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Home , Codex Cumanicus, Kipchak (Aimaq tribe), Language family, Oghur (tribe), Old Anatolian Turkish, Old Uyghur

Turkic 161

seriously endangered by the UNESCO red book on See also: ; Armenian; Azerbaijanian; Caucasian endangered languages: Gagauz (Moldovan), Crim- Languages; Endangered Languages; Greek, Modern; ean Tatar, Noghay (Nogai), and West-Siberian Tatar Kurdish; Sign : Interpreting; ; . Caucasian: Laz (a few hundred thousand speakers), Turkish. Georgian (30 000 speakers), Abkhaz (10 000 speakers), Chechen-Ingush, Avar, Lak, Lezghian (it is unclear whether this is still spoken) Bibliography . Indo-European: Bulgarian, Domari, Albanian, French (a few thousand speakers each), Ossetian Andrews P A & Benninghaus R (1989). Ethnic groups in the Republic of . Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert (a few hundred speakers), German (a few dozen Verlag. speakers), Polish (a few dozen speakers), Ukranian Aydın Z (2002). ‘Lozan Antlas¸masında azınlık statu¨ su¨; (it is unclear whether this is still spoken), and Farklı ko¨kenlilere tanınan haklar.’ In Kabog˘lu I˙ O¨ (ed.) these languages designated as seriously endangered Azınlık hakları (Minority rights). (Minority status in the by the UNESCO red book on endangered lan- Treaty of Lausanne; Rights granted to people of different guages: Romani (20 000–30 000 speakers) and Yid- origin). I˙stanbul: Publication of the Human Rights Com- dish (a few dozen speakers) mission of the I˙stanbul Bar. 209–217. . Neo- (Afroasiatic): Tu¯ ro¯ and Su¯ rit (a C¸ag˘aptay S (2002). ‘Otuzlarda Tu¨ rk milliyetc¸ilig˘inde ırk, dil few thousand speakers each) ve etnisite’ (Race, language and ethnicity in the Turkish . Languages spoken by recent immigrants, refugees, nationalism of the thirties). In Bora T (ed.) Milliyetc¸ilik ˙ ˙ and asylum seekers: : (Nationalism). Istanbul: Iletis¸im Yayınları. 245–262. Grimes B F (ed.) (2000). (14th edn.). Dallas: , Somali, and Tigrigna; Niger-Congo: SIL International. Lingala, Swahili, and various languages spoken in Sadog˘lu H (2003). Tu¨ rkiye’de ulusc¸uluk ve dil politikaları Nigeria; Indo-European: Russian and Farsi; and (Nationism and language policies in Turkey). I˙stanbul: Altaic: Kazakh and Kirghiz (hundreds of thousands I˙stanbul Bilgi University Publications. of speakers) S¸ener C (2004). Tu¨ rkiye’de yas¸ayan etnik ve dinsel gruplar . Foreign languages taught in secondary schools: (Ethnic and religious groups in Turkey). I˙stanbul: Etik English, French, German, and Italian Yayınları.

Turkic Languages L Johanson, Universita¨ t Mainz, Mainz, Germany There is no throughout the ß 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. family today. The following division combines the current areal distribution with genealogical and typological features. Development and Classification 1. The Southwestern or Oghuz branch contains a The Turkic was first attested in western subgroup comprising Turkish, Gagauz, 8th century inscriptions. Turkic-speaking groups and Azerbaijanian (Azerbaijani, Northern and first appeared in the Inner Eurasian steppes, from Azerbaijani, Southern), a southern subgroup com- where they moved to Central , Eastern , prising of southern and , the , , etc. Because of their high and an eastern subgroup comprising Turkmen and mobility, Turkic expanded over a huge area. Khorasan Turkic. The Proto-Turkic network of varieties was dis- 2. The Northwestern or Kipchak branch has a western solved by an early split of or Bulgar Turkic. subgroup comprising Kumyk, Karachay-Balkar, Its modern representative, Chuvash, a descendant of Crimean Tatar, and Karaim, a northern subgroup Bulgar, differs from Common Turkic by specif- comprising Tatar and Bashkir, and a southern sub- ic phonetic representations, .g., r and l instead of z group comprising Kazakh, Karakalpak, Kipchak and sˇ in words such as s´eˇr ‘hundred’ and s´ul ‘year’ Uzbek, Nogai, and Kirghiz (of different origin, but (Turkish yu¨ z ‘hundred,’ yas¸ ‘age’). A second split is strongly influenced by Kazakh). represented by Khalaj, which retains a reflex of Proto- 3. The Southeastern or Uyghur-Karluk branch has a Turkic *p-ash-, e.g., hadaq ‘foot.’ splitting western Uzbek subgroup and and eastern Uyghur has led to further differentiation of Common Turkic. subgroup. 162 Turkic Languages

