12 NAGARi ALPHABET, SIGNS AND SYMBOLS OF PARAMARA INSCRIPTIONS Arvind K. Singh

The Paramaras, started their political career the scribe and the engraver was performed by the in the ninth century C.E. as feudatories of the same person. The relevant epigraphic data provide 1 imperial Racmrak0[)'ls1monarch , succeeded in significant details concerning these professionals, 1 building a strong kingdom in the heart of the central and sometimes mention their predecessors as well , India in the tenth century and played a leading as native place, role, occupation and designation j role in the history of the country till fourteenth as applied to poets, scribes and engravers. It is century C.E. During the course of their political obvious from the examples of good epigraphic I' existence, the Paramaras ruled over various poetry that high talented poets were employed for territories, which includes Maiava proper as well composing the inscriptions. The poets were 1 the adjacent districts of in the east, Ratlam honored by different ways, even by donating land. in the west, Indore and the parts of Hoshangabad AtrO stone inscription of the time of JayasiAha: in the south-east. In addition the imperial royal V.S. 1314 (C.E. 1258) records the donation by house of Maiava, there was other contemporary JayasiAhadeva of the village Mhaisada (Bhainra) royal houses of the Paramaras over Arbuda­ in the territorial division of PaAvimha in favor of a manda, Maru-mandala, Jalor, and Vaga. The kavicakravartin, mhakkura NarayaGa (no. 55). house that grew to power in the region around · Tilakwada copper-plate inscription of the time of Arbuda-maandala or Mount Abo, subsequently Bhojadeva: V.S. 1103 (C.E. 1046) was composed extended their territories in the neighboring region by Sobhika, son of the Kayastha Aiyala of the of Bhinmal-KiradO, and Jalor and those houses Valabhya family, at the request of the king (no. were known after these places. The rulers of all 15) and with an appeal to excuse him for the these houses were semi-independent chiefs. mistakes th.at may have occurred in the Paramaras of the Abo branch owed their fidelity composition, "Onatiriktamajiianallikhitam to the Caulukya dynasty, while those at Vagada suasanetra yatlpramnameva karttavyam samta% were subordinate to the main line of Maiava. sarvvasahayatah''. Pandita Mahipala, son of Poets, Scribes and Engravers of the Pandita Srngavasa was the poet of Udaipur stone Paramara Inscriptions: inscription of the time of : V.S. 1137 (C:E.1080) (no.19). The poet Auvatthama In general, inscriptions of the Paramaras composed the verses of the Jainad stone are composed by distinguished poets5, written inscription of the time of Jagaddeva (no. 29). The (possibly copied) by skilled scribes, and incised composition is here said to be heart-touching, by engravers: The engraver incised the letters "hrdayamgama", and this epithet is really befitting according to the drawing to retain the accuracy in view of its pleasing, elegant and graceful style. and perform his work neatly. However, this Nagpur Museum stone inscription of Naravarman: practice is not universal, as in some instances, V.S.1161 (C.E. 1105)statedtohavebeenadorned the job of all three categories, namely the author, with many eulogies and hymns composed by the

105 'tft'· ~j . ' ' <::3!.' king himself "tena svayamkrtaneka­ in legal science, "smrti-uastra" (no. 57). Other prauastistaticitritam" (no. 33). The record of the Mandhata copper-plate inscription of Jayavarman: Vidisha stone inscription of the time of V.S. 1331 (C.E. 1274) was composed by Naravarman was composed by mhakkura Ur1 UrTkaGmha, who was a member of the assembly Madhava, a son of the mhakkura SOpama and a of Jayavarman and Trivedin by heritage, grandson of mhakkura NTjasa and a dvija "kulakrar,:iayat[traividyatvemi' and appointed by belonging to the Mathura clan (no. 36). Eulogy of the king himself (no. 60). Vasantagadh stone the Sun-God was composed by Pandita Chittapa, inscription of the time of POrnapala: V.S. 1099 who enjoyed the title of m_a_hakavi-cakravartin. (C.E. 1042) was composed by Srahmana Si rear agrees with Thomas who held that Chittapa Matrasarma, the son of Hari (no. 62). ShadOnd was a contemporary and probably a court-poet of stone inscription of the time of POrnapala: V.S. the Paramara king Shoja (no. 37). Madana was a 1102 (C.E. 1045) is the composition of Ambaditya renowned poet who composes at least four Vyasa, the son•of Upadhyaya Madhava of the inscriptions of the Paramaras. Piplianagar copper­ Kauyapa gotra, who composed it through the grace plate inscription of Arjunavarman: V.S. 1267 (C.E. of Sarasvafi (no. 63). The revered and the 1211) was composed by Rajaguru Madana at the illustrious, TilakaprabhasQri was the poet of instance of maha-pandita Un SilhaGa (no. 47). Jhalod1stone inscription of the time of Dharavarca: Two copper-plate inscriptions of v.s. 1255 (C.E. 1198) (no. 73). Vaijaditya Arjunavarman: V.S. 1270 (C.E. 1213) and 1272 composed the Giravad stone inscription of the time (C.E. 1215) were also composed by the same poet of Pratapasimha: V.S. 1344 (C.E, 1288). His but first was composed with the consent of SilhaGa · parents were Pandita DharanTdharaand Campala as mahasandhivigrahika while the second with the (no. 82). ArthOna Stone Inscription of consent of Raja SalakhaGa as the Camundaraja: v.s. 1136 (C.E. 1080) told that in mahasandhivigrahika (nos. 48, 49). Mandhata the Sadhara family was born one Sumati, an ear­ copper-plate inscription of Devapala: V.S. 1282 ring of the goddess Sharan (Sarasvat1), and his (C.E. 1225) was also composed by Madana (no. son was Vijaya, whose younger brother CaAdra 51). Harsauda stone inscription of the·time of composed the praceasti (no. 84). ArthOna image Devapala: V.S. 1275 (C.E. 1218) was composed inscription of the time of Vijayaraja: V.S. 1165 (C.E. by Devauarmana (no. 50). The learned SrahmaGa 1107) was composed bl( Narayana (no. 89) while Vamana was the poet of the eulogy of the ModT another ArthOna stone inscription_ of the same stone inscription of the time of Jayavarmadeva: ruler: V.S. 1166 (C.E. 1109) informs us that the V.S. 1314 (C.E. 1258) who composed it in sixteen stanzas beginning from the fourth, along ,.sadalamkara (no. 56). Mandhata copper-plate with the first were composed by the learned inscription of Jayavarman: V.S. 1317 (C.E. 1261) Kamuka while the rest (stanzas 2-3) was the work was written (likhitam rajauasanam), probably of Shamuka, son of the Srahmana Savada and composed by the learned Harcadeva, the son of grandson of Sha.ilia

