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Iconography of Deities and Demons: Electronic Pre-Publication 1/10 Last Revision: 5 January 2009 Iconography of Deities and Demons: Electronic Pre-Publication 1/10 Last Revision: 5 January 2009 Marduk could be interpreted as a manifestation of M. impede his iconographic identification. I. Introduction. Mesopotamian god, The only anthropomorphic depiction of M., →DDD. A discussion of the iconography of which is identified by a cuneiform caption, anthropomorphic M. (for his more popular is found on a lapis lazuli cylinder of Mar- symbol see →Spade) requires a closer ex- duk–zakir–shumi I (854–819) from Babylon amination of his elevation from a local god (1*). The god is shown in a long robe with and patron deity of Babylon to the most starlike applications, holding the ring–and– prominent deity of the Mesopotamian pan- rod in his left hand and a scimitar in his theon, and the related changes in his visual right. He is standing on a snake dragon manifestation. (→Mushhushshu), a companion animal The beginnings of the cult of M. are ob- which was probably adopted from Tishpak, scure. At least from Old Babylonian times the local deity of Eshnunna, after Hammu- (19th cent.) onward, he and his consort rabi had conquered the city (WIGGERMANN Ṣarpanitum were worshipped as local deities 1989: 121). However, the ring–and–rod in his shrine Esagil at Babylon. By the time (WIGGERMANN 2007) and the scimitar are of Hammurabi (1792–1750) M. had merged not M.’s exclusive attributes. Likewise, the with Asalluhi (Asarluhi), attested as the snake dragon is also associated with Ninazu, local deity of Kuara, a site near Eridu. Since Ningiszida, Tishpak, Nabu, Assur, and Anu Asalluhi was regarded as son of →Ea/Enki, (WIGGERMANN 1993–1997) and can there- M. was now considered his son as well fore not be considered as a reliable marker (SOMMERFELD 1982: 13–18). By that time for identifying M. While the attributes dis- M. also featured characteristics of Tutu, cussed so far allow only a tentative identifi- patron god of Borsippa (SOMMERFELD cation of the deity, there is another symbol 1982: 36f). With the rise of Babylon under typical of M., the triangular–shaped spade. Hammurabi, M. emerged as a prominent Because of the vague pictorial evidence god in the Babylonian pantheon (RICHTER early research generally consulted literary 1999). In the Kassite period when the cult of sources such as Enuma elish when trying to M. gradually spread beyond Northern Baby- establish M.’s anthropomorphic appearance. lonia, Asalluhi and Tutu forfeited their Among others, MENANT (1886) and WARD independence from M. With the beginning (1910) identified numerous depictions of M. of the second dynasty of Isin and the reign on cylinder seals. Thus a large group of 1st of Nebuchadnezzar I (1124–1103), M. be- mill. combat scenes have been interpreted as came supreme ruler of all gods and lord of depicting the conflict between M. and the land (LAMBERT 1984: 3f). He was now →Tiamat (MENANT 1886: 44–48; WARD increasingly referred to simply as Bel 1910: 197–212; JASTROW 1912: 106, pl. (“Lord”). Concurrently M. was identified 52:193–199; contra: FRANKFORT 1939: 199, with →Enlil/Mullil, the father of gods, and 216), with M. brandishing a lightning fork Babylon replaced the latter’s cult city Nip- and a scimitar or bow and arrow against one pur as the divine focus of power on earth or several monsters or animals. However, (LAMBERT 1984: 5; GEORGE 1997: 68f; more recent research reassigned them to ANNUS 2002: 35–37). Yet it was not until other gods or regarded them as general the 1st mill. that the concept of M.’s divine metaphors of supernatural power. Other supremacy was systematically implemented; scenes have been linked to a rendering of only then was M. introduced to Assyria in what was believed to represent the same this role as one of the “great gods” and event but depicted on the stone blocks gradually absorbed functions and features of flanking the entrance of the Ninurta temple other Assyrian gods, but without ever reach- in Kalhu, dating to the reign of Ashurnasir- ing the popularity of his son →Nabu (POR- pal II (883–859; MENANT 1886: fig. 22; TER 1997). contra: MOORTGAT–CORRENS 1988), but The assimilation of other gods’ charac- these representations are now associated teristics is reflected among others in Enuma with the Ninurta/Anzu mythology (BRAUN– elish, which provides a mythological justifi- HOLZINGER 1998–2001: 524; ORNAN 2005: cation for his superior position among the 87–88). On the same shaky grounds, the gods. He thus shares some features of protagonist of the well–known three–figure →Assur, whose name was substituted for contest scenes prominent in 8th and 7th that of M. in the 7th cent. Assyrian version cent. Assyria and Babylonia has been inter- of the myth. M. also absorbed some