Drawing from the Past to Learn Tomorrow Ann Cronin a Thesis
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Drawing from the past to learn tomorrow Ann Cronin A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy At the University of Otago September 2018 Abstract Humans are unique in their ability to use tools to produce works which communicate information about 3D objects through 2D drawings. Drawings give us insight into the origins of our species, our uniqueness amongst animals, and our creative ability to produce images from the strategic placement of line and marks. Considerable research has been devoted to the ontogeny of drawing skill and considerable speculation has been devoted to the psychological value of drawings themselves. For example, children’s ability to produce human figure drawings develops in a highly predictable stage-like manner, but the rate at which individual children progress through each stage varies considerably. These two characteristics - a consistent developmental pattern coupled with individual differences in the rate of development - have led many to argue that human figure drawings (HFDs) can be used as a measure of intelligence. One characteristic of traditional pen and paper intelligence tests is that they are highly resistant to instruction. In Study 1, I assessed the effect of instruction on 11- and 12-year-old children’s scores on the most recent HFD test, the DAP:IQ. Children showed significant gains shortly after art instruction, but their scores returned to pre-instruction levels when they were tested 6 months later. These data challenge the view that the DAP: IQ provides a valid measure of intelligence. Despite the limited value of drawings as measures of intelligence, the possible benefits of drawing per se have been under-explored in contemporary research. Students of art have traditionally drawn from life as a way to improve their drawing skills, but little is known about the cognitive benefits of this practice. In Study 2, I examined the effect of drawing on visitors’ memory for museum exhibits. Three groups completed a tour of a museum exhibit, ‘Wonders of the World’: two of these groups consisted of adults (self-identified artists and non-artists) and the third group consisted of children under the age of 13. Individuals from each group were i accompanied by a researcher who instructed the participant to sketch or to merely observe each object while completing the tour. Adults observed ten objects and drew ten objects and children observed six objects and drew six objects; irrespective of whether they drew or observed, all participants spent the same amount of time with each object. One week later, they were asked to recall the objects they learned about on the tour, and then they were asked a series of specific questions about the visual details of the objects. For adult artists and children, drawing enhanced recall and recognition, but for adult non-artists, it did not. That is, for those participants who were comfortable with the medium, drawing provide an inexpensive opportunity to facilitate learning and memory in museums. Despite the positive outcomes associated with drawing, drawing as a pastime is decreasing in popularity with children, which some would attribute to the rise of digital culture and increased screen time in young people’s lives. But not all digital technology is without benefit and one digital interface that allows for creative activity in a virtual world is Minecraft. In Study 3, I examined whether using creative digital tools might also aid children’s memory for museum visits. Children took a tour of an industrial museum, either ‘in-game’ using Minecraft or by visiting the physical site and then three of the four groups completed a follow-up worksheet to find additional information. Two groups completed this worksheet ‘in-game’ using Minecraft. Students who experienced the physical tour and the follow-up worksheet activities in Minecraft had the best retention of facts one week later. Interestingly, students who completed a physical tour followed by the onsite worksheet activities recalled the same amount of information as students who completed all activities ‘in-game’ in their school classroom. That is, Minecraft proved to be an inexpensive opportunity to facilitate learning and memory on field trips. Taken together, the present research challenges some traditional assumptions about drawing, demonstrating at least one way in which it can be used to enhance ii learning and memory, at least for some groups of participants. For children on field trips, this research also extends the learning and memory value of digital gaming, a contemporary pastime which has superseded drawing in children’s day-to-day lives. The evolutionary history of drawing is linked to the emergence of tool use in humans: modern, digital tools build on those that have come before them. The studies in this thesis