106 or copying it on stone, metal and other similar is stated to have been engraved by Pandita objects with a skilful hands. For clear and beautiful Harcuka (no. 22). Amera stone inscription of the writing of the royal inscription, in general, skilled time of Naravarman: V.S. 1151 (C.E. 1094) was II scribes were employed'. Of the scribes of the inscribed by Saumatika (no. 30). Vidisha stone Paramara inscriptions, Gunadhara was the inscription of Trailokyavarman: V.S. 1216 (C.E. I Kayastha who had written the two Harsola copper­ 1158) was engraved by Vasudeva (no. 42). Sehore plate grants of : V.S. 1005 (C.E. 949) (no.1- copper-plate inscriptions of Arjunavarman were 2). Chaddaka, son of Amnaka was the writer of engraved by Pandita Bapyadeva (nos. 48, 49). The the Modasa copper-plate inscription of the time of artisan (rOpakara) Kanhada was the engraver of Bhojadeva:-17.S: 4067 (C.E. 1011) (no. 8). The two Mandhata copper-plate inscriptions (nos. 57, charter is neither carefully engraved nor shows 60). Dhamna, son of sOtradhara SarQka was the the symmetry or beauty in formation. British i engraver of the Varman stone inscription of the ! Museum image inscription of Bhojadeva: V.S. time of P0rnapala: V.S. 1099 (C.E. 1043) (no. 61), 1091 (C.E. 1034) was written by Sivadeva (no. while Vasantagadha stone inscription of the time 14). The minister of peace and war, the illustrious of same ruler was engraved by Uivapala, who was Jogeravara ofthe twice born race was the writer the son of the sOtradhara Deuka, the grandson of of Ka.Ivan copper-plate inscription of the time of Durga and the great-grandson of the sthapati Bhojadeva (no. 16). Dongaragaon stone (architect) Naga (no. 62). Dhareuvara, Deua, inscription of the time of Jagaddeva: Saka Samvat Devau and Lahampa were the engravers of 1034 (C. E. 1112) was written by Viuvsvamin (no. P0rnapala s Bhadund stone inscription of V.S. 28). Pandita Ra.jape.lahas written the Amera stone 1102 (C.E. 1045) and possibly also the excavators inscription of the time of Naravarman: V.S. 1151 of the well (no. 63). Ajhar'i stone inscription of the (C.E. 1094) (no. 30). Arth0na stone inscription of time of Yasodhavala: V.S. 1202 (C.E. 1146) was Camundaraja: v.s. 1136 (C.E. 1080) told that engraved by sOtradhara Cadadeva (no. 64). In the prasastiwas written on stone by Asaraja, a son of end of the Kamtal stone inscription of the time of Sr'idhara, a Kayastha belonging to the Valabhya Dharavarca: V.S. 1274 (C.E. 1216) the name of (hailing from Valabhi) family (no. 84). However, Mahidhara appears who might be the engraver of other Arth0na image inscription of V.S. 1165 (C.E. the inscription (no. 75). Girvad stone inscription 1107) was written by Anamta (no. 89). Ropi of the time of Pratapasimha: V.S. 1344 (C.E. 1288) inscription of Devaraja: V.S. 1059 (C.E. 1012)) was was engraved by ~amgadeva, son of SQmadeva, written by SQryaravi, ,a son of Nyasa (no. 91). a resident of~oheda (no. 82). Panaheda stone Kira.dustone inscription of Somesvara: V.S. 1218 inscription of Mandalika: V.S. 1116 (C.E. 1059) (C.E. 1161) states that the eulogy was written by was engraved by Asaraja, a son of Sr'idhara, who I Yauodeva (no. 94). Some correction was also belonged to the Valabhya Kayastha family (no. done after aware of the fault. For example, in lirie 83). Arth0na stone inscription of Camundaraja: i 29 of Mandhata copper-plate (no. 51, plate XLIX) V.S. 1136 (C.E. 1080) told that the eulogy was ,,katyayana gotraya was left that was added engraved by sOtradhara Gumdaka, a son of ! between the lines 28-29 in smaller shape. sOtradhtira Nanna (no. 84). Nanaka was the

Inscriptions of the Paramaras also furnish engraver of the Arth0na image inscription of the information regarding their engravers, listed here. time ofVijayaraja: V.S. 1165 (C.E. 1107), who also The record of the Jhalrapaman stone inscription carved the image of Hanumana (no. 89), while of the time of Udayaditya: V.S. 1143 (C.E. 1087) vijflanika SQmaka was the engraver of another

107 '(jjt_•,,,, . ~ , ',.r.-?'

