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Islamism, and the Ideological Questioning of the Pancasila

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Islamism, and the Ideological Questioning of the Pancasila This document is downloaded from DR‑NTU (https://dr.ntu.edu.sg) Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Islamism, and the ideological questioning of the pancasila Mahfuh Haji Halimi 2018 Mahfuh Haji Halimi. (2018). Islamism, and the ideological questioning of the pancasila. Doctoral thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. http://hdl.handle.net/10356/73211 https://doi.org/10.32657/10356/73211 Downloaded on 02 Oct 2021 22:26:49 SGT ISLAMISM, AND THE IDEOLOGICAL QUESTIONING OF THE PANCASILA MAHFUH BIN HAJI HALIMI S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies Thesis submitted to the Nanyang Technological University in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Strategic Studies) 2018 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all those who have provided me with invaluable support and assistance throughout my research for this thesis. I am particularly grateful to my supervisors: Amb Barry Desker, Prof Joseph Liow, and Prof Rohan Gunaratna for their support and advice. Also to Prof Martin van Bruinessen for his invaluable comments and suggestions. I am indebted to Assoc Prof Bilveer Singh for introducing me to many people in Jakarta and Yogyakarta who were of great assistance to my research. Special thanks go to General (Retired) Prof Dr A.M. Hendropriyono, Inspector General (Retired) Drs Ansyaad Mbai, Police-General Dr M. Tito Karnavian, Major General Agus Surya Bakti, KH Dr As’ad Said Ali, Amb Harry Purwanto, Prof Abdul Munir Mulkhan, Prof Sugeng, Prof Noorhaidi Hasan, Prof Zuly Qodir, Prof Hilman Latief, Prof Sidik Jatmika, Prof Khamami Zada, Prof Irfan Idris, Prof Robi, Drs Solahudin and Sidney Jones. All of them were incredibly generous with their time, friendly and always answered my questions openly. I also benefitted from the insights given to me by KH Hasan, Pak Suparno, Pak F.S. Swantoro, Pak Muh Taufiqurrohman, Pak Alamsyah M. Dja`far and Pak Subhi Azhari. Lastly, I would also like to thank my wife, children, and grandchildren whose encouragement and understanding throughout the years of my study have been remarkable. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii SUMMARY vii PART I CHAPTER ONE ESTABLISHING THE THEORETICAL AND 1-33 METHODOLOGICAL PLATFORM FOR THIS STUDY 1.1. The Research Problem: Securitisation in Indonesia 4 Distinguishing between Islam and Islamism 5 Understanding the History of Pancasila 6 Ideological Questioning of the Pancasila 8 The Existential Threat from the Non-Integrative and Pro- 10 Jihad Islamists 1.2. The Puzzle: Securitisation of the Non-Integrative and 12 Pro-Jihad Islamists Clarifying the Major Issues 14 Identifying the Key Determinants of the Puzzle 17 i. Constructing the existential threat 17 ii. Reaching a consensus on the existential threat 20 1.3. The Working Hypothesis: A Consensus on 23 Securitisation 1.4. Theoretical Framework of this Study 25 Concept of Security 26 Application of the Concept to this Study 28 1.5. Research Methodology 30 1.6. Structure of this Research 32 CHAPTER TWO A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE OF SECURITY AND 34-59 ISLAMISM 2.1. Introduction 34 2.2. Developments within Security Studies 34 2.3. Approaches to Security 38 iii From a Realist Perspective 38 From a Constructivist Perspective 40 From Critical Security Studies Perspective 42 From Human Security Perspective 43 2.4. The Copenhagen School of Security 46 2.5. Application of the Securitisation Theory to the Threat 47 of Terrorism in Indonesia 2.6. Islamism, Fundamentalism, Radicalism and 49 Extremism in Indonesia Definition and Meaning 50 Relations between Islam and the State in Indonesia 52 Manifestations of Islamism 53 2.7. Conclusion 56 PART II CHAPTER THREE EXISTENTIAL THREAT: DEFINED AND ASSESSED 60-70 3.1. Lifting the veil on existential threats 65 3.2. The Illusive Consensus of the Relevant Audience 67 CHAPTER FOUR CASE STUDY 1: VIOLENT ISLAMISTS – AL-JAMA‘AH 71-132 AL-ISLAMIYYAH (JI) 4.1. Origin and Development 71 Darul Islam 71 Darul Hijrah 86 Birth of JI 83 Military Training Camps 86 Rabitatul Mujahidin (Mujahidin Coalition/League) 91 Return to Indonesia 93 4.2. Ideology 97 Configuring the Mind for Action 99 Inheriting Tauhid Rububiyah, Uluhiyah and Mulkiyah 100 from DI Expanding the Ideological Content 104 Revising Some of the Earlier Understanding 107 Pedoman Umum Perjuangan Al-Jama’ah Al-Islamiyyah 109 (The General Guide for the Struggle of Al-Jama‘ah Al- Islamiyyah, PUPJI) iv 4.3. Strategy 115 Unity in Diversity 119 Tyranny of the Tactical 123 The Real Threat 125 4.4. Interpreting the Existential Threat 128 4.5. Securitisation of JI 129 CHAPTER FIVE CASE STUDY 2: MAJELIS MUJAHIDIN INDONESIA 133-180 (MMI) 5.1. Origin and Development 136 Inspiration for the Establishment of MMI 137 The First Mujahidin Congress in 2000 141 The Second Congress in 2003 147 The Third Congress in 2008 151 The Fourth Congress in 2013 155 5.2. Ideology 156 Islamic State, Islam, and