JOURNAL OF JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO NORDREGIO Danish Geopgraphy Intending toChange DANISH MINISTER: Danish Geopgraphy Intending toChange DANISH MINISTER: THE THEMING OFURBANLANDSCAPES - urbanconcentrationinthe BalticSeaRegion THE SELECTFEW p. 4 p. p. 18 12

No. 3 September • Volume 5 – 2005 CONTENTS No. 3 September • Volume 5 – 2005

3 EDITORIAL NORDEN 4 THE SELECT FEW 9 IN SHORT RIGHT NOW 10 RHETORIC AND SUBSTANCE IN SWEDEN’S NEW REGIONAL POLICY FEATURE 12 INTENDING TO CHANGE DANISH GEOGRAPHY 14 NO WHIPS IN THE TOOLBOX 16 MUNICIPAL JOY AHEAD 18 THE THEMING OF URBAN LANDSCAPE BOOK REVIEW 22 SJÄLVSTYRELSE PÅ LOKAL OCH REGIONAL NIVÅ. PERSPEKTIV PÅ DET LOKALA OCH REGIONALA ANSVARET FÖR FRAMTIDSFRÅGORNA

JOURNAL OF Journal of Nordregio is owned and distributed by the NORDREGIO Nordic Centre for Spatial Development (NORDREGIO). The journal appears quarterly and is distributed free of OLE DAMSGAARD Director charge. All articles express the views of their authors. JON P. KNUDSEN Editor Subscription: [email protected] CHRIS SMITH Language Editor Copyright © Journal of Nordregio MARGARETA DAHLSTRÖM Book Reviews Editor ISSN 1650–5891 ADRESSES:

NORDREGIO JON P. KNUDSEN MARGARETA DAHLSTRÖM Box 1658 Espevik Nordregio SE-111 86 Stockholm NO-4780 Brekkestø Box 1658 Sweden Norway SE-111 86 Stockholm Tel. +46 8 463 54 00 Tel. +47 37 27 56 90 Sweden Fax +46 8 463 54 01 E-mail [email protected] Tel. +46 8 463 54 00 www.nordregio.se Fax +46 8 463 54 01

NORDIC COUNCIL OF MINISTERS Nordregio is a centre for research, education and documentation on spatial development, established by the Nordic Council of Ministers. JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO EDITORIAL 3

Diving into the report “ På väg mot may be difficult to move from a stra- hållbar tillväxt? Regionala tillväxtpro- tegic to an operational level in the grammen 2004” published by NUTEK, field of regional growth politics, this ON TRACK, and cited as the reference document for becomes even more difficult when the rosy statements on the web site, a the strategic goals remains unspeci- OR JUST feeling of uncertainty immediately takes fied. hold. The main reason for this is that a • NUTEK refrains from providing even number of the conclusions in the report WALKING an estimate of the economic effects point in a rather different direction to of the work undertaken thus far. the one presented in the headline state- AROUND? More importantly, NUTEK also ment offered up in the Government. refrains from evaluating the effects of the growth agreement process on the conditions for future economic To cite some of them: growth. • The conclusion that the growth pro- For anyone familiar with regional grammes emanate from the needs of growth policies the complexity surroun- the business community is conte- ding these policy fields is well known. sted, predominantly by the represen- On the other hand, these are also policy tatives of the business community fields strongly embedded in popular themselves, as well as from the orga- imagination, while expectations remain nisations representing it. eeking regional economic growth that such politics can make a difference Sand development is paramount to • Several public authorities describe in respect of regional economic and most countries, and the prestige taken the mandate for the growth agree- living conditions. Therefore regional in finding good procedures and prac- ment processes as unclear and growth policies are at the forefront of tices to accomplish it can hardly be hence chose to give low priority to the political debate with both politicians underestimated. Not surprisingly there- participation in these processes. and the electorate alike. fore the Swedish government takes great pride in its growth agreements policy and also in their performance. According to the text displayed on the Thus to postulate that Swedish growth policy Ministry of Industry, Employment and is on track has been reduced to a question of Communication website the Swedish growth agreement concept is a success. specifying the track. The Ministry states that the pro- grammes are firmly rooted in the respective regions and in the needs of • Many participants in the relevant NUTEK’s double role as governmental their business communities. partnership processes point to a policy agency and evaluator of govern- Furthermore, the participants of the general incapacity to proceed from a mental policy success however offers a various regional partnerships see great general strategy to the operational difficult point of departure when evalua- value in having a common programme policy level. ting the success (or otherwise) of guiding their work and agree that they Swedish regional growth policy and its • National sector authorities mostly bring value added both to private enter- prime instruments, namely, the growth seem to ignore the growth agree- prise and to the region more generally. agreements and their related partners- ment agendas, this particularly hips. The responsible body for scrutinising seems to be the case with such the growth agreements and their conco- important sectors as those relating When evaluating, the terms of refe- mitant work in regional partnerships is to infrastructure, internationalisation rence will often serve as a means of NUTEK, the Swedish Agency for and finance. These are however the measurement. In this case this neces- Economic and Regional Growth. The sectors that could make the diffe- sary point de repère seems to be mis- agency’s own website proclaims that rence when reshaping regional sing. This is strange as we do have the growth agreement processes remain policy agendas. some evidence of how Swedish part- on track. The work carried out is charac- nerships compare to partnership perfor- • The reciprocal influence on coordina- terised by high intensity and a positive mances in other countries. Thus to post- ting the various sectoral policies and ambiance. No major change of direction ulate that Swedish growth policy is on on coordinating overall national and is needed; the growth agreement pro- track has been reduced to a question of regional policies remains week. cesses should rather seek to strengthen specifying the track. As such, the tacit themselves within the existing frame- • There is widespread uncertainty as to definition of track in this case must refer works. the concrete outcome of the work to any kind of ground found under one’s performed within the regional part- feet when walking. One potential improvement is cited nerships. however as the involvement of the nati- onal sector authorities is judged as • More than half of the regions being unsatisfactory in meeting the regi- involved do not have a common stra- onal coordination requirements within tegic document that gives guidelines the processes. for their work. Considering that it JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO NORDEN 4 The Select Few – Urban Concentration in the Baltic Sea Region