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ArthQna stone inscription of the time of same ruler: in the Nagar1 forms, with only some ornamental V.S. 1166 (C.E. 1109) (no. 90) .. KiradQ stone or simplified additions and modifications. From inscription of Somellvara: V.S. 1218 (C.E. ·1161) Mauryan to mid of the sixth century C.E. only a states thattlie eulogy was engraved by Yauodhara few letters resembled counterparts in Nagar1.Most (no. 94). The information about Pandita Harcuka, of the letters from the seventh century onwards Pandita Rajapala and others reveal that the underwent the process of development in their profession of engraving became respectable at formation which mislead some scholars to that time. consider that Nagari begin in the eighth-ninth Nagari Alphabet: centuries or even more earlier". Moreover, passing through its developmental stages in north India Inscriptions of the Paramaras are written in Brahm! grew into a script called by the Nagar1 characters. Regional cultures, personal palaeographers as Siddhamatrka, Kumila, acute· mannerisms, efforts at speed, beautification and angled, etc". The new innovation, by' which it decoration and the writing materials and tools are differs from Brahm!, is the inward bending in the some o_fthe factors which explain the differences vertical limbs of the letter resulting in the fonnation and characteristics of Nagar1 alphabet in the of an acute-angle with the base line on the right Paramara inscriptions. As for the professionals, end of some letters. In addition, the top of the individual mannerism has an effect on the writing. letters grow into a triangular shape and the medial In general, the engraver incised the letters signs prolong with twists and bends. These according to the drawing of the scribe to retain features are developed mainly due to the pen the accuracy and perform his work neatly. technique which can be seen in the forms of the However, due to an illiterate or unskilled engraver letters that become more decorative in the medial sometimes the form of the Jetteris misshapen. On signs". The main features of the Kumila script the other hand, if is easier to draw wedge head­ remained almost the same excepting for mark, t~ thick line by wedged pen while ornamentation. The ornamentation and the shape liriear head-mark and uniformity in thickness may of letters differ in different regions due to the writing be easily drawn by stylus pen. Difference in materials, regional traits, as well as personal habiis progress of writing also might be observed in tenn and mannerisms of the scribes". In the last phase of centre and periphery. Naturally, the skilled of seventh century mar~ advanced letter forms professionals of the court were more skilled and developed, which paved the-wayjQr Nagar1 and" well aware with the latest development than those is now called by the name proto-Nagar'f.. ln eroto­ i of the remote places. Nagar1,the triangular head-mark become broader, Nagar1 script, also known by the name or is replaced by a small stroke, and tail orfootmark l Devanagari, is the most popular script of India, is is developed at the bottom of the letters. Most of now used over a large part of Indian subcontinent the earliest proto-Nagar1 specimens reveal the l for writing and some other Indian mixture of triangular and linear type of head-mark. I languages, though it is seldom realised by the The writing material and writing technique played ' common people that its origin lies in Brahm! an important role in the emergence of the simple through a chain of successive evolutions. forms of the writing and Nagar1alphabet. The main However, passing through its various characteristics of Nagar1, i.e. full covering head­ developmental stages, some or the ·other part of line, straight vertical, uniform medial signs, every letter of the Mauryan Brahm! is still retained mutilated consonant in ligature and ha/anta sign,

108 is exhibited in Bharat Kala Bhavan copper-plate the two forms of dha, in one the left limb of the inscription of Pratihara Hariraja (C.E. 983)13 and letter is endowed with a horn above, but generally Kauthom plates of Caulukya V (C.E. this letter is without the horn. The peculiar form of 1008) 14. The script of these epigraphs approaches pha in phalam liner", differs entirely from other form the mature NagarT form which is fully developed of the record. There are variations in the by the 13th century C.E. But it does not mean that representation of letter ra, one formed by a vertical the NagarT of the 13th century is same as of the stroke with a horizontal bar attached to its middle 21st century15 and since no development took on the left, another with the bar originated from place in the form of the letters. the top stroke itself and the third with the horizontal stroke has a wedged attached to it in the middle. To discuss ·the NagarT alphabet and As for the medial signs, a sometimes replaced by numerals signs, I have selected seventeen a crescent attached to the right extremity of the inscriptions of the Paramaras of different branches top stroke of a letter. The vertical of the medial that are represented in sixteen columns, of which short i is often slightly bent to the right at the signs of two inscriptions are in column ten and of bottom. Medial e is also in crescent or twisted top one in each column. Of them, ten inscriptions, stroke form. Above all, the characters show a represented in nine columns (1, 2, 4, 6, 1O, 11, 1. transitional stage. The letters and medial signs of 13, 14, 15) belongs to the Paramaras of Maiava I ' the Ganori copper-plate inscription of Vakpatiraja three (columns 3, 9, 16) to the Paramaras of Mount I (column 2) are more cursive. Initial a is formed by Abu or CandravatT, one (column 12) to the the sign of the initial u joined to a vertical stroke Paramaras of Bhinmal, one (column 8) to the with a horizontal and a footmark below. Initial ; is Paramaras of Jalor and two (columns 5, 7) to the represented by two circles subscribed by the Paramaras of Vagada. Here, I indicate only some medial sign u. Of the consonants, £a has not unusual features and need not go into the details developed a dot, and ca, dha, va are almost alike of the formation of the individual letters in different in form; kha, cha, ja, na, bha and cea continued periods and localities as the tables (1-111)are self­ their old forms. The letter fia is similar to Ga. As , explanatory. Among noticeable features, Harsola ·for medial signs, ornamentation might be observed inscriptions of Siyaka (column 1) display an in the formation of e. Further, in the Vasantagadh interesting feature about the head-strokes of the inscription (column 3) initial i is denoted by two letters. Most of them show curvatures of zigzags dots, subscribed by medial u like symbol the tail ''I in the middle and a few looks like a small crescent. I of which is extended in hook form on the top of . The left limb of the initial a curve with a slanting the dots; £a is without dot and there is no apparent stroke below and sporadically it also represents a difference in the forms of ca, dha and va, but ba form in which the curve is surmounted by a small has a separate sign of its own. The letters kha, ta, vertical stroke and looks like counterpart in Nagar'i. /a and sa have generally not developed the tail of _Initial i is shown by two loops placed horizontally the left limb. The difference between the forms of -and subscribed by the sign for medial u ending in the palatal and dental sibilant is often marked in a sharp curve below. Of the consonants, kha is that the form of these is engraved with a tail of the represented by two triangle joined by a horizontal left which is missing in the latter. The letters are line above. The forelimb of ga is also formed as a not deeply engraved so that occasionally •the triangle with its apex above. The letter Ga looks impression shows only dots of the loops of letters like the modern la. The letters gha, ca, ja, ta, na, na and ma, with the strokes overall missing. The bha and cea continued their traditional shape. Of

