E-learning and wellbeing of those in poverty in Bangladesh By: Abureza M. Muzareba A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Sociological Studies November 2016 i ABSTRACT Despite increased use of e-learning in formal learning, those in poverty in rural Bangladesh have inadequate idea of it and its usefulness in their lived reality. My research examines how e-learning can support to enhance their sense of wellbeing. I conducted a qualitative case study to understand: how capability development is related to e-learning, the resource requirements for e-learning, the roles of community, and social embeddedness aspects of e-learning. Drawing on the concept of capability approach, I developed my arguments based on the views shared by respective users of e-learning, project officials, government officials and experts in the areas of ICT and development. My research shows that, in principle, e-learning can foster rural people’s wellbeing by offering freedom of learning through ICT. In the process of learning and developing awareness, skills, and knowledge, e-learning can help them to deal with labour intensive lifestyles, poor economic status, gender inequalities, and limited institutional provisions for informal and formal means of learning. However, it depends on certain vital factors to work as a means of wellbeing in rural Bangladesh. These are: access to ICT, trust, local support, content, and funding. It needs a particular configuration of these factors with a specific arrangement of the related resources, in a setting where social embeddedness aspects are appropriately integrated. However, it is effective only when a trusted knowledgeable local support is involved who can support a framework of informed e-learning - which is my key claim in this research. This distinctive local support can assist rural people with access to e-learning, making sense of the content, and trusted access to new knowledge, to enable them take informed approach towards e- learning. This framework of informed e-learning provides a means of understanding how rural people in Bangladesh want e-learning as a means of wellbeing in their lived realities. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank Professor Bridgette Wessels for her caring support and inspiring guidance throughout these years of my PhD. Without her intellectual guidelines, I would not be able to develop this thesis and complete it in the given timeframe. I am also thankful to Dr. Mark Tomlinson for his valuable comments which guided me further with writing this thesis, incorporating related concepts. I would also like to thank my family memebrs, friends, colleagues, and staffs in the department, for their kind and caring support and constant inspiration which kept me spirited to reach my goal. I am also thankful to all my respondents who offered their time and effort for sharing their views. I would also like to thank the Government of Bangladesh and University of Dhaka to support me with an opportunity to pursue this PhD. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES ix Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Research context 3 1.3. Significance of my research 4 1.4. Aim, objectives and research questions 5 1.5. Research approach 7 1.6. Scopes and limitations of my research 10 1.7. My personal background 11 1.8. Outline of my thesis 12 1.9. Conclusion 16 Chapter 2 Literature Review 17 2.1. Introduction 17 2.1.1. Approach of Literature Review 17 2.1.2. Framework of Literature Review 19 2.2. Poverty Discourses 19 2.2.1. Definitions and Implications 20 2.2.1.1. Meanings of poverty to those in poverty in 22 Bangladesh 2.2.2. Measurement of Poverty 24 2.3. Wellbeing 26 2.3.1. Empowerment 28 2.3.2. Development 31 2.3.2.1. Capability Approach 33 2.3.2.1.1. Capability approach and ICT 37 2.4. Learning and development nexus 38 2.4.1. Social theories of learning 42 2.5. Gender and ICT4D 44 2.6. E-learning 47 2.6.1. E-learning in developing countries 50 2.6.1.1. E-learning in Bangladesh 51 2.6.2. Sociotechnological aspects of e-learning 53 2.6.2.1. Inequality in access to ICT 53 2.6.2.2. E-readiness 54 2.6.2.3. Social embeddedness 56 2.7. Conclusion 58 Chapter 3 Methodology 60 3.1. Introduction 60 3.2. Philosophical worldview 60 3.3. Research approach 63 3.4. Research Design 64 3.4.1. Selection of the cases 66 3.4.2. Sampling and recruitment of respondents 69 3.4.3. Data collection methods 72 3.4.3.1. Observation 72 (continued) iv 3.4.3.2. Interviews 74 3.4.3.3. Focus group discussion (FGD) 76 3.4.3.4. Integrating methods and resolving 77 challenges in the field 3.4.4. Transcription and data management 78 3.4.5. Data analysis 79 3.5. Ethical considerations 81 3.6. My reflections 84 3.7. Conclusion 