CORNISH FOR BEGINNERS

P.A.S. POOL, M.A., F.S.A.

Third Edition THE HISTORY OF THE TOWN AND BOROUGH OF PENZANCE by P.A.S. Pool A full-scale history of Cornwall's westernmost town, commissioned by the Corporation to mark the end of its existence as a Borough in 1974 after 360 years. A long appendix gives the full or edited texts of the town charters and other important documents. Price £3.00 (hard covers). £1.50 (soft covers). Obtainable from the District Secretary, Penwith District Council, St. Clare, Penzance. THE PLACE NAMES OF WEST PENWITH by P.A.S. Pool A gazetteer of the settlement names of the Land's End Peninsula of Cornwall, with interpretations and a long intro• duction explaining the Cornish words found in the names. This book is the first modern publication of the place- names of any part of Cornwall larger than a parish. Price 75p. Published by the Federation of Old Cornwall Societies and obtainable from Mrs. S. Trenberth, Bronruth, Garkar Road, Trethurgy, St. Austell, Cornwall. A CORNISH FARMER'S DIARY by James Stevens, edited by P.A.S. Pool James Stevens spent his whole life (1847-1918) in West Penwith, first at Zennor and later at Sancreed, and for more than twenty years around the turn of the century kept a daily record of farm and parish life. This is the first Cornish farmer's diary to be published, and a valuable contribution to westcountry social history. Price £2.50. Obtainable from P.A.S. Pool, 37 Morrab Road, Penzance. THE DEATH OF CORNISH by P.A.S. Pool An Address given to the International Congress of Celtic Studies in 1975, with full references added, this gives an account of Cornish in the last two centuries of its decline, and of those who strove to preserve or record it. Price 40p. Obtainable from P.A.S. Pool at above address. REMINISCENCES OF PENZANCE by G.C. Boase, edited by P.A.S. Pool G.C. Boase (1829-97), one of the greatest literary sons of Penzance, wrote in 1883 a long series of newspaper articles recalling his childhood and youth, now published in book form and giving a valuable record of life in Penzance on the eve of change before the coming of the railway. Price £1.50. Published jointly by Penzance Old Cornwall Society and by Headland Publications, and obtainable from the Society at Dawn o'Day, Gwavas Road, Newlyn, Penzance. ALL THE ABOVE MAY ALSO BE OBTAINED FROM BOOKSHOPS IN PENZANCE

HEADLAND PRINTERS LIMITED, PENZANCE. CORNISH FOR BEGINNERS

By

P. A. S. POOL, M.A., F.S.A. PAST PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF CORNWALL

Third (Revised) Edition, 1970

Reprinted 1979

Published by the CORNISH LANGUAGE BOARD

Obtainable from the Board's Sales Officer (see opposite) and from the Author at 37 Morrab Road, Penzance, Cornwall. Dhe Gof MORDON Gwythyas ha Sylwyas agan Tavas

DASSERGHYANS The English speech doth still encroach upon it, and hath driven the same into the uttermost skirts of the shire. Richard Carew, 1602.

With Languages as with buildings, when they are in a state of decay, the ruins become every day less distinct. William Borlase, 1769.

Why should Cornishmen learn Cornish? The question is a fair one, the answer is simple. Because they are Cornishmen. Henry Jetmer, 1904.

One generation has set Cornish on its feet. It is now for another to make it walk. R. Morton Nance, 1955. TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface 4 Abbreviations and References 5 Pronunciation 5 Mutations 7

Lesson 1. Nouns, Adjectives and Articles 8 2. Impersonal Use of the Verb with Nouns 9 3. Impersonal Use with Pronouns; bos, mos and dos 11 4. Possessive Constructions 12 5. Pronoun Objects; the Perfect Particle 13 6. Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives; honen 14 7. The Personal Use of the Verb 15 8. The Future Tense; mynnes and gallos; Suffixed Pronouns 17 9. Prepositions 18 10. The Present Participle; the Imperfect Tense; Adverbs 20 11. Numbers 21 12. Questions and Replies; Imperatives 23 13. Comparison of Adjectives; As and Than 24 Appendix I 26 14. The Present and Imperfect Tenses of bos 28 15. The Past Participle; Further Uses of bos 29 16. Bos with gans and dhe 31 17. Indirect Statement 32 18. Relatives and Interrogatives 34 19. Conjunctions 36 20. The Pluperfect Tense; Verbs and Prepositions; Some and Any 38 21. The Subjunctive 40 Appendix II 42 Summary of Mutations 45 Summary of Particles 46 Key to Exercises 47 Vocabulary for Lessons 1—13 54 Story, Powesva an Myghtern, and other passages 57 PREFACE This book offers an elementary course of strictly limited scope, designed to enable the student to become familiar with the essentials of Cornish as easily as possible. It omits many alternative usages, idioms, and exceptions to grammatical rules, since attempting to learn these at the same time as the basic rules themselves is liable to cause confusion and delay. Some may feel that in places I have gone too far in simplifying complex rules, but in a beginners' book it is better to err thus than the other way, and the success of the previous editions shows that this book meets a real need. It is designed both for class use and for self-tuition, and should enable students to read and write Cornish reasonably well, but it is not a conversational course and only regular practice can give the fluency in speech without which no language really lives. References are given throughout to Cornish for All by R. Morton Nance (now sadly out of print) and to Cornish Simplified by A. S. D. Smith. Purchase of the latter, and of the dictionaries and record, must not be long delayed by any student of Cornish, but I have provided vocabularies making reference to dictionaries unnecessary for the first thirteen lessons. Keys to all exercises are also included. I have adhered strictly to the 'unified' Cornish spelling which was evolved by R. Morton Nance for students of revived Cornish, based on the spelling of the medieval literature but purged of inconsistencies and most variant forms. No one, least of all its originator, would claim the system to be faultless, but it sets a generally accepted standard to which most modern books comply, and indeed unified Cornish now exists as a 20th century language in its own right. Certainly there is no excuse for departing from it in a beginners' book. The book originated with a series of lessons prepared for a class in London in 1956, which were corrected and approved by Mr. Nance. He urged me to publish them as a book, and although he died before this was accomplished I was encouraged to do so by the knowledge that the work was thought to be not unworthy by one whose devotion to Cornish will never be equalled, and to whose memory all students of the language owe a debt that words are inadequate to express. The book covers the syllabus for the first and second grade examinations of the Cornish Language Board, and part of that for the third grade. I am most grateful to my colleagues on the Board for many helpful suggestions as to the arrangement and contents of the book, but for its faults and limitations I alone am responsible. GWAS GALVA. ABBREVIATIONS AND REFERENCES Adj. Adjective Inter. Interrogative Aff. Affirmative Masc. Masculine App. Appendix Neg. Negative Aux. Auxiliary PL Plural Cor. Cornish Poss. Possessive Eng. English Pres. Present Fern. Feminine Sing. Singular Inf. Infinitive C.F.A. Cornish for All by R. Morton Nance (3rd Edition, 1960). C.S. Cornish Simplified by A. S. D. Smith (2nd Edition, 1955).

PRONUNCIATION (C.F.A. 1-4; C.S. 6—13). Cor. uses the same alphabet as Eng., except the letters I, X and Z. The following points should be noted regarding the pronunciation of the consonants:— (a) C and G are always hard, as in Eng. " cake," " get," not soft as in" cinder," "George." (b) DH represents the sound of Eng. TH as in "thither;" TH represents Eng. TH as in " thinketh." (c) In GH the G is not sounded at all and the H barely so; thus byghan (little) is pronounced " bee-(h)an "—almost " bean." The vowels each have a long and a short sound; in dictionaries and text-books long vowels are indicated by a line above, but this is not done in ordinary writing. A long vowel in a single syllable word is normally shortened if a second syllable (such as a pi. ending) is added; thus el, angel, pi. eleth; nos, night, pi. nosow. The following table gives, for the long and short sounds of each vowel, a Cor. word and also an Eng. word with the equivalent vowel sound. The long a sound is that of Cor. dialect, and Eng. " air " is only an approximate equivalent. Vowel Long Sound Short Sound a tas air mam map e whel day pen hen o nos law fol drop u gun moon pup rum y ky see gwyn pin 5 U is sometimes pronounced as y, and is then marked u in dictionaries and text-books (not in ordinary writing); u is used both as a long vowel (same sound as y, e.g. tiis), and a short one (as y, e.g. iigans). O, u and y also have sounds of intermediate value between the normal long and short sounds, e.g. hogh (as Eng. " hoe "), bugh (as Eng. " due "), and the personal pronouns my, ty etc. (lesson 3), in which the sound is similar to long y but much shorter. As well as a vowel, y is also a consonant, being in fact the most common Cor. letter; thus mebyon (sons) is pronounced meb-yon " (y consonant), not " meb-y-on " (y vowel). The most important diphthongs (combined vowels) are aw (as Eng. " cow "), ey (as " try "), and ow (as " low "). The accent or stress (not marked in this book except in the vocabulary and this paragraph) in a word of two or more syllables is normally put on that before the last, as in place-names; exceptions to this rule are marked in dictionaries by a single dot over an irregularly stressed syllable. The rule means that the addition to a word of an extra syllable (such as a pi. ending) normally involves a shift in the stress; thus estren, foreigner, pi. estrenyon. Important words with irregular stress are ymb and ymons (lesson 14), warbarth (together), dywdrth (from), yth6 (then), ynw&h (also), erbyn (against), av£l (as), warlergh (after), myghtern (king), and fenester (window). In general, the sounds and lilt of the dialect of West Cornwall provide valuable guides as to the correct pronunciation of Cor.

6 MUTATIONS (C.F.A. 4—6; C.S. 14). The most puzzling features of Cor. to beginners are the mutations, whereby the initial consonants of words are changed according to fixed rules. These mutations are introduced gradually in the lessons, and listed on page 45, but the following table will be found useful for reference; no attempt should be made to learn it by heart. 1 2 3 4 5

b v c,k g ch j d dh t t c,k h g -,w qu w,wh gw w m V P b f qu gw wh t d th This means that words which in their dictionary form (called the 1st or radical state) begin with the letters in the 1st column are liable to have them changed into those shown opposite in the other columns. The four sets of mutations are called 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th states, or alternatively soft, breathed (or aspirate), hard and mixed mutations; in dictionaries and most text-books these are indicated by numbers, but this is not done in ordinary writing. An example will make this clear. The Cor. for "house" is chy; this is the first or un-mutated state found in dictionaries; the Cor. for " thy " is dha, which puts the following word into the 2nd state. Thus, to translate " thy house into Cor. one must look in the table from ch to j in the 2nd column, and deduce the answer as dha2 jy; the blanks in the other columns show that the 2nd state is the only mutation to which words beginning with ch are subject. The table can also be used in reverse. Thus if in Cor. one finds dha jy, it is no use looking up jy in the dictionary; but on realizing that the word, heing after dha, is in the 2nd state, one looks from j in the 2nd column to ch in the 1st, finding that the noun is in fact chy. Three points should be noted about the 2nd state, which is by far the most common mutation:— (a) Both b and m change to v; this could possibly mislead in translating from Cor. (b) G changes in two ways; sometimes, principally in words beginning go, it changes to w, and sometimes it is omitted altogether. (c) In speech there are 2nd state mutations of f to v and of s to z, but these are not written.

7 LESSON 1. NOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND ARTICLES NOUNS (C.S. 15; C.F.A. 8). Cor. nouns are all either masc. or fem.; there is no neuter gender. Names of persons and creatures follow the sex; thus den (man) is masc., and benen (woman) is fem. There is no safe rule for inanimate objects; thus porth (harbour) is masc., while forth (road) is fem. Dictionaries and vocabularies always specify gender, and one soon grows familiar with that of common words. The fem. equivalent of a masc. noun can sometimes be found by adding -es; e.g. car, fnend (male), cares, friend (female); myghtern, king, myghternes, queen. Nouns are made pi. in many ways, most commonly by adding -ow, -yow or -yon to the sing. But often internal changes occur too, and sometimes the pi. is a totally different word. E.g. dorn, hand, pi. dornow; tyr, land, pi. tyryow; estren, foreigner, pi. estrenyon; tavas, language, pi. tavosow; map, son, pi. mebyon; den, man, pi. tiis. Further examples appear in the vocabulary, where all pis. are given in full. A single syllable noun with a long vowel normally loses it if a pi. ending is added. (App. la).

ARTICLES (C.S. 17; C.F.A. 8). The indefinite article (Eng. " a " or " an ") is not normally expressed; thus Cor. men can mean either " a stone " or just " stone." The definite article (Eng. " the ") is an. After it all fem. sing, nouns, whether denoting persons or things, go into the 2nd state, and so do all masc. pi. nouns which denote persons. (App. lb). In the examples below the unmutated Cor. nouns follow the mutated forms in brackets; see the table of mutations, page 7. The woman an2 venen (benen) The bards an2 vyrth (byrth) The wife an2 wrek (gwrek) The sons an2 vebyon The queen an2 vyghternes (mebyon) (myghternes) The men an2 diis (tiis) The down an2 un (gun) The friends an2 gerens The parish an2 blu (plu) (kerens) The town an2 dre (tre) The clergymen an2 brontyryon (prontyryon) AND This is ha, which before a vowel becomes hag, except that with an it becomes ha'n (not hag an).

ADJECTIVES (C.S. 18; C.F.A. 9). In Cor. the adj. follows the noun, whereas in Eng. it precedes. It is not made fem. or pi. to agree with a noun of that kind by adding -es, -ow, -yon, 8 etc.; but it goes into the 2nd state when following fem. sing, nouns, whether denoting persons or things, or masc. pi. nouns denoting persons. (App. \c). A small mill melyn2 vyghan (byghan) An old woman benen2 goth (coth) A good woman benen2 dha (da) A big parish plu2 viir (miir) A white down gun2 wyn (gwyn) A pretty daughter myrgh2 dek (tek) Small sons mebyon2 vyghan Old clergymen prontyryon2 goth Good husbands gwer2 dha Big men tiis2 viir Fat farmers tyogyon2 dew (tew) This mutation only occurs when the adj. immediately follows the noun, not when it is separated from it, e.g. by another adj. A good old woman benen2 dha coth (coth not mutated)

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Lyver hyr. 2. An2 velyn noweth. 3. An2 vyghterneth fol. 4. Carrek2 dhu. 5. An2 gerens2 wyr. 6. An wheryth da. TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. A man and a woman. 2. The man and the woman. 3. The brothers. 4. The hills. 5. The mother and the father. 6. Rocks and birds. 7. The chough. 8. The choughs. 9. The daughter and the servants. 10. The white water. 11. Bold dogs. 12. The good woman. 13. The bad husbands. 14. A fat old sister. 15. The wise king and the foolish queen. 16. A small pretty parish. 17. The Cornish farmers. 18. Thin brothers. (N.B. See Vocabulary and Key to exercises).

LESSON 2. THE IMPERSONAL USE OF THE VERB WITH NOUNS INFINITIVES, STEMS AND ENDINGS (C.S. 20; C.F.A. 13). The inf. of a verb usually consists of a stem followed by an ending, e.g. gwel-es, to see, clew-es, to hear, car-a, to love, scryf-a, to write, red-ya, to read (no hyphens in ordinary writing). The 3rd person sing, of the pres. tense is normally the stem alone, e.g. gwel, clew, car, scryf, red, the vowel often being lengthened. To form the like person of the past (or preterite) tense add -as to the stem, e.g. gwelas, clewas, caras, scryfas, redyas (y retained in redya). (App. Id).

IMPERSONAL USAGE (C.S. 19—20; C.F.A. 12). Whenever the subject is a noun, whether sing, or pi., the verb must go in the 3rd person sing. The noun precedes it, and is joined to it by the particles a*- (aff.) and ny2- (neg.), both putting the verb into the 2nd state. In Cor. 9 the verb is almost invariably preceded by a particle, the rules for use of the various particles being summarised on page 46. The hyphen used in this book to connect particle and verb is optional, but useful in order to distinguish particles from other words similarly spelt. The farmer sees an tyak a2-wel The farmers see an2 dyogyon a^wel The farmer saw an tyak a2-welas The farmers saw an2 dyogyon a2-welas The farmer does not see an tyak ny^wel The farmers do not see an2 dyogyon ny^wel The farmer did not see an tyak ny2-welas The farmers did not see an2 dyogyon ny2-welas

IMPERSONAL USAGE WITH GGL (C.S. 19). Alternatively one may use the 3rd person sing, of the appropriate tense of the aux. verb gul (to do), followed by the inf. of the principal verb. Gtil is irregular, the 3rd person sing, of the pres. tense being gwra, and of the past, gwriik. Thus in the sentence above a2-wel may be replaced by a2-wra gweles; a2-welas by a^wriik gweles; ny^wel by ny2-wra gweles; ny2-welas by ny^-wriik gweles. This construction with gul is very useful, since many verbs are irregular and it enables errors to be avoided when there is doubt as to the correct tense-ending. It is especially valuable when several verbs have the same subject. The bards heard dogs an2 vyrth a2-glewas (or, a2-wriik clewes) ciin Wise men do not like high roads tiis skentyl ny2- gar (or, ny2- wra cara) fordhow ughel The old father bought a white cow an tas coth a2- brenas (or, a2- wriik prena) bugh2 wyn The man saw and heard the sea an den a2- wriik gweles ha clewes an mor Pt)R2 AND RE2. These mean respectively " very" and "too," and put the adj. they qualify into the 2nd state. Very old piir2 goth Too little re2 vyghan Too fat re2 dew A very large dog ky piir2 viir

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. An myghtern a2-wruk ladha an2 wesyon2 goth. 2. Tiis fol ny2-gar Kernow. 3. An benenes a-redyas lyfrow. 4. An pronter a2-wra dybry pysk byghan. 5. An2 dyogyon fol a2-wriik dybry margh. 6. An2 vam a2-gemeras an mEn glyp. TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. The man did not see the church. 2. The woman sold a house. 3. The king loves very wise laws. 4. The servant writes a short book. 5. The young women did not drink water. 6. The farmer does not hear the sea. 7. The father and the mother bought a fish. 8. The Cornish friends read (pres.). 9. The bard lost a dog and found a cat (use gul). 10. Very good; very pretty; very true; too thin; too full.

10 LESSON 3. IMPERSONAL USAGE WITH PRONOUNS: BOS, MOS, AND DOS THE IMPERSONAL VERB WITH PRONOUNS (C.S. 19; C.F.A. 11,13). We saw in the last lesson that when a verb is preceded by a noun subject it must be used impersonally, i.e. it remains in the 3rd person sing, even though the subject be pi. This usage may be employed when the subject is a pronoun, but then only when the verb is aff., not when it is neg. Gul may be used as an aux. verb, as with noun subjects. The following are the pronouns used as subjects of impersonal verbs:— my (I), ty (thou), ef (he), hy (she), ny (we), why (you), y (they). In this book, following C.F.A. 3, 11, these pronouns are printed with a short y, but the sound is intermediate and often printed y. I see the farmer my a2-wel (or, a2-wra gweles) an tyak He loved the daughter ef a2-garas (or, a2-wriik cara) an2 vyrgh We hear the sea ny a2-glew (or, a2-wra clewes) an mor They wrote books y a-scryfas (or, a2-wriik scryfa) lyfrow

BOS, MOS AND DOS (C.S. 21). These are irregular verbs, but are so important that (as with gul) early knowledge of them is essential. The following table gives such of their parts as are necessary for impersonal use. Inf. 3rd Sing. Pres. 3rd Sing. Past (preterite) bos to be yu be# mos to go a eth dos to come de deth * Be is given here for accuracy, being the 3rd person sing, of the preterite tense of bos, but at this stage " was " and " were " should be translated by 5, which is the 3rd person sing, of the Imperfect tense of bos. Before vowels in bos (e.g. yu, 6) and mos (e.g. a, eth) the aff. particle a2- is omitted, and the neg. particle ny2- becomes nyns-, losing its mutation as vowels are never mutated. Gul may be used as an aux. in the usual way with mos and dos, but at this stage it is best not to use it with bos. John is a farmer Jowan yu tyak The men were not bold an2 diis nyns-6 harth We are kings ny yu myghterneth He goes ef a (or, a2-wra mos) The sons did not go an2 vebyon nyns-eth (or, ny2-wriik mos) They come y a2-dhe (or, a^wra dos) The man did not come an den ny2-dheth (or, ny2-wriik dos)

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Y a. 2. An whethel nyns-yu gwyr. 3. Ny a2-dheth. 4. An ober yu piir2 gales. 5. Why 5 re2 goth.