109 medial a is often denoted by a stroke above the The general peculiarity of the Jhalrapaman top of a letter, and occasionally the form of short inscription (column 6) is that the vertical of letters and long medial i is only a curve above the top and the prcmhamatra shows a sudden bend to and not taken below. SomeJimes, the strokes of the right at their lower extremity. The initial i is the medial signs have been ornamentally treated formed of two circles placed side by side with (table Ill, column 3) and there are some decorative hooks in the opposite directions with some designs in lines 21-22 and at the end of the ornamentation below, triangular form of initial eis inscription. yet to develop its tail, kha is formed of two loops suspended by vertical strokes, the top of which The engraver of the Tilakwada inscription are joined by a horizontal line and left limb is (column 4) has fared very slovenly in his task and without tail, the right portion of gha is still to move the expected shape of the letters are often below to develop modern form, dha has not transformed, a number of them also received the developed a horn on the top of its left limb, the arbitrary touch of the chisel. It is also of noteworthy loops of na and ma are often below, and the fore that the writing is sparser on the last two sides in limbs of ha and ta ends in sharp tail, tha is formed comparison with the first. As far the forms of the of two hollows placed vertically before a horizontal letters, in archaic form initial i is shown by three stroke, ra is generally wedged while bha is rather dots, two above and one below, initial long a is peculiarly formed. Letters ca, cha, ja, cea and sa presented by adding a curved stroke in the middle are yet to develop modern form. Some of the short u, initial e is almost a triangle with the ornamentation is noticed in the formation of medial vertical point below while ai is denoted by adding sign e. Further, ArthOna inscription (column 7) medial sign e in its form, dha and va are more or shows the form of initial a which has begun less similar in form, cea is sometimes devoid of assuming its modern shape, and the initial short i the slanting stroke below and head-mark. is represented by two dots followed by a sign like Likewise, the Panaheda inscription (column 5) medial u while long i is denoted by three dots and display initial i represented by two hollow circles a rightward hook in lower left, ca is distinguished subscribed by the sign for the medial short u and from va in showing its loop angular, The letters the same vowel in its long form is distinguished kha, gha, ja, bha and sa are in developed or by a horizontal stroke above. The letter Ea is still developing forms while without horn dha still without dot and the letters ca, dha and va are looks continues to resemble va. JaRJriRscription (column like similar in form. The rare jha is shown which is 8) display initial a begin with a dome-shaped curve similar in formation to the modern kra. The form and i is in older form, letter pa and ya have often of the letters ta, na, va and /a are occasionally the matching form, dha continues its antique form confused with each other, which might be due to without horn, raisin transitional stage, and other an error on the part of the scribe or the engraver. letters are almost in developed NagarTform. Furthermore, pa has similar form as ya, and bha is often baffled with ha. Distinction between the Giravad stone inscription (column 9) formation of palatal sa and dental sa is that the represent antique form of initial i and cha, bha is loop which begins the first of these letters assumes in transitional form, while other letters shows the form of a stroke curved above whereas that of developed counterparts in modern Nagari, the second is curved downwards. Both these whereas there is some ornamentation in the letters are in a transitional state, rarely assuming formation of medial e. As far the forms of letters of the modern forms. inscriptions (column 10) initial i is formed 110 by a horizontal stroke, with ends slightly curved inscription (column 11) are beautifully written and below, in level with the top strokes, and subscribed deeply engraved. As far the individual letters is by a sign resembling the medial u, initial ai is concerned, Ea is devoid of dot, dental dha has represented by adding a sign of medial e in the begun to developing a horn, dais formed so as to form of initial e, ca is occasionally distinguished resemble ra, ba has a separate sign of its own by a triangular loop from va, but bha and ha are that resembling a parallelogram. It is of noteworthy sometimes written alike in which the slanting that in the alphabetical list letters pha and bha are stroke of the second of these letters is missing; in archaic forms while in lines 3 and 15 respectively the right limb of ja is yet to develop vertical form. their modern and developing Nagarr form is -- engraved. Sarpa-bandha inscriptions from Ujjain, and On are of educational significance, also Kira.do inscription (column 12) displays the showing the high interest of the public in teaching developed form of most of the letters, except the and learning grammar. Of them, I have selected letters ja and bha which continue their old forms. the Ujjain Mahakala temple inscription (column 11) Examples of wrong stroke of the chisel are which dedicates the -nagakrpanika to occasionally to be noticed in the formation of ma, Udayaditya. This serpentine sword of king da, and va. inscription (column 13) display Udayaditya, intended to for the protection of letters initial a begins with a semi-circular form, first or learning and social classes has been set up as curved above and then bent below, i is in archaic a badge for the poets and kings. The inscription circles and hook form, medial e of initial ai shows mentions that the string of poetic gems was ornamental features, left limb of ca is triangular composed by vandhu of the talented poets but yet to develop upper leftward extension, dental "sukavivandhuna", presumably refers to king dha has developed a horn on its left limb which is Naravarman himself, who appears to have in stroke or more developed curved form. There composed the praoaast1". Lines 18-19 comprise are some confusion in the forms between pa and the letters of Nagarr alphabet, class-wise, each ya, again in ra and ca. Letters ja and bha are in group being followed by a numerical indication the process of development. Further development showing the number of letters in it. Thus the could be seen in the Mandhata inscription (column number 14 in line 18 indicates the vowels from a 14) where a is formed by placing a curve below to au, then the number 2 the anusvara and visarga, another and superimposed by a vertical stroke, i and following it, again the number 2 is engraved is formed of twp loops placed side by side with a at the end of the sign of jihvamuliya and fine bend below and thus being almost as a upadhamaniya. Line 19 consist the consonants precursor of the modern letter, e is formed by two from ka to ha, signifying their total number 51 at curved horizontal lines with their ends joined and the end. The subtotal is also pointed out just after the initial au by joining the upper loop of a with the each of the groups. Line 20 of the inscription offers vertical by a bar, loop of ca is developing left stroke the long vowels a,i, 0, ], and I] and following these, as in modern Nagarr, and the initial top-stroke of in lines 20-22 the well known Maheuvara-sOtras. dha shows a beautiful bend, represents developed Atthe end of Maheuvara-sOtra begins the bandha, stage, but tha is engraved as wa while ja and bha was known as vamanaga-krpanika, which is, as are in transitional form. Medial e is in both, top­ expression indicates, a scimitar or a dagger stroke as well in prcmhamatra form. Another formed by the combination of the letters and a Mandhata inscription (column 15) displays the snake (no. 25). The characters of the Mahakala letters in developed forms. Initial i show a form 111 which is precursor of the Nagari counterpart, initial assume its modern form while others shown e with its vertical not fully developed occasionally developed shape. Giravad inscription (column16) resembles the letter pa, and the initial o almost exhibit developed form of the signs of vowels and resembles the same symbol of inscription at the consonants, though the persistence of ornamental beginning. The initial [ is in modern shape. The feature in the medial sign e is of noteworthy . letters cha, ja and bha have almost begun to

