegetation 0,00 0,00 116,84 116,84 312 Coniferous forest 8,21 8,21 0,09 -8,12 323 Sclerophyllous vegetation 334,93 335,59 235,42 -99,51 324 Transitional woody thicket 0,87 0,87 15,89 15,02 Beaches, dunes and sandy 331 areas 149,38 149,39 142,81 -6,58 512 Water lagoons and reservoirs 42,03 56,83 56,63 14,60 Table 39. Evolution of the land use pattern in the Jucar’s floodplain, 1990-2006 Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002), Corine Land Cover (1990, 2000, 2006)
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Figure 67. Land use pattern in 1990 Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002) and Corine Land Cover (1990)
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Figure 68. Land use pattern in 2000 Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002) and Corine Land Cover (2000)
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Figure 69. Land use pattern in 2006 Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002) and Corine Land Cover (2006)
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Jucar’s mouth
Railway Valencia-Gandia
Estany de Cullera
Draining area to be urbanized
La Ratlla channel
Figure 70. Detail of land use of the coastal zone at the South of the Jucar mouth and a simulated flood with a return period of 250 years. Source: CHJ (2010). References: in red, urbanized areas; in blue, water flows.
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Besides, transport infrastructures go through the floodplain in transversal way, that is, in perpendicular direction to the flow of water in a flooding event. In the flood of 1982, the highway A7 and the railway track Valencia-Gandia acted as dikes, making difficult the drainage of upstream flooded areas (La Roca and Carmona, 1983). Afterwards, some measures for increasing the permeability of the highway have been carried out. It is also planned to improve the permeability of this railway track between the towns of Sueca and Sollana. The new high velocity railway track that connects Valencia and Madrid (AVE) recently inaugurated counts with permeabilization measures. The same can be said regarding the recent road variations, like that of Sollana-Sueca in national road N-332.
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Source: elaborated from Topographic Maps 0747-0769-0770 of the Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Spain) 0747 – Year 1947 0769 – Year 1951 0770 – Year 1953
Figure 71. Composition of topographic maps corresponding to the Jucar floodplain in the Ribera Alta County, middle of the XXth century
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Source: elaborated from Topographic Maps 0747-0769-0770 of the Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Spain) 0747 – Year 2007 0769 – Year 2005 0770 – Year 2007
Figure 72. Composition of topographic maps corresponding to the Jucar floodplain in the Ribera Alta County, beginning of the XXIst century
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Rice
Under construction areas
Fruit trees Permanent irrigated land
Industrial areas
Urban areas
Figure 73. Land use in 1990 and water heights of a Jucar flood with 100 years as return period. Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002) and Corine Land Cover (1990).
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Fruit trees Permanent irrigated land Industrial areas
Urban areas
Figure 74. Land use in 2000 and water heights of a Jucar flood with 100 years as return period. Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002) and Corine Land Cover (2000).
Under construction areas Rice
Industrial areas Permanent irrigated land Fruit trees Urban areas
Figure 75. Land use 2006 and water heights of a Jucar flood with 100 years as return period. Source: elaborated from CEDEX (2002) and Corine Land Cover (2006).
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Maximum river flow Water height in the flooded area frequency > 0.8 m < 0.8 m < 25 years RISK 1 RISK 3 Between 25 and 100 RISK 2 RISK 4 years Between 100 and 500 RISK 5 RISK 6 years Table 40. Official classification of the flooding risk levels Source: CHJ (2009)
Foreseen area affected by flooding risk levels of three models
25000
20000
15000
10000 Affectedarea (Ha.)
5000
0 RISK LEVEL 1 RISK LEVEL 2 RISK LEVEL 3 RISK LEVEL 4 RISK LEVEL 5 RISK LEVEL 6
From maximum risk to minimum risk
PATRICOVA 2002 GISPLANA 2002 GUAD 2D 2008
Figure 76. Comparison of three models’s estimations of areas affected by different levels of flooding risk in the Jucar floodplain Source: elaborated from CHJ (2009)
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Figure 77. The most recent map of flooding risk, model GUAD 2D (2008). Source: CHJ (2009)
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7.5 Economic structure Available statistics at the county level indicate a certain agrarian specialization when compared to the Valencian or the Spanish average. The over representation of the agrarian activity reduces relatively the weight of the service sector. Table 41 shows the distribution by sector for the last year before the crisis.