11 TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. You saw the rocks and the sea. 2. She loves John. 3. They sold old horses. 4. We found the road. 5. He learns the language. 6. Thou comest. 7. The good brothers came. 8. The sea was not very white. 9. I am too fat. 10. The sister does not go. 11. He went. 12. The wife does not come.

LESSON 4. POSSESSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS THE GENITIVE OR POSSESSIVE CASE (C.S. 67; C.F.A. 8). In Eng. this is expressed either at length (e.g. the horse of the man), or by means of apostrophes (e.g. the man's horse). Cor. is much more concise, the correct translation of both these expressions being margh an den, which means, literally, " horse the man." " Of " is not expressed, nor is the definite article of the first noun, or of any but the last if there are more than two. This is an instance of Eng. and Cor. differing radically on a very important matter, and the beginner should make a special effort to become familiar with it at an early stage. (App. Ie). The King of Cornwall myghtern Kernow The priest of the parish pronter an2 blu John's father (i.e. the father of John) tas Jo wan The wise men of the town tiis skentyl an2 dre A bird of high cliffs edhen alsyow ughel The farmer's daughter's hand (i.e. the hand of the daughter of the farmer) dorn myrgh an tyak

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (C.S. 22; C.F.A. 11). These are set out below. It will be seen that some cause no mutation, some put the following noun into the 2nd state, and some into the 3rd, this being our first instance of any mutation other than the 2nd. (App. If). My ow3 Thy dha2 His y2 Her hy3 Our agan Your agas Their aga3 My ow° Her friend, head, father hy3 har, fen, this Their aga3 Thy 1 woman, friend, house, water dha2 venen, gar, jy, dhowr His J wife, son, head, father ,.2 wrek, vap, ben, das After ha (and) these pronouns are as follows:— And my ha'm or ha'w3 And our ha'gan And thy ha'th5 And your ha'gas And his ha'y2 And their ha'ga3 And her ha'y3 (NOT " hag ow," " ha dha," " hag agan," etc. Note that the Cor. for and his " and " and her " are similarly spelt but cause different mutations).

* 12 In Eng. one poss. pronoun may govern several nouns, but in Cor. it must be repeated before each. His father, mother, brother and sister y2 das, y2 vam, y2 vroder ha'y whor.

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Alsyow Kernow yu pur ughel. 2. Gour ow myrgh; myghtern dha2 wlas; agan gwesyon2 dha. 3. Ow3 hy a2-wra eva dowr an avon. 4. Y2 vyrgh, y2 vam ha'y2 wrek yu benenes pur2 danow. 5. Tavas an2 Vyrth yu Tavas Kernow.

TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. The women of the mill. 2. The old mines of the parish. 3. The waters of the sea. 4. The Bards of Cornwall. 5. The son of a servant. 6. My cat; thy language; his mother; her dogs; our house; your head; their language. 7. My mother's house. 8. He killed his king and queen. 9. Thy mother comes; John's father's brother does not come. 10. I love the rocks of the high hills. 11. Our cows and horses are not black. 12. Their harbour; the harbour of the little town.

LESSON 5. PRONOUN OBJECTS: THE PERFECT PARTICLE PRONOUN OBJECTS (C.S. 23—4; C.F.A. 11). There are two alternative ways in which the object of such a sentence as " the farmer saw me " can be expressed in Cor. The first is by infixed pronouns, which are inserted between the particle and the verb; they prevent the particle from mutating the verb, and only one of them itself causes a mutation. They are as follows:— Me -m- Us -gan- or -n- Thee -th6- You -gas- or -s- Him, it (masc.) -n- Them -s- Her, it (fem.) -s- The alternative is to use giil as an aux. verb, followed by a poss. pronoun (lesson 4) and the inf. as a verbal noun; thus " the farmer saw me " becomes the Cor. equivalent of " the farmer did my seeing." The farmer saw me an tyak a-m-gwelas or an tyak a2-wriik ow gweles He loved her ef a-s-caras or ef a-wriik hy3 hara John does not follow you Jowan ny-gas-sew or Jowan ny 2-wra agas sewya The sheep hear us an deves a-gan-clew or an deves a-2wra agan clewes It is not possible to combine the two alternatives and use an infixed pronoun with an aux. verb; thus it is quite wrong to say, "An tyak a-m-gwriik gweles," or " Ef a-s-gwriik cara."

13 THE PERFECT PARTICLE (C.S. 20; C.F.A. 17). An affirmative past tense can be made perfect (Eng. " has ") by using the particle re2- instead of a2-; it becomes res- or rej- before vowels in mos, e.g. eth. There is no corresponding negative perfect particle to replace ny2-, so that ny2- with the past tense has a perfect meaning when the context so requires. (App. II/). I have seen the fire my re2-welas an tan I have heard you my re-gas-clewas or my re^wriik agas clewes The angel has gone an el res-eth (or rej -eth) The foreigners have drunk an estrenyon re-evas The man has not seen I „ , rp, j-, \ an den ny-2welas 1 he man did not see ) *

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Ow map ny2-wra cusca; tus harth re2-gemeras y2 wely. 2. An ky a2-wriik y2 dhybry. 3. Why re-gan-cafas. 4. Ef a-s-car; hy yu benen y2 blu. 5. Agan mergh ny-wriik y eva.

TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. My poor mother sells it (masc.). 2. Our rich friend has bought it (fem.). 3. The angel did not follow them. 4. I love you, and you love me, and God loves us. 5. The sick man did not hear thee. 6. The sun has gone, the night has come, and the moon is very large. 7. The strong foreigner has burned my house and killed my old father's pigs and sheep (use gul). 8. King Arthur is not dead. 9. Strange food has killed him. 10. John has written the letter; the man has not read it.

LESSON 6. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES: HONEN DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES (C.S. 21; C.F.A. 12). These express Eng. " this," " that," " these," " those," when used with a noun. The noun is preceded by the definite article an and followed by -ma (" this " with a sing, noun, " these " with pi.) or -na (" that " with sing., " those " with pi.). If the noun is qualified by an ordinary adj., -ma and -na are appended to the adj., or to the last if there is more than one. This woman an2 venen-ma That woman an2 venen-na These women an benenes-ma Those women an benenes-na This white cow an2 vugh2 wyn-ma Those foolish old men an2 diis fol coth-na 14 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (C.S. 24; C.F.A. 12). These express " this," etc., when used without a noun. The Eng. sing, pronoun forms are often accompanied by " one," i.e. " this one," " that one," but this word is not translated in Cor. The Cor. demonstrative pronouns are as follows, the forms in brackets being used before vowels in bos (e.g. yu, 5). This hemma (hem) masc., homma (horn) fem. That henna (hen) masc., honna (hon) fem. These an re-ma Those an re-na This is true hem yu gwyr That was a new road hon 5 forth noweth (hon as forth is fem). I see that (masc.) my a2-wel henna I saw these men, and t my a2-welas an2 diis-ma hag he saw those f ef a2-welas an re-na John did not like ; T • _ . - 2 that house; he 1[ Jowaef an -gany^garar hemms ana chy-na; likes this one I 6 HONEN (C.S. 78; C.F.A. 12). This word, which is preceded by a poss. pronoun, can express either the personal emphatic " self," or the poss. emphatic " own;" in the latter usage, honen and the repeated poss. pronoun follow the noun. Myself ow honen He did it himself ef a-n-gwriik y honen My own land ow3 thyr ow honen Your own words agas geryow agas honen

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Ow3 thas ow honen re2-wriik lesky an chyow da-ma. 2. Hem yu lader harth, ha'n rE-ma yu estrenyon. 3. An eleth-na yu gwesyon Dew. 4. Hon yu ow whor hy honen. 5. Hon yu ow wh5r ow honen. TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. This church is not old. 2. That old house is very pretty. 3. These thieves are too strong. 4. He has seen his own tomb. 5. John himself does not like that healthy man. 6. She went there herself. 7. That (masc.) was right and those were wrong. 8. He has sold these white sheep; his own father has bought this one. 9. We learn our own language; this is a very good thing. 10. That happy man is the king himself, and those are his sons.

LESSON 7. THE PERSONAL USE OF THE VERB (C.S. 25; C.F.A. 13). This form can only be used when the subject is a pronoun, and is obligatory when such a subject is used with a neg. verb. When a pronoun subject is 15 used with an aff. verb, there is an option to use either the personal or the impersonal form. These rules are of vital importance. (For exceptions see App. Ho). In personal use the verb, instead of remaining 3rd sing., follows the number and person of the subject, which itself is not expressed. The particles used are y8- and ny2-, aff. and neg. respectively. Y8- becomes yth- before all vowels, but ny2- becomes nyns- only before those in bos and mos. The perfect particle re2- is used to convert an aff. past tense into the perfect, replacing y8- just as it replaces a2- in impersonal usage; it becomes res- or rej- before vowels in m5s. Gul may be used as an aux. verb, in an alternative construction, just as in the impersonal form. The pres. and past (or preterite) tenses of gweles, gul, mos and dos are given below. (See App. Ig). Gweles to see Gill to do Mos to go Dos to come 1. sing. (I) gwelaf gwraf af dof 2. sing, (thou) gwelyth gwreth eth diith 3. sing, (he, she, it) gwel gwra I de Pres. L pi. (we) gwelyn gwren en dim ' 2. pi. (you) gwelough gwreugh eugh deugh 3. pi. (they) gwelons gwrons ons dons

gwelys gwriik yth diith gwelsys gwriissys ythys diithys gwelas gwriik eth deth 1Past. gwelsyn gwriissyn ethen diithen gwelsough gwriissougb etheugh dutheugh gwelsons gwrussons ethons dethons

Example of availability of impersonal and personal forms :- Impersonal Personal The men see an2 diis a2-wel The men do not see an2 diis ny2-wel They see y a^-wel y8-whelons (y5-whrons gweles) They do not see ny2- welons (ny^wrons gweles) I steal his pigs y-ladraf y hoghas (y8-whraf ladra) We do not hear the wind ny^glewyn an gwyns (ny^wren clewes) You come here y8-teugh omma (y5-whreugh dos) Thou didst not go there nyns-ythys ena (ny2-wriissys mos) I drank water yth-evys dowr (y8-whruk eva) I have seen the fire re2-welys an tan (re2-wriik gweles)

CONJUGATE the above tenses of gweles, gul, mos and dos, using the aff. particle y8- in the sing, and the neg. particle ny2- in the pi. 16 TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH (giving both personal and impersonal renderings where permissible):—1. They love the land of Cornwall. 2. He did not love me. 3. You read (pres.) my letter and their books. 4. Thou learnest. 5. They bought strange things. 6. They did not carry the stone and put it there (use giil). 7. The thieves did not read it. 8. We come here ourselves. 9. We have come here.

LESSON 8. THE FUTURE TENSE: MYNNES AND GALLOS: SUFFIXED PRONOUNS THE FUTURE TENSE (C.F.A. 15). Most Cor. verbs have no future tense, the Pres. being used instead (but see bos, Lesson 15); it is often called the Present-Future. Sometimes an Eng. future is best translated by the use of giil; thus ef a2-wel and ef a2-wra gweles can each mean either " he sees " or "he will see," but the latter construction with giil is more likely than the former to imply the future meaning. Mere futurity, thus indicated, must be distinguished from wish or desire, indicated by mynnes (below); they are liable to be confused as Eng. " will " can have either meaning. Eng. shall," or " will " when the subject is inanimate, is normally the plain future. MYNNES AND GALLOS (C.S. 29, C.F.A. 22—3). These are used as aux. verbs with the inf. like giil. Mynnes means to wish, will, or want to," and gallos means " to be able." (App. lh). Mynnes Gallos Pres. Past Pres. Past mynnaf mynnys gallaf gyllys mynnyth mynsys gyllyth gylsys myn mynnas gyi gallas mynnyn mynsyn gyllyn gylsyn mynnough mynsough gyllough gylsough mynnons mynsons gy lions galsons Impersonal Personal I can come my a2-yl dos y5-hallaf dos I cannot come ny 2-allaf dos I will come (i.e. want to) my a^vyn dos y5-fynnaf d5s I won't come (i.e. don't want to) — ny^vynnaf dos I shall/will come (mere futurity) my a^-wra dos y6-whraf dos They wouldn't eat (i.e. didn't want to) — ny2-vynsons dybry We could see (i.e. were able to) ny a2-allas gweles y5-hylsyn gweles John wanted to follow them Jowan a2-vynnas aga sewya — 17 N.B. When (as in the last example above) there is a pronoun-object after mynnes or gallos and the inf., this requires a poss. pronoun, not an infixed pronoun. Thus, it would be quite wrong to say Jowan a-s-mynnas sewya.

SUFFIXED PRONOUNS (C.S. 22; C.F.A. 11). These are, apart from the 1st and 2nd sing., the same as the personal pronouns: -vy -jy(or -sy) -ef -hy -ny -why -y When added to a noun following a poss. pronoun, they emphasize the poss. They may be added to personal verbs where euphonious. For other uses see below, lessons 9 and 12. Use of these pronouns is normally optional. (App. It). My friend ow* haivvy His friend y2 gar-ef I see y5-whelaf-vy You did not hear ny*-glewsough-why

TABLE OF PRONOUNS. Personal Possessive Infixed Suffixed 1 sing. my ow3 -m- -vy 2 „ ty dha2 -th5- -jy,-sy 3 „(m.)ef y2 -n- -ef 3 „ (f.) hy (Lesson 3) hy3 (Lesson 4) -s- (Lesson 5) -hy (above) 1 plur. ny agan -gan-, -n- -ny 2 „ why agas -gas-, -s- -why 3 „ y aga3 -«- -y

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Agan yskerens a2-vynnas agan fetha, mes ny2- alsons-y gul yndella. 2. Y5-fyn-hy dynerghy ow modryp. 3. My a2-wra danvon an2 wragh; hy a2-yl sawya agas bugh2 glaf. 4. Ys -hylsough-why lesky aga scath-y. 5. Dha2 gar-jy a2-vyn ry gober. TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. We want to sell our house. 2. My friend can't wait; he wants to go. 3. The soldiers wanted to see us. 4.1 can't eat that old cake. 5. They could see the farmer's ducks. 6. My son is lazy; he will not learn his work. 7. My letter will go now. 8. I shall hear that noise. 9. The man will drown; we can't help him. 10. You can open the door.

LESSON 9. PREPOSITIONS (C.S. 42, 64; C.F.A. 27—8). These prepositions cause the second state:— a2 (from, of); war2 (on); dhe2 (to, at); dre2 (by, through, by means of) To St. Ives dhe2 Borthya From Penzance a2 Bensans On land war2 dyr By singing dre2 gana Note:—ogas dhe2 (near) and a-dro dhe2 (about, concerning). 18 Important prepositions not causing mutation are gans (with, by), dres (over, beyond), yn (in), rak (for), ryp (along, beside), hep (without), orth (at, against), dyworth (from). Rak, hep and ryp often become rag, heb and ryb before vowels. (App. Ij, k and /). A2, dhe2 and yn combine with an (Lesson 1) and with the poss. pronouns (Lesson 4) in much the same way as does ha. Thus " from the," to the," " in the," are a'n, dhe'n, y'n. The combinations with the possessives are as follows:— My Thy His Her Our Your Their a a'm, a'w3 a'th5 a'y2 a'y3 a'gan a'gas a'ga3 dhe dhe'm, dh'ow3 dhe'th5 dh'y2 dh'y3 dh'agan dh'agas dh'aga3 yn y'm, yn ow3 y'th5 yn y2 yn hy3 y'gan y'gas y'ga3 From my bed a'm gwely To thy hand dhe'th5 torn In their language y'ga3 thavas To his father dh'y2 das- The prepositions combine with the personal pronouns, as follows:— me thee him her us you them a ahanaf ahanas anodho anedhy ahanan ahanough anedha war warnaf warnas warno- warne- dho dhy war nan warnough warnedha dhe dhym dhys dhodho dhedhy dhyn dheugh dhedha dre dredhof dredhos dredho dre dhy dredhon dre- dhough dredha gans genef genes ganso gensy genen genough gansa dres dresof dresos dresto dresty dreson dresough dresta yn ynnof ynnos ynno ynny ynnon ynnough ynna rak ragof ragos ragtho rygthy ragon ragough ragtha orth orthyf orthys orto orty orthyn orthough orta Hep and ryp combine like rak, and dyworth like orth; hebof, rybof, dyworthyf, etc. Suffixed pronouns (Lesson 8) may be added to the com• binations. Dhym and dhys then become dhymmo-vy and dhyso-jy respectively. from him anodho-ef by her gensy-hy to you dheugh-why over me dresof-vy for us ragon-ny with thee genes-sy on them warnedha-y at them orta-y It is most important to distinguish between the two sets of combinations of pronouns and prepositions in this lesson. Thus a'm or a'w3, from my (poss.), ahanaf, from me (personal); dh'y2, to his, dhodho, to him. " To " expressing purpose is dhe or rak, a pronoun-object being expressed by a poss. pronoun. He came to see me ef a2-dheth dhe'm gweles I did it to deceive them my a-n-gwriik rag aga3 thulla TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Dhe2 Ben an2 Wlas. 2. Dh'ow3 thas. 3. Warnodho-ef. 4. Ynnon-ny. 5. Dyworthough-why. 6. Hebtha-y. TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. From beginning to end. 2. Near London. 3. On tombs near the church. 4. Concerning him. 5. In your heart. 19 6. For you yourselves. 7. He bought it from her mother at Penzance. 8. He walked along the cliff without me. 9.1 will put them in the hole far from him. 10. A gift to my wife from you. 11. We came to hear him. 12. I shall go to kill them. 13. Over the sea to the islands. 14. The butcher came with me from the farm.

LESSON 10. THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE: THE IMPERFECT TENSE: ADVERBS THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE (CS. 39; C.F.A. 17). Such Eng. words as " seeing," " coming " etc. are used in two distinct senses. Sometimes they are verbal nouns, rendered in Cor. by the inf.; thus " Seeing is believing " is gweles yu crysy, and see Lesson 5 for the con• struction with gul and the poss. pronoun. Sometimes they are present participles, used then as adjectives to describe what someone or something is doing, as in the sentences " I found him seeing and believing " and " John is listening to the wireless". The Cor. Pres. Participle is formed by inserting ow4- before the inf., which becomes owth- before a vowel. If the participle has a pronoun object, ow4- becomes orth- and the object is a poss. pronoun between orth- and the inf. If the participle is an adverb, i.e. describing further the action of a verb, ow4- becomes yn-iin2-. Living ow4-pewa Coming owMos Seeing ow^-queles Going ow-mos Seeing him orth-y2-weles Doing ow^-ciil She went running hy eth yn-iin2-bonya Drinking owth-eva Loving you orth-agas-cara Note that the Eng. pres. participle -ing is also used in the pres. and imperfect tenses. Thus " he is coming," like " he comes " and " he does come," is the pres. tense, and may be rendered by Cor. ef a2-dhe. Likewise " he was coming " is the normal Eng. imperfect (see below). See lesson 14 for the Cor. alternative usage of the pres. and imperfect tenses of bos with the pres. participle. THE IMPERFECT TENSE (C.S. 52). This is used almost as in Eng., to translate " was " as compared with " did " which is the past (preterite) tense. It is also used for habitual actions, Eng. " used to." Gweles Gul Mos Dos Mynnes Gallos gwelyn gwren en den mynnen gyllyn gwelys gwres es des mynnes gyllys gwely gwre e do mynna gyiiy gwelyn gwren en den mynnen gyllyn gweleugh gwreugh eugh deugh mynneugh gylleugh gwelens gwrens ens dens mynnens gyllens 20 He was coming ef a2-dho ef a2-wre dos y6-to y5-whre dos I used to see him my a-n-gwely my a2-wre y2 weles y-n-gwelyn y5-whreny2 weles ADVERBS (C.S. 59; C.F.A. 27). These can often be formed from adj. by prefixing yn5-, but it is permissible to use the adj. unchanged. Thus " well is yn5-ta or da, " truly " is yn5- whyr or gwyr. Some adverbs are words unconnected with adj., e.g. lemmyn (now), menough (often). Adverbs normally follow the verb in Cor.