-· V owesl s·. lgDS T a bl.. e-[

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112 Co nsonants 1gns T a bl c-IT. A

Key 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 l3 14 15 16

Ka ~ qi ~

~ q Ca <1 a

Na ~ 5l . ~ ..... Ta (., c i l. z C. G c l c '2 C. c Tha 0 ~ 6 ~ «I a 0 0 0 0 0 I;>a r s 5 l ~ ~ s 5 ~ ~ ~ s ~ g Qha a, G ~ a G c ~ ~a ~ C!1\:l C1 (!l CTC'1 M (Tl ('1 trl ~ ~ m.(Tl C'l Ta ~ " ~ (l ct (\ rl cf r1 a ~ " cl a. ct n

113 Consonants Signs Table-II B Tha a a e 8 El a a ff a a a 2l a a 'a Da ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ G ~ ~ ~ ~ G ~ ~ · ~ ~ Dha 4 q 4 q 4 q_a ct ij ~ tl ({ -a:~ ~ ij ;r Na cti ~ rl ~ "- ;\ ~ e:t cfl -t c=t' ~ °'-~ ~ q Pa t1 u. t( a Cl Cl ti Q q \l a u Q a Q Pha le lt ~ tit ~ ~ ~ ~ Cl. th Ba ti a Bha ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ rl ~ ~ i5 5 ~ tl a .;l ~ Ma al. ~ J1 1' Jl l{ ll Jf R ~ ~ ~ cJ:lell dl' lt Ya ~ el. ~ ~ lJ it ll ~ lt .·c;t ~ l) F;( ~ ~ Lt Ra ~ ~ 1 l ~ :{ '"{ ~ ~ x ~ ~ "{

' ~ · La ~ ~ "1 ~ ij' ~ a ~ ~ a ~ ~' a ~ ~ Va q a a Q q Q a cf q a a a q q a a sa ~ i( ~ ~l " ~l ~ "1 ~ 2t ~ ~ ~ a ~ t Sa a "El a ~ e{ a tl ~ a a 71 ~ lSl a 8 ~ ' Sa ~ J( ~ =l'.J~ ~ ff ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a ~ ~

Ha ~ ~ rj i, ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . fn~ ~ &. iJ.

114 Numeral Signs: 3 is formed with three parallel horizontal lines. In the first developmental stage right tip of the upper Like alphabets, the Indian numeral also two bars slant to meet with the lower bar, which is reveals a history of gradual evolution. Before the extended to the right. The further developmental tenth century C.E. numeral notations were denoted stage shows a form in which the right tip of both in two ways-letter numerals and numeral figures upper bars became cursive by which three limbs , i of the decimal system. In letter numerals separate joined with each other. Finally, from the 9th ' signs are used for the units, tens, hundreds and century, upper two lines are shortened and form thousands. Other composite numbers are almost a double curved shape and a slanted tail represented by the combina~on of units with tens, is attached at the lower extremity. This form is hundreds and thousands. This type of notation was retained in Nagari. The modern form of the sign employed exclusively up to the later part of the 6"' for 4 occurs in 9th century, before that it was century C.E. and thereafter sporadically survived represented by a sign like letter ka or ligature pka. alongside the decimal system till the 1O"' century • The numeral 5 is represented by a sign of letter ja C.E. Very useful researches on the letter-numerals or an upward curve with notched left limb. The have been done'by E. Thomas 17, E. Clive Bayley", next developmental stage shows a straight line 20 at Bhau Daji", H. R. Kapadia , Bhagawanlal the right but left limb still is notched. Finally the 23 lndraji21, G. Buhler"', G. S. Ojha , Awdhesh Narain right limb became straight and the left one cursive. Singh24, Sobhana Laxaman Gokhale 25 and Om From this form modern Nagar'i shape evolved in Prakash Lal Srivastava". due course of time. The earlier specimens The modern system of using nine unit frequently show the letter form of ja tor the numeral figures and zero for all purposes of notation and notation 6. In the further developmental stage, calculation, arranged in decimal order seems to upper curve is turned to right and lower slanted be of a later period. To the best of our knowledge, stroke develops into a hook shape and finally both the earliest epigraphic instance of the use of the limbs ol the vertical become cursive with a vertical decimal notation is the Gurjjara inscriptions from tail. In tracing the development of Nagari numeral Sankheda of Cedi year 346 (C.E. 14 595). Here, 7 it is observed that it was shown by a downward neither I am going to deal with the typology, old curve in the earlier period. In developing stages, and new of the numerals nor wish to enter into the the right limb of the curve extends downward, controversy of numerals being evolved with the progressively turned to left i~ yar\o,usdegrees and letter forms or independent symbols but have finally prolongs up_warcfs:· To trace the taken the general resemblance of the numeral developmental stages of-Nagadje>rm of numeral signs with the letters of the period and trace the 8, earlier it is represented as a rightward curve, history of evolution of Nagari Numerals of gradually upper portion become flattened with a Paramara inscriptions (table IV). downward slanted stroke, lower slant transforms into a rightward curve and finally upper flat line The sign of zero is circular in shape as in produces to the left. This shape is still employed modern times. Sometimes it is oval. The earlier in Nagar'i. Generally two signs are employed for numeral 1 is denoted by a vertically placed stroke. numeral 9 in later period. Of these, first is leftward ·· In further developmental stage a hook, a knob or hooked shape with a circle at the upper end and a small circle is added to the top of it. Out of them, second is double curved shape. Second shape small circular variety is accepted in modern furnished numerous sub-varieties which could be Nagari. Sign for 2 is two parallel horizontal strokes understood by the illustrations (table IV). joined by a third cursive stroke and added with a slanting stroke. Old form of the numeral notation

