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Fusion, Exponence, and Flexivity in Hindukush Languages

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Fusion, Exponence, and Flexivity in Hindukush Languages Fusion, exponence, and flexivity in Hindukush languages An areal-typological study Hanna Rönnqvist Department of Linguistics Independent Project for the Degree of Master 30 HE credits General Linguistics Spring term 2015 Supervisor: Henrik Liljegren Examiner: Henrik Liljegren Fusion, exponence, and flexivity in Hindukush languages An areal-typological study Hanna Rönnqvist Abstract Surrounding the Hindukush mountain chain is a stretch of land where as many as 50 distinct languages varieties of several language meet, in the present study referred to as “The Greater Hindukush” (GHK). In this area a large number of languages of at least six genera are spoken in a multi-linguistic setting. As the region is in part characterised by both contact between languages as well as isolation, it constitutes an interesting field of study of similarities and diversity, contact phenomena and possible genealogical connections. The present study takes in the region as a whole and attempts to characterise the morphology of the many languages spoken in it, by studying three parameters: phonological fusion, exponence, and flexivity in view of grammatical markers for Tense-Mood-Aspect, person marking, case marking, and plural marking on verbs and nouns. The study was performed with the perspective of areal typology, employed grammatical descriptions, and was in part inspired by three studies presented in the World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS). It was found that the region is one of high linguistic diversity, even if there are common traits, especially between languages of closer contact, such as the Iranian and the Indo-Aryan languages along the Pakistani-Afghan border where purely concatenative formatives are more common. Polyexponential formatives seem more common in the western parts of the GHK as compared to the eastern. High flexivity is a trait common to the more central languages in the area. As the results show larger variation than the WALS studies, the question was raised of whether large-scale typological studies can be performed on a sample as limited as single grammatical markers. The importance of the region as a melting-pot between several linguistic families was also put forward. Keywords Hindukush, language contact, areal typology, morphological typology, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Nuristani, Turkic, Tibeto-Burman, Burushaski Fonologisk sammansmältning, exponensialitet, och böjning i Hindukushspråk En areal-typologisk undersökning Hanna Rönnqvist Sammanfattning Runt om bergssystemet Hindukush ligger ett område där upp till ett femtiotal språkvarieteter av flera olika språkfamiljer möts, i denna studie refererat till som ”Det större Hindukush” (GHK). I detta område talas ett stort antal språk från åtminstone sex olika genus, i en oftast flerspråkig miljö. Eftersom detta område karaktäriseras både av språkkontakt och till viss del -isolering utgör det ett intressant studieområde vad gäller likheter och skillnader, språkkontakt och möjliga språkgenetiska kopplingar. Den nuvarande studien försöker ringa in hela denna region, och karaktärisera de många olika språkens respektive morfologiska struktur. Detta görs genom att studera tre morfologiska parametrar: fonologisk sammansmältning, exponentialitet, och böjning, inom grammatiska markörer för tempus-modus-aspekt, personmarkering, kasus, och pluralmarkering. Studien utfördes med ett arealtypologisk perspektiv, baserades på grammatiska beskrivningar av språken, och var delvis inspirerad av tre studier från World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS). Man fann att regionen kännetecknas av hög språklig diversitet även om det finns gemensamma drag, i synnerhet mellan språk som varit i nära kontakt, så som de iranska och de indo-ariska språken längs den pakistansk-afghanska gränsen där rent konkatenativa markörer är vanligare. Polyexponentiella markörer tycks vanligare i de västra delarna av GHK, jämfört med de östra. Böjningar efter ordklass verkar vara ett gemensamt drag för de mer centralt placerade språken jämfört med de perifera. Eftersom resultaten visade på en större variation än i WALS-studierna ifrågasattes det om storskaliga typologiska studier kan genomföras på ett så litet urval som enstaka grammatiska markörer. Vikten av regionen som en smältdegel av olika språkliga genera framhölls också. Nyckelord Hindukushområdet, språkkontakt, arealtypologi, morfologisk typologi, indo-ariska, iranska, nuristanska, turkspråk, tibeto-Burmanska, burushaski List of abbreviations 1, 2, 3 1st, 2nd, 3rd 1SG 1st person singular 2SG 2nd person singular 3SG 3rd person singular 1PL 1st person plural 2PL 2nd person plural 3PL 3rd person plural A Actual (past and perfect) ABSP Ablative-Suppressive ADD Additive AOR Aorist AG.I Imperfective Agent AG.P Perfective Agent ART Article AUX Auxiliary COMP Comparative CONT Continuous DAT Dative DIR Direct DIST Distal ERG Ergative EQ Equative copula F Feminine FCT Factual FUT Future GHK the Greater Hindukush HKIA Hindukush Indo-Aryan HUM Human I Inferential IA Indo-Aryan IMP Imperfect INT Intransitive INERG Instrumental/ergative IPFV Imperfective LOC Locative M Masculine MPL Masculine plural NEG Negation NOM Nominative NPST Non-past NR Nominaliser OBL Oblique PFV Perfective POSS Possessive PL Plural PRES Present PST Past tense SG Singular SOC Sociative STR Strong TAM Tense-Aspect-Mood TR Transitive Q Question Notes on transcription systems Transcription systems in the study In the present study the transcription systems employed by the respective authors of the grammatical descriptions have been used. These vary among the different authors, and no attempt to conform them to a standard has been made. For a majority of the examples in the study this means a “Standard Orientalist” or “Indological” transcription system, which is very common within the field of Indology and South Asian linguistics. Other authors have their own transcription systems or follow other traditions. As the focus of the study is the construction of morphemes and grammatical markers rather than comparison between specific phonemes, this has not been seen as a problem. For more details on the transcription system used in a specific example, please see the grammatical description from which it is taken, cited as in the following example: (2) Pashto (David 2014:200) za wrustá lə tā nənəwat- əl- əm 1SG.STR.DIR after from 2SG.STR.OBL AOR.enter-PST-1SG ’I entered after you’ Contents List of abbreviations .................................................................................... Notes on transcription systems ..................................................................... Contents .................................................................................................... 1. Introduction ........................................................................................... 1 2. Background ........................................................................................... 2 2.1 Morphological classification - history ................................................................ 2 2.1.1 Criticism ................................................................................................ 3 2.1.2 Fusion in current typological studies .......................................................... 4 2.1.3 Exponence in current typological studies .................................................... 6 2.1.4 Flexivity in current typological studies ....................................................... 7 2.2 Areal-typological studies ................................................................................ 8 2.3 The Greater Hindukush and its languages ........................................................ 9 2.3.1 The Indo-Aryan languages ......................................................................10 2.3.2 The Iranian languages ............................................................................10 2.3.3 The Nuristani languages ..........................................................................11 2.3.4 The Turkic languages ..............................................................................11 2.3.5 The Tibeto-Burman languages .................................................................12 2.3.6 Burushaski ............................................................................................12 3. Methodology ........................................................................................ 13 3.1 Method .......................................................................................................13 3.1.1 Method for studying fusion ......................................................................13 3.1.2 Method for studying exponence ...............................................................14 3.1.3 Method for studying flexivity ....................................................................15 3.2 Sampling and data .......................................................................................15 3.2.1 Language sampling ................................................................................15 3.2.2 Data sampling .......................................................................................16 3.3 Treatment of results .....................................................................................17 4. Results ................................................................................................ 19 4.1 Dameli [dml] ...............................................................................................19 4.2 Gawri [gwc] ................................................................................................22
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