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Ys-whren-vy yskynna an meneth ughel-na yn-squyth, yn-iin-whylas an forth es. 2. My a2-glewas dha2 das-jy owManvon an Sawson dhedha-y. 3. Ny a2-ylly gweles an den fell orth-y2- weskel. 4. Ny 5 menough dhe2 Bensans. 5. Gweres an tyak yu ober pur2 dha. 6. Ow whor a-m-gwelas ow4-queres an pyscador. TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. Seeing is believing. 2. I saw them learning Cornish. 3. Learning Cornish is not very difficult. 4. John cruelly killed a man wandering along the bank of the river. 5. The woman attempting this task were going to St. Ives. 6. My father found the farmers eating them happily. 7. They came to us hastening. 8. She wisely loves a very rich man. 9. They were not coming quickly. 10. John used to clean his shoes well.

LESSON 11. NUMBERS (C.S. 62—3; C.F.A. 10). 1 onen, un 2 deu2(m.), dyw2(f.) 3 try3(m.), tyr3(f.) 4 peswar(m). peder (f.). 5 pymp 6 whegh 7 seyth 8 eth 9 naw 10 dek 11 iinnek 12 deudhek 13 tredhek 14 peswardhek 15 pymthek 16 whetek 17 seytek 18 etek 19 nawnjek 20 iigans Whereas Eng. numbers are reckoned by tens to 100, Cor. ones are reckoned by scores to 200. 20 iigans 40 deu-iigans 60 try-iigans 80 peswar-iigans 100 cans 120 whegh-iigans 140 seyth-ugans 160 eth-iigans 180 naw-iigans 200 deu cans (no mutation) Compound numbers between 20 and 200 are formed by putting the smaller number before the next previous score, separated from it by warn if it is iigans (i.e. 21—39 inclusive), otherwise by ha. 21 onen warn iigans 30 dek warn iigans 39 nawnjek warn iigans 41 onen ha deu-iigans 50 dek ha deu-ugans (or hantercans) 92 deudhek ha peswar-iigans 77 seytek ha try-iigans 154 peswardhek ha seyth-ugans 103 try ha cans 188 eth ha naw-iigans 21 Thereafter the reckoning is by hundreds (try cans or try3 bans, peswar cans, pymp cans, etc.) to 1,000 (myl2), 2,000 (dyw2vyl2), 3,000 (tremmyl2), 4,000 (peder myl2), etc. 222 deu cans deu warn iigans 293 deu cans tredhek ha peswar-iigans 720 seyth cans hag iigans 1956 myl naw cans whetek ha deu-iigans

USE OF NUMBERS WITH NOUNS. Note very carefully that in Cor. sing, nouns are used with numbers. Before a noun onen is replaced by tin, which puts a fem. noun into the 2nd state. Deu2, try3, and peswar have separate forms used with fem. nouns; the masc. forms are used with plain numbers, i.e. where there is no noun, as above. Deu2, try3, (and their fem.) and myl2 cause mutations; deu and dyw are themselves mutated by an2. Nouns follow the first part of a compound number. 1 woman tin2 venen The 2 houses an2 dheu2 jy 20 books iigans lyver 4 aunts peder modryp 3 dogs try3 hy 100 men cans den 1000 years myl2 vledhen 27 books seyth lyver warn iigans 175 parishes pymthek plu hag eth-iigans

ORDINAL NUMBERS. 1st kensa 2nd nessa (or secund) 3rd tressa 4th peswera 5th pympes 6th wheghes 7th seythves 8th ethves 9th nawves 10th degves Thereafter add -ves to the cardinal number, at the end of which k becomes g. Only the first part of a compound number becomes ordinal. 21st kensa warn iigans 50th degves ha deu-iigans 116th whetegves ha cans the 30th house an degves chy warn iigans the 125th sheep an pympes davas ha whegh-iigans

NUMERAL ADVERBS. These are formed by combining the numbers with gwyth, f., time, occasion. Once iin2wyth Twice dyw*wyth Three times tergwyth Four times pedergwyth Ten times degwyth 100 times canquyth 1,000 times myl^wyth

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Seytek warn iigans. 2. Myl naw cans peswar ha try-iigans. 3. Pymp den coth. 4. Myl nos hag onen. 5. Whetegves ha peswar-iigans. 6. tlgansgwyth. TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. 63. 2. 35. 3. 72. 4. 87. 5. 126. 6. 171. 7. 1066. 8. 1984. 9. The 2 pretty daughters. 10. Three men in a boat. 11. 41 snails. 12. 24 doctors. 13. 365 days. 14. 57th. 15. 142nd. 16. The 3rd man. 17. The 40th thief. 18. The 11th hour. 19. The 164th tree. 20. The 36 monks sing the 119th psalm. 21. He heard her 5 times. 22 LESSON 12. QUESTIONS AND REPLIES: IMPERATIVES QUESTIONS AND REPLIES (C.S. 27). To ask a question, put the particle a2- before the verb and the subject after it. The particle is a ny2- in neg.-inter. sentences. With a pronoun subject, the verb is personal and the subject suffixed (Lesson 8); with a noun subject, the verb is impersonal and the subject follows it. A2- is (as always) omitted before vowels in bos and mos. Do you see the house? a2-welough-why an chy? (or a2-wreugh- why gweles) Do you not see the house? a ny^welough-why an chy? (or a ny2- wreugh-why gweles) Do you see it (m.)? a-n-gwelough-why? (or a2-wr eugh-why y2 weles) Does he like thy mother? a2-gar-ef dha2 vam? Did he come? a2-dheth-ef ? Can I come? a2-allaf-vy dos? Did the women see the eggs? a2-welas an benenes an oyow? (or a2-wruk an benenes gweles) Did the women see them? a-s-gwelas an benenes? (or a2-wriik an benenes aga gweles?) Did the man come? a2-dheth an den? Can the farmers go? a2-yl an2 dyogyon mos? Did you go there? etheugh-why ena? Is that man a farmer? yu an den-na tyak? Cor. has no words (except in late usage) for the replies " Yes " and " No." " Yes " is translated by repetition of the verb of the question, unmutated, with no particle, and in number and person appropriate to the reply. " No," by such repetition after na2-, which becomes nag- before vowels in bos and mos. Gul may be used as an alternative without the inf. Do they like this country? Yes (they a2-garons-y an pow-ma? carons do). No (they do not) (or gwrons). na2-garons (or na2- wrons) Did John come? Yes (he did). No (he did not) a2-dheth Jowan? deth. na2-dheth Did John go? Yes (he did). No (he did not) eth Jowan? eth. nag-eth Do you see? Yes (we do). No (we do a2-welough-why? gwelyn. na2- not) welyn Do we see? Yes (you do). No (you a2-welyn-ny? gwelough. na2- do not) welough IMPERATIVES (C.S. 33). Gweles GUI Mos Dos Bos 2nd sing. gwel gwra ke or a dus byth 2nd pi. gweleugh gwreugh keugh or eugh deugh bedheugh (For other persons, much less used, see C.S.). 23 Verbs in -ya, and also clewes, have pi. imperative in -yeugh. Imperatives are used without particle or mutation when aff., with na2- (nag- before vowels in mos) when neg. See! gweleugh! gwreugh gwelesl Do not come na2-dheugh! na2-wreugh dos! Open the window ygereugh an fenester Open it (m.) ygereugh e (for ef) (or gwreugh y ygery) Do not open it (m.) na-n-ygereugh (na2-wreugh y ygery) Do not go there nag-eugh ena Do not be foolish na2-vedheugh fol

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:—1. Na2-wreugh esedha ena. 2. Gwr• eugh y2 dhry omma. 3. A2-wriik-ef ladha an deves? Na2-wriik. 4. A ny2- dhiitheugh-why omma de? Diithen. 5. A2-yllough-why ow drehevel? Gyllyn. 6. A2-vynnas an Sawson gweles agan eglos? 7. Gwrek, diis omma dystough! TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. Hear the word of the Lord. 2. Go away! 3. Take the eggs and the flowers to the market quickly. 4. Do not come here yet. 5. Did you see a fat man swimming? No. 6. Do they want to see my father? 7. Dost thou not see those six druids seated near that stone? Yes. 8. Can we sing? 9. Do you write letters often? Yes. 10. Do you love me? (C.S. 79) No. 11. Does your mother like cabbage? No. 12. Did your uncles go? Yes. 13. Do these men want to find us? No. 14. Is breakfast ready?

LESSON 13. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES: AS AND THAN COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (C.S. 58; C.F.A. 9). Normally the comparative (Eng.—er) is formed by adding -a to the adj., often doubling and sometimes changing a final consonant; the superlative (Eng.—est) by adding an to the comparative. Comparative Superlative Fair tek Fairer tecca Fairest an tecca Large bras Larger brassa Largest an brassa Old coth Older cotha Oldest an cotha Young yowynk Younger yowynca Youngest an yowynca Far pell Farther pella Farthest an pella Irregular:— Small, little byghan Smaller, less le Smallest, least an lyha Great, much miir Greater, more moy Greatest, most an moyha Good da Better gwell Best an gwella Bad drok Worse gweth Worst an gwetha Near ogas Nearer nes Nearest, next an nessa 24 Comparative and superlative adjs. generally precede the noun and are not mutated either by the noun or by the definite article. Moy and moyha are used (especially with adjs. of two or more syllables) to form alternative comparatives and superlatives which follow the noun. The best road an gwella forth The nearest house an nessa chy An older man cotha den Better advice gwell cusiil A wiser man den moy skentyl The wisest men an2 diis moyha skentyl AS AND THAN (C.S. 58; C.F.A. 9). In sentences like as rich as John," as " is translated before the adj. by mar2 or maga5 and before the noun or pronoun by avel. " Than " is es before a noun or pronoun. Avel and es combine with personal pronouns like prepositions (lesson 9), and suffixed pronouns may be added. (App. Ha). As Than I, me avelof esof Thou, thee avelos esos He, him avello esso She, her avelly essy We, us avelon eson You avelough esough They, them avella essa As rich as you mar rych avelough-why As white as snow maga6 whyn avel ergh (or mar2 wyn) As fat as John maga tew avel Jowan (or mar2 dew) Younger than she yowynca essy-hy Better advice than this gwell cusiil es homma Older than William cotha es Wella DIRECT SPEECH (C.S. 88; C.F.A. 26). When the actual words of the speaker are quoted, i.e. where the speech is put within quotation marks, " said " is rendered in Cor. by the defective verb medhes, used as follows:— Said the man yn-meth an den Said he yn-meth-ef Said John yn-meth Jowan Said they yn-medhans-y Said the men yn-meth an2 diis (impersonal) For indirect speech with leverel, see Lesson 17.

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:— WHETHEL WHARTHUS Deu2 dyak coth eth dhe'n lagha. Yn-meth anedha onen dh'y2 dhSn an lagha, "A2-wraf-vy danvon dhe'n juj deu hos tek? " Mes yn-meth den an lagha, " Na2-wreugh yndella; ny2- yllough fals-gobra* juj Kernewek; ryas heyjy dhodho ny2-wra gwaynya y2 gEn." Mes an tyak-ma a2-waynyas y2 gEn; " Why yu dEn piir2 gonnek an lagha," yn-meth-ef, " Y5-tanvonys an heyjy-na dh'agan juj len, mes my a-n-gwriik yn hanow an tyak aral." * fals-gobra, to bribe. 25 TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. John is his elder brother, and William is the eldest. 2. She wisely loves a better man than me. 3. I can see the smallest house well. 4. My father and mother are now poorer than you. 5. The worst storm during that year. 6. A man as good as you, and better than your father. 7. " You are as stupid as your brother, and more stupid (use moy) than your friend," said the rude teacher. 8. These women are as pretty as she. 9. " Come here," said he. 10. " The best pilchard is a pilchard in the net," said she.

APPENDIX L This Appendix covers topics which are of secondary importance to the main rules set out in the lessons, and were there omitted to prevent confusion. a) PLURAL NOUNS (Lesson 1). Parts of the body occurring in pairs have a dual pi. incorporating the numeral deu, dyw. E.g. lagas, eye ; pi. lagasow, eyes; dual pi. deulagas, eyes (of a person or animal, considered together). Similarly scovarn, ear; pi. scovarnow; dual pi. dywscovarn.' Some nouns are collective pi., e.g. hern, pilchards, gwyth, trees. The sing, is formed with the ending -en, as hernen, pilchard, gwedhen, tree. b) ARTICLES (Lesson 1). t)n (one) is used as a kind of indefinite article to translate " a certain." It puts a fem. sing, noun into the 2nd state. A certain woman, iin2 venen. The following are irregular mutations after an:—an jeth (dSth, m., day); an jawl (dyawl, m., devil); an veyn (meyn, m. pi., stones); an vergh (mergh, m. pi., horses); an tasow (no mutation—the fathers). c) ADJECTIVES (Lesson 1). Adjs. beginning with C, D, P, or T are not mutated after fem. sing, nouns (or masc. pi. nouns denoting persons) ending in s or th. A fine church, eglos tek. Good night, nos da. A distant road, forth pell. Old men, tiis coth. d) INFINITIVES, STEMS, ENDINGS (Lesson 2). The general rule for forming the 3rd sing. pres. and past is as stated, but because many verbs are irregular these two parts are given, following the inf., for all verbs in the vocabulary. Some verbs possess what closely resembles an inf. ending but are stems as they stand, e.g. danvon, dalleth, govyn, gweres, powes, gwary. Some verbs, including all those with inf. ending in -el, form the 3rd sing, past by adding -ys to the stem instead of -as (C.S. 80). e) POSSESSIVE CASE (Lesson 4). Sometimes the concise poss. case is not used, being replaced by a longer construction wherein " of " is expressed by a2- and definite articles are not omitted. Thus " The host of the house " is normally ost an chy, but may be expressed an ost a'n chy (C.S. 67). /) POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (Lesson 4). Ow2, hy3 and aga3 do not mutate nouns beginning with CL, CR or KN. Thus ow cledha, aga crows, not ow3 hledha, aga3 hrows. g) THE PERSONAL FORM OF THE VERB (Lesson 7). Gweles is best taken as the model or regular verb, but there are many important irregular verbs, which are fully conjugated in C.S. 79—85. Note in particular 26 cara (79), where the stem car- often becomes ker-. In Cor., however, irregular verbs are not such a difficulty as in French, since doubts can often be avoided by the use of aux. giil. When great emphasis is placed on the pronoun subject of a neg. verb, a personal pronoun may, exceptionally, be placed before the (obligatory) personal verb. E.g. I will not speak English, my ny2- vynnaf kewsel Sawsnek. h) AUXILIARY VERBS (Lesson 8). GUI and mynnes, as well as being aux. verbs, are also used as ordinary verbs with an object, meaning respectively " to make (or do) " and " to want." Gothvos, to know, is sometimes used as an aux. verb, an alternative to gallos in the sense of " to know how to." (N.B. the past tense of gothvos has alternative forms, C.F.A. preferring 3rd sing, gothva and C.S. gothfe). He made (did) it ef a-n-gwriik I want bread my a2-vyn bara Can you swim? Yes a2-wodhough-why nyja? gon i) SUFFIXED PRONOUNS (Lesson 8). -Ma, -ta and -va are alternatives to -vy, -jy or -sy, and -ef, with personal verbs, with which they often combine. I am a farmer Yth-oma tyak (for yth-df-vy) Canst thou speak? A2-yllysta kewsel? (for a^yUys-jy or -sy) He was an old man Yth-ova den coth (for yth-6-ef) The Table of Pronouns in this Lesson should be very carefully noted. Y can mean either " they " (personal) or " his " (poss.); hag y means " and they," ha'y2 " and his," ha'y3 " and her "; hy can mean either " she " (personal) or " her " (poss.). j) COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS (Lesson 9; C.S. 64; C.F.A. 28). Examples are erbyn (against) and warlergh (after). When these are used with pronouns, the pronoun is poss. between the first (er, war) and second (pyn, lergh) elements of the preposition. Against them er-aga3-fyn Against him er-yMiyn Against us er-agan-pyn After me war-ow-lergh k) TRANSLATION OF "BY" AND "WITH" (Lesson 9). The choice between the Cor. prepositions may be difficult, but the following is a general guide:— i) " With " meaning " together with " is always gans. Come with us, deugh genen-ny. ii) " By," with," indicating agency or instrumentality is gans except with abstract nouns, when it is dre2. By John; by dogs; by (with) a sword; by strength gans Jowan; gans ciin; gans cledha; dre nerth. iii) " By " meaning " beside " or " along " is ryp. By the cliff, ryp an als. /) EXPRESSIONS OF TIME. Eng. " for " in these expressions is not translated. He came for four days Ef a2-dheth peswar deth He lived there for twenty years Ef a2-wruk tryga ena ugans bledhen 27 m) REFLEXIVE VERBS (C.S. 72). Verbs may be given a reflexive meaning by prefixing om2; thus keles is a transitive verb taking an object, meaning to hide a person or thing, omgeles is a reflexive verb, meaning to hide oneself. They hid (themselves) Yth-omgelsons They hid the cows Y-kelsons an bughas n) USE OF THE INFINITIVE (C.S. 71). If several verbs have the same subject and are connected by ha, all but the first may be put in the inf., especially when there is a degree of continuity or connection in the actions. He got up and went out and shut the door. Ef a-sevys ha mos dhe-ves ha degea an darras.

LESSON 14. THE PRESENT AND IMPERFECT TENSES OF BOS (C.S. 36—7; C.F.A. 19). These tenses each have both a short and long form; which is used depends on the nature of the complement, i.e. what follows the verb. (App. 116). Present Imperfect short long short long of esof en esen 5s esos es eses y« yma, iisy, us 6 esa on eson en esen ough esough eugh eseugh yns ymons, esons ens esens The short forms are used when the complement is either a noun, an adj., or a past participle (for the last, see next lesson). The usual rules apply for personal and impersonal usage and particles; remember that a- is always omitted before vowels in bos. Impersonal Personal The men were old an2 diis 5 coth The men were not old an2 diis nyns-6 coth They were old y 5 coth yth-ens-y coth They were not old nyns-ens-y coth I am fat my yu tew yth-of-vy tew We are not soldiers nyns-on-ny soudoryon He is a fanner ef yu tyak yth-yu-ef tyak Are you hot? No. ough-why torn? nag-on Thou wast very foolish ty 6 piir2 woky yth-es-jy pur2 woky The long forms are used if the complement is a pres. participle or a word or phrase denoting position. In the pres. tense yma and ymons (stress on 2nd syllables) incorporate the aff. particle y(th)-, and are therefore used in the aff. only and without further particle, being replaced in the neg. by nyns-iis (or iisy) and nyns-esons, and in the inter, by iis? and esons? When the subject is a pronoun-the personal form of the verb must be used; the usual 28 option to use the impersonal if the verb is aff. does not apply. When the subject is a noun, the verb is impersonal and precedes the subject. (App. lie and d.). I am in the garden yth-esof-vy y'n lowarth They were on the roof yth-esens-y war an to He is coming yma-ef owMos They are in the house ymons-y y'n chy I am not there nyns-esof-vy ena They are not eating nyns-esons-y owMybry Were you in that boat? No eseugh-why y'n scath-na? nag-esen The farmer is in the field yma'n tyak y'n park 2 The sailors are not near the harbour nyns-iisy an varners ogas dhe'n porth The kings were fighting yth-esa an2 vy ghterneth owth-omlath My mother was not there nyns-esa ow mam ena Were the men here? Yes esa an2 diis omma? esens. N.B. In this and subsequent exercises words are used which are not in the vocabulary and must be looked up in the Dictionary.