116 N umer a1S s1· ns Tablc-lV

Key 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0

1 °l ~ t\.. f\. t \ 'l '\.. 'l , , ' ,.. 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ (. ~ 'l ~ < 3 a. l.. ~ 1 t ~ i ~ ~ "- ~ l 4 & ~ ~ }s' ~ ~ ~ &' b' \I, 8 5 a. u ~ ~ ~ ~ 4 '{ LLu ll "- , j 6 ~ ~ ~ (, ~ ~ ~ 7 J !) 9 ') (j j J J ~

8 C C. C t t C C C C:

9 ~ ct Qf ~ i ~ t\J ~

Other Signs: to indicate the completion of a verse . Some In the Paramaras inscriptions several signs mangalas and ornamental signs are also drawn and symbols are to be found and very often we in the later portion; or at the end of the inscriptions. are not sure about the phonetic or symbolic value A very common sign of this description is a large of these signs. Some scholars read the signs found circle with a smaller one in side. in the beginning of the inscriptions as siddham Depiction of Garud a and Siva: and other prefers to read them as sign for om. As for the religious and moral sphere, the There are also signs for Jihvamuliya and Paramaras personified the best in their dominions Upadhamaniya. As for the punctuation marks, it that left behind a great tradition of religious is generally averred that the various modem signs tolerance . and thrived side by of punctuation were not employed in the side in peace and harmony and Jaina scholars inscriptions, true to some extent. A danda or stroke also received as much recognition at the courts is drawn to mark the completion of a sentence or as Brahmanas. The Brahmanical Hinduism was a hemistich of a verse and two dandas or strokes

117 flourishing and popularizing with the help of the copper-plate inscriptions reveal an artistic Paramara rulers who constructed temples representation of Garuda. dedicated to the Hindu deities in their sovereignty Most of the copper-plates of the Paramaras and donated land-grants to the Brahmanas. Visnu of Maiava bear the representation of Garuda, was the ideal god and was Tribhuvana­ which seems to- be their royal emblem. Mostly, narayana while Naravarman called himself Garuda is shown at the end of the inscription, but Nirvana-narayana or Nirbhaya-narayana. S1yaka in a few cases represented in the centre of the was a devotee of Visnu, invokes the blessings of plate. Some variations are also of noteworthy in Visnu in Narasingha incarnation. His son and the forms of Garuda. A figure of flying Garuda successor Vakpati makes obeisance to Murari, i.e. holding a snake in his left arm and with right hand Krsna. King Naravarman took pride in adopting raised above is shown in the second Harsola plate the title Nirvana-narayana. The Nagapur (Photo 1). There is a flying Garuda facing right inscription of the time of Naravarman pays and depicted as a human being, except for the reverence to the different incarnation of Visnu. King wings attached to his shoulders, holding a hooded Arjunavarman is said to have worshiped Visnu, snake in his left hand and right hand is raised the husband of Lakcm1. A fragmentary inscription displayed in the lower portion of the.second plate from MandO records highly poetical description of of Ahmadabad grant. The figure measures about god Visnu in his different incarnation. King Jaitugi 5 cm. in height and 4 cm. in breadth. The lower is called a young Narayana, and king Jayavarman left comer of the second plate of Dharampur1grant makes obeisance to Parasurama, and (Photo 2), in a rectangular space of about 9 cm. Kaitabhajit. Besides, Paramara rulers had Visnu high by 8 cm. broad, shows the figure of a flying 27 vehicle Garuda on their seal • But the worship of Garuda, in human form and facing left, holding Siva and Sakti was more influential. Bhoja is snake in the left hand. The figure is well executed, described as a zealous Saiva, and was the wearing an ornamented crown and other composer of a work entitled Tatvaprakaua, ornaments such as anklets, armlets, and necklace. expounding the principles of Saivism. It appears Almost in the identical form flying Garuda (8x11 that due to the royal patronage this sect of cm.) is incised on the bottom of the third Ganor1 Hinduism was spread for and wide in the whole copper-plate, wearing an ornamented crown, other region. Udaipur prasasti stating that Bhojadeva ornaments and a long garland, holding a snake in made the world worthy of its name by covering it the left hand, with the righfonEHaised up. Here, all round with temples dedicated to Siva in the - , the snake is shown in coiled form. The technical names of Kedara, Ramesvara, Somanatha, execution is neat and clean, as comprehensible Sundira, Kala, Anala and Rudra. The activity of from the photograph (Photo 3). The figure of the building temples in honor of Siva and the other flying Garuda on Mahaud1 copper-plate is not deities is renowned to persist throughout the obvious but appears with a circular object held up widespread dominions of the Paramaras and their in the left hand. In the lower left part of the second feudatories. The temple building activity which was plate of Bemma (Photo 4) a rectangle (5.5x7.3 cm.) prevalent during the period throughout the entire is formed by double lines interspaced by oblique region and the fabulous elegance revealed in strokes ending· in acute angles, and there is a sculptures profusely to be found in the whole representation of Garuda in kneeling position, region, furnish evidence of the superb stone art facing left wearing a turban like head-dress and and architecture. Apart from the stone art, the holdif'\9a snake in the left hand. Banswada copper-