stantial. For example, the nine capital eastern parts of the region manufactu- regions of the BSR (plus Hamburg and ring constitutes the main source of eco- St Petersburg) account for more than a nomic activity, the most extreme case third of the region’s entire production being Belarus, where in the 24 main value, although they contain only a fifth urban centres of the country more than of its population on a mere 3% of its two thirds of the workforce is employed land area. In 2002 the GDP per capita in in manufacturing. However, cities such these metropolitan regions was 1.6 times as Tampere and Lahti in Finland or higher than in the rest of the BSR and Bremen in Germany demonstrate that this gap is steadily widening. this is not exclusively an eastern affair. The question however remains whether By Tomas Hanell & Jörg Neubauer Corporate decision-making in the these cities will in the long run maintain region is also very concentrated. More Research Fellows, Nordregio this structure, or whether the economy than 90% of the HQ’s of the largest BSR will be transformed in favour of non- enterprises are located in metropolitan material production. Current trends in areas, primarily in the western BSR. In Although lying largely outside the most eastern BSR countries indicate that the eastern BSR the concentration to European Pentagon, the Baltic Sea the latter seems to be the case. Region (BSR) nonetheless constitutes a these cities is not as marked, as 60% of part of the European urban system the 40 largest eastern BSR HQ’s are The metropolitan cities are also centres acting as the main transport gateway bet- located in metropolitan areas, most of for most traffic. An estimated two thirds ween continental Europe and northern the remaining ones are however also in of all passenger air traffic in the BSR is Eurasia. The BSR contains a significant large Polish cities (e.g. Krakow and channelled through the metropolitan proportion of the total number of Wroclaw). Furthermore, of the BSR areas alone. Moreover, rail and road European cities, mainly due to the dense offices of the 46 most global producer transport networks in most cases also network of cities existent in Poland. Even service firms, more than 90% are located converge in metropolitan areas. In so, the density of cities is nearly three in only eight metropolitan cities of the respect of sea transport however the times higher in the EU than in the BSR. region. situation is not as polarised, as many BSR metropoles are either land- locked The entire population of the BSR is less The demographic magnetism of larger or do not have significant port functions. than a quarter that of the EU25, although cities in general and metropolitan areas its area corresponds to more than 60% in particular is also strong. The migra- Depending on the varying historical of the equivalent EU one. tion surplus to the twelve metropolitan processes when it comes to the founding Taken as a single economic meso- cities during the period 1995-2001 was and location of universities and other region the BSR is neither large nor pro- on average 0.2% each year. However, academic research institutions, the pic- sperous in comparison with the suburbanisation and increased commu- ture differs slightly from one BSR country European core. The size of the BSR’s ting entails that the absolute winners to the next. In general however, the larger economy amounts to a mere 17% of that among the cities of the BSR (when taken BSR centres dominate academic rese- of the EU25. The total Gross Domestic as a group) are smaller settlements in arch. Thus, when it comes to the level of Product per capita in the BSR (excluding close proximity to metropolitan cities, for education, larger cities are generally in a Belarus) when adjusted for differences in which the corresponding figure was 0.5% stronger position than smaller ones, let purchasing power amounts to a level per year on average. alone rural areas. In the BSR as in the EU as a whole the share of population that estimated as being 28% below the EU25 A further indication of the role of has attained a tertiary level education is average in 2002. The inclusion of Belarus capital cities is that the relative level of in general substantially higher in densely would only further lower that ratio. housing prices vis-à-vis the second cities populated areas than in sparsely popu- in each country is between 10 and 220% lated ones. For instance in Lithuania the Cities as engines of development higher in the capitals, Berlin constituting ratio is 1:2 in favour of densely populated the major BSR exception. Cities and urban areas are without areas. Corporate R&D is also concen- doubt the main engines of economic The economic structure of metropo- trated primarily to metropolitan areas, development in the BSR. The concentra- litan cities as well as of most other large although cities such as Oulu demon- tion of economic activity, corporate deci- cities is dominated by the service sector. strate that this is not exclusively the case. sion-making, labour, foreign direct In the western BSR, services account for St Petersburg, with over 12% of all PhD investment, knowledge and innovation to the lion’s share of both employment and holders in the Russian Federation and the metropolitan areas in the BSR is sub- production. In many large cities in the nearly 11% of its research staff (as opp- JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO NORDEN 5

Employment change in BSR cities and rural areas 6 NORDEN JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO

labour productivity in the BSR is not par- ticularly high. Only Norway and Finland have a higher Gross Domestic Product per employed person than the average rate for the old EU15 Member States. This gap may not however exist for long as labour productivity in the eastern countries of the BSR is rising, whereas it is, in relative terms at least, decreasing in all western BSR countries save for Denmark. Spatial polarisation however remains strong as the BSR hosts many of the wealthiest EU regions as well as most of the poorest ones. Among those one hun- dred (NUTS3) regions in the EU with the lowest GDP per capita in 2002 no less than 56 were within the BSR. Additionally all seven Russian BSR regions qualify in the same category as in all likelihood would those from Belarus – were compa- rable data to be available. The relative disparity between the regions of a country is clearly largest in BSR Germany, as the east-west distinction remains sharp. Overall regional polarisa- tion is also substantial in Latvia, Estonia and BSR Russia, while it is marginal in Sweden and Denmark and also small in Norway. Even more alarming however are the most recent development trends. Comparing the total regional disparities between 1995 and 2002 (Norway and the Russian BSR 1995-00) they have incre- ased in all countries save for the Russian parts of the region. Employment rate in BSR cities and rural areas. Similar concentration patterns are also discernible with regard to employment although in traditional Polish manufactu- osed to a mere 3.9% of the population), Germany and Russia being the only sig- ring cities in particular the decline in the constitutes the single largest concentra- nificant exceptions. Not taking into number of jobs has been colossal. tion of scientists in the BSR. Although account the last three years, develop- Disregarding the obvious national diffe- steadily declining throughout the 1990s ments in Denmark have been similar to rences, city size then remains an impor- they still numbered nearly 100 000 per- those of the EU as a whole. tant factor in explaining new job creation sons in 2002, which is over twice as The key driver in the economic develop- (Figure 1). In general, the larger the city, many as in e.g. the whole of Sweden. ment of the BSR varies from country to the more favourable has been the deve- Much of the research currently carried country, but some common patterns and lopment of its employment, the Silesian out in St Petersburg is however not trends are discernible. The relative pro- conurbation(s) constituting the major market-driven. sperity of the BSR stems primarily from a BSR exception. The only main exceptions high level of labour utilisation, i.e. sub- to this “size-of-city” pattern in the BSR Economic polarisation stantial proportions of the working age are a number of smaller cities surroun- population are actually employed and ding metropolitan areas, but even here Despite the varying points of departure, development is highly selective, dividing economic growth has been exceptionally work comparatively long hours. The eas- tern parts of the region have correspon- these commuting cities into winners and good across the BSR. During the ten- losers alike. year period 1995-2004 almost all BSR dingly high rates in comparison with economies, on average, experienced other CEE countries, especially when In the BSR as a whole, rural areas have faster economic growth than the considering the hours worked per in general performed slightly worse than European Union, with the BSR parts of employee. Contrary to popular belief, the cities they surround with regard to JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO NORDEN 7

new job creation. This holds true for most areas of the BSR indicating that the process of the concentration of employ- ment opportunities to urban areas cont- inues unabated. Branch-wise data on employment change provides further insight as to the current transition process in the BSR. Although the area is diverse some common traits can be observed. Primary production is by and large now being dis- mantled in the region, while manufactu- ring is also on the decline. The main source of new employment, measured in absolute terms, comes from the rising number of jobs in the service sector. Although little comparable data exists to corroborate the fact, much of the increase in the service industries pro- bably stems from increases in private services rather than in public ones. Capital and other large city regions have, in general, seen the most rapid employ- ment growth. The twelve metropolitan regions alone account for approximately one third of the total BSR increase in ser- vice sector employment. There seems then to be an ongoing process of labour reorganisation in the BSR where agricultural jobs lost in perip- heral regions and manufacturing ones in Population change in BSR cities and rural areas. industrial regions are being replaced by service sector jobs in metropolitan areas and other large cities. This transition have Poland, where only 51% of the mies, with the new Millennium contin- process cannot but help to reinforce the population aged 15-64 years are uing to witness changes in the east that ongoing shifts in the settlement struc- employed. The other countries fall in bet- are still negative but not as dramatic as ture of the region. Moreover, in countries ween these extremes, but all eastern BSR those that have occurred previously. – such as Poland or Belarus – that have countries remain below the EU25 ave- In the Nordic countries the opposite both a large rural population and a relati- rage. On the city level, national rates are situation prevails, as Finland, Norway vely underdeveloped service sector, the once again mirrored (Figure 2). and Sweden have witnessed a constant likelihood of increased future rural-urban Nevertheless, the metropolitan cities population increase throughout the post- migration seems greater. remain, for the most part, in a far better war era. With the brief exception of a position with regard to employment fre- In respect of unemployment, national period in the early 1980s, this also holds quency than most other major cites in differences are in general mirrored at the true for Denmark. their respective countries. However, for city level although unemployment is by the second and third tier of large and Due to high birth rates overriding sub- and large lower in the larger cities than medium-sized cities in particular, the stantial emigration the population of in their respective countries on the pattern is different in virtually every Poland has also increased steadily whole. Somewhat unexpectedly the diffe- country of the region. throughout the post-war era up to the rences between countryside and city are turn of the Millennium, when for the first rather small. Distinct urban-rural diffe- time the Polish population began to rences with regard to unemployment Demographic shifts within the BSR show a tendency towards decline. now exist only in some parts of Poland. urban system The Baltic States and the BSR parts of As regards employment, the only BSR Since the early 1990s the population Russia display an overall population countries to currently lie above the structure of the BSR has undergone a decline in urban and rural areas alike. Lisbon target of an employment rate of number of significant changes. A major Apart from Lithuania, this decline has 70% are Denmark, Norway and Sweden. decline occurred in the eastern BSR been faster in towns than in the country- At the other end of the scale however we population in the years directly following the dismantling of the planned econo- side (Figure 3). 8 NORDEN JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO

In Norway and Denmark again the opp- Smaller cities in commuting distance disproportionately higher shares of osite situation prevails as both urban from large metropoles are the largest elderly population in comparison with and rural areas exhibit rapid growth winners in the BSR. This holds true for the rest of their countries. However, the rates. In Norway, which contrary to all BSR metropolitan areas apart from remaining metropolitan cities are either Denmark is still in its urbanisation those in the Baltic States and Belarus. somewhat on a par with their respective phase, growth has been substantially countries or have significantly lower The pattern for the non-urban areas of faster in cities than in rural areas, whe- rates. Most satellite towns around the the BSR varies. The region’s rural areas reas Denmark shows a more balanced large cities have lower shares of elderly are divided by a hypothetical loop encir- growth. population. One commonality that most cling the three northernmost counties of BSR countries share is having substanti- Finland and Sweden, and to a lesser Norway, covering Sweden, Finland and ally lower rates of older persons in rural extent also Belarus, display the textbook BSR Russia, through the Baltic States areas and very small towns. urbanisation pattern with rapid urban and ending in Belarus. In these countries growth and equally rapid rural decline. In – apart from Stockholm county, the urba- Belarus the rural “exodus” is admittedly nised triangle in southern Finland, substantial, but it is completely oversha- Murmansk oblast and St Petersburg, the “Actors” and “reactors” dowed by the highly negative natural capital regions of Estonia and Latvia as population balance in these areas. In well as a handful of other regions in the To conclude, spatial polarisation in the some rural areas of eastern Belarus this Baltic States – rural inhabitants are BSR increasingly predominates across decline has exceeded the rate of 2 % on decreasing at a, for the most part, alar- virtually all fields of society as globalisa- average every year. Finally, in Poland and ming rate. The situation is similar albeit tion and structural change have taken a in the German parts of the BSR, the con- not as critical, for the rural population in firm grip of both its eastern and western trary situation prevails – as rural areas three other Norwegian counties, the areas alike. The international business are gaining and urban areas are loosing Danish Sønderjylland and five Polish voi- centres in the BSR are, with few excep- population. In the German parts of the vodships. tions, primarily metropolitan areas. This BSR, natural population change is nega- is not to imply however that more perip- The current pattern concerning the tive in all rural areas apart from heral locations remain untouched by eco- balance between different age groups Lüneburg. nomic globalisation, though empirical remains polarised. A relatively high evidence suggests that its effects do The Nordic countries and Belarus dis- number of young persons can generally differ, dividing the regions and cities of play a further “classic” development cle- be found in smaller settlements surroun- the BSR into “actors” and “reactors”. arly tied to city size, i.e. the larger the ding the large metropoles of the BSR. Small and peripherally located settle- city, the better, on average, the perfor- The reason for this is obvious: families ments lacking the necessary levers to mance with regard to population growth. with children of this age have chosen to actively take part in the international divi- settle in the surrounding areas of the sion of labour often suffer most in this Amongst all 521 BSR cities where the metropoles because they have children, respect. Many of the BSR countries are population has declined between 1995 hence generally obtaining more spacious relatively small in economic terms and and 2001, nearly 80%, or 406 cities, are housing at a lower cost than would have are thus often simply unable to compete located in the eastern BSR. This is a sub- been the case had they settled in the on a par with the major European econo- stantially higher share than the share of cities themselves. The gulf between the mies, let alone globally. As such then the eastern BSR cities from the BSR as a core metropolitan city and its’ surroun- concentration of effort into the promo- whole. dings is, with regard to the young popu- tion of a select few urban centres seems The leading role played by migration is lation, evident in virtually all of the rational. The question however remains evident for the cities of the Baltic Sea metropolitan and large city areas and whether this type of concentration is sus- Region, where migration accounts for particularly wide around the largest cities tainable in the long run, indeed, is it approximately two thirds of all urban of Poland. Moving beyond the metropo- even sustainable now? population change in the region. litan areas, the pattern in the BSR is However, low nativity and/or high morta- almost exclusively such that the smaller The article is based on the recently lity provide the primary engine behind the city, the higher the share of children. published Nordregio report “Cities of the the course of demographic changes in Adding further momentum to the dispa- Baltic Sea Region – Development Trends at the cities of BSR Russia, and to a lesser rity, the highest young age dependency the Turn of the Millennium”. All images extent, Latvia. rates are in rural areas. can be downloaded from www.nordregio.se The single largest absolute decline in When it comes to the share of elderly BSR urban population has taken place in persons the distribution with regard to St Petersburg, as the city’s population the urban structure is not as clear-cut as decreased by approximately 140 000 per- is the case with the younger age groups. sons over the period in question, solely Rather, in this case each country displays due to an excess of deaths over births. its own structure. Some common pat- Increased mortality combined with decli- terns are nevertheless apparent. In half ning birth rates is the primary cause. of the BSR countries, large cities have 9INSHORT JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO

dated 15 July 2005, the EU commission Amendments Proposed on IN SHORT... opened the way for a reintroduction of Literal Zoning Legislation regionally differentiated social security contribution in Northern Norway. The The Ministry of Sustainable Norwegian government expressed its Development has proposed amendments hope that the Commission would extend to the regulations prohibiting general this position to also encompass selected building in the literal zone. The new regu- lations seek to differentiate the regime New Municipal Names Confirmed regions in Southern Norway. The draft further uses the term ‘flexibility’ in dis- according to regional preconditions. This In the Journal of Nordregio 2005:2 the cussing the geographical aspects of state will make the regime more liberal in preliminary names for the new Danish aid regulations, which is interpreted by regions rich in shore areas and sparse in municipalities following the structural the Government as a signal that the population like the Interior North, North reform were presented. Some names Commission may be softening its posi- West Svealand and Småland, whereas the were then bracketed due to the actual tion on the question of national control regime will be significantly tightened in discussion then taking place. The official over the specific geographies of state aid other parts of Sweden. The Ministry will, new names of the then bracketed munici- regimes. in addition, authorise the County palities are as follows: Administrative Boards to overrule deci- sions taken by the municipalities within •Assens (Assens) its field of competence, a proposition •Faxe (Ny Haslev) that has attracted much opposition from •Fredensborg (Fredensborg) the Swedish Association of Local •Frederiksværk-Hundested Authorities and Regions. (Frederiksværk-Hundested) Growth Agreements on Track •Gribskov (Ny Græsted-Gilleleje) In a report on the ongoing processes • Jammerbugt (Jammerbugt) for growth agreements for the period • Lolland (Ny Nakskov) 2004 – 2007, The Swedish Agency for • Thisted (Ny Thisted) Economic and Regional Growth, NUTEK, •Vejen (Ny Vejen) concludes that these processes have now •Vordingborg (Ny Vordingborg) been properly embedded. Though several points in respect of the goals, sectoral involvement and actual achievement remain unclear, the agency points to the agreements as important platforms for mutual learning and influence. The Fight over Municipality Size Innovative agency further presents a list of improve- A heated discussion has broken out follo- ments to be implemented in the years wing a decision by the Association of ahead, giving first priority to an approved Indicators Finnish Local and Regional Authorities to commitment by national sectoral authori- endorse the demand for larger municipali- ties within the framework of the regional October 19-21 ties. The representatives of the Swedish- agreements. (See editorial for comment.) Roskilde, Denmark speaking minority are the main opponents A three day course from Nordregio of this measure, fearing that their territorial Failing Regional Growth Policy bases in the costal areas of Ostrobothnia Academy for all who must use, and Southern Finland would be further In a report on the scope and results of interpret and understand indicators eroded were such a municipal reform to Swedish regional growth policy from the as a part of their ongoing work. become operational. The main Swedish- Swedish Institute for Growth Policy Included topics are: Understanding language newspaper, Hufvudstadsbladet, Studies, written by Bjarne Lindström, indicators, a critique of commonly recently published an editorial attacking the Swedish policy for regional growth is used indicators, innovative ways to Association’s decision. more or less classified as being a failure. generate and use indicators, the Too broad in scope and too ready to use of indicators in monitoring and please any policy need, the policy field communicating one’s own projects. has, the report suggests, become an arena for divergent interests and general The deadline is 19 September (the dialogue, while the more targeted policy course is over half full at initiatives remain unaddressed. The September 1) but we will accept EU Opens up on Policy Measures reason for this seems to reside in the registrants so long as there is The never-ending discussion between systemic faults of Swedish politics more room: so go to http://www.nord- the Norwegian government and the EU than in a deliberate unwillingness to regio.se/academy2005.htm for on the nature of geographical state aid create a functioning policy regime. (See more information and for registra- regulation, have taken a new turn. In its Bjarne Lindström in “Right Now” for tion forms. draft on new regional policy regulations, comment.) JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO RIGHT NOW 10