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:— WHETHEL MOY WHARTHUS Den yn tavern a2-wriik govyn hanaf a2 goref, eva anodho an hanter, ha tewlel an hanter aral dres pen an tavernor. Ena ys- whriik dyharas dhodho yn-ciif: "Ow gyew a-m-constryn dhe2 wiil yndella; mur yn5-whyr yu ow ancombrynsy." "Res yu dheugh gweles medhek-gyew," yn-meth an tavernor glyp. "Y5-fynnaf giil agas cusiil " yn-meth an den. Nebes mysyow wosa henna, an den-ma a2- dheth arta dhe'n tavern, govyn coref, ha'y2 dewlel dres an tavernor, avel kens. An tavernor o pur serrys: "A ny2-welsough-why medhek-gyew? " yn-meth-ef. " My re-n-gwelas menough." " Ny2-wriik-ef dheugh da-vyth." " Ef re2- wriik yndella hep dowt; ow ancombrynsy res-eth cowal." TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. Thou art too clever for me. 2. She was your aunt. 3. Those ugly children are changelings. 4. We are not happy now. 5. They were not very wicked. 6. Are they sons of that man? No. 7. I was not as fat as you. 8. You were my heart's delight. 9. She is in the kitchen. 10. We were near that great rock. 11. Thou art seeing a miracle. 12. They are not here. 13. The owl is sitting on a beam in the barn. 14. The eggs were not on the shelf. 15. Three wrecks were on the reef. 16. The boat is not here. 17. Are we in the new room?

LESSON 15. THE PAST PARTICIPLE: FURTHER USES OF BOS THE PAST PARTICIPLE. This is normally formed by adding -ys to the stem (Lesson 2); thus gwelys, seen, clewys, heard. Verbs with inf. -ya have the past participle -ys or -yes, thus redys or redyes, read. Of the irregular verbs, giil has 29 gwres or gwrys (done, made), mos has gyllys (gone), dos has devedhys (come), and the others are given in C.S. 79—85.

THE FUTURE AND PAST TENSES OF BOS {C.S. 40; C.F.A. 19). Future Past . bydhaf biif bydhyth bes byth be bydhyn ben bydhough beugh bydhons bons The usual rules apply for personal and impersonal usage and particles, except that the perfect particle re- loses its mutation. Thus " he has been " is ef re-be, not ef re^ve. Impersonal Personal The men will be an2 diis a2-vyth The men will not be an2 diis ny^vyth They will be y a^-vyth y5-fydhons-y They will not be ny2-vydhons-y The farmer was an tyak a2-ve The farmer was not an tyak ny2-ve He was ef a2-ve y5-fe-ef He was not ny^ve-ef We were ny a^-ve y5-fen-ny

THE PASSIVE VOICE {C.S. 41). This is formed (as in Eng.) by using the appropriate tense of bos with the past participle. The short forms of the pres. and imperfect tenses of bos are used. Eng. " was " or " were " in the passive may denote either a condition or state of affairs (e.g. his skin was broken badly) or a completed act or event (e.g. his skin was broken by a stone). In Cor. the former is denoted by the imperfect tense (y2 groghen 6 squardhyes drok) and the latter by the past tense (y2 groghen a2-ve squardhyes gans men). The man is loved an den yu kerys I am seen my yu gwelys (or yth-of-vy) The men will be heard an2 dus a^-v^th clewys You will not be lost ny2-vydhough-why kellys They were not respected (state) nyns-ens-y gordhyes The bards were gathered together (state) an2 vyrth o cuntellys The bards were gathered together (act) an2 vyrth a2-ve cuntellys The cake was eaten (act) an2 desen a2-ve dybrys They were followed (act) y a2-ve (or y5-fons-y) sewyes

MANY. The word is translated either by miir a2 with a plural noun or lyes with a sing. noun. Many men, miir a2 diis or lyes den. 30 TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:— AN KYGER RE2 GONNEK Ky den an lagha a2-wrS menough ladra rannow kyk a stallys kygoryon y'n2 varghas. Worteweth kyger serrys eth dhe2 weles perghenek an ky-ma yn y offys lagha. " My a2-vyn agas cusiil," yn-meth-ef, " ky a-lader menough ow3 hyk; a2-allaf-vy daskemeres arghans a'y2 berghenek? " " Gyllough," yn-meth den an lagha; " an perghenek yu kelmys dre lagha rak prys an kyk." " Reugh dhym peswar sols, yth5, rak why yu an dEn-na, ha hen yu prys an kyk." Mes yn-meth dSn an lagha, " Reugh dhym deu sols hag Bth dynar, rag ow gober rak cusiil an lagha yu whSgh sols hag Eth dynar." Hag yndella an kyger rE2 gonnek a2-vS constrynys dhe2 bS. TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. Heard, loved, found, eaten, stolen, given. 2. We will be. 3. They were (past tense). 4. Thou wilt not be. 5. We are not yet seen. 6. These colts will be sold. 7. Many bold knights were overcome by him. 8. I was bound with ropes (state). 9. I was bound with ropes (act). 10. They were afflicted with many diseases. 11. I have been deceived by William.

LESSON 16. BOS WITH GANS AND DHE {C.S. 42—3). " To have " is most commonly translated by the 3rd sing, of the appropriate tense of bos with the prepositions gans and dhe2 (lesson 9). Thus " I have " is literally " there is with me " or " there is to me." Gans and dhe are slightly different in meaning, dhe denoting a connection closer and more permanent. Thus yma ky dhe Jowan and yma ky gans Jowan both mean John has a dog," but dhe implies that he owns or possesses one, gans merely that a dog, not necessarily his own, is with him. Dhe is used with inanimate objects said to have something, as in the last two examples below. For the pres. tense, " I have," etc., use the 3rd sing, of the long form of the pres. of bos, yma (neg. and inter, iis). For the past tense, " I had," etc., normally use the short form of the imperfect of bos, 6, but the long form, esa, if an expression of position is added. For the future tense, " I shall have," etc., use the 3rd sing, of the future of bos, byth. (App. He). His father has a cow yma bugh gans y2 (dh'y2) das I have the manuscript yma genef (dhym) an dornscryf They have many hens yma gansa (dhedha) miir a yer Have you the key? No. us genough (dheugh) an alwheth? nag-iis. My father had a tame fox yth-o gans ow3 (dh'ow3) this lowarn dof We had the Mayor's chain yth-o genen (dhyn) chayn an mer She had her trowel there yth-esa gensy (dhedhy) hy lo ena Had he a cat? Yes. 6 ganso (dhodho) cath? 5. I shall have enough money y5-fyth genef (dhym) arghans lowr The boat will have a new rudder y5-fyth dhe'n scath lew noweth Will the room have two doors? No. a2-v^th dhe'n rom deu2 dharras? na2-vyth. 31 Gans and dhe are also used with bos idiomatically with various adjectives and nouns to express feelings and emotions. Thus with da (good), drok (bad), gwell (better), pos (heavy), to express gladness, sorrow, preference and reluctance respectively, use gans with yu, 6 or 2vyth according to the tense (the last is mutated although preceded by no particle). This construction is often followed by an inf., to which a pronoun object becomes poss. I am glad to see you da yu genef agas gweles My mother will be sorry to go drok2 vyth gans ow mam mos We prefer to die gwell yu genen merwel She was reluctant to hear him pos 6 gensy y2 glewes With nouns such as seghes (thirst), nown (hunger), whans (desire), own (fear), ethom (need), marth (surprise), use dhe with yma (neg. and inter, iis), yth-o, or y5-fyth. An inf. following this construction is preceded by a2; so is a noun after whans or ethom. (App. II/). I am thirsty yma seghes dhym Are you hungry? No. us nown dheugh? nag-iis The man will desire to hear him y5-fyth dhe'n den whans a'y2 glewes We were afraid to stay there yth-6 dhyn own a2 wortos ena They need bread yma dhedha ethom a2 vara TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:— AN JYANT RE NERTHEK Yn termyn kens ystory, kenethel jyans hager ha dyslel a2-wre tryga war2 venydhyow Penwyth, ha'ga besyas whegh yn nyver war2 bup esel. Y5-whrens ladra sten ha mylas a2 diis2 dhyweres an pow, anedha menough ow-ladha miir, hag omdenna dh'aga dynasow carnak. Mes jyant Cam Galva, Holyburn y hanow, 5 len ha whek, hag ef a2-wytha tiis an pow rag omsettyansow y2 gesjyans. Un den yowynk a2-wre dos menough dhe2 wary " Coytys " gans an jyant-ma, ha wosa gwary da Holyburn a-n-tuchyas war y2 ben avel cumyas ciif, owth-ankevy nerth miir y2 genethel. Crogen y2 gar a2-ve brewys gans besyas an jyant, ha Holyburn a2-verwys y honen dre2 golon2 drogh gans y2 voreth miir. TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—She has a very fine horse. 2. The farmer has three acres and a cow. 3. They have not enough food. 4. They had bread and milk. 5.1 had no fresh water. 6. John will have better trousers tomorrow. 7. Have we a wheelbarrow? 8. I was sorry to sell my old dog. 9. My husband prefers to eat in inns. 10. You will be glad to hear us. 11. They are hungry, and my sister will be afraid to feed them. 12. He desired to see the book. 13. They are not surprised.

LESSON 17. INDIRECT STATEMENT {C.S. 48—50). This is introduced by such phrases as " he said (that)," " I am glad (that)," " We think (that)," etc. " To say," introducing indirect speech, is leverel {C.S. 80), whereas medhes is used with direct speech, i.e. when the speaker's actual words are quoted (Lesson 13). 32 AFFIRMATIVE. Where the pres. or imperfect tenses of the verb " to be " occur in aff. indirect statement with a pronoun subject, Cor. uses a poss. pronoun and the inf. bos. Where these tenses occur with a noun subject, the inf. bos precedes the subject. When other tenses of "to be," and all tenses of other verbs, occur in aff. indirect statement, the " Subject-dhe-inf." construction may be used. (App. 116). He says I am (said I was) too fat ef a-lever (leverys) ow bos re2 dew They are (were) sorry he is (was) ill drok yu (6) gansa y2 vos claf I think we are (thought we were) lost my a2-breder (brederys) agan bos kellys ^odht*/ooo&$< He knows you are (knew you were) Cornish ef a2-wor (wothya) agas b5s Kernewek He says (said) William is (was) there ef a-lever (leverys) bos Wella ena I am (was) glad your father is (was) better da yu (6) genef bos agas tas gwell She thinks you will be there hy a2-breder why dhe2 vos ena He says you wrote to him ef a-lever why dhe scryfa dhodho I know John killed the thief my a2-wor Jowan dhe ladha an lader He is glad that man loves his daughter da yu ganso an den-na dhe2 gara y2 vyrgh Carefully distinguish " I was glad to do it " (da 6 genef y2 wiil—lesson 16) from " I was glad (that) you did it " (da o genef why dh'y2 wiil—Indirect Statement).

NEGATIVE. The above rules do not apply to neg. indirect statement, which is always introduced by na2- (nag-) with a verb impersonal when the subject is a noun and personal when it is a pronoun. She says I am not a farmer hy a-lever nag-6f-vy tyak They said we were not in the garden y a-leverys nag-esen-ny y'n lowarth He says the children are not there ef a-lever nag-iis an fleghes ena We thought the men were not ready ny a2-brederys nag-o an2 diis parys I am sorry you will not be with us dr5k yu genef na2-vydhough- why genen He says you did not write to him ef a-lever na-scryfsough-why dhodho I think your father did not see the flock my a2-breder na2-welas agas tas an para I believe the farmers cannot plough their land my a2-grys na2-yl an2 dyogyon aras aga3 thyr 33 TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:— TREVETH RYAL Y'n2 vledhen myl eth cans whegh ha deugans, Myghternes Victoria a2- dheth dhe2 vyras Kernow. An lester ryal a2-dewlys ancar dhe Fowey, ha trygoryon an2 dre lei ha coth-na eth yn ruth dhe'n cay dhe wolcumma aga myghternes, ha'n menestrouthy 5 parys dhe whetha Can an2 Wlas. Mes an2 vyghternes 5 piir2 dhewedhes ha'n howl o pur2 dom; an2 vusycyens lei eth yn tavern, ow-casa aga dafar a2 vusyk yn gwyth flogh an tabour. Desempys an2 vyghternes a2-dheth; nyns-esa menestrouthy! An flogh a-sesyas y2 dabour ha gul oil dh'y2 alios, mes an2 vyghternes nyns-o dydhanys; hy eth dhe2-ves hep gortos an menestrouthy. Men-c5f a2-ve drehevys dhe2 gofhe an vysyta ryal, mes henath an tabouror yowynk a2-wra y2 dhysquedhes avel " men-cof agan syra-wyn! " TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. I do not think he is a parson. 2. I am glad that you are better. 3. The sailor said she was in the cave. 4. I hope my uncle is on the hill. 5. I was sorry that your horse was dead. 6. I heard that John broke four chairs. 7. We think that the man believes he is a king. 8. The mother shouted that he had swallowed a thermometer. 9. They said she ran like a greyhound. 10. I know they are not here. 11. He will be sorry that the women were not happy. 12. You said that he did not want to go at once.

LESSON 18. RELATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES RELATIVE SENTENCES {C.S. 44—5). The relative pronouns " who," " whom," " which," " that " (often omitted in Eng.) are expressed by the particles a2- (aff.), re2- (aff. perfect), and na2- (neg.). These may either stand alone or be strengthened by nep (who, whom, referring to persons only) or hag (who, whom, which, that, referring to persons or things, used with a2- only). Since a2- is always omitted before vowels in bos and mos, it follows that these can contain a relative pronoun that is not expressed. t)s, not yma, is used in relative sentences. The man who bought the house an den (nep) (hag) a2-hrenas an chy The man who has seen me an den (nep) re-m-gwelas The stone which was seen an men (hag) a2-ve gwelys The stone which was not seen an men na2-ve gwelys The man whom I see an den (nep) (hag) a2-welaf-vy The stone which they see an men (hag) a2-welons-y The man whom I have seen an den (nep) re2-welys-vy The man whom I do not see an den (nep) na2-welaf-vy The man who is a farmer an den (nep) yu tyak The stone which was on the cliff an men esa war an als The man who went an den (nep) eth The man who is there an den (nep) iis ena Such a sentence as an den (nep) (hag) a-ladhas ow3 thas can mean either " The man who killed my father or " The man whom my father 34 killed." If the context does not clarify the meaning, the second sense can be rendered an den (nep) (hag) a2-ve ledhys gans ow8 this. Eng. " whom " after a preposition is rendered by nep after a preposition; Eng. which " after a preposition by may6- (mayth- before vowels), which translates both preposition and relative, and immediately precedes the verb. Eng. " what " is rendered by an pyth before the relative particle. (App. II» and/.). I will speak to him whom I see my a2-gews dhe nep a2-welaf-vy A curse upon him who speaks mollath war nep a2-gews The hill to which he came an meneth may6-teth-ef The ship on which was her son an lester mayth-esa hy map This is what I heard hem yu an pyth a2-glewys I take what comes my a2-gemer an pyth a2-dhe INTERROGATIVES {C.S. 60; C.F.A. 12). These, which introduce questions, must he carefully distinguished from the relative pronouns discussed above, which in Eng. are sometimes similar. The most important are pyu? (who? whom?), pandra (pandr') or pyth? (what? with verb), pana? (what? i.e. what kind of? with noun), py? (what? which? with noun), prag? (why?—particles y6- and na2-), pie6? (where?— pleth before vowels), p'iir6? (when?). Who is there? pyu iis ena? Who knows? pyu a2-wor? Whom do you see? pyu a2-welough-why? What is that? pandr'yu henna? pyth yu henna? What do you want? pandr'a2-vynnough-why? What (kind of) work can you do? pana whel a2-yllough-why gul? What wages will you give? py pegans a2-vynnough-why ry? Why did he come? Prag y6-t€th-ef ? Where is John? pleth us Jowan? When do you want to go? p'iir6 fynnough-why mos? TO BECOME. This is expressed by mds ha hos or dos ha bos; only the mos or dos is conjugated, the bos remaining inf. he became fat ef eth (or a2-dheth) ha bos tew TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:— DROKLAM PENRYN Map iinyk deudhen* boghosek Penryn eth yn-mes a2 Gernow, ow4- quaytya mos ha bos rych yn tyryow tramor. Y6-tSth-ef trg wosa miir a2 vledhynnow, ha ganso sagh lvin a2 vona. Yth-5th kens oil dhe2 jj? y wh6r demedhys, ha leverel y2 vos hy broder kellys. Hy a2-dhowtyas kens y2 eryow, mes ef a2-dhysciidhas dhedhy cryth coth war y2 ver, hag y-lowensons warbarth. Wosa ena ef 6th dhe2 jy y2 d5s ha'y2 vam, mes ef a-whylas rom ena hep leverel y2 vos aga map, ha ny-n-aswonsons. Y2 das a-leverys dh'y2 vam bos ganso sagh liin a2 vona, ha'y ladha dhe ry dhedha arghans lowr rag oil aga dedhyow. Hag y a2-wriik ladha aga map ow-cusca y'n nos-na. Myttyn, aga myrgh a2-dhEth dhe2 weles arta hy broder; an2 voldroryon a2-gonvedhas bos an d6n ledhys aga map, hag yth-omlathsons aga honen. * deudhen, couple, pair (of people) 35 TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. I know a man who has lost his dog. 2. Mend the chair which I have broken. 3. You have told a story which is not true. 4. I can hear the voice of the man whom you love. 5. My wife prefers the hat which was not bought. 6. We await our king who will surely come again. 7.1 did not eat the cake which was very stale. 8. Give it to them who are hungry. 9. I do not like what you say. 10. The house in which he dwells. 11. That is the woman whom John followed. 12. Whom do I hear? 13. Who has done this evil? 14. What do you think? 15. Which man is bolder? 16. Why did she not go? 17. Where did you see the man? 18. When will she be ready?