118 plate also shows a rectangular form with the hands and facing left, carved between two snakes, representation of a flying Garuda (8x6 cm.), and a in a double bordered rectangular space of 5.2x7 snake in the left hand and the right being raised cm. On the reverse of the second Mandhata plate above. There is representation of a flying Garuda (Photo 11), between lines 42 and 50, a vertical with head-dress, a snake in the left hand and the line marks of 10.2x8 cm., contains an engraving raised right hand in the Ujjain copper-plate. The of Garuda, is represented in human form with four design is enclosed in a rectangle of double lines hands, the upper two hands are folded over the inter-spaced with oblique strokes. An area of 10.5 chest, the lower right lifted up with fingers raised cm. square i11the left lower corner of the second and the lowe_rleft raised with holding a snake, Depalpur pl.rte -is 'OGcupied by a rectangle kneeling towards the left but with the head turned containing the figure of a flying and left facing towards right. The figure has a birds beak nose, Garuda that is not much clear. The lower portion rose up hair, bearded face, and adorned with of the second Mandhata plate (Photo 5) shows a necklace, armlets and anklets. It also wears a scarf representation of a flying Garuda (6.35x7 cm.) with in the neck and an upper garment with flaring ends. the body of a man and an oblique nose, facing left In a square measuring 19 cm. of the reverse of and looking at a serpent held in his left hand. On the fourth Mandhata plate is a depiction of Garuda. the lower side of the second Kadambapadraka The space covered by figure is 13x11 cm. and in plate (Photo 6) is engraved the figure of Garuda techn)cal execution it resembles the one engraved (7x9 cm.) facing left and kneeling, with wings on the inscription of the same king from the same spread and holding a h9oded snake in left hand place (no. 57). The image is enshrined in a two snakes in right hand and one snake is shown structure with a plain rectangular pillar divided into in the neck. The figure of Garuda is adorned with three parts, on either side, and supporting the roof head-dress, ear-rings and long garland. The Ujjain which consists of three superimposed slab~, plate (Photo 7) display in the lower left portion a which, in their turn, support the spire, like a rectangle formed of double lines (10.5x9.5 cm.), miniature shrine as was in vogue in Maiava during contains a depiction of Garuda in human form and that time. The exact shape of it may be seen from with a pointed nose, kneeling facing front but head the photograph (Photo 12). The Rajpur plate turned to left. The image holds three snakes in exhibit a roughly engraved figure of Garuda in the left hand and the right hand rose up. human form (5x4 cm.), kneeling and facir:ig left, Furthermore, in the centre of the second Bhopal with folded hands. riere, the conspicuous aspect plate (Photo 8), in a square of 6 cm is engraved is that the letters Garuda is engraved near its face the figure of a Garuda in human form kneeling and in Nagari characters. On the whole, the entire facing proper left, wearing crown. The figure is representation of the Garuda in copper-plates represented between pillars on left and right side. inscriptions of the Paramaras of Maiava, The second Bhopal piate (Photo 9) formed double developed a style of its own, similarity might be plain border in the lower middle of lines 34 to 41, observed with ApabhraAsa style of paintings. ~ith the figure of Garuda in human form but with Apart from the figure of Garuda, the nose of a bird, facing front, wear long garland representation of Uiva is also noticed. The lower and unique head-dress. The head of the figure is part of the Harsauda stone (Photo 13) bears a turned to right and the hand joined near the chest, crude depiction of CEiva,in a double lined rectangle as in devotion. The Mandhata plate (Photo 1O) with beaded sides, 6.5 cm. broad and 4.5 cm. high. shows a representation of Garuda with folded On its right side there are three and on left side

119 M e d'1 a I s·1211s T a bl e-III

Key 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

A qr 11l

0 ·~ ~ ~ -a ~ ~ ~ 1 i_ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

~ 1l QI ~ ~ ~ . 2 i J'l· l ~ 2 ~ ~ · a ~ E ~ 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ @ J)~ · ~ @l ~ [cl ~ {o ) ½ ~ · rA. ~ · Ai ~ ] ~ ) (n ~ ~ m @ ~ iaro ~ '• ~· 0 con~ ~ ~ lctl~ at?81 ~ ~ ~ . 11t~ @ ~ Au ~ (filer i [JI~ ~ . is,, ~ i ffl1rctt I

115 four figures of males and females of about the XCII. same height, who are paying devotion to Siva. It 9. Giravad Stone Inscription of the time of is plausible that they might be the members of a PratapasiAha: year 1181 (CE 1124), Cl/, family of the person who built the temple referred VII, Part 3, no. 187, plate XCIII. to in record as construction of a temple of Sambhu 10. Ujjain Copper-plate Inscription of by one Kesava. Yaceovarman: year 1192 (C.E. 1135), Cl/, Index of the palaeographical tables VII, no. 38, plate XL A; Ujjain Copper-plate (I-IV) Inscription of Jayavarman, Cl/, VII, no. 39, These tables contain sixteen columns, plate XL B properly numbered. Each column bears vowel signs, consonant signs, medial signs and numeral 11. Ujjain Mahakaleuvara Temple Sarpa­ bandha Inscription, Cl/, VII, no. 25, plate signs of a class of inscriptions which are given XXVII. below: 1. Harasol/i Copper-plate Grant of S!yaka 12. KiradQ Stone Inscription of Somecevara: year 1218 (C.E. 1161), Gil, VII, no. 94, plate (Vikrama) year 1005 (C.E.949), Harihar Vitthal Trivedi, 1978 Corpus lnscriptionum XC. /ndicarum (Cl/): Inscriptions of the 13. Bhopal Copper-plate Inscription of Paramiiras, Vol. VII-Part 2, New Delhi, no. Mahakumara Udayavarman: year 1256 1, plate I. (C.E. 1200), Cl/, VII, no. 46, plates XLVI­ 2. Ganori Copper-plate Inscription of XLVII. Vakpatirajadeva: year 1038 (C.E. 981), Gil, 14. Mandhata Copper-plate Inscription of VII, no. 6, plates V-VI. Devapala: year 1282 (C.E. 1225), Cl/, VII, 3. Vasantagadh Stone Inscription of the time no. 51, plates XLIX-L. of PurGapala: year 1099 (C.E. 1042), Gil, 15. Mlindhata Copper-plate Inscription of VII, no. 62, plate LXV. Jayavarman: year 1331 (C.E. 1274), Cl/, 4. Tilakwada Copper-plate Inscription of the VII, no. 60, plates LX-LXIII. time of Bhojadeva: year 1103 (C.E. 1046), 16. Giravad Stone,lnscription of the time of Cl/, VII, no. 15, plates XVI B-XVII. PratapsiAha: year-1344-(C. E. 1287), Cl/,