4. The Northeastern or Siberian branch has a southern inscriptions are of this type. is first heterogeneous subgroup comprising Sayan Turkic recorded in the period of Uyghur rule over the (Tuvan, Tofan), Abakan (Yenisei) Turkic (Khakas, Eastern Empire. Early Old Uyghur is attested Shor), Chulym Turkic, Altai Turkic (Altai, Northern in runiform inscriptions and manuscripts. From and Southern), and a northern subgroup comprising the 10th century on, Old Uyghur became the Yakut () and Dolgan. medium of a flourishing literary culture in the 5. Chuvash is geographically situated in the north- Tienshan-Tarim area, attested in texts of Buddhist, western area (Volga region). Manichaean, and Nestorian content. 6. Khalaj is geographically situated in the southwest- 2. A middle Turkic period comprises various early ern area (central Iran). Islamic varieties. The first East Turkic written language, Karakha- Deviant languages in are Salar, of Oghuz nid (11th century–), developed in Kashgar, is close origin, Yellow Uyghur (, West) and Fu-yu¨ to Old Uyghur but lexically influenced by Arabic (), both of south Siberian origin. and Persian. Mahmu¯d of Kashgar provides informa- One traditional classificatory criterion is the final . tion (1073) on Karakhanid and other contemporary of the word for ‘nine.’ Its representation as Turkic varieties. r in Chuvash ta˘xxa˘r separates Oghur from Common Khorezmian Turkic, used in the 13th–14th cen- Turkic (Turkish dokuz). The intervocalic consonant in turies in the and Mamluk Egypt, is the word for ‘foot’ divides most Northeastern lan- based on the older languages but contains Oghuz guages, Chuvash, Khalaj, etc. from the rest, which and Kipchak elements. exihibits -y- (Turkish ayak), e.g., Tuvan adaq, Khakas This tradition is continued in Chaghatay (15th azax, Chuvash ura. Oghuz Turkic differs from the rest century–). Early Chaghatay contains regional ele- by loss of suffix-initial velars, e.g., qal-an [remain- ments of the Timurid area. Later, Chaghatay PART] instead of qal-gan [remain-PART] ‘remaining.’ became the dominant written language of Central Final -G is devoiced in the Southeast (Uyghur tag-liq Asia, eventually conquering an immense area of [mountain-DER] ‘mountainous’), preserved in south- validity and developing regional varieties. ern Siberia (Tuvan dag-lı¨g [mountain-DER]), and lost The first West Turkic written language is Volga elsewhere (Turkish dag˘-li [mountain-DER]). Bulgar, insufficiently known from epitaphs of the Most older linguistic stages are insufficently 13th and 14th centuries. Information on early known. Written sources, where available, provide Kipchak Turkic is given in the , no direct information on spoken varieties. Early compiled by Christians, and in and Oghuz and Bulgar (East Europe, 6th–7th centuries) grammars written in Mamluk Egypt and . are unknown. There are no texts in the language of Oghuz Turkic is first represented by Old Anato- the (7th–10th centuries). Pecheneg and lian Turkish (13th century–), which was a subordi- Kuman, predecessors of West Kipchak, are only nate written medium until the end of Seljuk rule. known from , titles, and names. Old Ottoman is the initial stage of Ottoman, which begins with the foundation of the Written Varieties in 1307. In a literary language developed from the 15th century on. Turkic literary varieties have emerged in various 3. A premodern period (16th century–) begins with cultural centers. Many older Turkic empires, how- the development of regionally influenced written ever, used foreign languages for administration languages. Middle and Late Ottoman became (Sogdian, Persian). Muslim Turks often used Persian the leading written language with an abundantly for poetry, and Arabic for religious and scientific rich literature. Chaghatay continued to play a writing. Russian has played an important role for major role and remained the literary language of many groups. The following main stages of written all non-Oghuz Muslim Turks until a century ago. Turkic may be distinguished. 4. A modern period begins in the second half of 1. An older pre-Islamic East period (8th the 19th century with the formation of regional century–), is represented in inscriptions, manu- written languages. The political division of the scripts, and block prints. East Old Turkic proper Turkic-speaking world in the 20th century and is documented in stone inscriptions (Orkhon the language policies pursued in the Soviet Union, Valley), which celebrate the rulers of the Second Turkey, China, and Iran had dramatic effects that Eastern Tu¨ rk Empire, in other inscriptions found increasingly obstructed transregional linguistic in and the Yenisei and Talas valleys, contacts. A dozen ‘national’ languages with a and also in a few manuscripts. The Old Kirghiz narrow radius of validity emerged. In Turkey, Turkic Languages 163