traits of preted as M. (WARD 1910: figs. 581–583, →Ninurta (GEORGE 1997: 66f, n. 13; OR- 602–621). Another group of cylinder seals NAN 2005: 105f). M.’s unique elevation, the (WARD 1910: 163–166; PRINZ 1915: 124– syncretism with numerous deities, and the 126) depicting presentation scenes, mainly fact that by the 1st mill. almost every god of Post–Akkadian and Old Babylonian date IDD website: http://www.religionswissenschaft.unizh.ch/idd Iconography of Deities and Demons: Electronic Pre-Publication 2/10 Last Revision: 5 January 2009 (21st–16th cent.), present similar difficul- distinct attributes, which are typical for the ties: more than one or two attributes as- god later on in his iconographic develop- signed to M. can rarely be identified, and ment. these are not always distinctive. Even if a II.1. Phenotypes certain consistency in the representation of A. ANTHROPOMORPHIC 1. HOLDING SCIMITAR deities can be observed from Akkadian AND RING–AND–ROD (1) 2. HOLDING SCIMITAR AND MACE/SCEPTER (2) 3. HOLDING SCIMITAR AND RING times (24th–23rd cent.) onward, it must be (3) 4. HOLDING RING AND MACE (4) 5. POSSIBLE 6. pointed out that M.’s iconography was not UNCERTAIN 7. UNLIKELY B. SYMBOLIC: SPADE yet standardized at that time. Finally, at- A. ANTHROPOMORPHIC tempts to link M. with mythological scenes 1. HOLDING SCIMITAR AND RING– depicted on Akkadian cylinder seals AND–ROD. In ancient Near Eastern art the (FRANKFORT 1934: 25, 29, pls. 2c; 4a; 5d; representation of M. holding a scimitar in FRANKFORT 1939: 102ff, pl. 18k) have been one hand behind his back and the ring–and– rejected since there is no written evidence rod in the other is restricted to one example for M. in this period (PORADA 1960: 118; of Neo–Assyrian time (1*), and possibly SOMMERFELD 1982: 21; FISCHER 2002: one Old Babylonian cylinder seal (see § 127f). In the most recent research on an- 5.2). The former, a huge lapis lazuli cylin- thropomorphic representations of M. RITTIG der found in Babylon (WETZEL et al. 1957: (1987–1990) compiled all evidence avail- 37f), is probably imitating a cylinder seal able. It is clear that anthropomorphic M. is since the design is in relief and not in inta- represented only a few times without doubt, glio, and the inscription is cut so as to be for example on a Middle Babylonian (13th read on the cylinder and not on the impres- cent.) kudurru relief (2*), an object type sion. The long dedicatory inscription by the which more typically represents him by his 9th cent. Babylonian king Marduk–zakir– symbol, the spade. Anthropomorphic depic- shumi I testifies that the cylinder was used tions on cylinder seals are ambiguous. RIT- as bodily adornment of the god’s image and TIG (1987–1990: 372) pointed out that Old to be hung around the deity’s neck (WATA- Babylonian identifications must remain NABE 1994: 243). Here M. is shown wearing speculative, while identification in 1st mill. a feather headdress; clad in an elaborate glyptic sources is hampered by the tendency robe with →star ornamentation; holding the to avoid anthropomorphic representations in ring–and–rod in front of his chest and a favor of symbols. This impression has been scimitar behind him pointing downward; confirmed by further investigation of figura- and mounted on his acolyte animal, the tive representations of deities by ORNAN snake dragon (→Mushhushshu). (2005) and HERLES (2006). To sum up, 2. HOLDING SCIMITAR AND research so far has shown that it is more MACE/SCEPTER. A standing male deity difficult to identify anthropomorphic depic- portrayed on a kudurru of Meli–shipak tions of M. than originally assumed, and (1188–1174) is thought to represent M. many proposed identifications need to be (2*). The god, facing to the right, is dressed reviewed. in a full–length garment and wears a feath- II. Typology ered mitre. In his right hand he holds a General remarks. Due to M.’s het- scimitar and in his left he grasps a scepter or erogeneous character, the assimilation of mace placed in front of his chest. The head other deities’ features, and the combination and forelegs of a →Mushhushshu are de- of several mythological traditions (LAM- picted at the god’s side, the rear part cov- BERT 1986), only a few anthropomorphic ered by the deity’s long robe. The attribute depictions can be identified more or less animal suggests identification with M. In without doubt; they all depict M. as stand- front of the deity’s head the symbol of the ing or resting one foot on a snake dragon spade supports this identification; that of a (→Mushhushshu). However, the majority of lightning bolt beneath the spade is not con- anthropomorphic representations has to be nected to the deity (for a similar depiction considered as possible rather than certain but with a wedge instead of a mace/scepter, identifications of M.
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