Rhetoric and Substance in Sweden's New Regional Policy

implies - related to economic growth, but relates also to the problem of regi- onal disparities and national cohesion. This dual and thus rather unclear policy objective leads to a number of conflic- ting targets and priorities being set. Secondly, the main strategy behind the policy is to ensure that partners join forces around the needs of enhanced regional growth. Moreover, with such a wide array of problems and tasks to resolve this becomes very difficult, while the rallying cry to joint forces often merely throws together a blurred collec- tion of disparate interests. Thirdly, the partnerships, which are highlighted as the main agents for implementing the policy, have rarely become operative. They lack the necessary power to pursue their role as the agents of structural change and economic growth. And finally, the geographical arena chosen By Bjarne Lindström, Director sectors, and potent policy implementa- for implementation of the policy - the Statistics and Research Åland tion via the so called "growth agree- regional level - is characterized by an ments" between all relevant stakehol- unstructured multitude of agents and The mid-1990s saw Swedish economic ders - including the private sector. authorities, which often lack resources and clear policy responsibilities. policy in a perilous state. Since 1991, Four years have now passed since this economic growth had dwindled to zero new growth-oriented regional develop- The result is a regional policy characte- or below, and unemployment had ment policy was introduced in the rized by experimentation and uncer- soared to levels unheard of in Sweden Riksdag. Since then, several attempts tainty over means, strategies, objectives, since the beginning of the 1930s. The have been made to generate an overview policy responsibilities and implementing economic crisis impacted upon all parts of the new policy, including its connec- actors. There are two main reasons for of Sweden - including metropolitan tion to the European Union's regional what we may term the unstable status regions such as Stockholm, Malmö and policy interventions in Sweden. Due to of Sweden's new regional development Gothenbourg. The crisis severely chal- the complexity of the regional policy policy: (1) The difficulties of dealing with lenged the precepts of traditional field this has however proved rather dif- the relation between function and terri- Swedish regional policy, focused on ficult. Most efforts have therefore been tory, and (2) the handling of conflicts state support for the country's most restricted to evaluations of specific parts between tackling regional disparities and sparsely populated and geographically of the regional policy field. This inspired stimulating economic growth. peripheral regions. A new policy was the Swedish Institute for Growth Policy The first problem concerns shortco- needed - a policy that addressed growth Studies (ITPS) to commission a com- mings in the basic policy approach. problems not only in traditional "sup- prehensive analysis of the new regional There is a significant difference between port regions", but also in urban regions policy approach. The result was pre- policy interventions in areas characte- in the more central parts of the country. sented in connection with the annual rized by a high degree of functionally gathering of national politicians in The result was the introduction of a based social needs (e.g. the education Visby in June 2005. new regional policy aimed at the enhan- and welfare sectors) and policy fields in cement of growth across the whole The ITPS-study highlights the existence which needs and goals are defined in Swedish territory, peripheral and central of a number of problems and ambigui- terms of territorial development (e.g. regions alike. The credo of the new ties within the new Swedish regional regional policy). Sweden has never deve- approach was the promotion of growth development policy. First, the overall loped a political tradition or administra- in every region through the better coor- problem that the policy is supposed to tive praxis to handle this critical diffe- dination of state policies within various address is not solely - as its rhetoric rence. Instead, the Swedish model is 11 RIGHT NOW JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO

based on a complex web of state-con- trolled sector policy in combination with Nordregio is an institute for applied research and development. Our fields of study varying degrees of territorial delegation. include regional development, urban policy and spatial planning, as well as the cross As such, the stakeholders' overlapping cutting aspects of spatial and regional policies. Sustainable development and territorial roles often lead to unclear responsibili- cohesion are among the most important policy issues in this respect. The geographical ties and difficulties in handling conflicts focus of the Institute is on the Nordic countries, the Baltic Sea Region and the between sector-based interests and terri- European institutional dimension. Our main clients are the Nordic Council of Ministers, torial interests. the European Union, and the governments and regions of the Nordic countries. The institute is located in attractive surroundings in the City of Stockholm, Sweden. The second problem is related to ambiguities in the basic objective of regional development policy. Working on multiple objectives within a policy field Senior Research Fellow / is not easy, especially if some of the objectives are contradictory. Since eco- nomic growth and decreasing geo- Research Fellow graphic disparities rarely go hand in hand, this is a well -known problem Nordregio seeks a new staff member with a proven track record in the field of within regional policy. It is difficult, not planning i.e. physical-functional planning/territorial planning/spatial planning. to say impossible, to completely over- come conflicting policy targets. Your main task will be to work with planning issues pertaining to the Nordic However, as long as such conflicts are Countries as well as Europe, including the various aspects arising at the diffe- openly addressed, they are possible to rent administrative levels of government. handle. The difference between success and failure is having clearly elaborated priorities between the conflicting objec- We expect you to have experience in, and a broad knowledge of, current scien- tives. Unfortunately, clear-cut and well - tific developments in the international academic field of planning and spatial prioritized objectives are not a promi- development as well as a broad knowledge of Nordic and European formal plan- nent feature of Swedish regional policy. ning systems. On the contrary, the policy is characte- We further expect that you are experienced in the various aspects of project rized by a tendency to down play or even development and project management. neglect conflicting policy targets. You must have an extensive international network of research contacts and a The overall conclusion of the ITPS- good knowledge of the more practical and administrative elements of planning study is thus that there is an urgent at different administrative levels. need to re-think the main goals and ope- rational set-up of Swedish regional Fluency in English and in a Scandinavian language is essential for all applicants. development policy. Moreover, this Other European languages are an additional advantage. As dissemination is review should include a clearly stated central to our role, you should also enjoy lecturing and other dissemination acti- position on the important issue of eco- vities and have a proven track record in this area. nomic growth versus regional cohesion. Furthermore, it should aim at building a Nordregio has a multi-disciplinary staff and, as such, boasts an eclectic working policy that can handle the tricky relati- environment. A senior research fellow is expected to hold a PhD or have similar onship between territorial and sector qualifications, in addition to a number of years of relevant experience. A rese- interests. The study suggests a number arch fellow should have at least attained a Master’s Degree. Your task is to ini- of important steps that could be taken tiate, lead and participate in research and development projects. As a senior to pave the way towards such a re-for- research fellow your task is also to lead and supervise young researchers. mulation, thus making possible a Swedish policy that would be capable of Nordregio offers you the opportunity to become part of an international institu- delivering real ‘value added’ in terms of tion. The position offers a significant career development potential in terms of fostering regional growth. Among these encouraging successful applicants to build and/or enhance their own internati- propositions the following three are of onal network of contacts in both the policy and the more strictly academic fundamental importance: fields. We offer competitive salaries and term contracts with a maximum length of four years. The contract is renewable once for an additional four years. For • Making it absolutely clear that regi- further information, please contact the institute’s director, Ole Damsgaard, by onal growth is the top-priority objec- telephone on +46-8-4635400 or by e-mail at [email protected]. tive • Limiting the number of responsible Written applications including a CV and references should be addressed to policy actors and creating a clear-cut Nordregio, Box 1658, S-11186 Stockholm, Sweden, and must be received no later division of responsibilities between than 10 October 2005. E-mail applications addressed to the national and the regional levels [email protected] will also be considered. • Removing regional state aid in its present form In todays's politics, and in both its ideological and practical aspects, planning is a contested notion. The Nordic countries have traditionally been strong planners, athough planning processes have developed, on the whole, independently in each country. The Journal of Nordregio, starting in this issue with a visit to Denmark, will set out to tour the Nordic area to investigate the current state of planning and the challenges faced.