5. Panaheda Stone Inscription of Mandal!ka: VII, no. 82, plate LXXXII. year 1116 (C.E. 1059), Cl/, VII, no. 83, plate Notes and References: LXXXIII. 1. On the basis of the verse 24 of the Sanjan 6. Jhalrapaman Stone _Inscriptionof the time copper-plates inscription of Amoghavarsha of Udayaditya: year 1143 (C.E. 1086), Cl/, dated 871 C.E. (Epigraphia lndica, XVIII, VII, no. 22, plate XXIII. pp. 235-57), it has been concluded by Harihar Vitthal Trivedi, (1991 Corpus 7. Arthuna Stone Inscription of the time of lnscriptionum lndicarum, Vll-1, p.2) that Vijayaraja: year 1166 (C.E. 1109), Cl/, VII, Govind Ill entrusted the charge of the no. 90, plate LXXXIX. administration of Maiava to one of his 8. Jalor Stone Inscription of the time of V!sala: . vassals, who admittedlytaken to have been year 1174 (C.E. 1118), GIi, VII, no. 96, plate 120 Upendra, the founder of the Paramara the correctness of the inscription. For detail dynasty. see, D. C. Sircar, 1965, Indian Epigraphy, Motilal Banarasidass, p. 85; Arvind Kumar 2. Indian Antiquary, VIII, p. 11. Singh, 1986 "Impact of writing materials on 3. Number within brackets indicates inscription the evolution of Brah mi Script'', Studies in numbers in Harihar Vitthal Triyedi, 1978 Indian History and Culture, Varanasi, pp. Corpus lnscriptionum lndicarum: 133-140; and 2004 "Poets, Scribes and Inscriptions of the Paramaras, Vll-2, ASI, Engravers of Jejakabhukti: A study based New Delhi, 1978. on Candella Inscriptions", Journal of the 4. Epigrapnilf lndica, I, p. 297. Asiatic Society of Mumbai, 77 -78, for 2002- 2003), pp. 161-170. 5. It is believed that man to become a poet must equip himself with vidya (learning) and 7. Very often expert craftsmen undertook the upvidya (auxilaries). Rajasekhara mentions task of engraving. The lay public, though in the Kavyamimamsa (Gaekwa,d Oriental well educated, sought to avoid writing as Seriesa, p. 4.9)that grammar, lexicography, the scribe s handwriting was distinctly metrics and rhetoric constitute essentially superior. This is evident from the remark of 'vidya' or more precisely, 'kavyavidya', i.e. Canakya that even though written with requisite learning for making poetry and the utmost care the letters of a Srotriya (Vedic sixty four fine arts, for instance, painting, scholar) like himself would be far from clear music, sculpture and so on, or .,upvidya or (Mudrarakshasa, Act I) and he prefers the accessories: 'nama-dhatu-parayana services of a scribe; and when the final draft abhidhaoa-kosah chandovicitih alamkara­ is brought to him he admires the letters. For tatranca kavya vidyah kalastu catuhsasthir detail see, C. Sivaramamurti, 1952 Indian upavidyah '. Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts, Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, 111-4, 6. In, any of the cases, the writings were done (reprint 1966), pp. 32-35. by the professional scribe of the court and the engravers incised the letters according 8. H. K. Bhattacharya ( 1959, The language to drawing, although sometimes the and scripts of ancient India, Calcutta, pp. engravers themselves wrote the text on the 113-114) has emphatically asserted that plates or en·gravedthe text without drawing Brahmi carinot be called the mother of the letters on them. The practice of writing Nagari and that the latter has a different the text of a document on the plates first in origin. ( ink is clearly indicated by Kasia copper­ 9. G. Buhler (1959 Indian Palaeography, plate inscription, which bears 13 lines of Calcutta, pp. 69-70) recognised the sign­ writing of which only the first line is incised manual of Gurjara princes of the 7th-8th while the remaining 12 lines are written in century as first example of Nagari, while N. black ink. In some records, the letters of N.Vasu, (Journal of the Asiatic Society of which are painted on stone, the intention of Bombay, LXV, pp. 128-133) takes it back engraving them at a later date remains un­ into 5th century C.E. materialized. This was meant to facilitate 10. David Diringer, 1948 The Alphabet, London, the work of engraving and also to ensure

121 p. 357; D. C. Sircar, Epigraphia lndica, 19. ''The ancient Sanskrit Numerals in the Cave XXXIV, p. 161; J. Princep, Journal of the Inscriptions and on the Sah coins, correctly Asiatic Society of Bombay, VI, p.779; J. F. made out; with remarks on the Era of Fleet, Epigraphia lndica, Ill, p. 328; Buhler, Salivahana and Vikramaditya", Journal of G. 1959 Indian Palaeography, p. 68. the Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, Vlll, pp. 225-233 and plate. 11. c.f. A. K. Singh, 1991, Development of Nagari Script, Delhi, fig., 4-5. 20. "Foliation of Jain Manuscripts and Letter Numerals", Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental 12. A. K. Singh, 2002, "Brahmi "1lphabetin India Research Institute, XV!ll, pp. 171-186 and and abroad (6th- 8th century C.E.): plates. Progress of modification", Pragdhara, no. 12, pp. 203-220. 21. "On the ancient Nagari Numerals", Indian Antiqua~ VI, pp. 42-48 and plates. 13. D. C. Sircar, Epigraphia lndica, XXXI, pp. 309-313. 22. Indian Palaeography, Calcutta, 1959, pp. 96-107 and plate. 14. J. F. Fleet, Indian Antiquary, XVI, pp.15-24. 23. Bharatiya Prachin Lipimala, Ajmer, 1918, 15. A. K. Singh, 1996, "Progress of modification pp. 102-127 and pis. of Nagari alphabet as revealed by inscriptions of fourteenth-nineteenth 24. "On the Evolution of Alphabetic Numerals centuries", Pragdhara, no. 6, pp. 189-222. in India", Journal of the U.P. Historical Society, Vil, pp. 42-53. 16. Epigraphia lndica, XXXI, p. 26, n. 4,_ 25. Indian Numerals, Poona, 1966. 17. "On the Dynasty of the Sah kings of Surashtra", Journal of the Royal Asiatic 26. Uttara Bharat me Anko ka Vikas, Varanasi, Society, XII, pp. 32-47. 1986. 18. "On the Genealogy of modern Numerals", 27. For detail see, Pratipal Bhatiya, 1970 The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Paramaras, New Delhi, pp. 242-246. Series, XIV, pp. 335-376 and plate.

122 "-'"''''''"--

I. Garw;la of Harasola Plate (A K. Singh)

2. Garuc;laof Dharampurf Grant (A K. Singh)

4. Garuc;laofBetma Plate (AK. Singh) 3. Garuc;laofGanorf Plate (AK. Singh)

123