Protected Areas of the World: a Review of National Systems. Vol 1: Indomalaya, Oceania, Australia and Antarctic
Protected Areas Programme
Protected Areas 6 the World
A review of national systems
Indomalaya, Oceania, Australia and Antarctic Volunie 1
PADU/GIS COPY DO NOT REMOVE 4 Compiled by The World Conservation Monitoring Centre
^^ IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, ^? Caracas, Venezuela
u
The World Conservation Union
^ss^'^ Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive
in 2010 with funding from UNEP-WCIVIC, Cambridge
Iittp://www.archive.org/details/protectedareasof01wcmc Protected Areas of the World
A review of national systems
Volume 1: Indomalaya, Oceania, Australia and Antarctic Published by: lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK,
with the financial support of The British Petroleum Company p.l.c.
Prepared by: The World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK
A contribution to GEMS - The Global Environment Monitoring System
^ WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE
Copyright: (1992) International Union for Conser\'ation of Nature and Natural Resources
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior permission from the copyright holder.
Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited widiout the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Citation: lUCN (1992). Protected Areas ofthe World: A review ofnational systems. Volume 1 : Indomalaya, Oceania, Australia and Antarctic. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xx + 352 pp.
ISBN: 2-8317-0090-6
Printed by: Page Bros (Norwich) Ltd, UK
Cover photos: Horton Plains National Park, Sri Lanka: Michael J. Green South Adelaide Island, Antarctic Peninsula: R.K. Headland Islands of the Palau Archipelago, Republic of Palau, North Pacific Ocean: WWF/D. Faulkner Nambung's Pinnacles, limestone formation. Western Australia: WWF/Fredy Mercay
Produced by: lUCN Publications Services Unit, Cambridge, UK, on desktop publishing equipment purchased through a gift from Mrs Julia Ward
Available from: lUCN Publications Services Unit, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK
The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of lUCN, WCMC or BP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. lUCN - THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION
Founded in 1948, lUCN - The World Conservation Union - is a membership organisation comprising governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), research institutions, and conservation agencies in over 100 countries. The Union's mission is to provide leadership and promote a common approach for the world conservation movement in order to safeguard the integrity and diversity of the natural world, and to ensure that human use of natural resources is appropriate, sustainable and equitable.
Several thousand scientists and experts from all continents form part of a network supporting the work of its Commissions: threatened species, protected areas, ecology, environmental strategy and planning, environmental law, and education and communication. Its thematic programmes include forest conservation, wetlands, marine ecosystems, plants, the Sahel, Antarctica, population and natural resources, and Eastern Europe. The Union's work is also supported by 12 regional and country offices located principally in developing countries.
WCMC - THE WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is a joint venture between the three partners who developed the World Conservation Strategy: lUCN - The World Conservation Union, UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme, and WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund). Its mission is to support conservation and sustainable development through the provision of information on the world's biological diversity.
WCMC has developed a global overview database that includes threatened plant and animal species, habitats of conservation concern, critical sites, protected areas of the world, and the utilisation and trade in wildlife species and products. Drawing on this database, WCMC provides an information service to the conservation and development communities, governments and United Nations agencies, scientific institutions, the business and commercial sector, and the media. WCMC produces a wide variety of specialist outputs and reports based on analyses of its data. Protected Areas of the World
A review of national systems
Volume 1: Indomalaya, Oceania, Australia and Antarctic
Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre
in collaboration with
The lUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas
for the
rvth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela, 10-21 February 1992
with the support of
The British Petroleum Company p.l.c.