explore part of this journey. iii Acknowledgments This thesis is dedicated to my mam. This thesis, as many before it, has been a process of building, discovery, and exploration. This was made possible by the generosity and support of Otago University. There are so many people to thank, I hope this goes some way towards repaying them. First and foremost, thank you Jules, you have been a constant source of hope, support, and mentorship, when things seemed impossible you just got on with it and brought me with you. Thank you for teaching me not to say sorry so much and all the love and minding. I am so glad I had you as my supervisor and thank you for your unending patience with me. I will never be able to repay what you did for me and how you changed my life. None of this would be possible without the kindness and brilliance of Harlene. Who managed to stick with me even when I ran after every distraction that came my way. You have made an indelible impact on me. Thank you to Leon and Emma for being there for me and for each other, you are my light and my hope, I hope this country rewards you both. Thanks to my mam and dad for believing in me, my sisters and brother, and all the friends, companions, and supports who carried me when I could not walk through the last few years. And of course, thanks to all of the schools, adults, parents, and children whose participation made this research possible. This research was funded by Marsden Grants from the Royal Society of New Zealand awarded to Harlene Hayne. iv Table of Contents Abstract i Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents iv List of Tables v List of Figures viii List of Appendices xii Publications Arising from this Thesis (to date) xiii Chapter 1 General Introduction 1 Chapter 2 The Effect of Instruction on Children’s Human Figure 42 Drawing (HFD) Tests: Implications for Measurement Chapter 3 Put Away Your Camera: Drawing Facilitates Memory of 61 Museum Exhibits Chapter 4 New Kids on the Block, Learning while Exploring in 84 Minecraft Chapter 5 Concluding Comments 105 References 124 Appendices 172 iv List of Tables Table 2.1 Individual Participants’ Standard IQ Scores at Times 1, 2, and 3. 52 The superscripts refer to the ability classification at subsequent testing points. Table 2.2 The Distribution of Participants in Each Ability Classification 55 Category at Times 1, 2, and 3. v List of Figures Figure 1.1 Horses and rhinoceros drawn on the cave walls of Lascaux cave, 4 France. (35,000 -40,000 years old) Figure 1.2 Lion, bear and rhinoceros drawn on cave walls at Chauvet Cave. 4 (35,000 -40,000 years old Figure 1.3 Deer or goat drawn on the wall of a cave in Sulawesi, West of 5 Borneo. (35,000 -40,000 years old) Figure 1.4 Human figures with clothing shown in Bradshaw rock paintings, 9 Kimberley, Australia. Figure 1.5 Scribble drawings by young children 18 Figure 1.6 Shows a range of human figure drawings produced by 3- to 5-year- 20 old children. Panels B and C represent classic tadpole drawings Figure 1.7 Drawings by children showing a variety of inaccuracies common in 22 drawing development. Figure 1.8 Improvements in drawing human eye between the ages of 15- and 23 18-years of age. Figure 1.9 Examples of Koppitz EI drawings 30 Figure 1.10 Example of HTP drawings completed by adult 32 Figure 1.1 Example of KFD Family drawing 35 Figure 2.1 Examples of human figures drawings created at three time points. 56 Figure 3.1 Examples of real objects from the museum and sample drawings 71 from each of the three participant groups Figure 3.2 The proportion of objects that were correctly recalled by the artists 73 in Experiment 1 (left panel) and by and by the non-artists and children in Experiment 2 (right panel) as a function of condition. Figure 3.3 The proportion of objects that were correctly recognized by the 74 artists in Experiment 1 (left panel) and by the non-artists and children in Experiment 2 (right panel) as a function of condition and recognition test. Figure 3.4 The proportion of multiple-choice questions about the objects that 75 were correctly answered by the artists in Experiment 1 (left panel) vi and by the non-artists and children in Experiment 2 (right panel) as a function of condition Figure 4.1 A schematic representation of the 4 experimental groups. 93 Figure 4.2 Top Panel: An aerial view of the Gasworks site and the 94 corresponding aerial view from the Minecraft version. Figure 4.3 Mean scores (+1SE) on the final worksheet as a function of 96 experimental group. Figure 4.4 Mean scores (+1SE) on the LOES-S subscales (learning, 98 engagement, and quality) as a function of experimental group vii List of Appendices Appendix A Brief summaries of a selection of past theorists that have 172 considered children’s drawing development as stage-like Appendix B Brief summaries of a selection of perceptual- and 180 production-focused theorists that have investigated children’s drawing development .