Ottoman was replaced by modern Turkish. The koine´s have been used as transregional codes for trade social importance of many Turkic languages was and intergroup communication, e.g., Azerbaijanian in very limited. After the recent political develop- Iran and the region. ments, their significance is rapidly increasing, but the varieties spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, , etc., Linguistic Features still have poor possibilities to develop. Despite their huge area of distribution, Turkic lan- Various scripts and script systems have been ap- guages share essential phonological, morphological, plied to Turkic. A specific runiform script was created and syntactic features. for Old East Turkic. Most Old Uyghur texts are writ- They have a synthetic word structure with numer- ten in Uyghur script, originating in the Near East ous highly applicable derivational and grammatical and later taken over by and Manchus. It is suffixes, and a juxtaposing technique with clear-cut similar to the Sogdian script, which is also used in morpheme boundaries and predictable allomorphs. Buddhist texts. A few Buddhist manuscripts are writ- These agglutinative principles yield considerable ten in , Manichaean texts in Manichaean morphological regularity and transparency. Excep- script, and Nestorian texts in Syriac script. Arabic tions include traces of gradation in the pro- script was used for the languages of the Islamic nominal declination, e.g., Turkish ben ‘I,’ ban-a era (still used in China for Uyghur and Kazakh). [I-DAT] ‘to me.’ The agglutinative structure is partly A unified Roman-based script was introduced for deranged in languages of the northeast and southeast. several languages in the early Soviet period, but later Some languages, e.g., Uzbek, even display borrowed replaced by different Cyrillic-based scripts. A Roman- prefixes. based alphabet was introduced in Turkey in 1923. The syllable contains minimally a vowel with max- Most of the newly established Turkic republics have imally one preceding and one subsequent consonant. introduced or are introducing Roman-based scripts. Vowel hiatus and consonant clusters are avoided. Contacts Most languages exhibit eight short vowel pho- nemes, a, ¨ı, o, u, e, i, o¨ , u¨ , classified according to the The massive displacements of Turkic-speaking features front vs. back, unrounded vs. rounded, and groups throughout their history have led to various high vs. low. Proto-Turkic long vowel phonemes are phenomena induced by contacts with Iranian, Slavic, preserved in Turkmen, Yakut, and Khalaj. Iranian Mongolic, Uralic, etc. Speakers of Turkic have copied and Slavic phonetic influence has sometimes affected lexical, phonetic, morphological, and syntactic ele- the front vs. back distinctions. Tatar, Bashkir, Chu- ments, whereas non-Turkic (e.g., Iranian, Greek, vash, and Uyghur exhibit systematic vowel shifts. Finno-Ugric, Samoyedic, Yeniseian, Tungusic) groups Chuvash, Gagauz, Karaim, etc., have developed pala- shifting to Turkic have exerted substrate influence by talized , e.g., Karaim m´ en´ ‘I’. Tuvan and copying native elements into their new varieties. Lan- Tofan exhibit a glottal element signaling strong guages such as Chuvash, Yakut, Salar, Yellow Uyghur, obstruents, e.g., a t ‘horse’ vs. at ‘name.’ Khalaj, Karaim, and Fu-yu¨ have long developed in The most general sound harmony phenomenon is isolation from their relatives, preserving old features an intrasyllabic front vs. back assimilation. An inter- and acquiring new ones in their environments. Long syllabic front vs. back harmony causes neutralization and intense interaction with Iranian in , of the front vs. back distinction under the influence Iran, Afghanistan, etc., has led to profound conver- of the preceding syllable. If applied consistently, it gence phenomena. Massive foreign influence has excludes back and front syllables in a word, e.g., sometimes caused considerable typological devia- Turkish ev-ler-im-e [house-PL-POSS.1.SG-DAT] ‘to tions, e.g., drastic structural changes in Karaim and my houses,’ at-lar-im-a [horse-PL-POSS.1.SG-DAT] Gagauz under Slavic impact. ‘to my horses.’ Some languages only display this Most written languages have been strongly kind of harmony, whereas others also apply a round- influenced by Persian and Arabic. In Chaghatay ed vs. unrounded harmony, neutralization of the (Chagatai) and Ottoman, lexical borrowing contrib- distinction rounded vs. unrounded in high suffix uted to a remarkable richness of the vocabularies, , e.g., Turkish el-im [hand-POSS.1.SG] ‘my whereas grammar was much less affected. The hand,’ gu¨ l-u¨ m [rose-POSS.1.SG] ‘my rose.’ Lan- overload of Persian and Arabic in Ottoman led to guages such as Yakut and Kirghiz apply this harmony strong puristic efforts in the 20th century to create a to low-vowel suffixes as well, e.g., bo¨ ro¨ -lo¨ r [wolf-PL] so-called Pure Turkish. ‘wolves.’ There are numerous exceptions to harmony Internal convergence processes have resulted in level- rules in loanwords. Further allomorphs are created by ing of languages of the central area. Several Turkic various consonant assimilations. 164 Turkic Languages