lUCN - The World Conservation Union
November 1991 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Fweword vii
Introduction viii
Acknowledgements ix
Managing information on protected areas at WCMC xi
Country accounts: guidelines to their contents xiii
Maps and Lists (explanation oO xiv Internationally designated sites xv INDOMALAYA
Bangladesh 1 Bhutan 9 Brunei Darussalam 15 Cambodia 19 India 21 Indonesia 49 Lao People's Democatic Republic 69 Malaysia 73 Maldives 85 Myanmar, Union of 87 Nepal 93 Pakistan, Islamic Republic of 103 Philippines 113 Sing^x)re 123 Sri Lanka, Democratic Socialist Republic of 127 Taiwan 137 Thailand 143 Viet Nam, The Socialist Republic of 153 OCEANIA
Cook Islands 161
Federated States of MiCTonesia 169
Fiji 173 France -French Polynesia 181 France - New Caledonia 185 France -Walhs and Futuna 191
Kiribati, Republic of 195
Marshall Islands, Republic of 201 Nauru, Republic of 205 Niue 207
Northern Mariana Islands, Commonwealth of 209
Palau, Republic of 213 Papua New Guinea 217
Pitcaim Islands 227 Page
Solomon Islands 231 Tokelau 237 Tonga, Kingdom of 239 Tuvalu 247 USA- American Samoa 251 USA -Guam 257 USA-Hawaii 263
Vanuatu ; 271 Western Samoa 277
AUSTRALASIA
Australia 287 New Zealand 325
THE ANTARCTIC AND SOUTHERN OCEAN ISLANDS
Antarctic Treaty Territory 335 Southern Ocean Islands 341
France - lies Crozet 341
France - lies Amsterdam and St Paul 343
France - lies Kerguelen 345 Norway - Bouvet0ya 347
South Afirica - Prince Edward Islands 348 United Kingdom - Falkland Islands 350 FOREWORD
The inspirational and aesthetic values of fine examples of the beauty and bounty of nature lay behind the establishment of many national parks and other types of protected areas. More recently there has been increasing recognition of the range of the value of protected areas and of their contribution to meet the needs of society by conserving the world's natural and physical resources. These values range from protection of representative samples of natural regions and the preservation of biological diversity, to the maintenance of environmental stabiUty in surrounding country. Protected areas can also facilitate complementary rural development and rational use of marginal lands, and provide c^portunities for research and monitoring, conservation education, and recreation and tourism.
Over the past thirty years, since the First World Cortference on National Parks was held in Seattle, Washington ( 1 962), our view of the world, and our impact on the world, has changed significantly. Throughout this time, and despite the mounting pressures of expanding human populations, the number of protected areas established has continued to rise. Since the centennial of national parks was commemorated at the time of the Second World Corference on National Parks at Yellowstone and Grand Teton, Wyoming in 1972, the "human" element of protected areas has come more and more into focus. They are no longer seen as being "locked up" or "set apart". Rather, they are seen as being integral to strategic approaches to resource management, a concept enshrined in the World Conservation Strategy (1980) based on managing natural areas to support development in a sustainable way.
The fundamental contribution of protected areas to sustainable management was reaffirmed by participants at the World Congress on National Parks held in Bali, Indonesia (1982), and for the last decade the Bali Action Plan has focused attention on a range of actions necessary for promoting and supporting protected areas. These actions were further focused in regional action plans subsequently developed by members of the lUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, covering the Afrotropical, Indomalayan, Neotropical and Oceanian regions.
More recently, two significant, and widely accepted documents have stressed the very vital roles that protected areas play. The report of the World Commission on Environment and Development was published in 1987, and more recently a new strategy Caring for the World was launched in 1991. This latter strategy, which has its roots in the World Conservation Strategy, clearly identifies the functions and benefits of protected area systems, what they safeguard, and why they are important for development opportunities.
Many countries have declared extensive systems of protected areas, and are continuing to develop and expand them. The systems and the sites they contain vary considerably from one country to another, depending on national needs and priorities, and on differences in legislative, institutional and financial support Consequendy, protected areas have been established under many different national designations to provide for a spectrum of management objectives, ranging from total protection to sustainable use: from strict nature reserves to lived-in landscapes. lUCN - The World Conservation Union has been involved in protected areas issues for many years, and has published a significant body of information on the subject. The lUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas was set up both to ensure that the appropriate expertise was available to advise the Union, and to bring together professionals to share information and experience. lUCN and CNPPA have together had a very strong hand in developing the programme for iht IV World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas in Caracas, Venezuela (1992).
