La Pollution Atmosphérique D'origine Automobile Et La Santé Publique

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La Pollution Atmosphérique D'origine Automobile Et La Santé Publique La pollution atmosphérique d’origine automobile et la santé publique Collection Santé et société N° 4 mai 1996 Société française de santé publique Introduction Alors qu’elle paraissait devoir reculer au rang de préoccupation marginale de santé publique, la pollution atmosphérique a ressurgi, depuis quelques années, au devant de la scène scientifique, politique et médiatique. Ce brusque rebond est-il justifié, à l’aune des grands problèmes de santé publique du moment ? Quels en sont les res- sorts ? La Société Française de Santé Publique a rencontré un écho très favorable lorsqu’en 1994 elle a proposé aux ministères chargés de la Santé, de l’Environnement et des Transports d’engager une actualisation du rapport écrit en 1983 sous la direction du Professeur André ROUSSEL * qui dressait l’état des connaissances sur les consé- quences biologiques et sanitaires des émissions des véhicules automobiles. Les don- nées du problème mis alors en évidence ont en effet considérablement évolué. L’intensité du trafic automobile s’accroît chaque année, apparemment inexorable- ment. On assiste cependant à sa stabilisation dans les centres de certaines grandes agglomérations, alors que la circulation dans les périphéries urbaines augmente net- tement. Les importants efforts déployés par les constructeurs et les industries pétro- lières ont permis de réduire très sensiblement les émissions unitaires mais l’augmentation du trafic dans les conurbations et sur les routes a compensé ces réduc- tions au niveau des émissions nationales. Du fait de cette croissance globale du tra- fic et de la réduction régulière des émissions industrielles, la part relative des transports a progressé depuis quinze ans, même si, pour certains polluants, les émis- sions absolues ont diminué. Or ces émissions liées au trafic automobile ont une carac- téristique préoccupante : elles diffusent au voisinage immédiat de la population générale, à hauteur des voies respiratoires des individus, « immergés » dans cette atmosphère au cours des activités de déplacement, mais aussi de loisirs, de travail, voire de repos au domicile. Cela n’est pas le cas des polluants rejetés par les hautes cheminées d’usine, plus facilement dispersés sur de vastes surfaces, ni des cheminées d’évacuation du chauffage résidentiel. La structure du trafic est également chan- geante, avec cette forte spécificité française représentée par l’importance du parc de véhicules diesel encouragée par une fiscalité particulièrement avantageuse. La nature * « Impact médical des pollutions d’origine automobile » ; le groupe de travail coordonné par A. ROUSSEL (Président d’honneur de l’APPA, chef du service d’Hygiène Hospitalière de l’Assistance Publique de Paris) était constitué de J. BIGNON (Centre Hospitalier Intercommunal de Créteil), de B. FESTY (Directeur du Laboratoire d’Hygiène de la Ville de Paris) de E. FOURNIER (Chef du service de Clinique Toxicologique, Hopital Fernand Widal, Paris) et de H. VIELLARD (Directeur du Laboratoire Central de la Préfecture de Police de Paris). Introduction 9 des émissions est ainsi modifiée par les évolutions technologiques sur la composition des carburants, les caractéristiques des moteurs et les systèmes d’épuration des effluents, conformément aux pressantes contraintes de la réglementation communau- taire. Le dispositif national de surveillance de la qualité de l’air s’est profondément trans- formé. Même s’il souffre encore d’insuffisances sérieuses, bien connues des gestion- naires des réseaux, il permet aujourd’hui de mieux caractériser l’exposition moyenne des habitants de nos grandes cités à une gamme croissante de polluants et indicateurs de la qualité de l’air. Là encore, les progrès scientifiques et technologiques, notam- ment sur les méthodes de mesurage des polluants et leur automatisation, ont été déci- sifs. Le développement des approches de modélisation des émissions et des phénomènes de dispersion, à échelle locale ou régionale, sont également prometteurs en ce qu’ils permettent de mieux comprendre les complexes relations entre les flux d’émission et les conditions dispersives déterminées par la météorologie, et parfois aussi de pallier les obstacles opposés par le coût élevé des appareillages de mesure de la qualité de l’air, lorsque ces derniers existent. Les moyens propres à « identifier le danger » (pour reprendre la terminologie de la démarche d’évaluation du risque), c’est-à-dire à caractériser la nocivité des polluants émis par les véhicules ou qui apparaissent secondairement, ont enfin connu des déve- loppements considérables au cours des 10 dernières années. Avec les techniques de culture cellulaire en ambiance contrôlée, ou avec les méthodes d’investigation in situ des altérations cellulaires, chez l’animal ou chez l’homme (notamment le lavage bron- cho-alvéolaire), les connaissances sur les mécanismes intimes de l’agression ont connu un essor sans précédent. Les expérimentations cliniques sur volontaires, sains ou malades (asthmatiques, bronchitiques...) se sont multipliées, avec l’étude de para- mètres fonctionnels ou biochimiques et ont fortement contribué à établir le pont entre les données scientifiques de type expérimental et les approches de type épidé- miologique c’est-à-dire en milieu « naturel ». Ces dernières ont été très nombreuses depuis le début des années 80, profitant à la fois de progrès conceptuels et techniques dans le domaine de la mesure et la caractérisation des expositions, et du développe- ment d’approches statistiques beaucoup plus sophistiquées et puissantes. La combi- naison de ces différentes approches, le croisement de leurs différents enseignements, ont bouleversé la connaissance des effets à court terme et à long terme de l’exposi- tion aux polluants primaires ou secondaires attribuables au trafic automobile. Ainsi, alors qu’au vu des indicateurs classiques de la qualité de l’air, il serait abusif de cla- mer que la pollution de l’air de nos cités est aujourd’hui plus sérieuse qu’il y a 20 ans, des effets biologiques préoccupants, à court et long terme sont aujourd’hui révélés, qui n’étaient qu’hypothétiques lors de la rédaction du rapport du professeur A. ROUSSEL. La sensibilité ou la susceptibilité particulière de certains segments de 10 Société française de santé publique la population est mieux comprise, tandis qu’est remis en cause le principe jusqu’alors communément admis de l’existence de seuils de pollution en deçà desquels les sys- tèmes de défense permettent de réparer les effets de l’agression polluante. Si cela est sans doute vrai au niveau individuel, l’extrême diversité des niveaux de réactivité et de sensibilité des individus constituant les populations humaines (nourrissons, vieillards, asthmatiques...) rend sans doute illusoire la recherche de tels seuils sans danger collectif. Dans ce nouveau contexte, la Société Française de Santé Publique a réuni un groupe d’experts de différentes disciplines scientifiques et techniques pour mener à bien ce travail de synthèse. Ont apporté leur concours des spécialistes du mesurage des pol- luants, des toxicologues, des cliniciens, des épidémiologistes, des ingénieurs du génie sanitaire, des ingénieurs des industries automobile et pétrochimique. Souhaitant limi- ter sa mission aux domaines qui relèvent de sa compétence, la SFSP s’est exclusive- ment intéressée à la dimension de santé publique du problème traité. Le lecteur ne trouvera donc pas dans ce rapport de recommandation sur les politiques qu’il conviendrait de mener pour réduire les risques mis en évidence. C’est dans d’autres enceintes, avec d’autres compétences et d’autres logiques que ces solutions peuvent être conçues et défendues. La SFSP pourra alors, au même titre que d’autres prota- gonistes de ce vaste débat de société, formuler des avis pour la gestion du risque. Mais la tâche qu’elle s’est proposé d’assumer ici consiste d’abord à évaluer ce risque. Ce rapport s’ouvre sur la description de la pollution atmosphérique d’origine auto- mobile et des moyens de son observation. Dans une seconde partie sont passés en revue les principaux polluants, primaires ou secondaires, qui résultent peu ou prou des émissions des pots d’échappement. Les résultats des travaux épidémiologiques sont alors confrontés aux connaissances issues de l’expérimentation chez l’animal, ou chez l’homme. Ce mode de présentation des données ne doit donc pas faire oublier que l’air respiré dans les centres urbains est un mélange extrêmement complexe dans lequel les multiples gaz et l’aérosol subissent des interactions physiques et chimiques. L’effet propre de chaque élément devient alors difficilement discernable, particuliè- rement dans le cadre des études de type épidémiologique. C’est pourquoi un chapitre particulier tentera de traiter l’effet de ce mélange en tant que tel. La troisième par- tie permettra aussi de rappeler cette caractéristique complexe essentielle de la pollu- tion atmosphérique, en partant non plus des polluants ou indicateurs de pollution, mais des principales entités cliniques et sanitaires associées à cette pollution. Elle ten- tera aussi, avec difficulté, d’estimer de manière quantitative l’impact de la pollution d’origine automobile, en soulignant les limites de l’exercice et les informations néces- saires pour son plein développement. La dernière partie pourra alors dessiner des perspectives et formuler des recommandations destinées à améliorer la connaissance de l’impact sanitaire de cette pollution. Introduction 11 Reconnaissante envers les administrations de l’État qui lui ont accordé les moyens
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