LESSON 19. CONJUNCTIONS {C.S. 51; C.F.A. 28). There are two types of conjunction in Cor., those which take the inf. and those which are followed directly by an ordinary verb. Rak, awos, drefen (because), kens (before), wosa (after) are followed by the inf. When they occur in the aff. with any tense of " to be " and a pronoun subject, the inf. b6s is preceded by a poss. pronoun; when with any tense of " to be " and a noun subject, the inf. bos precedes that subject; when with other verbs, the " subject-dhe-inf." construction is used. The only neg. commonly used is rak na2- (because . . . not) with a verb personal or impersonal according as the subject is a pronoun or a noun. (Compare the similar but not identical rules for Indirect Statement in Lesson 17). Because I am (was etc.) old awos ow bos coth Because he is (was etc.) a thief awos y2 vos lader Before they are (were etc.) there kens aga bos ena Because John is (was etc.) foolish awos bos Jowan fol Because my father is (was etc.) a sailor awos bos ow3 thas marner After your son was killed wosa bos ledhys agas map After he died wosa ef dhe2 verwel Because I saw him rak my dh'y2 weles Before Peter spoke kens Peder dhe2 gewsel Because they were not there rak nag-esens-y ena Because the men did not come rak na2-dheth an2 diis Pan2 (when), del2 (as, in the manner which), kettel2 (as soon as), fatel2 (how), erna2 (until), mar* (if), may5 (so that) and kyn8 (although) are, when aff., followed directly by the verb without any intervening particle. With a pronoun subject the verb is personal; with a noun it is impersonal, and the noun can either precede the conjunction or follow the verb. Thus " When the doctor came " is either pan2 dheth an medhek or an medhek pan2 dheth, but not pan an medhek a2-dheth. May6 and kyn6 become mayth and kynth before all vowels; erna2 and mar* become ernag and mars before vowels in bos and mos only. The negatives used are pan na2-, kyn na2-, ma na2- (negative of may5), and mar ny2-. (App. 116). 36 When the men came pan2 dheth an2 diis or an2 diis pan2 dheth As you advise del2 gusiilyough-why 2 As soon as he saw the danger kettel welas-ef an peryl fatel2 yllyn-ny y sawya? How can we save him? 2 Until they went there erna wriissons-y mos ena kynth yu ow3 this Although he is my father 5 So that he came often may teth-ef menough mar myn Dew or Dew mar myn If God wills 2 When John did not come pan na -dheth Jowan or Jowan pan na2-dheth 2 Though he was not very wicked kyn nag-d piir dhrok 2 So that he did not come ma na -dheth 2 If I do not see your sister mar ny -welaf agas whor " When," " as " or " while " something was happening, as distinct from " when " something did happen, is often translated by ha with the present participle. When I was going to St. Ives ha my ow-mos dhe2 Borthya As the sun was rising ha'n howl owMrehevel

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:— AN DYSCAJOR RE SKYANSEK Tiis piir skentyl Resoghen, herwyth an lavar coth, a2-w6r oil hag a2-yl bos gothvedhys. Miir yn5-whyr yu aga skyans a-dro dhe2 daclow cales ha tewl, mes yth-ens-y piir2 woky menough a-dro dhe2 daclow sempel an bys-ma. Y a2-dhysk moy ha moy a-dro dhe 16 ha 16, ha gothvos worteweth puptra a-dro dhe2 dravyth! Dyscajor r€son a2-gerthy y'n stret, ow-kewsel dh'y honen, pan2 dheth dhodho y2 dhyskybel. " Syr," yn-meth-ef piir2 gortes, " agas eskyjyow yu dybarow; anedha an yl yu du, y gyla yu gell." " My a-n-gor," yn-meth an doth; " my re2-brederys yn5-town, ha miir yu ow fyenasow. Dr6s henna, yma yn-dan ow gwely copel aral eskyjyow piir hevelep, anedha an yl gell, y gyla du! "

TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. They were seen because they were white. 2. I came before your father was ill. 3. The boy fled after the bear ate the honey. 4. He followed before he heard me. 5. They took it because they do not like me. 6. Because the soldiers were not brave enough. 7. When I saw the butter on the table. 8. Hide the money when the thieves come. 9. Until they came to Penzance. 1Q, Although William likes my sister, he ran as soon as he heard her voice. JLl. If he is happy, I am glad. 12. As I was sleeping peacefully, a dog barked. 13. How do you want to do it? 14. The story is true, as William says. 15. The ice was slippery, so that he fell. 16. While the children were playing. 17. Although he did not see me. 37 LESSON 20. THE PLUPERFECT TENSE: VERBS AND PREPOSITIONS: SOME AND ANY THE PLUPERFECT TENSE {C.S. 53). Gweles Gul Gallos Mynnes Bos Dos gwelsen gwrussen galsen mynsen byen dothyen gwelses gwriisses galses mynses byes dothyes gwelsa gwriissa galsa mynsa bya dothya gwelsen gwrussen galsen mynsen byen dothyen gwelseugh gwriisseugh galseugh mynseugh byeugh dothyeugh gwelsens gwriissens galsens mynsens byens dothyens This tense translates Eng. " had." The usual rules apply for personal and impersonal usage and the aux. verbs, and for particles except that the aff. particles a2- and y5- may be replaced by re2-, which does not mutate bos. The pluperfect of mos is irregular in formation and use. (See App. II/). Impersonal Personal The man had seen me an den re-m-gwelsa an den a-m-gwelsa an den re2-wriissa ow gweles an den a2-wrussa ow gweles They had been y re-bya re-byens-y y a2-vya y5-fyens-y They had not come ny2-dhothyens-y ny2-wrussens-y dos I had heard my re2-glewsa re ^glewsen-vy my a2-glewsa y-clewsen-vy my re2-wriissa clewes re2-wriissen-vy clewes s my a2-wriissa clewes y -whriissen-vy clewes VERBS AND PREPOSITIONS {C.S. 66). In such sentences as " I gave a cake to John," the indirect object (John) is preceded by dhe, corresponding to Eng. " to." Eng. idiom sometimes omits the preposition (" I gave John a cake ") but it is never omitted in Cor. Verbs taking an indirect object include ry (to give), dysquedhes (to show), dysky (to teach), leverel (to say or tell) and danvon (to send). Certain verbs take dhe2 before what is in Eng. a direct object, e.g. plekya (to please), grassa (to thank), amma (to kiss), gava (to forgive), entra (to enter), drehedhes (to reach), and erghy, gorhemmyn and ordena (to order or command, followed by inf.). Verbs which take dhe2 before either a direct or an indirect object must retain it when the sentence is made passive; thus for the last two examples below, it would be wrong to say " Y2 vam a2-ve ymmys," or " My a2-ve leverys whethel." (App. Ilm). He told (to) John a story ef a-leverys dhe Jowan whethel I will teach (to) you wisdom my a2-dhysk dhys skyans He showed them (to) him ef a-s-dysquedhas dhodho 38 He kissed his mother ef a-ammas dh'y2 vam I want to forgive him my a2-vyn dhodho gava He ordered me to go ef a-erghys dhym mos He will be forgiven by me dhodho y6-fyth gyvys genef You will be taught wisdom dhys skyans a2-vpth dyskys His mother was kissed by him dh'y2 vam y5-fe ymmys ganso I was told a story by him dhym whethel a2-ve leverys ganso SOME AND ANY {C.S. 75, 78). " Some " or " any " is normally nep before a sing, noun, nebes before a pi. noun. In aff. sentences " something " or " anything " is neppyth or neptra, " somebody," " someone," " anybody," or anyone " is nebonen or nep den; in neg. sentences " anything " is travyth and " anybody " or " anyone " is denvyth. " Nothing," and " nobody " or " no-one," are translated by travyth and denvyth with a negative verb. Have you any (some) bread? iis genough (nep) bara? Some words about Cornish nebes geryow a-dro dhe2 Gernewek I can see something my a2-yl gweles neptra I want to kill someone my a2-vyn ladha nebonen ! tzzsEf I *****

Nothing can be done travyth ny^-yl bos gwrys No one is here nyns-iis denvyth omma

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:— AN SCUBER-CHYMBLYS DYAWLAK Un sciiber-chymblys squyth a2-wriik entra dhe2 japel ha cusca y'n2 wogell. Servys a2-dhallathas mes an sciiber a2-besyas cusca. Worteweth nep gordhyer a2-bysas yndelma, ughel y lef; "Arluth, yth-6n-ny dha2 Gernowyon harth; mar4 tS dhyn an jawl y honen y'n iir-ma, ny a2-vyn y2 vrewy, ha'gan gwrageth a2-vyn y2 worra yn pasty! " An geryow-ma a2-wriik dyfiina an sciiber, nep a2-dhrehevys y fas du dr6s myn an2 wogell; dystough oil an2 Gernowyon harth a-fyas dyworth an chapel, ow-carma "An Jawl! An Jawl!" An sciiber a-s- sewyas, hag yn-scon ys-whriik-ef cachya an keth den-na nep re-2wriissa y2 dhyfiina gans y2 bysadow harth; yn-meth an dSn, " Na-m-ladheugh, a2 vaster dyawl; ny2-dh6f-vy menough dhe'n chapel-ma." TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. The Spaniards had burned the mill. 2. The fox had been hunted by many hounds. 3. When we had come there. 4. You had not seen us. 5. Tell them the truth. 6. They gave him a costly gift. 7. The mayor had sent the vicar a letter. 8. We reached Truro and entered the Museum. 9. Did he thank her? No, but she forgave him. 10. Order some soldiers to come here. 11. God will be thanked by the congregation. 12. Someone is coming, but we do not want to see anyone. 13. Nobody loves me, and nothing can help me. 14. She has gone to some distant place. 39 LESSON 21. THE SUBJUNCTIVE {C.S. 56). The tenses so far considered (pres.-future, past, imperfect, pluperfect) have all been indicative. Cor. also has two subjunctive tenses, pres. and imperfect, which commonly translate Eng. " may " and " might" respectively. Gweles Gill Bos Mos gwyllyf gwryllyf byf yllyf gwylly gwrylly by y«y Pres. gwello gwrello bo eUo Sub. gwyllyn gwryllyn ben yllyn gwellough gwrellough beugh yllough gwellons gwrellons bons ellons

Dos Mynnes Gallos dyffyf mynnyf gyllyf dyffy mynny gyUy Pres. deffo mynno gallo Sub. dyffyn mynnyn gyllyn dyfibugh mynnough gallough deffons mynnons gallons

Gweles Gil Bos Mos gwellen gwrellen ben ellen gwelles gwrelles bes elles Imp. gwella gwrella be ella Sub. gwellen gwrellen ben ellen gwelleugh gwrelleugh beugh elleugh gwellens gwrellens bens ellens

Dos Mynnes Gallos deffen mynnen gallen defies mynnes galles Imp. defia mynna galla Sub. deffen mynnen gallen deffeugh mynneugh galleugh deffens mynnens gallens CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. These are introduced in Eng. by " if," and can often be translated by mar4 (s) with the indicative (lesson 19); e.g. mars ough Jowan (if you are John), mars eth corf (if a body has gone), mar4 te omma (if he comes here). But if the supposition of the " if" clause is impossible or most improbable, its verb goes in the imperfect subjunctive and it is introduced either by mar '(s) or by a4; the verb of the main sentence then goes into the conditional tense (Eng. "would"), which in Cor. is the same as the pluperfect (lesson 20), 40 except that the particle re2- is not used with the conditional. Thus ny a^welsa could mean either " we had seen " or " we would see," ny re-^elsa " we had seen " only. If the devil himself were mar4 (or a4) teffa an jawl y honen, to come, we would kill him y5-whriissen y ladha I would come if I could y6-tothyen mar4 (or a4) callen If this man were not false, mar (or a) ny^ve fals an den-ma, he would see you ef a-gas-gwelsa

THE OPTATIVE. An exclamatory wish or desire is indicated by re2- with the pres. subjunctive. May it be so yndella re-bo May John see the truth Jowan re2-wello an gwyryoneth May they never come byner re2-dheffons-y PURPOSE. May6(th) (so that) is used with the indicative to express result (lesson 19) and with the subjunctive to indicate purpose or intent. " So that. . . not," or " lest" indicating purpose, is ma na2- with the subjunctive. The ice was slippery so that he fell (result) an rew 6 slynk may5 whriik-ef codha I made a trap so that he might my a2-wriik maglen may5 whrella-ef fall (purpose) codha They came so that they might see y5-tethons may5 whellens Go, so that you may be safe keugh, may5 feugh-why salow They hid so that he might not (lest he might) see them yth-omgelsons ma na-s-gwella

TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH:— MOLLATH AN JAWL Y'n2 vledhen myl pymp cans deudhek ha peswar-ugans, ha pyscadoryon Mosal ow-pariisy aga rosow rak dos an hern, an jawl y honen a2- vynnas pyskessa, hag a2-dhiik ganso troha Tredavo kemmys rosow del2 allas-ef cafos. Ha dysquedhys an ladrans-ma, an Jawl a2-ve helghyes gans lyes pyscador, 5 ysyly cur eglos Sen Pol, nep a2-ganas mar2 bell hag ughel Credo an Abesteleth, Pader agan Arluth, ha rannow erel an ordenal, may whylas an jawl dyank anedha dre lamma dr5s an nans, 1§ mayth iis lemmyn eglos Sen Peder yn Newlyn. Ef a2-dhyeskynnas war2 garn, omdhysevel, ha gasa dhe2 godha an rosow. An2 byscadoryon a2-gana dywysyk whath war2 veneth a-driis, ha'n jawl, drehevys y2 gorf dh'y ughelder bras, ha fell y lef, a2-gryas tergwyth, "Bucka! Buckal BUCKA!," ow-trenyjagansy eskelly, ha dyllo mok loskvenek m6s a'y2 anow. Styr an geryow-ma 6, Destnys ough-why dhe2 vos dystrewys drg nerth estrenyon," ha gwyr 6 an profiisans iithek-na, awos an Spanyers dhe2 dyra, tyr bledhen wosa henna, ha lesky Mosal, eglos Sen Pol, Newlyn ha Pensans. Hag 61 tros an jawl, ha rybtho an rosow hag y yn meyn trelyes, a2-yl bos gwelys bys y'n j€th hedhyu, war2 garrygy Tolcarn ogas dhe Newlyn. 41 TRANSLATE INTO CORNISH:—1. If that story is true, William is a liar. 2. If that story were true, William would be a liar. 3. If I were to go, you would be sorry. 4. If the men were to give him a cake, he would forget his illness. 5. If they were to see your cow, they would kill it at once. 6. May you be able to come. 7. May they be happy. 8. May our father never hear your wicked words. 9. John is coming so that he may be heard. 10. My aunt went to Land's End so that she might see the Scilly Isles. 11. He was tired, so that he could not climb the cliff. 12. I threw stones so that he could not (lest he should be able to) climb the cliff.

APPENDIX II. This Appendix contains a further selection of topics that were omitted from the lessons for reasons of clarity. a) "AS" and " THAN " WITH VERBS {C.S. 58). For use of these words with nouns and pronouns, see lesson 13; with a verb " as " is del2 and " than " is es del2, which are followed immediately by the verb (lesson 19). As big as you think mar2 vras del2 brederough Bigger than you think brassa es del2 brederough b) THE HABITUAL IMPERFECT OF BOS {C.S. 40; C.F.A. 19). As well as the long and short forms of this tense (lesson 14), there is a third form, which translates Eng. " used to be." Bedhen, -es, -a, -en, -eugh, -ens. We used to be there y5-fedhen-ny ena c) YU, YMA, US, USY (Lesson 14). The functions of these and other parts of bos are discussed at length with great erudition in the fourth supplement to C.S. Yu can be used in aff., neg., inter, and relative sentences. Yma is aff. only, and cannot be used in neg., inter, or relative sentences, iis being normally used instead. Us and iisy are used only with the same complements as yma, and neither can be used with a complement requiring yu. In neg. sentences lis is normally used with an indefinite subject, usy with a definite subject. No one is here nyns-iis denvyth omma John is not here nyns-iisy Jowan omma d) " THERE IS," " THERE WAS," ETC. {C.S. 38). These are translated by the long forms (lesson 14) of the pres. and imperfect tenses of bos. There is a dog in the garden yma ky y'n lowarth Is there anyone here? us nebonen omma? There was a large stone yth-esa men miir e) TO HAVE. There are three ways of expressing this:— i) By bos with gans and dhe2 (lesson 16). ii) By the verb pewy, to possess (not to be confused with bewa, to live). He has a dog ef a2-bew ky iii) By the verb a-m-bus {C.S. 55, 85; C.F.A. 20). This is not used impersonally, in the sense that when it is preceded by a noun or pronoun subject the verb takes the number and person of that subject. 42 I have a house my a-m-bus chy or y-m-bus chy The farmers had a plough an2 dyogyon a-s-teva ardar John will not have a key Jowan ny-n-jevyth alwheth We have not (got) your money ny-gan-biis agas arghans

/) NECESSITY. This is denoted by res with dhe2 and yu, 5 and 2vyth (compare lesson 16). I must go res yu dhym mos He will have to come res 2vyth dhodho dos g) OBJECT OR COMPLEMENT BEFORE VERB {C.S. 30, 36; C.F.A. 16). When a verb is used personally in the aff., the object may precede it, and the particle a2- is then used instead of y-5. Similarly, the complement may precede the short forms of the pres. or imperfect tense of bos so used, and no particle is then inserted. These alternatives are commonly used in conversation, and tend to emphasise the object or complement so placed. I see a dog ky a2-welaf (y5-whelaf ky) We heard the sea an mor a2-glewsyn (y-clewsyn an mor) I am a farmer tyak of (yth-oftyak) They were right ewn ens-y (yth-ens-y ewn) h) INDIRECT STATEMENT {C.S. 50). In aff. indirect statement not with the pres. or imperfect tenses of bos one may use (instead of the " subject —dhe—inf." construction used in lesson 17) the particle y5- with a verb impersonal when the subject is a noun and personal when it is a pronoun; thus, to take the examples from lesson 17:— She thinks you will be there hy a2-breder y5- fydhough-why ena He says you wrote to him ef a-lever y-scryfsough-why dhodho I know John killed the thief my a2-wor y-ladhas Jowan an lader He is glad that man loves his daughter da yu ganso y-car an den-na y2 vyrgh i) " WHOSE " {C.S. 45). The translation of this word may involve rather clumsy circumlocutions. The man whose house we saw an den (nep) (hag) a2-welsyn ya jy (lit. " whom we saw his house "). The woman whose daughter was sent an2 venen (nep) (hag) a^ve dan- venys hy myrgh (" who was sent her daughter ") The man whose dog killed the thief an den (nep) (hag) a2-ve ledhys an lader gans y2 gy (" who was killed the thief by his dog ") An old man whose wisdom is great den coth miir y skyans (" great his wisdom ") j) WHERE. The relative " where," referring to a place already mentioned, is le may8 (literally " place in which "). Penzance, where he lived Pensans, le may trygas The town where I saw John an2 dre le may8 whelys Jowan 43 k) CONJUNCTIONS {C.S. 51). Those conjunctions which must normally immediately precede the verb (lesson 19) may be separated therefrom by an infixed pronoun (lesson 5), and in the aff. (but not with mar or may) the particle y5- is then used. May is ma before infixed -n-. When I saw him pan y-n-gwelys If I see him mar-n-gwelaf If I do not see him mar ny-n-gwelaf As soon as we heard them kettel y-s-clewsyn So that I saw him ma-n-gwelys So that I did not see him ma na-n-gwelys /) IRREGULAR TENSES OF MOS AND DOS {C.S. 32; C.F.A. 24). These verbs each have a special form of the perfect tense, used in the aff. only, unmutated and without particle, and standing first in the sentence, as an alternative to re2- with the past tense. The pluperfect of mos is used in the same way, although that tense of dos is perfectly normal (lesson 20). The perfect and pluperfect of mos must not be confused with gallos. mos perfect: Galsof, -os, gallas, galson, -ough, -ons. mos pluperfect: Gylsen, -es, galsa, gylsen, -eugh, -ens. dos perfect: Dufef, -es, -a, -en, -eugh, -ons. I have gone galsof (my res-eth, res-yth-vy) The farmer has come diifa an tyak (an tyak re2-dheth) My friend had gone galsa ow3 har My friend had been able ow3 har re2-alsa m) VERBS AND PREPOSITIONS (Lesson 20; C.S. 66) Crysy, to believe, is followed by dhe2 when the object is a person, not when it is a thing. Certain verbs are followed by orth, e.g. myras orth, to look at; goslowes orth, to listen to; kewsel orth, to speak to; serry orth, to be angry with. Note also lenwel a2, to fill with; ciidha rak, to hide from. No preposition follows whylas, to look for, seek, or gortos, to wait for, await. I believe him my a2-grys dhodho I believe it my a2-wra y2 grysy Look at him myreugh orto He filled the cup with water ef a-lenwys an hanaf a2 dhowr He waited for the noise ef a2- wriik gortos an tros n) ONLY. This is usually expressed by a neg. verb with saw, except. I only saw him once ny-n-gwelys saw iinwyth He only wanted bread ny2-vynnas saw bara o) PERSONAL AND IMPERSONAL USAGE. The fundamental rule for this, allowing an option in certain cases, is stated in lesson 7, but this option is sometimes lost and the rule varied so that the personal form is always used when the subject is a pronoun. (1) In questions (lesson 12). (2) With the long forms of the pres. and imperfect of bos (lesson 14). (3) After those conjunctions that immediately precede the verb (lesson 19). (4) In indirect statement (App. 116). 44 p) PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. Cor. has many prefixes and suffixes which may be added to words to vary or extend their meaning. Of prefixes the reflexive om2- has been considered (App. I m); note also repetitive daa- (e.g. dasleverel, to repeat, daskemeres, to regain or re-take, dasscryfa, 2 to copy or re-write); the negatives dy - and dys- (dybarow, unlike, dyben, endless or headless, dyscrysy, to disbelieve, dyscudha, to disclose, dyswul, to destroy or undo); kes- indicating 'together' (keskewsel, to converse or talk together, kesvewa, to cohabit or live together); and rag- or rak- indicating 'before' (ragleverys, aforesaid, ragweles, to foresee). Of suffixes the fem. and pi. endings -es, -ow, -yon etc. have been considered; note especially the adjectival -ak or -ek (gwynsak, windy, lysek, muddy, stenak, tin-bearing). q) WORDS OF SIMILAR SPELLING. In Cor., as in other languages, words of similar or identical spelling may have totally different meanings. Thus bos can mean either 'to be,'' food,' or (with short vowel)' a dwelling '; mos can mean either ' to go ' or ' a table '; gwrek can mean either ' a wife ' or (with short vowel) ' a wreck'; a can be a verbal particle, a preposition meaning ' of' or ' from,' an interjection meaning ' O,' a conjunction meaning ' if,' or (with long vowel) part of the present tense of mos. Numerous other examples can be found in the dictionary, but these should not cause undue difficulty to users of a language in which ' primate ' can denote either an ape or an archbishop 1