For more than 10 years, lUCN and CNPPA have worked closely with what is now the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, to help in building an information resource on protected areas. The information is of value to the Commission in developing its own programmes, in identifying piorities, and for a wide range of other purposes such as supporting international initiatives in World Heritage, wetlands and biosphere reserves. It is also important to both lUCN and the
Commission that such information is made available to others, so that the roles and values of protected areas are more widely recognised, appreciated and respected.
The three volume Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems is being published for the World Parks Congress by WCMC and lUCN in cooperation with British Petroleum, and aims to provide a standard format "overview" of the world's protected area systems. While this product has gaps, and no doubt inaccuracies, it does illustrate very clearly the range of jwotected areas activities around the world, and gives an indication of the protected areas estate under the stewardship of our managers. This product, in combination with the protected areas reviews being prepared for the Congress by the CNPPA Regional Vice-Chairs, will also provide a benchmark against which to measure our achievements over the next decade.
P.H.C. (Bing) Lucas Chair lUCN Commission on National Parks and P*rotecled Areas INTRODUCTION
Participants at the Third World National Parks Congress held in Bali, Indonesia, in 1982, cleariy recognised that the availability of comprehensive, good-quality information on the world's protected areas was essential to a wide range of international organisations, governments, protected area managers, voluntary bodies and individuals. Such information is a prerequisite for assessing the coverage and status of protected areas fix)m regional and global perspectives, and is key to the development of regional and global priorities and strategies. Monitoring protected areas is vital to ensure that those areas allocated to conserve the world's natural resources meet the needs of society.
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is expanding its capabilities as an international centre for information on the conservation of biological diversity. Wwking closely with the lUCN Commission on National Paries and Protected Areas (CNPPA), WCMC continues to compile an extensive database on the world's protected areas, which is being used more and more frequently as a source of information.
One result of WCMC's work as an information centre is the ability to draw material together into publications which provide background information on protected areas and protected area systems. At the previous congress in 1982, two publications from the protected areas database were available, the 1982 UN List, and the lUCN Directory ofNeotropical Protected Areas. Since then, the Centre has collaborated with CNPPA and others on a wide range of publications, including two subsequent UN Lists in 1985 and 1990, directories of protected areas for Africa, Oceania, South Asia, and the mountains of central Asia, and various pubUcations on eastern Europe. A full list of publications on protected areas (including those published by others with infOTmation provided by WCMC) is available from the Centre.
The present work. Protected Areas of the world: A review ofnational systems, is the first attempt by WCMC to compile a world-wide survey of protected area systems. The book is organised into national (or occasionally sub-national) accounts, each comprising a description of the national protected areas system, accompanied by a summary list and map of protected areas. The book is divided into three volumes, with volume one covering the Indomalayan, Oceanian, Australian and Antarctic realms, volume two the Palaearctic and Afrotropical realms, and volume three the Nearctic and Neotropical realms.
Publication of such a book serves two purposes. First, it provides extensive background information on the protected area systems of the world, relevant to several plenary sessions and workshops at the IV World Congress on National
Parks and Protected Areas. In particular, it is a contribution to the third plenary session The Contributions ofProtected Areas to Sustaining Society: A Global Review. Secondly, and perhaps more significantly, it is also part of the process of information collection and verification. Feedback from protected areas professionals, and others familiar with protected areas, is therefore both welcomed and encouraged, because only by a continual process of review and update can we present a true picture.
Jeremy Harrison World Conservation Monitoring Centre
viu .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
cooperation. Preparation of a directory of this magnitude is only achieved through a tremendous amount of effort and material for us, or Over the years, protected areas professionals throughout the world have reviewed or compiled provided new information. Quite simply, without their cooperation this book could not have been completed, md we greatly appreciate their support
Areas, and the This assistance has been faciUtated in part by the IUCT4 Commission on National Parks and Protected particular would like to support of the Commission and its past and present officers is gratefully acknowledged. In we of Canada. Work has thank the present chair P.H.C. (Bing) Lucas of New Zealand, and his predecessor Harold Eidsvik Thorsell and Jeffrey McNeely also been supported by the staff of the lUCN Protected Areas Unit, and in particular James
has provided support for This particular publication is the product of two projects. The British Petroleum Company pic mentioned project), and have the preparation of part of the text and maps (for those areas not covered by the second Venezuela. At the provided funds for publishing the book and distributing it at the World Parks Congress in Caracas, information on tropical and same time, the British Overseas Development Administration has supported review of 1 Thanks are due sub-tropical countries, as part of a project contributing to the FAO Forest Resources Assessment 990. to both organisations for their support
which includes material A number of past and present staff of WCMC have been involved in preparing this directory, the responsibility of: published in several earlier directories. Compilation of country accounts has been Green, Donald Gordon, Jeremy Patricia Almada-Villela, Daphne Qark, Graham Drucker, Harriet Gillett, Michael with the preparation of maps Harrison, Zbigniew Karpowicz, Sara Oldfield, James Paine and Mark Spalding. Assistance has been provided by Mike Adam, Qare Billington, Simon Blythe and Gillian Bunting. and Notwithstanding the significant contributions of the many individuals who have jH-ovided information to WCMC CNPPA, errors and omissions must remain the responsibility of the compilers.