Intending to Change Danish Geography

An interview with Danish minister of planning, Connie Hedegaard

By Jon P. Knudsen And I would like to stress that an ade- - Much discussion has taken place on the quate physical planning is in the interest role of planning following the recent admi- - Being minister for planning, how would of business. Without physical planning, nistrative reform. Many commentators you describe the Government's overall the daily landscape will soon turn into a have advocated a stronger role for the new goals and ambitions in respect of Danish mess, for instance environmentally and regions in physical planning as many of the planning? traffically, reducing possibilities for profit municipalities, especially in the for everyone. Physical and spatial plan- Copenhagen region, will still be to small to - It is a fundamental goal of my ning must respect a balance between cover anything like a functional region. Government to recast Denmark into a market and state and avoid going into What are the main reasons for the leading participant in the global informa- extremes in either direction - at the least Government's advocated position in this tion society. It is the task of national this argument is important in a very discussion? planning to contribute to realise that small country. - Fundamentally, we in the Government goal. This will demand changes of the have the intention to bring decisions as way we use our territory. Our land use is - Following the ascent to power of the close as possible to the citizens. The in many ways still reflecting our indus- first liberal-conservative coalition in 2001, new municipalities are large enough to trial past. We really need to adjust the the national planning section of the deal with the planning issues for which territorial structure of our country to new Ministry of the environment was removed they are going to be responsible. I know times of competition from an ever more from the central ministerial organisation the opposition parties say that our globalised production. It will of course and subsumed under the Danish Forest nature and environment will be take years to do so. But it is my intention and Nature Agency. For many, this action destroyed when municipalities become to promote this change of Danish geo- was a deliberate attempt to reduce the responsible for planning in the country- graphy. The coming National Planning political role of planning. Is this a correct side. This is really nonsense, only reflec- Report will take a crucial step here. observation of the Government's intention? ting these parties' warped attitudes to - Some advocate that planning, both as a - Your question reflects another misun- municipal decision-rights. concept and as an instrument of social derstanding. The restructuring of the Concerning the Metropolitan area of change, has been the legacy of post-war administration was caused by trivial Greater Copenhagen, the special regula- socialist or social-democratic rule. Do you practical reasons. After the restructuring, tions in the new Planning Act will secure subscribe to such a view? the same people are administering the that planning will be co-ordinated where - It is a common misunderstanding to same legislation as they did before. Also necessary. Land use in the metropolitan equate planning with socialism. Physical practice in relation to other planning aut- area will be regulated through a National planning is not patented by anyone. It is horities has continued unchanged. Do Planning Directive giving general princi- the content and purpose of planning dis- not over-estimate the importance of ples for urban development, recreational positions that matters. administrative structures! areas etc. JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO FEATURE 13

- Denmark is the only Nordic country to real life. The coming regions will, employ national physical planning. What however, be involved in that type of exer- are the advantages and problems of this cise, partly: The regions are going to approach to planning? combine strategies for regional business development made by "Growth Fora" - To begin, let us get things right: and policies for regional development of Denmark does not possess a physical educations, employment, culture, envi- plan for the whole country. On national ronment and other relevant themes into level, we have policies, strategies, inten- a joint "Regional Development Plan". tions. The Government publishes a Growth Fora are bodies where regional Connie Hedegaard. National Planning Report stipulating its businesses and labour market institu- policies in relation to territorial develop- tions are represented together with local ment. We have in the Planning Act and regional authorities and institutions restrictions on the location in coastal of education. The Regional Development areas and on the size of shopping malls some of the major principles that later Plan is not a traditional physical plan which local and regional authorities were incorporated into the ESDP. locating different activities, however, but must respect. And in cases where local a more strategic tool and thus a chal- ESPON, as I understand it, is a rese- planning is going against vital national lenge for planners. I'm confidently loo- arch programme delivering descriptions interests, we also have the possibility to king forward to see how the result will of territorial trends in Europe for ban or change local planning proposals. be. instance in relation to globalisation and And, of course, local and regional plan- demography. These trends rise chal- ning must respect our legislation, for - Different countries obviously have diffe- lenges to spatial planning also in instance concerning natural values. rent planning styles and traditions. Is Denmark and ESPON gives inspiration Denmark currently seeking international when we try to understand and cope In the National Planning Report, the inspiration in order to refresh its current with these trends. We are in the coming Government sends signals concerning planning styles and procedures? National Planning Report going to des- physical planning to the local planning cribe some of the trends and give an authorities. Experience tells that munici- - We are always trying to learn from adequate response. palities and regions generally make their other countries' experience. In relation to plans in accordance to these signals. the new Planning Act, the way regional - EU regional programmes as well as his- Also, the picture of Denmark described planning is organised in England and in torical cross-border co-operation have cre- in the National Planning Report makes it France has influenced our thinking about ated a new foundation for regional plan- possible for locals to see themselves in regional development planning. We are, ning across national borders. The Øresund relation to others and in a larger context. however, far from copying those coun- region and the Danish-German border offer This seems to be highly appreciated. Of tries. But making our planning according two cases in point here. How are such chal- course, it could be a problem if national to our own needs and traditions. lenges dealt with in Danish planning planning and Government policies policy? become too detailed. It is our task to - Various EU schemes and programmes have over the years produced enormous - We consider the growing cross-border deal with national interests but not to co-operation really important and we poke our noses into local affairs. This is amounts of planning visions and docu- ments. Many of these can be found under support and promote the contacts in a balance which, I think, we are able to many ways. In our new Planning Act we manage. the labels of ESDP and ESPON. How, if at all, have these initiatives inspired Danish have stated that the new Regional - Merging physical, economic and social planning? Development Plan must include a des- planning is a great challenge, both as plan- cription of the co-operation on planning - The ESDP contains some guiding ning encounters other modes of political and development issues between the principles for spatial planning: Seek terri- steering, and as the various sector policies region and regions in other countries. torial cohesion and a balanced develop- But let me be realistic: Even if there is may respond differently to planning impe- ment, improve accessibility using trans- and indeed should be co-operation tuses. In the Danish context what are the port modes as sustainable as possible, across our national borders, the adjacent main challenges in this respect? be careful when dealing with natural and regions still are regions of their own. We - The policy and intentions of national cultural heritage etc. These principles have not reached the point where spatial planning must of course be in have been developed in a dialogue bet- regions on either side of the border have accordance with the economic policy ween EU member countries including grown together, economically, culturally and other policies of the Government as their planning departments. The princi- or administratively. So regional planning well. But we are far from a merging. I ples express a mutual understanding, remains within the national realm. also think, merging all these fields into a developed through the process of co- None-the-less it might be a good idea combined and comprehensive plan operation. In this process, Denmark already now to start working on common would result in a system that would be contributed to the formulation of the master plans for cross-border areas in too centralised and too inflexible and principles of ESDP. Already in 1997, our order to manage physically the growing rigid when meeting the challenges of National Planning Report focused on functional connections. 14 FEATURE JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO

No Whips in the Toolbox

Jes Vestergaard Lars Berg Møller

hen the new Danish regions suc- - There are no whips in the planning There is far more turbulence in other Wceed the old counties in 2007, the toolbox any longer, nor grenades, regions such as Mid-Jutland and the style and scope of planning will change Vestergaard says. _Future planning acti- Copenhagen capital region. accordingly. The regions will no longer vities will have to use carrots as their be responsible for physical planning. main tool of operation. The old type of - (LM:) Let me add to this that now Instead they will be trusted with stra- regional plans that we are used to more than ever we need to form new tegic development planning. seeing will disappear. Instead we will mental images of the region. If we suc- have to rely on dialogue and discussions ceed in doing that, the new regional within the region to spur on coopera- plan will become even more important By Jon P. Knudsen tion between municipalities and across than the present plan. the various sectors encompassing the Jes Vestergaard, head of the North - Is the ambition still that North-Jutland new regional arena. Crucial to our suc- Jutland planning department, and Lars should be the best student in the regional cess will be the ability to present viable Berg Møller, planning project manager, planning class? are at the epicentre of planning in strategies and visions. Northern Jutland, and they have a repu- - (JV:) Yes, and I think we have a good - Will there be a general acceptance of tation as good planners. In a recent point of departure given the cultural and this in the region? Nordic comparison of regional strategic structural reasons that I just mentioned. economic planning, Northern Jutland, - (JV:)I think so. Northern Jutland has I would also like to point to our together with Finnish Northern some advantages in this regard. We University as an important contribution Ostrobothnia, was ranked as an obvious have a homogenous culture and an in this respect. Contrary to the university success in meeting the needs of this urban structure with Ålborg being a in Århus with its rather classical aca- type of planning, especially through the natural centre for the region. The old demic style, our University has proven coining of the Digital North Jutland con- rivalry between Hjørring and Ålborg fol- its ability to interact with the regional cept. The future, though, seems uncer- lowing the previous county revision pro- business community in a very fruitful tain. cess has thus now been overcome. way. The result is that we can point to software electronics, biotechnical hard- mental coordinating ability is not that - Concerning roles and organisation, ware, and nanotechnology as promising impressive either. It is the counties that what will become of the present part- fields of further business development. have been responsible for much of the nership structures? In addition let me also mention the tra- coordination actually performed in plan- _ (JV:) There is a remarkable interest ditional business sectors and industries ning. What we actually experience is that being taken by our present partners in that weigh heavily in this region. If we the various national sectors take great debating and coining the regional strate- were able to contribute to even a small interest in making their voices heard in gies, and I hope it will be possible to relative development in these busi- the debate over the last regional plan- capitalise on this interest in the years nesses this would have a very significant ning documents now being prepared, as ahead. impact on the regional economy and on these documents will lay the foundation the employment situation as a whole. for the coming round of municipal plan- _ (LM:) We have to realise that contri- ning. If there is to be a national coordi- butors, whether we talk about organisa- - How do you view the loss of physical nator it is more likely to be the Ministry tions or individuals in the regional set- planning to the municipal level? of Finance than the Ministry for the up, are much the same as hitherto. While the national framework for regi- - (JV:) The government has spoken of Environment. onal planning changes, the regional the need for a strengthening of national - Will the new type of regional planning partnership alliances remain more or physical planning to compensate for the being undertaken from 2007 onwards have less unchanged. demise of regional physical planning. I sufficient authority to make itself heard? subscribe to such an intention because I - Practically. How will the transition from think that the municipalities are prone - (JV:) If it is of a sufficient quality from one planning regime to the next take in the main to very heterogeneous and a professional point of view, then yes it place? politically short-sited dispositions. will. _ (JV:) This autumn the county will Indeed such a change was needed, as - (LM:) And this will be more likely if it finalize an interim regional plan that will much of the coordinating planning effort manages to build upon the images and serve as a binding base for the new hitherto had been driven by the counties concepts that carry the relevant regional municipal plans. Given this special messages to the national arenas. The - In terms of the municipalities, will nati- arrangement we have experienced signi- council of municipal mayors within the onal planning support be coordinating in ficant interest from various sectors and new region will constitute an important scope, or will it take the form of uncoordi- segments who would like to have their forum for processing ideas and view- nated sectoral influence? say in this process, as this plan will points, though mayors will continue to become an important instrument for - (JV:) This is an important question. rely on the Chairman of the Region to further regional and local development. As you know, planning is not this smooth their way into national politics. governments’ ideological cup of tea, and Thus new roles follow with the new regi- if we look at it historically, govern- onal organisation. Municipal Joy Ahead

rom 2007 on the municipalities will - Are they prepared for it? - Let us take a function that today take over much of what have hit- demands three specialists at the F - There are different answers to this. herto been regional planning tasks. county level. When this task is decen- On a general level there have been no Lars Overgaard Jørgensen is a lecturer tralised to the municipal level, it goes preparations as such. Everything con- in planning at the University of cerning the structural reform has hap- without saying that even when redu- Aalborg, and he has read all of pened too fast for anyone to really cing the number of municipalities to Denmark’s municipal plans. Now he make preparations for a new planning only eleven, not all of them can be sees municipal joy ahead. situation. If we consider the new muni- experts in the same field, and thus that cipalities they will vary greatly with not all of them will be able to employ regard to staff and competence. an expert within this field. This type of Although the level of professionalism issue has not been adequately dealt By Jon P. Knudsen in general will rise, some municipalities with. One consequence could be that will still lack staff with the necessary the largest municipality, Ålborg, effecti- qualifications. vely re-assumes some of the functions - Of course the municipalities look that previously resided with the county. forward to the shift in planning respon- - What are the most immediate conse- sibilities. Their role in planning is beco- quences if, for example, we take a region - Do you see a more diversified planning ming more important, Jørgensen says. like North Jutland? praxis ahead? JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO FEATURE 17

- Yes. One reason for this is that the counties’ present role as a regional cor- rective to local planning activities will be abolished. The second reason is that the national prerequisites and gui- delines are rather bleak, meaning that the municipal planning position will be somewhat free, at least in the begin- ning.

- Will new roles, in terms of coopera- tion, also have to be developed between the various levels of planning? - I am concerned about the level of municipal enthusiasm in this regard. I do not see problems emerging in term of a new relationship between the regions and the municipalities. I do however think that the latter will have a tough time when entering into impor- tant discussions with the state. The state will have to reconsider its various interests, and I fear that the important sectoral interests will then have the upper hand. We often forget that the state struggles to harmonise its own interests, and what is now going to happen is that all three levels, namely, the state, the regions and the munici- palities are going to make new plans simultaneously. This fact alone will definitively place its mark on the work actually done. As such, it is likely that the various new regional state offices will endeavour to make themselves heard in the municipal planning pro- cesses.

- Will the ideological content of plan- ning change along with the change in roles and actors? - I see strong planning activity cont- inuing, albeit in a rather different the national planning office within the consequences of this for the capital form. There will be less emphasis on Ministry for the Environment will not region remain to be seen, but they are the old master plans and more focus be brought back in its previous form. clearly important though not easy to on a problem oriented planning style The spirit of Svend Auken that guided judge. Moreover, it is sad that the where the interaction between eco- it is forever gone. wider trans-national planning chal- nomic and physical planning comes to lenges in the Øresund-region have not the forefront. - To a foreigner it seems peculiar that a been discussed within a planning fram- reform aiming at the local level retains so ework. The Øresund case is to my - What will happen to planning when, many small municipalities in the capital knowledge a success, it deserved to or if, a Social Democratic government region of Copenhagen. What are the rea- have its own planning perspective. comes to power, will this precipitate a sons for this, and what are the conse- return to the old planning positions? quences for future planning? - The recent changes in the Social - The reason for this phenomenon is Democratic Party have given few sig- that the criteria for the new entities nals as to how these questions will be were set by the number of inhabitants dealt with. My personal guess is that and not by the size of their area. The 18 FEATURE JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO

The Hanseatic themed town of Jakriborg, Skåne

PHOTO: AXEL NELSON

The Theming of Urban Landscapes

From Las Vegas to Celebration to parks, however, today we can see themed towns in contemporary themed housing areas and even entire Europe themed towns. In these areas, the themes of ancient Rome or Egypt are Las Vegas might be the most promi- not as common as those of the ‘traditi- nent and well known example of the- onal’ small town. A well-known example ming, with ancient roman style in of this is the New Urbanism model Caesar’s Palace, Manhattan-atmosphere community of Celebration in Florida, with a miniature of Central Park and By Karin Bradley, Urban Studies, developed by the Walt Disney Company. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm Little Italy in the New York, New York It houses around 10 000 inhabitants complex, Egyptian-themed Luxor with and is based on the theme of pre-war the pyramids, Paris, Venice, etc. In small-town America. Leonie Sandercock oday, it has become increasingly “Learning from Las Vegas” (1972) describes the rules that enable the neat- common to theme new housing T Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown ness and orderliness of Celebration: areas or even entire towns. A recurrent note that the sign has become the buil- theme is the ‘traditional’ European small ding – architecture is used more as ”All houses must have a front porch, to town, sometimes with nationalistic over- advertising than shop, hotel or home. promote neighbourliness, and all will be tones. This article explores the pheno- within walking distance of the school and mena of theming and discusses what These grandiose ‘in-your-face’ themes ’downtown’ area. Those who are currently the demand for nostalgic small town life may be predominantly associated with moving in fully expect that other new resi- stands for. casinos, shopping and entertainment dents will have a similar outlook on life. ’It JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO FEATURE 19