Ribera Ribera Economic Ribera Ribera Comunitat Comunitat Spain Alta Baixa Spain sector Alta Baixa Valenciana Valenciana % % % % Agriculture 10,4 12,8 2,4 6,5 84,0 4,2 1188 6,2 Industry 16,7 20,6 14,7 39,9 335,7 16,9 2705,5 14,1 Building 14,7 18,1 4,7 12,8 274,6 13,8 2454,1 12,8 Services 39,2 48,4 15 40,8 1291,0 65,0 12803,8 66,9 Total 81 100,0 36,8 100,0 1985,3 100,0 19151,4 100,0 Table 41. Number of workers (x1000) per sector. Ribera Alta, Ribera Baixa, Comunitat Valenciana and Spain. 2007 Source: Ministerio de Trabajo e Inmigración. Tesorería de la Seguridad Social. (County Data elaborated by Caja Duero 2011)
County data are for the the whole county territory not only for the share in the flood plain. It should be kept in mind that a big share of the industrial activity in the counties is located ouside the flood plain. This is especially the case for the Ribera Baixa, where the Almussasfes Ford factory is established, but set outside the flood plain. In the absence of more detailed data, what can be highlighted is the relevance of the agrarian sector in both Riberas and much more in the flood plain at the expense of the service sector.
The picture would not be complete without taken into account the nearness of the Valencia Metropolitan Area, which supplies the Ribera counties with specialized services. The close vicinity to the Metropolitan area explains also other territorial aspects of the Riberas. Besides some metropolitan spillover effects, affecting for instance industrial location as well as residential sprawl, the existence (size and dynamism) of the Valencia area explains the successive layout of linear infrastructures in the Júcar floodplain that act as dikes when floods occur.
Another economic activity with high relevance in the area due to its territorial impact is tourism. The prevalent tourism model in the Spanish Mediterranean coast is closely
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7.6 The flooding protection service This ecosystem service is affected by river channelling, modification of the river channel, transversal barriers, loss of river forests and occupation of river floodplain (urban and industrial facilities, citric crops and lineal infrastructures perpendicular to the flood water direction) and loss of drainage capacity. An aspect particularly interesting of this case is the current elaboration of both a risks prevention plan for flooding and an evaluation of alternatives and measures for recovery this natural function in the lower river basin.
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8 FINAL REMARKS From this first analysis of the present contribution of water related ecosystem services to human well-being some provisional outcomes can be pointed out.
1. The services list we have drafted using previous studies and applied to the cases has been proved to be useful. It covers rather well the range of services related to river basin ecosystem services. However some aspects can be further refined. There are some overlappings which could be avoided by a more precise definition of the categories. For instance, services used by the tourism industry (a provisioning service) are not always separable from the recreational services (cultural/amenities category). The criterion we have applied, in this phase of services identification, is the existence or not of a payment for the enjoyment of the service. This not only allows for a coherent classification, but we expect that it will be useful for the valuing phase.
2. In relation to the valuing phase the list defines two clearly separable groups of services. On the one hand those –Provisioning- close to the economic world and the rest, for which no well established valuing institution exists. For the first group we can get price references, for the second group this is not possible. But this clear cut may be only apparent. On one side because of the opacity of the self consumption activities, which can be -they used to be in some of the studied areas not so long ago- a relevant part of the human need’s satisfaction. On the other side, when ecosystem services are getting really scarce, close to its extinction -which shouldn’t be necessarily imagined as smooth or gradual- the substituibility assumption underlying the idea of prices as the expression of value changes doesn’t make any sense at all.
3. We have got a distinct view of the relative relevance of different services in the different study areas. There are, on one hand, in some cases some outstanding services which are absent or only just present in other areas. This is the case of water for energy services in the case of the Noguera de Tor or the transportation services in the Isla Mayor case. On the other hand, some
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services are common to all cases -provided there are populated- like water for crops or water for drinking. This for provisioning services.
4. Identification, or better to say description, of services belonging to categories Regulating and Habitat, has been problematic. Firstly –it must be recognized- by the own limitations of a team integrated by economists; but we guess that there are also another kind of characteristics that make these services different to the Provisioning or Cultural ones. To a great extent, they are only secondarily related to human well being, it is to say these services’ contribution to the human well being is generally mediated, so that, in contrast to others, like drinking, that can be directly appropriated, these ones contribute only indirectly to well being. Let’s consider, for example, hydrological regimes. They provide little service to humans directly, but they support other services –like fisheries, or aesthetics or maintenance of ecosystem integrity- which can be directly got. Or –again- indirectly, as is the case for ecosystem integrity.
5. Beyond the trade off between services, a topic that must be addressed later in the project, there are services which contribution to human well being is ambiguous. Best example is soil and sediment dynamics when considered in a basin. Soil formation in the lower parts of the basin means soil loss upstream. Here we cannot speak of trade-off between services but of a spatial trade-off of one and the same service. The question gets worse if we consider other related aspects, like turbulence or reservoir filling.
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