the worid's protected area systems. If WCMC is This directory is not intended to be a final statement but a review of this information as national protected to continue to carry out its mission, there is a continual need to maintain and update with this directory goes a plea for areas systems change and as more information becomes available. Therefore, effectively as possible. By the corrections, comments and additional material to help WCMC carry out its mission as support their work and same token, the infonnation that WCMC collects and manages is available to others to programmes.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CBS ODL, United Kingdom Tel: (44)223 277314 Fax: (44)223 277136 Tlx: 817036 SCMUG
IX
MANAGING INFORMATION ON PROTECTED AREAS AT WCMC
Many individuals and organisations need basic parmers (lUCN, WWF and UNEP) in the support and infonnation on protected areas systems, lists ofprotected development of their programmes, and by other areas with certain features, or analyses of protected areas international bodies, governmental and non- statistics, yet it is unlikely diat they will have the time or governmental organisations, scientists and the general resources to collect, compile and analyse all of the public. Such information covers the entire spectrum of information for themselves. Such information also needs protected areas, from national parks and sanctuaries to be kept up-to-date, as properties are added or established under protected areas legislation or extended, and as legislation ot administrative regimes customary regimes to forest reserves created under change. Users may also require details about the major forestry legislation. It also includes privately-owned protected areas within national systems, such as physical reserves in which nature is protected. features, vegetation and fauna, or on other aspects such Specific objectives are to: as management status and constraints.
— maintain a comprehensive and up-to-date database It is to meet these needs that the WCMC Protected Areas Data Unit (PADU) was founded. This service enables of the wwld's protected areas; users to obtain quickly information on protected areas — compile definitive, standard-format accounts firom a single source, be it for purposes of analysis and summarising national protected areas systems; assessment, or as briefing material. It is not intended that — hold maps of protected areas systems and digitise this service should by-pass any need for users to contact them; for such or visit the relevant national authorities — compile definitive, standard-format accounts enables users information, but use of PADU's resources covering individual protected areas, particularly the such approaches and to be well informed prior to making major properties in tropical countries and those of doing. in a better position to ask the right questions when so international importance; — accumulate current and historical infonnation on Institutional background protected areas; and lUCN - TheWorld Conservation Union has been closely — provide support to regional and international relating to involved in protected areas issues for many years. As activities, programmes and conventions areas. early as 1960, it established a Commission on National protected Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) to serve as the compilation "leading international, scientific and technical body Infonnation capture, management and concerned with the selection, establishment and Information is collected from official sources, namely management of national parks and other protected national agencies responsible for administering areas". CNPPA has always emphasised the need for protected areas, and other sources through a global information on which to base effective conservation network of contacts ranging in profession from planning and management, and has been very active in policy-makers and administrators to land managers and collecting and disseminating information on protected scientists. It is also obtained from published and areas. unpublished literature. Regional CNPPA meetings and meetings provide As the world's network of protected areas has expanded other relevant scientific and technical opportunities for making new contacts and and its management improved, information on national valuable protected areas systems and individual protected areas collecting fresh information. This material in itself is a has proUferated. This led CNPPA to set up PADU in major asset of the Centre. 1981 to manage this increasing volume of infonnation. Information, ranging from books, reports, management Establishment of this Unit was suppcHted by the United plans, scientific papers, maps and correspondence, is Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), as part of its stored as hard copy in manual files. Basic data on Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS). individual protected areas are extracted and, after Originally part of the lUCN Conservation MonitcMing verification, entered in a protected areas database, which Centre, PADU is now a unit within the World currently holds some 26,000 records. This computerised Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMQ, restructured database can be used for generating lists of protected in July 1988 and jointly managed by lUCN, the World areas meeting pre-defined criteria, together with Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and UNEP. summary statistics, as well as performing more complex tasks. In addition, maps of protected areas are gradually Objectives being digitised, using a Geographic Information System, generate computerised graphic output. WCMC aims to provide accurate up-to-date information in order to on protected area systems of the world for use by its