The Paris-themed town of Val d’Europe on the outskirts of Paris. PHOTO: ANNA CHAVEPAYRE

seems to me that it will attract people winding medieval streets. The town has gardens, water landscapes, a forest for with the same values’, says one new resi- been developed by the company JAKRI walks and reeds softly moved by the air, … dent (quoted in Katz, 1997). And if it does AB, founded by the brothers Jan and but also a golf course at close hand.1 not, there is no shortage of rules to ensure Krister Berggren, whose names have (...)The architectural appearance of the conformity. All curtains visible from the given the town its name. In Stockholm, realised castles varies from picturesque street must be white, or off-white. Skanska has recently completed Tullinge modernism to straight pastiche (by Residents may not work on cars or boats in Trädgårdsstad, which is described as a Michael Graves and Sjoerd Soeters). These the street. All visible shrubbery must be “real garden city” and having a “genuine stylistic references may be instrumental in ’appropriate’ and approved by Disney. Swedish small town feeling” (Skanska addressing a market of buyers who spend Neighbourliness, you might say, is manda- Nya Hem, 2004:7). most of their time in office parks and in tory.” (Sandercock, 1998: 194) traffic jams; a sort of Classic FM in which On the outskirts of Paris, the Walt one can live.” (Grafe, forthcoming) Celebration means living in a theme Disney company has developed a new park. It is a form of hyper-simulation of town on an old potato field: Val Moreover, the traditional European a ‘better reality.’ A similar phenomenon, d’Europe. The town has four “life style town has even become an export pro- though perhaps more twisted, can be districts” with different themes: one is duct. Swedish building company seen in the recently launched German the ‘Paris’ of the Haussmann plan of the SWECO FFNS has recently completed a reality TV-show “Big Brother: Das Dorf” mid 1800s, though with the buildings in new satellite town for Shanghai, (Big Brother: The Village). Here, the a slightly smaller scale than in the ‘real’ modelled after the medieval Swedish theme is ordinary life in a ‘real town’ – Haussmann Paris. Another district has town of Sigtuna. The town which is planned for 30 000 people is marketed being the postman, the shopkeeper, the the theme of a traditional regional vil- as a “traditional Scandinavian town”, policeman, the teacher, etc – rather lage securely planned with a moat, pro- complete with Nordic street and Lake than Robinson Crusoe, Treasure Island tecting it from intruders as well as from Mälaren. New projects, modelled after or some other exotic and historic theme urban sprawl (Allerholm, 2005). the “traditional European inner-city”, are as in the early years of documentary 2 soap operas. Perhaps this reinvention of In the UK we have Prince Charles’ also underway in other areas in China. the ‘ordinary traditional town’ becomes town and the New Urbanist project of desirable when the real ‘real’ urban Poundbury – themed as an old English village. Even in the Netherlands, other- areas are sprawling, dissolving and What is not themed? becoming corporate and impersonal? wise known for its contemporary archi- tecture, neo-traditional building styles The projects described above can cle- are becoming common. Christoph Grafe The traditional European town as arly be termed ‘themed’. However, are makes a vivid description of the new theme other urban areas – as the ‘modern’ ‘countryseat’ and castle-community of waterfront housing in Hammarby The theming of urban spaces might at Haverleij, south of Utrecht: Sjöstad in Stockholm or first glance appear to be some American Gräsviken/Västra hamnen in Helsinki – “In the semi-rural countryside of phenomena, not applicable to Europe. not themed? You could argue that they Brabant, in the south of the Netherlands, However, such a statement needs to be are, that the themes are just different: the brand new castles of Haverleij offer a modified. In the Nordic countries as neo-functionalism and successful water- well as all over Europe, there are several highly secured residential environment examples of new themed urban areas which, ironically, displays a new kind of and more are likely on the way. collective symbolism, that of the nouveaux- riches. Haverleij is sold as an environment 1www.Haverleij.nl, consulted on 14 March 2005 2 In between Malmö and Lund, in sout- for ‘luxurious dwelling in a twenty-first cen- Luodian Town Shanghai – att bygga en ny stad för 25 000 hern Sweden, the newly built town of tury castle, complete with the amenities of invånare. SWECO FFNS, http://www.sweco.se/tem- Jakriborg has a Hanseatic theme with a contemporary countryseat. Wonderful plates/Project____2736.asp Scandinavian themed Luodian Town, Shanghai. PHOTO: SWECO FFNS

front living and strolling. Moreover, simply had a different theme than those “For most of this century architects have extraordinary projects, as the Norman of today; their theme was functionality, argued that buildings should be ‘true to Foster’s Swiss Re Tower in London, the modernisation, progress and social materials’ – that they should look like Sony Centre in Potsdamer Platz, Berlin, equality. whatever they’re made of – but the gui- Turning Torso in Malmö, could be des- ding principle of the vast majority of new The theming of urban areas could be cribed as being themed. In Moore’s development is the opposite: that neutral dismissed as tacky, but why is it actually words these types of projects are: materials like plasterboard and glass rein- problematic to theme or copy somet- forced plastic should be made to look like “…a form of advertising, where buildings hing you deem to be good? Is this not stone, rocks, wood or whatever else is perform the role of three-dimensional, just about creating better lives and gre- desired. Architects want to reveal the struc- international permanent advertisements ater choice for people – meeting the ture of their buildings; themed space for a city. It is also a form of theming, in demand for nostalgic life or small town which politicians deploy well-known sym- demands that it be covered up.” (Moore, dreams? What however indeed could be bols to create an image of themselves as 1999: 12) deemed problematic is, on the one an enlightened, forward-looking city.” hand, the lack of progressive forward Perhaps the theming of urban spaces (1999: 44) looking and alternative ‘themes’, and on today is unavoidable, particularly as Furthermore, the Jugend or national the other, the claim of ‘timeless’ tradi- niche building for different consumer romantic architecture, the Sittean plan- tion or ‘true’ cities. Ironically, there are groups (and hence life style towns) and ning of the late 1800s, the neo-classi- New Urbanists who claim that their neo- city marketing are becoming more cism of the 1920s, etc could also be said traditional plans are based on ‘timeless’ widespread. There are however archi- to be themed. However, the Modernism and ‘natural principles’ (see for instance tects and planners who seek to avoid movement is often described as seeking Hasic, 2004). Such absolutist claims the commodification of urban areas a ‘style-free purity’, for privileging func- conceal the underlying moral judgments through theming. By constantly seeking tion over form. This statement can and risk suppressing difference. In other new forms, materials, combinations and however be challenged. A postmodern- words, a clear and playful theming such characteristics, the projects of these inclined person would ask if there is as that of Caesar’s Palace in Las Vegas architects can become explorative and such a thing as ‘style-free purity’ or pure is fairer than a concealed New Urbanist function. It might be that the modernist leave room for unpredictable activities theming. architects and planners were seeking and avoid being easily identified as com- this, but as Söderqvist (1999) has modities. Here one can mention Dutch pointed out, the pre-fab concrete look of MVRDV architects who, for instance, have designed a new area in Ypenburg, buildings, as in the Sweden’s million Escaping commodifying themes homes programmes, was also a desired the Netherlands, British FOA (Foreign aesthetic at that time. In other words, The historically themed urban projects Office Architects) known for their experi- perhaps the Swedish 1960s and 1970s described above might be alien to many mental ferry terminal in Yokohama and areas of Bergsjön, Rosengård and Tensta architects and planners. As Moore French Jean Nouvel among others could be said to be themed as well. They points out: (Moore, 1999). 21 FEATURE JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO

References

Allerholm, M. (2005) ”Temaparkitektur. Disney bygger nygammalt på en fransk potatisåker” in Dagens Nyheter, 8 May 2005.