SUMMARY OF MUTATIONS: SECOND STATE. 1. All fem. sing, nouns, and masc. pi. nouns denoting persons, after an2 (Lesson 1 and App. 16). 2. Adjs. after all fem. sing, nouns, and masc. pi. nouns denoting persons (Lesson 1 and App. Ic). 3. Verbs after the particle a2- (Lessons 2, 3 and 12, App. 11^). 4. Verbs after the particle ny2- (Lesson 2, 7 and 12). 2 2 5. Adjs. after piir and re (Lesson 2). 2 2 6. Nouns after the poss. pronouns dha and y (Lesson 4). 7. Verbs (other than bos) after the particle re2- (Lessons 5, 7, 15 and 20). 2 2 2 2 8. Nouns after the prepositions a , war , dhe and dre (Lesson 9). 9. Infs. after the particle yn-iin*- (Lesson 10). 2 2 2 10. Nouns after the numerals tin (fem. nouns only), deu (and dyw ), and 2 2 myl , also deu and dyw themselves after an (Lesson 11). 11. Verbs after the particle na2- (Lesson 12, 17). 2 12. Adjs. after mar (Lesson 13). 13. Verbs made reflexive by om2 (App. Im). 2 2 2 2 2 14. Verbs after pan , del , kettel , fatel , erna (Lesson 19). THIRD STATE. 3 3 3 1. Nouns after the poss. pronouns ow , hy and aga (Lesson 4 and App. If). 3 3 2. Nouns after the numeral try (and tyr ) (Lesson 11). 45 FOURTH STATE. 1. Infs. after the particle ow4- (Lesson 10). 2. Verbs after mar4 and a4 (Lessons 19 and 21).

FIFTH STATE. 1. Nouns after ha'th5, a'th5, dhe'th5 and y'th8 (Lessons 4 and 9); also verbs after infixed -th5- (Lesson 5). 2. Verbs after the particle y5- (Lesson 7 and App. 116). 3. Adverbs after yn5- (Lesson 10). 4. Adjs. after maga8 (Lesson 13). 5. Verbs after may8 (Lessons 18, 19 and 21), pie5 and p'iir5 (Lesson 18), and kyn8 (Lesson 19).

SUMMARY OF PARTICLES A2- (omitted before vowels in b5s and mos). 1. Aff. with impersonal verbs (lessons 2 and 3). The farmers see an2 dyogyon a2-wel I see my a2-wel 2. In questions (lessons 12). Do the farmers see? a^wel an2 dyogyon? Do I see? a^welaf-vy? 3. In relative sentences (lesson 18). The man who sees an den (nep) a2-wel The man whom I see

KEY TO EXERCISES LESSON 1. 1. A long book. 2. The new mill. 3. The foolish kings. 4. A black rock. 5. The true friends. 6. The good sisters. 1. DSn ha benen. 2. An d5n ha'n2 venen. 3. An2 vreder. 4. An meny- dhyow. 5. An2 vam ha'n tas. 6. Carrygy hag ydhyn. 7. An2 balores. 8. An paloresow. 9. An2 vyrgh ha'n2 wesyon. 10. An dowr gwyn. 11. Ciin harth. 12. An2 venen2 dha. 13. An2 wer2 dhrok. 14. Whor2 dew c6th. 15. An myghtern skentyl ha'n2 vyghternes fol. 16. Plu2 vyghan tSk. 17. An2 dyogyon2 Gernewek. 18. Breder2 danow. LESSON 2. 1. The king killed the old servants. 2. Foolish men do not like Cornwall. 3. The women read books. 4. The clergyman eats a little fish. 5. The foolish farmers ate a horse. 6. The mother took the wet stone. 1. An d6n ny2-welas an eglos (ny2-wriik gweles). 2. An2 venen a2-werthas chy (a2-wriik gwertha). 3. An myghtern a2-gar laghys pur skentyl (a2-wra cara). 4. An gwas a-scryf lyver ber (a2-wra scryfa). 5. An benenes yowynk ny-evas dowr (ny2-wriik eva). 6. An tyak ny2-glew an mor (ny2- wra clewes). 7. An tas ha'n2 vam a2-brenas pysk (a2-wriik prena). 8. An2 gerens2 Gernewek a-red (a2-wra redya). 9. An barth a2-wriik kelly ky ha cafos cath. 10. Pur2 dha; piir2 dgk; piir2 wyr; r62 danow; r6 liin. 47 LESSON 3. 1. They go. 2. The story is not true. 3. We came. 4. The work is very difficult. 5. You were too old. 1. Why a2-welas an carrygy ha'n mor (a2-wriik gweles). 2. Hy a2-gar Jowan (a2-wra cara). 3. Y a2-werthas mergh coth (a2-wriik gwertha). 4. Ny a2-gafas an forth (a2-wriik cafos). 5. Ef a2-dhysk an tavas (a2-wra dysky). 6. Ty a2-dhe (a2-wra dos). 7. An2 vreder2 dha a2-dheth (a2-wriik dos). 8. An mor nyns-6 piir2 wyn. 9. My yu re2 dew. 10. An whor nyns-a (ny2-wra mos). 11. Ef eth (a2-wriik mos). 12. An2 wrek ny2-dhe (ny2-wra dos).

LESSON 4. 1. The cliffs of Cornwall are very high. 2. My daughter's husband; thy nation's king; our good servants. 3. My dog drinks the water of the river. 4. His daughter, mother and wife are very thin women. 5. The language of the Bards is the language of Cornwall. 1. Benenes an2 velyn. 2. Whelyow coth an2 blu. 3. Dowrow an mor. 4. Byrth Kernow. 5. Map gwas. 6. Ow3 hath; dha2 davas; y2 vam; hy3 hiin; agan chy; agas pen; aga3 thavas. 7. Chy ow mam. 8. Ef a-ladhas y2 vyghtern ha'y2 vyghternes (a2-wriik ladha). 9. Dha2 vam a2-dhe (a2-wra dos); broder tas Jowan ny2-dhe (ny2-wra dos). 10. My a2-gar carrygy an menydhyow ughel (a2-wra cara). 11. Agan bughas ha'gan mergh nyns-yu du. 12. Aga3 forth; porth an2 dre2 vyghan.

LESSON 5. 1. My son does not sleep; bold men have taken his bed. 2. The dog ate it. 3. You have found us. 4. He loves her; shefis a woman of his parish. 5. Our horses did not drink it (have not drunk it). 1. Ow mam2 voghosek a-n-gwerth (a2-wra y2 wertha). 2. Agan car rych re-s-prenas (re-^riik hy3 frena). 3. An el ny-s-sewyas (ny2- wriik aga sewya). 4. My a-gas-car, ha why a-m-car, ha Dew a-gan-car (a2-wra agas cara, ow3 hara, agan cara). 5. An den claf ny-th-clewas (ny2-wriik dha2 glewes). 6. An howl res-eth, an n5s re2-dheth, ha'n lor yu piir2 viir (re2-wriik mos, dos). 7. An estren cref re2-wriik lesky ow chy ha ladha hoghas ha deves ow3 thas coth. 8. Myghtern Arthur nyns-yu marow. 9. Bos coynt re-n-ladhas (re2-wriik y ladha). 10. Jowan re-scryfas an lyther; an den ny-n-redyas (re2-wriik scryfa, ny2-wriik y redya). LESSON 6. 1. My own father has burned these good houses. 2. This is a bold thief, and these are foreigners. 3. Those angels-are God's servants. 4. That is my sister herself. 5. That is my own sister. 1. An eglos-ma nyns-yu coth. 2. An chy c5th-na yu pur2 dek. 3. An ladron-ma yu re2 gref. 4. Ef re2-welas y2 veth y honen (re2-wriik gweles). 5. Jowan y honen ny2-gar an den yagh-na (ny2- wra cara). 6. Hy 6th ena hy honen (a2-wriik m5s). 7. Hen 6 ewn ha'n re-na 5 cam. 8. Ef re2-werthas an deves gwyn-ma; y2 das y honen re2-brenas homma (re2-wriik gwertha, prena). 9. Ny a2-dhysk agan tavas agan honen; hem yu tra piir2 dha (a2-wra dysky). 10. An d5n lowen-na yu an myghtern y honen, ha'n re-na yu y2 vebyon. 48 LESSON 7. Y5-whelaf, whelyth, whel, Ny2-welyn, welough, welons. Y8-whraf, whreth, whra, Ny2-wren, wreugh, wrons. Yth-af, eth, a, Nyns-en, eugh, ons. Y5-tof, tilth, tg, Ny2-dhun, dheugh, dhons. Y5-whelys, whelsys, whelas, Ny2-welsyn, welsough, welsons. Y5-whriik, whriissys, whriik, Ny2-wriissyn, wriissough, wriissons. Yth-yth, ythys, 6th, Nyns-ethen, etheugh, ethons. Y8-tuth, tiithys, t6th, Ny2-dhiithen, dhutheugh, dhethons. 1. Y-carons t^r Kemow (y5-whrons cara, y a2-gar, y a2-wra cara). 2. Ny- m-caras (ny2-wriik ows hara). 3. Y-redyough ow lyther ha'ga lyfrow (y8-whreugh r6dya, why a-r6d, why a2-wra r6dya). 4. Y5-tyskyth (y5-wr6th dysky, ty a2-dhysk, ty a2-wra dysky). 5. Y-prensons taclow coynt (y5- whriissons prena, y a2-brenas, y a2-wriik prena). 6. Ny2-wriissons don an m6n ha'y2 worri ena. 7. An ladron ny-n-r6dyas (ny2-wriik y redya). 8. Y5-tiin omma agan honen (y5-whren dos, ny a2-dh6, ny a2-wra dos). 9. Re2-dhiithen omma (re2-wriissyn d6s, ny re2-dh6th, ny re2-wriik d6s). LESSON 8. 1. Our enemies wanted to conquer us, but could not do so. 2. She wants to welcome my aunt. 3. I shall send the witch; she can cure your sick cow. 4. You could burn their boat. 5. Thy friend will give a reward. 1. Ny a2-vyn gwertha agan chy (y5-fynnyn-ny). 2. Ows har ny2-yl gortos; ef a2-vyn mSs (y5-fyn-ef). 3. An soudoryon a2-vynnas agan gweles. 4. Ny2- allaf-vy dybry an2 desen2 g5th-na. 5. Y5-halsons-y gweles heyjy an t^ak (y a2-allas). 6. Ow map yu dyek; ny2-vyn-ef dysky y ober. 7. Ow lyther a2-wra mos lemmyn. 8. My a2lwra clewes an tros-na (y5-whraf-vy). 9. An d6n a2-wra biidhy; ny2-yllyn-ny y2 weres. 10. Y5-hyllough-why ygery an darras (why a2-yl). LESSON 9. 1. To Land's End. 2. To my father. 3. On him. 4. In us. 5. From you. 6. Without them. 1. A2 dhalleth dhe2 dheweth. 2. Ogas dhe Loundres. 3. War2 vedhow ogas dhe'n eglos. 4. A-dro dhodho-ef. 5. Y'gas colon. 6. Ragough-why agas honen. 7. Ef a-n-prenas a'y mam dhe2 Bensans (y-n-prenas). 8. Ef a2-gerdhas ryp an als hebof-vy (y-kerdhas). 9. My a2-vyn aga gorra y'n toll pell dyworto (y5-fynnaf-vy). 10. Ro dhe'm gwr6k ahanough-why. 11. Ny a2-dh6th dh'y2 glewes (rag y2 glewes; y5-tiithen-ny). 12. My a2-wra mos dh'aga ladha (my 3; y5-whraf-vy mos; rag aga). 13. Dr6s an m5r dhe'n enesow. 14. An kyger a2-dh6th genef-vy a'n bargen-tyr. LESSON 10. 1. I was climbing that high hill wearily, seeking the easy way. 2. I heard thy father sending the Englishmen to them. 3. We used to be able to see the cruel man beating him. 4. We often used to go to Penzance. 5. Helping the farmer is very good work. 6. My sister saw me helping the fisherman. 1. Gweles yu crysy. 2. My a-s-gwelas ow4-tysky Kernewek (y-s-gwelys). 3. Dysky Kernewek nyns-yu piir2 gales. 4. Jowan a-ladhas (yn-) fell d6n 49 ow*-quandra ryp glan an avon. 5. An benenes ow-whylas an ober-ma E dhe8 Borthya. 6. Ow3 thas a2-gafas an2 dyogyon orth-aga-dybry (yn-) lowen. 7. Y a2-dheth dhyn-ny yn-iin-fystyna (y5-tethons-y). 8. Hy a2-gar (yn-) fur den pur rych (y-car-hy). 9. Ny2- dhens-y (yn-) scaf. 10. Jowan a2-lanhy yn5-ta y eskyjyow (a2-wr6 glanhE; da). LESSON 11. 1. 37. 2. 1964. 3. 5 old men. 4. 1001 nights. 5. 96th. 6. 20 times. 1. Trf ha try-iigans. 2. Pymthek warn iigans. 3. Deudhek ha try-iigans. 4. Seyth ha peswar-iigans. 5. WhEgh ha whegh-iigans. 6. Unnek hag Eth-iigans. 7. Myl whEgh ha try-iigans. 8. Myl naw cans peswar ha peswar-iigans. 9. An2 dhyw2 vyrgh2 dEk. 10. Try dEn yn scath. 11. On2 velwhen ha deu-iigans. 12. Peswar medhek warn iigans. 13. Try cans (8hans) dEth pymp ha try-iigans. 14. Seytegves ha deu-iigans. 15. Nessa ha seyth- iigans. 16. An tressa dEn. 17. An lader deu-iigansves. 18. An iinnegves iir. 19. An peswera gwedhen hag Eth-iigans. 20. An whStek managh warn iigans a-gan an nawnjegves salm ha cans. 21. Ef a-s-clewas pympgwyth. LESSON 12. 1. Do not sit there. 2. Bring it/him here. 3. Did he kill the sheep? Np. 4. Did you not come here yesterday? Yes. 5. Can you lift me up? Yes. 6. Did the Englishmen want to see our church? 7. Wife, come here at once! 1. Clewyeugh gEr an arluth (clew). 2. Keugh dhe-vEs (kS). 3. Kemereugh an oyow ha'n blejennow dhe'n2 varghas yn-scaf (kemer). 4. Na2-dheugh omma whath (na2-dhiis). 5. A2-welsough-why dEn tew ow-nyja y'n dowr? Na2- welsyn (na2-wriissyn). 6. A2-vynnons-y gweles ow3 thas? 7. A ny2- welyth- jy an whegh drewyth-na esedhys ogas dhe'n mEn-na? Gwelaf (gwraf). 8. A2-yllyn-ny cana? 9. A-scryfough-why lytherow menough? Scryfaf. 10. A-m-kerough-why? Na2-garaf. 11. A2-gar dha2 vam cawlen? Na2-gar. 12. Eth agas ewntras? Ethons. 13. A2-vyn an2 diis-ma agan cafos? Na2- vynnons. 14. Yu parys hansel?