XI Protected Areas of the World
The information is also used to (Hxxluce accounts of — Directory of Wetlands of International Importance protected areas systems and individual protected areas. (1987. 1990) are compiled according to standard These accounts — Protected Landscapes: Experience around the formats developed over the years by WCMC in World (I9i7) collaboration with CNPPA. In addition, numerous draft directories, reports papers
Dissemination of information and reviews have been produced. A list of these is available from WCMC. In keeping with its primary objective, WCMC aims to make available good quality information on protected WCMC also disseminates information through the areas to a wide range of users, including international CNPPA Newsletter and Parks magazine. In the case of organisations, governments, protected area managers, the latter, WCMC has assumed responsibility for conservation organisations, commercial companies compiling Clipboard in which world news on protected involved in natural resource exploitation, scientists, and areas is featured. the media and general public. Information may be provided or consulted by arrangement Special services
Material may be prepared under contract: for example, WCMC has a very close working relationship with WCMC regularly provides UNEP with summary data on CNPPA. While the Commission provides expert advice protected areas for its biennial Environmental Data and support through its network of members, WCMC Report. WCMC is experimenting with providing outside supports many of the Commission's activities through users with direct access to its protected areas database. provision of technical information. WCMC has a Trials have been ongoing with the US National Park particular responsibility for managing information on
Service since 1986 and it is hoped to be able to extend natural properties designated under international this service to other users shortly. conventions and programmes, namely the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Compiled information is periodically published in the Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), form of regional or thematic directories and lists. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Directories comprise sections individual countries, on especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), each with protected areas system information sheet, a a and the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. list of protected areas and accompanying location map, Thus, WCMC cooperates closely with the Division of of sheets covering at least and a series site information Ecological Sciences, Unesco, in maintaining properties. Prior releasing or the more important to information on biosphere reserves and World Heritage publishing documents, draft material is circulated for sites accorded by the MAB Secretariat and World review by relevant government agencies and experts to Heritage Committee, respectively. Likewise, it woiks help ensure that compiled information is accurate and closely with the Ramsar Bureau with respect to comprehensive. managing information on Ramsar wetlands.
Major lists and directcxies published to date are as follows: The rest of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre — United Nations List ofNational Parks and Protected Areas (19S2,19S5, 1990) Protected areas is only one aspect of the programme of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, which also — lUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas covers information on plant and animal species of (1982) conservation concern, important natural habitats and — lUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas sites of high biological diversity, wildlife utilisation, and (1987) the international trade in wildlife. — lUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas To monitCH' the impact of man on nature is a major task. (1990) This requires close collaboration between agencies, and — Protected Areas in Eastern and Central Europe and between agencies and individuals, and the development the USSR (1990) and exchange of information. WCMC acts both as an — lUCN Directory Protected Areas in Oceania of information centre, and as a facilitator of information (1991) management and exchange. WCMC has now embarked — Nature Reserves ofthe Himalaya and the Mountains on an ambitious programme to promote improvements
of Central Asia (1992) in the availability of information, and to develop its database capabilities and information services. — Information System: Biosphere Reserves: Information on the distribution and status of the world's Compilation 4 (1986) protected areas is an essential component of this — Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 5 (1990) programme.
xu Information management
COUNTRY ACCOUNTS: GUIDELINES TO THEIR CONTENTS
In general, there is an account for each country, divided Outline of legal provisions for administering protected up into a series of sections with standard headings. The areas following notes summarise the type of information National designations of i^otected areas are cited and included in each section where it is available. In certain their range of provisions outlined. Their legal cases, accounts have been prepared for areas which are definitions, together with the names of the authorities parts of countries, usually where the area concerned is legally responsible for their administration, are geographically separate from the "parent" country. summarised in an Annex (see below).