Democracy 157 Rejecting Pancasila as the Foundation of the Indonesian 158 State Implementing the Sharia 160 Contextualising Salafism 161 Uniting the Diverse Communities of Indonesia Under the 163 Sharia Calling for Muslim Solidarity 165 5.3. Strategy 168 Tansiq or Alliance 169 Tathbiqus Syari’ah (Enforcement of Islamic Law) 170 MMI Congress and Leadership 172 Da‘wah and Jihad 173 5.4. Interpreting the Existential Threat 176 5.5. Securitisation of MMI 179 CHAPTER SIX CASE STUDY 3: JAMA‘AH ANSHARUT TAUHID (JAT) 181-248 6.1. Origin and Development 183 Generating Interest in and Co-operation with JAT 185 Branding the New Organisation 188 Organising the Jama‘ah (group) 192 Expanding Membership But Not Without Risk 196 Military Training in Aceh 202 Designated as a Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) 205 v Joining ISIS and Splitting JAT 206 6.2. Ideology 215 The Crux of JAT’s Ideology 215 Iman (Belief) vs Kufr (Infidelity) 219 Politicisation of Tauhid, Iman, and Taqwa 223 Pluralism and Diversity 226 6.3. Strategy 229 Da‘wah 231 i. Bringing Everybody on the Same Page 231 ii. Laying the ground rules for forming a Jama‘ah 233 iii. Influencing Public Opinion 234 iv. Acting as a Hub Organisation 239 Jihad 240 i. I‘dad (Preparation in the Form of Military-Style 241 Training) ii. Hijrah (Migration) 242 iii. Qital Nikayah & Tamkin 243 6.4. Interpreting the Existential Threat 244 6.5. Securitisation of JAT 244 PART III CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSION 249-259 7.1. The Pancasila State as the Referent Object of Security 251 7.2. Existential Threat to the NKRI 252 7.3. Government Responses and the Difficulty of Reaching 255 a Consensus on the Existential Threat 7.4. Lessons Learned 259 7.5. Applying the Same Model to Other Countries 259 Bibliography 260-273 vi SUMMARY This study investigates the existential threat that non-integrative and pro- jihad Islamists and their organisations pose to the Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia (NKRI, Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia). The three case studies chosen for analysis of their origin and development, ideology and strategy are Al-Jama‘ah Al-Islamiyyah (JI), Majelis Mujahidin Indonesia (MMI) and Jama’ah Ansharut Tauhid (JAT). After determining the existential threat, the study then proceeds to understand the post-Suharto government’s weak response to them. What could be the reasons for the state’s indecisiveness to securitise them? Why is it difficult for the state to convince the Indonesian population in general, and more specifically, religious leaders in Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah as well as public intellectuals that these Islamists are an existential threat to the unitary Pancasila state? This study argues that the absence of a consensus between the securitisers and the relevant audience, the Indonesian population, on the existential threat posed by them is the reason for the post-Suharto Indonesian state finding it difficult to securitise them. To obtain first-hand information, I conducted interviews, talked, and discussed with people from among the securitisers and relevant audience. By employing qualitative analysis of the primary and related documents, this study evaluates the intentions and capabilities of the chosen case studies. After that, an assessment was also made on the post-Suharto government’s securitisation of them. vii This study concludes that non-integrative and pro-jihad Islamists are an existential threat to the NKRI. To securitise them the government must secure the mandate of the general Indonesian public by allocating more resources to convince them and develop a consensus on the existential threat posed by the non-integrative and pro-jihad Islamists. Since Indonesia is becoming a stronger “negara hukum” (a state that implements its government based on the rule of law) because of the establishment of democracy, the government must find the right balance of actions to act against the non-integrative and pro-jihad Islamists. A preventive law like the Internal Security Act of Singapore or the Security Offences (Special Measures) Act 2012 (SOSMA) which Malaysia is currently implementing might not be the solution in the short term. Implementation of such measures would only be possible if the government is successful in convincing the general Indonesian population as the relevant audience of the existential threat. In this regard, the politically aware public and the leadership of the largest Muslim organisations (NU and Muhammadiyah) must agree that non-integrative and pro-jihad Islamists and their organisations are indeed an existential threat. They must allow the government to formulate and implement policies necessary to contain the threat. viii CHAPTER ONE ESTABLISHING THE THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL PLATFORM FOR THIS STUDY “Security is taken to be about the pursuit of freedom from threat and the ability of states and societies to maintain their independent identity and their functional integrity against forces of change, which they see as hostile.
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