Coetzee, J.M. (1997) Boyhood. New York: Viking. Grafe, C. (forthcoming) “Förorter för nya européer” in Broms Wessel, O. et al (eds.) Bor vi i samma stad? Om stads- utveckling, mångfald och rättvisa, Stockholm: Pocky. Hasic, T. (2005) ”Missförstånd och feltolkningar av New New housing area in Ypenburg, the Netherlands. Hageneiland project by MVRDV architects Urbanism” i PLAN 2/2005, PHOTO: WWW.ROB-THART.NL Stockholm: Föreningen för samhällsplanering.

Crisis in the transition Perhaps this longing for “traditional Moore, R. (1999) Vertigo: the to multicultural metropolis life” and past times becomes stronger in strange new world of the contem- an increasingly confusing and globally porary city. London: Laurence Obviously, there seems to be a dependent time. And in a time when the King in association with demand for ‘traditional’ small town life, large urban areas are sprawling into an Glasgow Festival Company. often also with ‘nationalistic’ overtones, uncontrolled mess, filled with foreign traditional ‘Swedish’ garden city in Venturi, R. & Scott Brown, D. newcomers. Perhaps it is convenient not Sweden, mini-Paris in France, etc. It is (1972) Learning from Las Vegas. to see the storage spaces, the waste, the not however the self-sufficient garden Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. highways, and the guest workers, which city that Ebenezer Howard envisioned in our increasing consumption and travel Sandercock, L. (1998) Towards the 1890s. Rather it is the image of the requires. If we did, it might be too Cosmopolis – Planning for safe, controlled and pleasant small town painful. As J. M. Coetzee writes in the Multicultural Cities, Chichester: life but with the goods and amenities of story of his childhood in Apartheid- John Wiley & Sons a twenty-first century life style – with South Africa, when he is celebrating his products and services produced in third Skanska Nya Hem (2004) birthday in an ice-cream parlour with world sweat shops (or in poorer sub- Tullinge Trädgårdsstad. ragged coloured children staring at him urban homes right in the same city). Information brochure. through the window: Leonie Sandercock writes, regarding the Söderqvist, L. (1999) Rekordår American New Urbanism movement: “…what would he say? ‘They are spoiling och miljonprogram: flerfamiljshus my birthday, it is not fair, it hurts my heart ”This is the flight from metropolis to i stor skala: en fallstudiebaserad to see them’? Whatever happens, whether ’community’, an attempt to turn away undersökning av politik, planlägg- they are chased away or not, it is too late, from the challenges of the present, and ning och estetik. Stockholm: his heart is already hurt. … He thinks of return to an imagined pre-industrial golden egen utgivning. the English as people who have not fallen age of extended families living in small vil- into a rage because they live behind walls lages, engaged in face-to-face relations. and guard their hearts well.” (1997: 73) But this ideal fails to acknowledge that pre-industrial life was in fact embedded in But maybe we need to have our hearts a highly unequal, feudal, patriarchal, and hurt and become angry – at least if we imperialist society. That there is clearly a have hope for a more just urban deve- demand for such nostalgia as a way of life lopment. indicates a crisis in the transition from modern metropolis to postmodern cosmo- polis.” (1998: 194, author’s emphasis) Självstyrelse på lokal och regional nivå. Perspektiv på det lokala och regionala ansvaret för framtidsfrågorna.

Region Skåne och Västra Götalandsregionen, 2005. p.149

Reviewed by: book one learns a lot more about the book also offers up some interesting Pekka Kettunen background of, and the challenges to analytic articles. Anders Lidström from Docent the regional level of administration. the University of Umeå first constructs a Swedish School of Economics and Business Regionalization is not an automatic pro- comparative framework and thereafter Administration presents some empirical findings on [email protected] cess proceeding in a linear fashion, but is instead characterized rather more by how sub-national arrangements differ This book contains a number of arti- political ups and downs. Although across Europe. His point is that all poli- cles which all focus on regions. The almost all the European states have rati- tical systems have to define a number of focus of the individual articles does fied the principles of self-government institutional relationships, such as the however differ. While some of the aut- (the Convention of the Council of one between the national state and the hors (Petersson, Gustafsson etc) des- Europe), this does not necessarily mean regions, including the tasks and the cribe and summarize such phenomena that these principles have been fully responsibilities of the sub-level organi- as the impact of Europe on the regions, implemented. The book also offers a zations, and secondly, that these defini- or the historical development, and the brief insight into the systems of Spain tions tend to differ, even within the EU. rise of multi-level government, others and Canada, which, contrary to the On the basis of the variation one can go put forward a more argumentative type further and try to explain the differences, Scandinavian systems are based much of article. All however share an interest which is not however an easy task. Only more on federal principles (Spain de in surveying the regional perspective in in this way can we learn which of the facto). addition to serving the current com- solutions are transferable and which are mittee work on the future institutional In addition to laying out the develop- historically and/or culturally determined. arrangements in Sweden ment of regional administration and the Henry Bäck from the University of (Ansvarskommittee). In reading this basic concepts associated with it, the Gothenburg in his article shows how JOURNAL OF NORDREGIO BOOKS 23

Självstyrelse på lokal och regional nivå. Perspektiv på det lokala och regionala ansvaret för framtidsfrå- gorna.

regional co-operation is based on the winds have to a certain extent turned, more power in their arguments, and rational action of the actors involved. with support, from above and below, for help them to participate in the often Expectations, interests and calculations regional empowerment on the wane. interest-based wider discussion of the of benefits are important determinants Some of the writers in the book also dis- development of society. In many of the interplay, and this argument also cuss the difficult dilemma between auto- respects this is a tricky challenge, and it finds empirical support. Siv Sandberg nomy (självstyrelse) and democracy may be more prone to the politicians (folkstyrelse), which at times emerges in from the Åbo Akademi in Finland uses than the research community. The basis an opportunity to relate the current the political rhetoric of the wider debate, for this is crystal clear: citizens should trends of development to an earlier and creates policies that aim to protect have autonomy in relation to their per- study. In so doing, she is thus able to citizens from the arbitrary power of the sonal issues. But to go beyond that, to highlight certain changes in the nature municipalities. The crucial question here of political discourse and political prac- relates to the need to balance auto- argue that the interests and will of the tice in respect of the focus on regions. nomy, i.e. which collective issues should regions ought to form the basis of all While the findings from the late 1990’s be left to the grass-roots communities, policy making, is a more sensitive type indicated a relatively strong regionaliza- and equality, i.e. which elements of col- of argument. Similar debates are going tion process, recent developments have lective life should be regulated by the on in respect of such issues as the ideal not followed suit. Although the available upper level? Another line of argumenta- size of local government, and the vices empirical evidence from the current set tion in the book concerns the fragmen- and virtues of direct democracy, to of developments remains patchy, it is tation of the public sphere. At present it name but a few. At the end of the day possible to discern to some extent the makes less sense to talk about the state- however, researchers should also pro- region-municipality relationships when emergence of a revised role for the state vide input into these kinds of discus- as well as a certain congruence taking the reality is much more complex. The sions. In the book’s epilogue Tomas place across Scandinavia, as Sweden question thus essentially becomes, Ekberg argues that the role of the and Norway move towards a position what is the proper role of the regions in regions is becoming stronger. This bold that envisages a stronger role for the the multi-layer structure of public-private state, while Finland moves towards government and governance? Secondly, assertion stands however in stark con- increasing decentralization. But, the is it realistic to aim at coordinated insti- trast to the findings in the book itself, regional hype that characterised the late tutional solutions or is the reality neces- though it is supported by the finding 1990’s is no longer on the political sarily composed of policy-specific solu- that the work related area of individual agenda. The analysis of these three aut- tions changing over time? people often exceeds municipal boar- hors thus suggests that regionalization ders, even in Sweden where the average This kind of normative perspective, i.e. is not proceeding automatically but what should be the role of the regions in size of local government areas is relati- rather that it is embedded in the net- relation to both the upper level and the vely large. Perhaps then global competi- work of interests. lower (municipal) level is not however tion and the other current challenges For a professional or enthusiast wor- particularly well addressed in the book. now faced requires that the pendulum king with regional affairs, the message This is the sort of discussion that would has once again to move in the direction of the book may be frustrating. The give those working at the regional level of stronger regions. NORDREGIO produces Books, Reports and Working Papers. The Library also distributes publications from former Nordplan, Nordic School of Planning, and NordREFO.

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