The rules of word accent vary. A high pitch accent, postposed subordinative patterns with conjunctions interacting with a dynamic stress accent, mostly falls are typical effects of Iranian and Slavic influence. on the last accentable syllable of native words. Most languages possess conjunctions, even coordina- The morphological structure has remained relatively tive ones meaning ‘and,’‘or,’ and ‘but’ of Persian, stable through the centuries. The main word classes are Arabic, or Russian origin. nominals (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals) and Turkic lacks definite articles. The indefinite is verbals. The primary stems can be used as free forms, formally identical with the numeral ‘one’ Genitival e.g., at ‘horse,’ at! ‘throw!.’ From verbal and nominal attributes, expressing a possessor, stand in the genitive, stems, which are sharply distinguished, expanded whereas their head, indicating a possessed entity, car- stems are formed. Nominals take plural, possessive, ries a possessive suffix, e.g., Turkish at-inbas¸-i [horse- case, and specific derivational suffixes. Grammatical GEN head-POSS.3.SG] ‘the head of the horse.’ The gender is not marked. The verbal com- dominant type of nominal compounds follows the prises markers of actionality, voice, possibility, pattern noun þ noun þ possessive suffix, e.g., Turkish negation, aspect, mood, , tense, person, el c¸anta-si [hand bag-POSS.3.SG] ‘handbag.’ interrogation, etc. Voice is expressed by passive, reflex- All Turkic varieties exhibit numerous loanwords. ive-middle, causative, and cooperative-reciprocal suf- Arabic and Persian loans are frequent in all Islamic- fixes. The order and combinability of suffixes is Turkic languages. The Iranian influence is strong in basically common to all Turkic languages. Uyghur, Uzbek, and varieties of Iran and Afghanistan. Constructions with postposed auxiliary verbs (post- Many languages have been subject to considerable verbs) express actional modifications. A few construc- Mongolic and Slavic influence. Loans and calques tions have developed into aspect-tense categories, e.g., from European languages have become increasingly Turkish gel-iyor [come-PRES] ‘comes’ < *gel-e yor¨ı-r important. The Turkic languages spoken in China [come-CONV run-AOR] (‘runs coming’). Possibility exhibit old and recent loans from Chinese. markers are formed with auxiliary verbs such as bil- ‘to know’ and - ‘to take,’ e.g., Kirghiz ber-e al-[give- See also: Afghanistan: Language Situation; Arabic; Azer- CONVAUX.POTEN] ‘to be able to give.’ baijan: Language Situation; China: Language Situation; Turkic languages share many syntactic characteris- Chinese; Iran: Language Situation; ; tics. With respect to relational typology, they adhere Russian Federation: Language Situation; Slavic Lan- to the nominative-accusative pattern. They have a guages; Turkey: Language Situation; ; Uzbek. head-final constituent order, with dependents pre- ceding their heads. The unmarked order of clause constituents is subject þ object þ predicate (SOV). Bibliography Adjectival, genitival, and participial attributes pre- cede the head of the nominal phrase. Postpositions Deny J et al. (eds.) (1959). Philologiae turcicae fundamenta, are used instead of prepositions. There is no agree- 1. Aquis Mattiacis: Steiner. ment in number or case between dependents and Johanson L (2002). Structural factors in Turkic language heads. The focus position is in front of the predicate contacts. London: Curzon. ´ ´ core. The unmarked constituent order is often deviated Johanson L & Csato´ E A (eds.) (1998). The Turkic lan- guages. London: Routledge. from for discourse-pragmatic reasons. Contact- Menges K H (1995). The Turkic languages and peoples. An induced changes are common, e.g., in introduction to Turkic studies. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Gagauz, which has become an SVO language. Ro´ na-Tas A (1991). An introduction to . Szeged: Preposed subordinate clauses are based on verbal University of Szeged. nouns, participles, and converbs. The use of

Turkish R Underhill, San Diego State University, San Diego, speakers in the , particularly in Greece, CA, USA , and the former Yugoslavia, although there ß 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. has been extensive population inflow from those countries into Turkey, and there is a substantial Turkish (natively Tu¨ rkc¸e), the official language of the minority of Turkish speakers in Cyprus. There are Republic of Turkey, is spoken by a large proportion Turkish-influenced Turkic dialects in Iraq in the of the Turkish population. There are also Turkish region of , where the speakers are called Oghuz Turkic Old Uyghur Pecheneg Sakha Salar Samoyedic Sayan Turkic Shor Slavic Sogdian Tofan Tungusic Turkic languages Tuvan Uralic Uyghur-Karluk Volga Bulgar Yakut Yellow Uyghur Yenisei Turkic Yeniseian