LESSON 13. A FUNNY STORY. Two old farmers went to law. Said one of them to his lawyer, " Shall I send (to) the judge two fine ducks? " But the lawyer said, " Do not do so; you cannot bribe a Cornish judge, a giver of ducks to him will not win his case." But this farmer won his case; " You are a very clever lawyer," said he, " I sent those ducks to our honest judge, but I did it in the other farmer's name." 1. Jowan yu y2 gotha broder, ha Wella yu an cotha (y2 vroder moy coth; an moyha coth). 2. Hy a2-gar yn-fiir gwell den esof-vy. 3. My a2-yl gweles an lyha chy yn5-ta. 4. Ow3 thas ha'w mam yu lemmyn moy boghosek esough- why. 5. An gwetha hager-awel dres an2 vledhen-na. 6. DEn mar2 dha avelough, ha gwell es agas tas (maga5 ta). 7. " Why yu mar2 woky avel agas broder, ha moy goky es agas car," yn-meth an dyscajor dyscortes (maga8 hoky). 8. An benenes-ma yu mar2 dEk avelly-hy (maga tEk). 9. " Deugh omma," yn-meth-ef (diis). 10. "An gwella hernen yu hernen y'n r5s," yn-meth-hy. .' 50 LESSON 14. A FUNNIER STORY A man in an inn asked for a glass of beer, drank half of it, and threw the other half over the innkeeper's head. Then he apologised to him politely: " My nerves compel me to act thus; great indeed is my embarrassment." " You must see a psychologist," said the wet innkeeper. " I will take your advice," said the man. Some months after that, the man came again to the inn, asked for beer, and threw it over the innkeeper, as before. The innkeeper was very cross; " Did you not see a psychologist? " he said. " I have seen him often." " He has not done (to) you any good." " He has done so without doubt; my embarrassment has gone completely." 1. Ty yu re2 gonnek ragof-vy (yth-5s). 2. Hy 6 agas modryp (yth-6-hy). 3. An flegheshager-n a yu canjeons. 4. Nyns-on-ny lowen lemmyn. 5. Nyns- ens-y piir2 dhrok. 6. Yns-y mebyon an den-na? Nag-yns. 7. Nyns-Sn-vy mar2 dew avelough-why (maga tew). 8. Why 5 lowena ow3 holon (yth-eugh- why). 9. Yma-hy y'n2 gegyn. 10. Yth-esen-ny ogas dhe'n2 garret2 viir-na. 11. Yth-esos ow4-queles myrakyl. 12. Nyns-esons-y omma. 13. Yma'n ula oweth-esedha war2 drester y'n skyber. 14. Nyns-esa an oyow war an estyllen. 15. Yth-esa try gwrek war an2 gryb (tyr gorhel kellys). 16. Nyns- iisy an scath omma. 17. Eson-ny y'n rom noweth? LESSON 15. THE OVER-CLEVER BUTCHER. A lawyer's dog would often steal joints of meat from butchers' stalls in the market. Eventually an angry butcher went to see the dog's owner in his law office. " I want your advice," he said; " a dog often steals my meat; can I recover money from its owner? " " You can," said the lawyer; " the owner is legally bound for the price of the meat." " Give (to) me four shillings, then, for you are that man, and that is the price of the meat." But the lawyer said, " Give (to) me two shillings and eight pence, for my fee for legal advice is six shillings and eight pence." And thus the over-clever butcher was compelled to pay. 1. Clewys, kerys, kefys, dybrys, ledrys, res. 2. Ny a2-vyth (y-5fydhyn-ny). 3. Y a2-ve (y6-fons-y). 4. Ny2-vydhyth. 5. Nyns-6n-ny whath gwelys. 6. An ebylly-ma a2-vyth gwerthys. 7. Lyes marghak harth a2-vg fethys ganso (miir a2 varghogyon). 8. My 6 kelmys gans lovonow (yth-en-vy). 9. My a2-ve kelmys gans lovonow (y6-fuf-vy). 10. Y 6 grevyes gans miir a2 glevejow (lyes cleves). 11. My re-be tullys gans Wella (re-buf-vy). LESSON 16. THE OVER-STRONG GIANT. In a time before history, a race of hideous and dishonest giants used to live on the hills of Penwith, their digits six in number upon each limb. They would steal tin and cattle from the helpless countryfolk, often killing many of them, and withdraw to their rocky strongholds. But the giant of Cam Galva, called Holiburn, was honest and gentle, and would protect the countryfolk from the attacks of his fellow giants. A certain young man used to come often to play quoits with this giant, and after a good game Holiburn touched him 51 on his head as a fond farewell, forgetting the great strength of his race. His friend's skull was broken by the giant's fingers, and Holiburn himself died from a heart broken by his great grief. 1. Yma gensy (dhedhy) margh pur dek. 2. Yma dhe'n tyak tyr erow ha bugh. 3. Nyns-us gansa (dhedha) b5s lowr. 4. Yth-6 gansa (dhedha) bara ha leth. 5. Nyns-5 genef (dhym) dowr er. 6. Y5-fyth gans (dhe) Jowan gwell lavrak hyr avorow. 7. Us genen (dhyn) grava-ros? 8. Drok 6 genef gwertha ow3 hy coth. 9. Gwell yu gans ow gour dybry yn tavernyow. 10. Da2 vyth genough agan clewes. 11. Yma nown dhedha, hag ys-fyth own dh'ow whor a'ga maga. 12. Yth-6 whans dhodho a2 weles an lyver. 13. Nyns iis marth dhedha.

LESSON 17. A ROYAL OCCASION. In the year 1846 Queen Victoria came to see Cornwall. The royal yacht dropped anchor at Fowey, and the inhabitants of that loyal and ancient town came in a crowd to the quay to welcome their Queen, and the band was ready to play the National Anthem. But the Queen was very late and the sun was very hot; the loyal musicians went into an inn, leaving their musical instru• ments in the care of the drummer-boy. Suddenly the Queen came; there was no band! The boy seized his drum and did all that he could, but the Queen was not amused; she went away without waiting for the band. A monument was erected to commemorate the royal visit, but the descendants of the young drummer point it out as " our grandfather's monument." 1. Ny2-brederaf y2 vos pronter. 2. Da yu genef agas b5s gwell. 3. An marner a-leverys hy bos y'n fogo. 4. My a2-wayt bos ow ewnter war an meneth. 5. Drok 5 genef bos agas margh marow. 6. My a2- glewas Jowan dhe2 deny peder cadar. 7. Ny a2-breder an d6n dhe2 grysy y2 v5s myghtern. 8. An2 vam a2-armas ef dhe lenky mesurer-tomder. 9. Y a-leverys hy dhe2 bonya kepar ha mylgy. 10. My a2-wor nag-esons-y omma. 11. Drok2 vyth ganso nag-6 an benenes lowen. 12. Why a-leverys na2- vynnas-ef mos dystough.

LESSON 18. THE PENRYN TRAGEDY. The only son of a poor Penryn couple left Cornwall, hoping to become rich in foreign parts. He came home after many years, a bag of money with him. He went first of all to the house of his married sister, and said he was her lost brother. First she doubted his words, but he revealed to her an old scar on his leg, and they rejoiced together. After that he went to the house of his father and mother, but asked for a room there without saying he was their son, and they did not recognize him. His father said to his mother that he had a bag of money with him, and that to kill him would give them enough money for all their days. And they killed their son in his sleep that night. In the morning their daughter came to see her brother again; the murderers realized that the slain man was their son, and they killed themselves. 1. My a2-wor den (nep) re2-gollas y2 gy. 2. Ewn an2 gadar re2-derrys-vy. 3. Why re-leverys whethel nag-yu gwyr. 4. My a2-yl clewes lef an dSn 52 (nep/hag) a2-gerough-why. 5. Gwell yu gans ow gwrSk an hot na2-v£ prenys. 6. Ny a2-wayt agan myghtern (nep/hag) a2-dh£ arta yredy. 7. Ny2-dhybrys an2 desen 6 pur2 goth. 8. Ro ef dhe nep yu nownek. 9. Ny2-garaf an pyth a-leverough-why. 10. An chy may tryk-ef. 11. Hon yu an2 venen (nep/hag) a-sewyas Jowan (a2-v£ sewyes gans Jowan). 12. Pyu a2- glewaf-vy? 13. Pyu re2-wriik an drok-ma? 14. Pandr'a2- brederough-why? 15. Py den yu moy harth? 16. Prag nag-eth-hy? 17. Pie5 whelsough-why an den? 18. P'iir5 fyth-hy parys?

LESSON 19. THE OVER-LEARNED PROFESSOR. The very wise men of Oxford, according to the old saying, know all that can be known. Great indeed is their knowledge about difficult and dark things, but they are often very stupid about the simple things of this world. They learn more and more about less and less, until they know everything about nothing. A professor of logic was walking in the street, talking to himself, when his pupil came to him. " Sir," he said very politely, " your shoes are odd; one of them is black, the other is brown." " I know it," said the sage; " I have thought deeply, and great is my anxiety. Moreover, there is beneath my bed another pair of shoes very similar, one of them brown, the other black." 1. Y a2-v€ gwelys awos aga bos gwyn. 2. My a2-dheth kens bos agas tas claf. 3. An map a2-wevyas wosa an ors dhe2 dhybry an m6l. 4. Ef a-sewyas kens ef dhe'm clewes. 5. Y a-n-kemeras rak na-m-carons. 6. Rak nag-5 an soudoryon lowr harth. 7. Pan2 glewys-vy an amanyn war an2 vos. 8. Kel an arghans pan2 dhe an ladron. 9. Erna2 dhethons-y dhe2 Bensans. 10. Kyn car Wella ow whor, ef a2- bonyas kettel2 glewas hy lef. 11. Mars yu lowen, da yu genef. 12. Ha my ow-cusca cosel, ky a-harthas. 13. Fatel2 vynnough- why y2 wiil? 14. An whethel yu gwyr, del lever Wella. 15. An rew 6 slynk, may codhas-ef. 16. Ha'n fleghes ow*-quary. 17. Kyn na-m-gwelas. LESSON 20. THE DEVILISH CHIMNEY-SWEEP. A certain tired chimney-sweep entered a chapel and went to sleep in the pulpit. A service began but the sweep went on sleeping. Eventually a certain worshipper prayed thus in a high voice:—" Lord, we are thy bold Cornish• men; if the devil himself comes to us at this hour, we will smite him and our wives will put him in a pasty! " These words awoke the sweep, who raised his black face above the edge of the pulpit; at once all the bold Cornishmen fled from the chapel, shouting "The Devil!- The Devil!" The sweep followed them and soon he caught the same man who had awoken him with his bold prayer; said the man, " Do not kill me, O Mr. Devil; I do not often come to this chapel." 1. An Spanyers re2-wriissa lesky an2 velyn. 2. An lowarn re-bya chassyes gans lyes hond. 3. Pan2 dhothyen-ny ena. 4. Ny-gan-gwelseugh. 5. Lavar dhedha an gwyryoneth. 6. Y-rosons dhodho ro ciif. 7. An m£r re2- dhanvonsa lyther dhe'n pronter. 8. Ny a2-dhrehedhas dhe2 Drum hag entra dhe'n gwythty. 9. A2-rassas-ef dhedhy? Na2-wriik, mes hy a2-wriik 53 dhodho gava. 10. Orden dhe nebes soudoryon dos omma. 11. Dhe2 Dhew y5-fyth grassys gans an2 guntelles. 12. Nebonen a2-dhe, mes ny2-vynnyn gweles denvyth. 13. Denvyth ny-m-car, ha travyth ny2-yl ow gweres. 14. Hy res-eth dhe nep le pell. LESSON 21. THE DEVIL'S CURSE. In the year 1592, when the fishermen of Mousehole were preparing their nets for the coming of the pilchards, the devil himself wanted to go fishing, and took away with him in the direction of Tredavoe as many nets as he could find. When this theft was discovered, the devil was chased by many fishermen, who were members of the choir of St. Paul's Church and who sung so long and loudly the Apostles' Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and other parts of the service, that the devil tried to escape from them by jumping across the valley where St. Peter's Church in Newlyn now is. He landed on a rock, lost his balance, and dropped the nets. The fishermen were still singing earnestly on the opposite hill, and the devil, his body raised to its immense height and his voice fearful, shouted three times, " Bucka! Bucka\ BUCKA! " flapping his wings and emitting sulphurous smoke out of his mouth. The meaning of these words was, " You are fated to be destroyed by the power of foreigners," and that frightful prophecy was true, for three years after that the Spaniards landed and burned Mousehole, St. Paul's Church, Newlyn and Penzance. And the devil's footprint, with the nets turned into stone beside it, can be seen to this day on the rocks of Tolcarn near Newlyn. 1. Mars yu gwyr an whethel-na, Wella yu gowek. 2. A4 (mar4) pe gwyr an whethel-na, Wella a2-vya gowek. 3. Mars ellen, drok2 vya genough. 4. An2 diis mar4 (a4) qurella ry dhodho tesen, y5-whrussa ankevy y2 gleves. 5. A4 (mar4) quellens agas bugh, y^whriissyns hy ladha dystough. 6. Re2-allough- why dos. 7. Re-bons-y lowen. 8. Byner re2-glewfo agan tas agas geryow drok. 9. Jowan a2-dhe may5 fo clewys. 10. Ow modryp eth dhe2 Ben an2 Wlas may5 whella an Enesow Syllan. 11. Ef 6 squyth, ma na2-ylly yskynna an als. 12. My a2-dewlys meyn, ma na2-alla yskynna an als.

VOCABULARY (For Lessons 1—13 only). The symbol ' indicates the stressed syllable. NOUNS. (The singular form is first given, then the plural). advice f. cusiil, cusiilyow bird f. edhen, ydhyn angel m. el, eieth boat f. scath, scdthow aunt f. mddryp, modr6beth book m. \fver, lyfrow bank (river) f. glan, gldnnow breakfast m. hansel bard m. j barth, byrth brother m. brdder, br6der f. ibirdhes, bardhdsow butcher m. kyger, kygoryon bed m. gw61y, gw£lyow cabbage f. ciwlen, cawl beginning m. ddlleth cake f. t£sen, tesdnnow 54 cat f. cath, cathas husband m. gour, gw€r chough f. paldres, palordsow island f. dnys, endsow church f. eglos, egldsyow judge m. juj, jujjys clergyman, king m. myghtdrn, priest m. prdnter, pront^ryon myghtdrneth cliff f. als, dlsyow land m. tyr, t^ryow /-> ft f. Kdrnow language m. tdvas, tavdsow Cornwall cow f. bugh, btighas law m. ldgha, ldghys daughter f. myrgh, m^rghes lawsuit m. kdn day m. deth (an jeth), letter m. lather, lythdrow dddhyow lord m. drluth, artydhy doctor m. medhek, man m. den, tiis medhygyon mill f. mdlyn, melynyow dog m. ky, cun mine m/f. whel, whdlyow door m. darras, darrajow monk m. mdnagh, mdnegh down (land) f. gun, gdnyow moon f. lor druid m. drdwyth, mother f. mam, mdmmow drewydhyon name m. hdnow, h^nwyft duck m. hds, hdyjy net f. ros, rdsow egg m. oy, 6yow night f. nos, nosow end m. ddweth noise m. tros, trdsow enemy m. dscar, yskdrens parish f. plu, pliiyow Englishman m. Saws, Sawson pilchard f. hdrnen, hern farm f. tre, trdvow psalm m. salm, sdlmow farmer m. tyak, tydgyon queen f. myghtdrnes, father m. tas, tasow myghterndsow fire m. tan, tdnow reward m. gdber, gdbrow fish m. pysk, piiskes river f. dvon, avdnow fisherman m. pyseddor, road f. forth, fdrdhow pyscaddryon rock f. cdrrek, carr^gy flower f. bldjen, blejdnnow sea m. mor, mdrow food m. bos servant m. gwas, gwdsyon foreigner m. dstren, estrdnyon sheep f. davas, ddves friend m. (car, kdrens shoe f. dskys, esk^jyow f. {cdres, cardsow sister f. wh5r, whdryth gift m. ro, rdhow snail f. mdlwhen, mdlwhas giver m. ryas, rydsy snow m. ergh God m. Dew soldier m. sdudor, souddryon hand m. dorn, ddrnow son m. map, mdbyon harbour m. porth, pdrthow stone m. men, meyn head m. pen, pdnnow storm f. hdger-dwel, £ heart I. colon, colonnow hdger-awdllow hill m. mdneth, story m. whdthel, whdthlow men^dhyow sun m. howl hole m. toll, tell teacher m. dyscdjor, horse m. margh, mergh dyscajdryon hour f. iir, iiryow thief m. ldder, lddron house m. chy, chyow thing m/f. tra, tdclow 55 tomb m. bdth, bedhow window f. fdnester, fdnestry c town I. trd, trdvow witch f. gwrdgh, gwrdghas tree t. gwddhen, gwyth woman fi bdnen, bendnes uncle m. cwiiicr, ewniras word m. ger, gdryow water m. Howr d

ADJECTIVES. bad dr5k long hyr big, great, large mur, bras near ogas black du new ndweth bold harth old coth clever cdnnek poor boghdsek Cornish Kerndwek quick scaf cruel fell ready pdrys dead mdrow rich rych uimcuit cales rude dyscdrtes easy es short ber fair, fine, pretty tek sick claf far pell strange coynt fat tew strong cref foolish fol stupid gdky full liin thin tdnow good da tired, weary squyth happy ldwen true gwyr healthy yagh wet glyp high ughel white gwyn honest len wise skdntyl, fur lazy dyek wrong cam little, small b^ghan young ydwynk

VERBS. (The forms given for each verb are the infinitive, 3rd sing, present tense, 3rd sing, past (preterite) tense). to attempt whyias, whyia, whylas to clean glanhd, gldnha, gldnhas to be bos, yu, bd to climb yskynna, yskyn, to be able yskynnas (aux.) gallos, gyl, gdllas to come dos, dd, ddth to beat gwdskel, gwysk, gwyskys to conquer fetha, feth, fdthas to believe crysy, crys, crysys to cure sawya, saw, sawyas to bribe fals-gdbra, gdber, gdbras to do (aux.) giil, gwra, gwriik to bring dry, ddra, dros to drink dva, yf, dvas to burn ldsky, lesk, ldscas to drown biidhy, biith, biidhas to buy prdna, pren, prdnas to eat dybry, ddber, dybrys to carry don, dSk, diik to find cafos, kyf, cafas 56 IU IOllOW scwyd, sew, sewyas to sell gwerciid, gwcriii, to give ry, re, ros gw^rthas to go IllUb, a, C 111 tn CP TUT HallVUI1, UallVUlI, to hasten fyst^na, fystyn, fystynas danvdnas fli^ixypc PIPW P1£WIIC p Oil gwer^sas to sleep cusca, cusk, cuscas tn kill lauiia, Iain, lauilao tn ctpcil lailanrn aa , lanptavicip , lavilanrai aoc tvJ Mil H vclrv HVQIT H\/Qpa yger» yg^ras gwandras to put g6rra, gor, g6rras to want, wish to read redya, r€d, redyas (aux.) mynnes, myn, mynnas to run ponya, pon, pdnyas to welcome dyndrghy, dynergh, to say (direct dyndrghys speech) m6dhes, —, meth to win gwdynya, gwayn, to see gw61es, gwel, gw61as gwaynyas to seek whylas, whyla, whylas to write - scryfa, scryf, scryfas

ADVERBS. here dmma there dna now mdnough yet whath often ldmmyn (For prepositions and numerals, see Lessons 9 and 11).