86 Chapter 4 Research context 87 4.1. Introduction 87 4.2. ICT Policy and ICT Infrastructure 88 4.3. The case context 91 4.3.1. Sociocultural characteristics 92 4.3.1.1. Sociocultural and religious context 92 4.3.1.2. Demographic characteristics 94 4.3.1.3. Social realities 96 4.3.1.3.1. Social cohesion 96 4.3.1.3.2. Language 97 4.3.1.3.3. Everyday activities 98 4.3.1.3.4. Approach towards education 100 4.3.1.4. Means of learning 102 4.3.2. Physical environmental characteristics 104 4.3.3. Uses of ICT 107 4.4. Reflections on current situation 111 4.5. Conclusion 114 Chapter 5 The three cases of my research 115 5.1. Introduction 115 5.2. The Cycle-Women Case 115 5.2.1. Implementation approaches of Tech4Women 116 5.2.2. The cycle-woman working in Tech4Women 120 5.2.3. New skills and the work of the cycle-women 123 5.3. The Computer-Shop Case 127 5.3.1. The computer-shops 129 5.3.2. Commercial arrangements in implementation 133 5.4. The Internet-Freelancing Case 136 5.4.1. E-learning, Internet freelancing and poverty 138 reduction 5.4.2. The voluntary initiatives 143 5.5. Conclusion 148 Chapter 6 Findings and analyses: The Cycle-Women case 150 6.1. Introduction 150 6.2. A predominantly top-down approach 150 6.3. Dependency on funding 157 6.4. Authority lies in government 159 6.5. Roles of Language 161 6.6. Influence of trust in rural realities 164 6.7. Gender-specific approach and context specificity 169 of the content 6.8. Significance of the type of content 171 6.9. Roles of local technical support 174 6.10. Disguised participation and social embeddedness 176 (continued) v 6.11. Conclusion 177 Chapter 7 Findings and analyses: The Computer-Shop case 179 7.1. Introduction 179 7.2. Funding with commercial motives and the 179 developmental outcomes 7.3. A top-down approach 184 7.4. Contested approach to knowledge codification 187 7.5. Significance of the type of the content 189 7.6. Roles of language 193 7.7. Influence of trust in rural realities 194 7.8. A gender-specific approach 201 7.9. Preferences around facilitator 203 7.10. Authority lies with government 205 7.11. Conclusion 207 Chapter 8 Findings and analyses: The Internet-Freelancing 209 case 8.1. Introduction 209 8.2. E-learning as an alternative to formal education 209 8.3. A learning option to overcome barriers 213 8.4. Infrastructural challenges limit the potential of e- 216 learning 8.5. Crowdsourcing enhances effectiveness of e- 219 learning initiatives 8.6. Language as a persistent challenge 222 8.7. Economic empowerment and wellbeing 225 8.8. Trust is essential for effective e-learning 227 8.9. Conclusion 229 Chapter 9 Discussion 231 9.1. Introduction 231 9.2. Discussion of findings 231 9.2.1. E-learning and some of the barriers to learning 231 9.2.2. Trust and adoption of e-learning 235 9.2.3. Local community as a supporting platform 242 9.2.4. Type of the content influences understanding 245 9.2.5. Roles of funding 248 9.2.6. Crowdsourcing for effective e-learning 250 9.3. Discussion of the first supplementary research 252 question 9.4. Discussion of the second supplementary research 257 question 9.5. Discussion of the third supplementary research 262 question 9.6. Discussion of the central research question 265 9.7. Conclusion 270 Chapter 10 Conclusion 271 10.1. Introduction 271 10.2. Summary of background 272 10.3. Discussion of main conclusions: framework of 273 informed e-learning 10.4. Recommendations 277 10.5. Further research questions 280 (continued) vi Bibliography 282 Appendices 321 Appendix I Poverty in the eyes of those living in situations of 321 poverty in rural Bangladesh Appendix II Different Perspectives of e-Readiness 323 Appendix III E-readiness Assessment for Bangladesh 324 Appendix IV Poverty map of Bangladesh and my case locations 325 Appendix V Category wise profile of the respondents 326 Appendix VI Detailed profile of the respondents 327 Appendix VII My data collection methods 332 Appendix VIII List of questions to interview the project participants 333 Appendix IX List of questions to interview the project officials 334 Appendix X List of questions to interview government officials, 335 local opinion leaders, and members of knowledge communities Appendix XI Participant Consent Form 336 Appendix XII Research Information Sheet 337 Appendix XIII Participant Consent Form in Bengali 338 Appendix XIV FGD Topic guide 339 Appendix XV Characteristics of my case study design through the 340 lenses of validity and reliability Appendix XVI District wise map of Bangladesh 341 vii List of Tables Table 3.1 Brief profile of my cases 68 Table 3.2 Interview profile 74 Table 4.1 Household wise access to different ICT options in Bangladesh 91 (in per cent of total households) Table 9.1