The story and other passages below are given as final exercises, without key, marked mutations or vowel quantities. POWESVA AN MYGHTERN Menhyr Boswelva a-sef yn Plu Sancras yn Keverang Penwyth, war leder nans pell dyworth fordhow hag annedhow mabden. Y ughelder yu dek tros-hes ha moy a-ugh an dor, oil levenhes ha mon; men a vry yu, hag a dekter ynweth, par nep men y'gan gwlas iun a venhyryon, cromleghyow, ha meyn erel coth dres rekna bledhynnow. Gwer yu'n wels a-dro dhodho, yn-mysk eythyn ha reden an leder, ha los yu'n kewny warnodho. An ydhyn ny-eseth warnodho, ha'n gwarthek ny-wra omruttya er y byn, ha'n dus ny-n-gwel saw unwyth yn bledhynnow. Leder ha cam an nans a-n-kel, ha'y wytha rag an bys, mayth yu, del grysaf-vy, an tyller moyha cuth yn Kernow. My a-gafas an menhyr-ma kensa nans-yu lyes bledhen; newl re-dhothya dyworth an howlsedhas, ha my ow-kerdhes a Vorva dhe Sancras, ha my re-gollsa an forth dres an gonyow ha dos dhe nans cuth Boswelva. A- dhesempys an menhyr a-omdhysquedhas dre an newl, avel nep jyant los a'n 57 termyn a-ve; marth o genef y weles, rag ow bos antyquary dywysyk, nep a-wodhya meyn coth ha tylleryow cuth Penwyth mar dha avel nebonen aral; nyns-esa an menhyr tek-ma yn lyver-vyth, ha dyscudhans mur o. My a-wruk gortos rybtho un ur, bys pan omdhrehevys an newl, ha kerdhes dhe vargen-tyr Boswelva, esa pell alenna un myldyr dres an gonyow. Yth-esa an tyak yn y arth, ow-ton churnys; y os ogas ha hantercans bledhen, du y view, den lagasek ha mar gref avel ojyon. My a-wovynnys orto a-dro dhe'n menhyr, ha leverel dhodho ow bos antyquary whansek dhe gledhya ena, mar rolla dhym cumyas. Ef a-whythras orthyf kepar he pan ven lader; " Myghtern a-gusk ena yn cres, herwyth whethel o deryvys dhym gans ow thas, ha dhodho gans y das-ef; goef a-drobel y bowes! Denvyth ny-gleth ena hedra wryllyf-vy tryga omma, ha'm henath war ow lergh." Nyns-esa namoy dhe vos leverys; my a-besyas kerdhes dhe Sancras. An bledhynnow a-bassyas; my eth dhe-ves, ha mos ha bos worteweth dyscajor yn unyversyta pell dyworth Kernow. My a-gledhyas yn lyes tyller, y'ga nyver nebes menhyryon, mes trawythyow my a-gofhy an menhyr-na yn nans cuth Boswelva ha'y wythyas lei. Worteweth un jeth my a-welas yn paper-new- odhow Kernewek, o danvenys dhym pup seythen, an geryow a-sew:—" Mern- ans Tyak Coth yn Sancras. Drok vyth gans y gerens clewes bos marow Jamys Trewhella, dek bledhen ha try-ugans y os. Bargen-tyr Boswelva re-be dh'y dylu lyes cansbledhen, mes y vap unyk a-verwys nans-yu dek bledhen, ha lemmyn res yu gwertha an bargen-tyr." Nyns-o pell wosa henna pan redys-vy bos Boswelva prenys gans nep estren dyworth Dewnans, dhe nep y-scryfys-vy dystough, ha cuf o y worthyp:—"Why a-yl dos omma ha cledhya yn le may fynnough-why; ny-m-dur man a veyn coth." Ha my a-brederys dhymmo ow honen; "A venhyr, my re-wruk gortos ugans bledhen, ha ty re-wruk gortos deu-ugans cansbledhen, mes yn-scon y-fynnaf-vy dyscudha dha daclow kelys gans ow lo." Hag yndella my a-dheth arta dhe Voswelva, ow-ton genef dafar rak cledhya; ha my ow-kerdhes dres an un dhe'n menhyr, own o dhym na-ve-ef dyhevelep a'm covyon, mes my a-n-cafas poran kepar ha kens. My a-verkyas keheseth dor war du yst an menhyr, hen yu, a'y woles; an encledhyas yu moyha menough war an tu-na. My a-droghas an tonyow gans ow fal, ha'ga gorra a-denewan; torn o an howl, ha cales an ober. Yth-esa gwyscas a weras yn-dan an ton, hag ena gwyscas a veyn pos. My a-s-remuvyas gans preder ha cafos—gwyn ow bys—men compes try throshes yn pedrak; pen-men kyst- vyghan o, hep mar! Ha my ow-myras orto, lef serrys a-sonas a-dhesempys war ow lergh; yth-esa benen goth ha pur goynt ow-lagata orthyf, hy deulagas lun a gas, hy blew du ha garow, hy dyllas pyllenek. " Goef a-drobei powes an myghtern kens deth brus! Goef! Goef! An veyn a-vyn y vrewy avel mur- yonen! Ha dyfunys an myghtern, y wlascor a-wra dewheles. Gowhy! Gowhy! " Hy a-vodyas kens my dhe alios gortheby yn-ewn. Rak na-yllys drehevel an pen-men hep gweres, my eth dhe'n bargen-tyr dhe whylas an tyak. My a-leverys dhodho a-dro dhe'n venen goth; yri-meth- ef, " Hon yu Madge Trewhella, myrgh an tyak esa kens omma; hy a-dryk yn talyk an skyber, drefen hy bos heb arghans-vyth. Gensy ny-vern dheugh; pur vus yu-hy, mes hep drok. Hy a-grys taclow pur goynt a-dro dhe'n menhyr 58 a-gledhyough-why." Ef a-dheth genef dhe'n menhyr, ha ny a-dhrehevys an pen-men warbarth hep caletter; a'y woles ny a-welas, herwyth ow gwaytya, peswar glan-men kyst gwres pur dha, ha lenwys a dhor. An tyak eth tre, ha my a-dhallathas cravas an dor-na gans ow lo, pur lent ha connek, avel pen- cledhyor gwyr. Un ur wosa henna, ha my re-gemersa mes a'n gyst an dyscudhans moyha y vry, hag ynweth an tecca, re-bya kefys bys y'n ur-na yn Kernow. Vessyl mur o, yn form hag afynans kepar ha pot-pry encledhyasek, mes gwres o a owr pur! Hep par o yn Breten, ha martesen y'n bys-oll. My a-n-gorras gans revrons war an wels dhe wolya ow deulagas warnodho. An den coth ha'y vyrgh re-lavarsa dhym yn-whyr; powesva myghtern o an tyller hep mar, y eskern leskys y'n vessyl adheragof. My a-borthas cof a eryow erel an venen: " Goef a-drobel powes an myghtern; an veyn a-vyn y vrewy avel muryonen." My a-whythras an menhyr, ughel a ughof, hag y'n keth pols-na ef a-omrolyas wor'tu ha'n lur avel jyant gwyskys. My a-omdewlys a-denewan, ha gans son avel taran an menhyr a-squattyas an dor y'n tyller re-wrussen-vy lenwel un pols kens, owth-omderry yn dyw ran hag ow-skethry meyn an gyst. My a-omdhrehevys, ow-mollethy ow gokyneth dre gledhya ryb an menhyr heb y fastya gans gwyvrow, ha kerdhes lent alenna, ow-ton genef an vessyl owrek lun a eskern, hag ow-crenna whath dre uth ow feryl desempys. My re-bya ow-kerdhes yndella dek mynysen, pan gonvedhys-vy an termyn- ma bos moy es lowr rak drehedhes dhe forth coth us ow-mos a-drus an nans wor'tu ha'n bargen-tyr. My a-gerdhas pols byghan moy, ha drehedhes dhe dyller na-welsen-vy kens; mar vur re-bya ow uth, dhe'm crysyans, may tremensen-vy an forth hep hy gweles! My a-yskynnas leder an nans may whellen an bargen-tyr; own yeyn a-m-sesyas a-dhesempys! My a-allas gweles le an bargen-tyr, mes nyns-esa un drehevyans ena. My a-whylas eglos Sancras, war leder Meneth-Golowva yn hy helly; yth-esa an meneth, ha menydhyow erel Penwyth dresto, gothvedhys ha ker dhym aga formow, mes nyns-esa nag eglos na kelly. My a-whylas an mor; yth-esa Mont Sen Myghal, mes nyns-esa na castel warnodho nag an mor yn y gerghyn; an Mont a-sevy yn-mysk gwyth try myldyr a'n mor, Carrek Los y'n Cos yn-whyr. My a-borthas cof arta a eryow an venen; " Goef a-drobel powes an myghtern; ha dyfunys an myghtern, y wlascor a-wra dewheles." Hy mollath uthek re-gothsa warnaf; degys en dre nep pystry dhe dermyn a-ve, kessydhyans ewn rak cledhyor re harth! Ha my owth-ombredery a-dro dh'ow stuth uthek, my a-glewas lef war ow lergh, ha gweles an keth benen-na ow-myras orthyf, ha cas ha tregereth yn hy deulagas. " Gowhy," yn-meth-hy, " nep re-wruk tropla powes an myghtern; mar mynnough dyank a'n mernans re-wrussough-why dyndyl mylwyth, a lader sacrylyjek, gorreugh eskern an myghtern arta yn y veth, ena dhe vos gwythys bys vyken; ha gwreugh yndella kens an howlsedhas, pan dhe ha bos yn-few an veyn sans." Ha gans henna, hy a-vodyas. Ysel o an howl y'n nef, ha cot an termyn rag ow omsylwyans; my a-fystynas dhe'n menhyr, ow-crafa an vessyl mollothek. My re-wrussa gasa an men mur a-hes war an dor, terrys yn dyw ran, ha'n gyst skethrys a'y woles, mes my a-s-cafas arta fest cowal, an yl a'y saf, y gyla ygor hag ow-cortos y dresor. Mes boghes dyfelebys o an 59 menhyr a'y stuth kens y godha; nyns-esa warnodho kewny-vyth, mes yn y le merkys toulys; formyes noweth o an men. My a-worras an vessyl y'n gyst, ha dalleth hy lenwel arta a dhor, yn-un-balas avel den varyes, del en yn-whyr. A-dhesempys my a-glewas cryow garow, ha gweles lyes den ow-ponya orthyf, gwyskys yn creghyn, hag ow-florsya guyow mur y'ga dornow. My a-fyas dhe'n fo, codha sket war ow fen, ha kelly aswonvos glan. Deu dheth wosa henna, my a-dhyfunas yn spyty Pensans, wosa my dhe vos kefys ow-quandra war an un hep convedhes-vyth, gosek ow fen, ha'm blew devedhys mar wyn avel an ergh. Ny-vynnaf-vy cledhya nefra namoy, na dewheles dhe Benwyth, tyr hudys an howlsedhas may cusk an myghtern ryb y venhyr bys dhe dheth brus. Goef a-drobel y bowes!

MARTHUS SEN GWYNWALO Y'n termyn mayth o Sen Gwynwalo abas managhty Landevennec yn Breten Vyghan, nep un dyskybel dhodho, Ryoc y hanow, a-glewas bos claf y vam, ha pysy cumyas a vos dh'y myras. Pos o gans Gwynwalo ry dhodho cumyas, mes ef a-n-ros worteweth, ha ry ynweth dh'y dhyskybel costrel dowr sans, ow-cothvos ef dhe gafos bos marow y vam. Ryoc pan dheth-ef tre ha cafos ena hy bos marow, ef a-scullyas warnedhy an dowr sans, ha dystough hy eth ha bos yn-few arta. Pan ve-hy apposyes a-dro dh'y gwryansow y'n bys dres gweles, hy a-leverys hy dhe vos sawyes dyworth dyawlow uthek dre weres Sen Gwynwalo. Hy a-vewas wosa henna avel benen sans yn hy dedhyow-oll.

SEN GWYNWALO HA'N LADRON Try lader a-ervyras dhe bylla managhty Gwynwalo, o lun, herwyth aga crysyans, a dresor dyworth an pow a-dro. Noswyth y'n tewlder, ha'n venegh ow-cana y'n eglos, an ladron a-dheth war dhowr, kelmy aga scath gans lovan dhe'n tyr, hag entra dhe oryon an managhty. Y a-gafas ena skyber vras dyalweth, hag ynny mur a varlys, a-dhallethsons-y y sagha. Gwynwalo a-wothva yn-ta an pyth a-wrens-y, ha leverel yndella dhe'n venegh, mes ef a-erghys dhedha gasa oil yntra dywla Dew hep gul travyth. An ladron, lenwys aga seghyer, a-ervyrys dhe dhewheles dh'aga scath, mes anedha onen a-godhas ha terry y ver, an nessa a-dheth ha bos gwrydhyes dhe'n tyr kepar ha pan veva gwedhen, ha'n tressa a-ve dallhes a-dhesempys. Ternos vyttyn, Gwynwalo ha'n venegh eth dhe'n skyber, ha'n sans a-geredhas yn-clor an ladron, ow-leverel nag-o res dhedha ladra, rag an pyth-oll a-s-teva anodho ethom a-vya dhedha res hep awher, mar qurellens-y y wovyn dhe'n managhty. Hag yndella an ladron a-ve trelyes, hag y a-entras dhe'n managhty avel menegh.

GWARYER FOL Carew a-lever dhyn whethel pur wharthus a-dro dhe waryer fol y'n gwary- myr. Nyns-o dhe'n waryoryon y'n dedhyow-na res dysky aga geryow dre gof; ordenary a-wre aga sewya gans lyver-geryow ha dhedha leverel, ysel y lef, 60 an geryow dhe vos dasleverys gansa, ughel aga levow. Ha devedhys an termyn rak dos an gwaryer-ma war blen an gwary, an ordenary a-hanajas dhodho, "Ke yn-rak, ty dhen, hag omdhysqueth." An gwaryer sempel eth war an plen ha, herwyth lyther y dhyscansow, dasleverel dhe'n cuntelles geryow an ordenary, "Ke yn-rak, ty dhen, hag omdhysqueth." "Ty a-dhyswra an gwary", yth-hanajas an ordenary a-dryf dhodho—ha dasleverys o an geryow-ma y'n keth vaner-na. Gans henna, an ordenary a-vollythys yn-harow ha drok-henwel gokyneth an gwaryer, nep a-besyas ow-tasleverel oil y eryow dhe'n cuntelles. Ha dewedhys yndella kens termyn o an gwary; mes nyns-o tullys dre henna an bobel, awos bos an droglammow-ma moy dydhan dhedha es ugans gwary.

SPYRYS MORVA Un nos tewl, herwyth lavar an dus coth, sacrystan Morva a-dhyfunas mur y own, wosa ef dhe glewes yn y hunrosow son an clogh, moy truesy es clogh an marow. Ef a-woslowas, ha clewes whath an son morethek-na dyworth an eglos, hag ynweth son aral avel hanasen dhown. Y golon a-vonkyas avel naker, hag ef a-scruthas ha cudha y ben yn-dan an lyen-gwely. Ena ef a-glewas tros levow ha treys; an pronter ha'y scryvynyas re-dhodhya, ha tus-oll Morva warbarth gansa-y, o dyfunys kekefrys gans an son. "Dewolow py spyrysyon re-dheth dres an dor" yn-medhans-y, "rak pyu ken a-yl bos ow-seny an clogh?" An sacrystan a-gemeras alwheth an cleghtour ha mos mes a jy; an pronter a-n-jeva lugarn, ha'n dus a-sewyas y wolow dyslyw dhe'n gorflan, hag a-berth ynny dhe dharras an cleghtour. Hag a-dhesempys tebel-vest bras ha du, ruth hy deulagas, a-fuskas mes a'n darras, gwel uthek dhe brontyryon aga honen! An pronter, an sacrystan ha'n scryvynyas a-godhas warbarth a-dherag an tebel-vest, ha trelyes aga threys dres pen; an lugarn a-ve gesys dhe godha, ha'y wolow dyfudhys; an pronter ha'y re a-davas y'n tewlder. Ha dres golow aral, an dus a-whythras yn-fysy, yn-un-aspya a-dro dhe'n meyn-cof ha'n eglos; mes ny-gafsons-y travyth, na den, na dyawl, na spyrys. Y a-woslowas, mes ny-alsons-y clewes travyth saw unsel olva vorethek an gwyns, esa avel levow an dus varow o encledhyes ena. "A bronter", yn- medhans-y, owth-omguntell a-dro dhodho, "pandr'a-wruk ponya mes a'n cleghtour? Spyrys ova, py an jawl y honen, ha dhodho y gern, y garnow, y lost ha'y ewynnow, war bup bys onen hyr?" Yn-meth an pronter, "An jawl o yn-whyr, mar hyr, ogas dy, avel an cleghtour, y dhywver blewak mar dew avel pul, ha'y gern mar hyr avel ow bregh. Spyrys sempel ny-alsa gorra own ynnof-vy yndella!" Y eth dhe dharras an cleghtour, ha myreugh, ol earn esa rybtho; y eth aberveth, ha myreugh, gyllys o lovan an clogh! Ha'n culyogas ow-cul kenys, an dus a-gruppyas mes a'n gorflan, ha gweles ena aga 'dyawl'— bugh dhu, ow-tynsel lovan cala! Hy re-dhothya dhe bory war lovan an clogh, wosa whylas gwels yn-ufer pell y'n blu veynak-na. Yn-meth an dus serrys, "Gwren hy ladha 1 Hy re-asas ragon-ny lovan lowr rak hy cregy!" Mes yn-meth an pronter, "ny-wren-ny yndella. Pur wyw yu an vugh-na rak bewa yn Morva; hy a-alsa sowyny yn le may whrussa merwel gavar dre nown. 61 Mes nyns-us dhe'n eglos arghans lowr dhe vaga bughas an blu. A sacrystan, trolleugh lovan noweth rak agan clogh, ha pertheugh cof dhe asa yn-dan alwheth darras an cleghtour!"

DALLETHFOS AN GER 'CHAPEL' Ny a-gyf dallethfos an ger-ma yn wharfedhyans a vry yn Bewnans Sen Martyn, us ow-sewya. Un jeth pur yeyn yn Gwaf, hag ef whath soudor y'n lu Roman, ha kens y vos bysydhyes y'n Gres Grystyon, ef a-vetyas gans beggyer boghosek ow-crenna y'n ergh. Ef a-dennas y gledha, ganso treghy y glok-breselek ynter dyw ran, ha ry onen anedha dhe'n beggyer. An nos a-sewya, ef a-welas yn vesyon agan Arluth, ow-quysca an hanter-clok re-n- rosa-ef dhe'n beggyer, hag ow-kewsel an geryow-ma: "An clok-ma a-ve res dhym gans Martyn, hag ef whath ombrofyer rak bysydhyans". Nyns-o nep-pell wosa henna mayth omdennas Martyn a'n lu, ha mos ha bos worteweth Epscop Tours. An hanter-clok eth ha bos crer moyha ker an vyghterneth Frynkek, nep a-n-duk gansa yn le mayth ethons-y. Y a-dhrehevys ragtho yn Parys crerva splan, o hynwys an 'Sainte Chapelle', awos bos hynwys an crer esa ynny 'capella', hen yu clok byghan. Worteweth an ger-ma, yn Sawsnek hag ynweth yn Kernewek 'chapel', a-ve res dhe bup drehevyans-oll o usyes rak gordhyans Crystyon, marnas eglosyow-plu ha pen-eglosyow.

TRELYANS LYTHER O SCRYFYS GANS HEMBRYNKYAS CASTEL PENDYNAS, PAN WRUK AN OMSEVYSY GOVYN ORTO DASCOR AN CASTEL, HEB OMBREDERY PELLA ES DYW UR Syrra, An castel-ma re-be gorrys yn ow charj gans an Myghtern y honen, dhe nep yma, herwyth agan laghys, rewl oil an castylly ha'n kerrow y'n wlascor-ma. Ow bloth, yu dek bledhen ha try-ugans, a-m-gelow alemma yn-scon, ha ny-vynnaf bos sewyes gans travyth marnas ow devar dhe Dhew ha'm lelder dhe'n Myghtern, dhe nep kelmys of dre gnas, dre dhevar ha dre ly. Marth yu genef agas govyn an castel hep gorhemmyn an Myghtern; mar qurellen y dhascor dheugh, y-whrussen merkya ha'm honen ha'm henath gans trayson na-yllyr y lanhe. Hag ervyrys of, heb ombredery pella es dyw vynys, dhe omvedhy omma kens dascor an castel dhe sul a-omlath erbyn an Myghtern. Yma le own dhym a'gas godrosow es own a'm kelly conscyans ha lelder-oll. Dheugh-why, dyworth Jowan Arundell Trerys. (1646).

TRELYANS LYTHER O SCRYFYS GANS WELLA BORLAS DHE BELLER PORTHYA Syrra, Y-whaytyaf nag-yu gwyr an whethlow a-dro dh'agas omwul pystryor; hag yma genef cheryta lowr dhe grysy na-wreugh-why mellya orth mysterys peryllys yffarnow, mes yn le a henna y-tefyough why ha sconya, avel Crystyon 62 gwyr, pup chyffar-oll gans an jawl. Mes aban us whethlow a'n par-na, ha leverys yu yth-omgemerough dhe dhyskevra an pyth a-vo kellys py ledrys, my a-wayt y-prederough-why, may kyffough arta agas hanow da ha'y ewnhe, bos res porres dheugh gorra wyth na-ryllough-why colon-vyth dhe venenes goky nep a-dhe dheugh war negysow mar fol ha drok. Ha kens oil, res yu dhym govyn na-vo res colon a'n par-na dhe'n dus-na nep yu an para, ha nep a-dal bos an charj, a'gas servyas pur huvel, Wella Borlas. (1728).

CORRECTIONS

p. 14 1. 16: For 'ny-wriik' read 'ny2-wriik\ p. 32 I. 7 of story: For 'cumyas' read 'ciimyas'. p. 35 1. 6 of story: For'wosa ena'read'wosa henna'. p. 57 Vocabulary of Adverbs: The meanings of 'menough' and 'lemmyn' are transposed.

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