Country Reviews of protected areas policy and legislation are noted, with any identified deficiencies in prevailing Full name of country or political unit, as used by the provisions highlighted. United Nations (United Nations Terminology Bulletin on Names of Countries and Adjectives of Nationality). International Activities
Area Participation in international conventions and programmes (World Heritage and Ramsar conventions, Total area according to the latest volume of the FAO MAB Programme, UNEP Regional Seas Programme) Production Yearbook prepared by the Statistics Division and regional conventions and agreements (such as the of the Economic and Social Policy Department, FAO, African, ASEAN and Berne conventions, the FAO Latin unless otherwise stated (with full reference). Terrestrial American/Caribbean Technical Cooperation Network, and marine components are distinguished, if appropriate. South Asian Cooperative Environmental Programme and the South Pacific Regional Environment Population Programme) relevant to habitat protection is
Total population and its mean annual rate of growth summarised. according to the latest issue of World Population Outline of any international, multilateral and bilateral Prospects, published by the United Nations Population cooperative programmes or transfrontier cooperative Division. Year of census or estimate is indicated in agreements relevant to protected areas. parentheses. If another source has to be used, it is cited.
Administration and Management Ek:ononiic Indicators
All authorities responsible for the administration and Gross domestic product and gross national product per management of protected areas are named and capita in US dollars (or net material product in the case described, with a brief history of their establishment, of centrally planned economies), with year in administrative organisation, staff structure, budget and parentheses. These figures are according to the latest any training programmes. Authorities responsible for issue of National Accounts Statistics: Analysis of Main different types of protected areas are clearly Aggregates (prepared by the United Nations Statistical distinguished. Office) and The World Bank Atlas.
Outline of the role of any advisory boards Policy and Legislation Cooperative agreements between management aspects of the constitution that are Information on authorities and national or foreign universities and nature conservation and protected areas. relevant to institutes, with details of any research underway or completed. Summary of national policies that relate to nature protection conservation, particularly with respect to the Names and brief details of non-governmental This include reference to policies of ecosystems. may organisations concerned with protected areas. Reference relating to environmental impact assessments, and to any national directories of voluntary conservation nationalAegional conservation strategies. bodies is included.
of past and present national Brief chronological account Effectiveness of protected areas management is noted that relate to the establishment legislation and traditions where information has been provided. Attention is drawn of the jHXJtected areas system, with names (in English), to any sites registered as threatened under the World decrees and ordinances. dates and numbers of acts, Heritage Convention, or by the lUCN Commission on and other resource sectors Legislation covering forestry National Parks and Protected Areas. is included, in so far as it provides fw protected areas establishment. Procedures for the notification and declassification of protected areas are summarised.
xm Protected Areas of the World
Systems Reviews References
Short account of physical features, biological resources, Key references (including all cited works) to the and land use patterns (with percentages if available), protected areas system, in particular, and nature including the extent and integrity of major ecosystems. conservation, in general, are listed.
Brief review of the development of nature conservation ANNEX programmes, so far as it relates to the establishment and Definitions of protected area designations, as expansion of the national protected areas network. legislated, together with authorities responsible for Emphasis is given to any systems reviews or their administration. comprehensive surveys of biological resources, with details of major recommendations arising from such The annex includes the following sections: studies. Title: Name and number of law in the original language Threats to the protected areas system beyond the control or transliterated, with the English translation underneath, of the management agencies are outlined. as appropriate.
Other relevant information Date: Day, month and year of enactment, followed by dates of subsequent major amendments Tourism and other economic benefits of the protected areas system, if applicable Brief description: Summary of main provisions (often
this is stated at the beginning of the legislation) Other items, as appropriate Administrative authority: Name of authority Addresses responsible for administering the law, given in the original language or transliterated, with the English addresses (with telephone, telex and fax Names and translation undemeadi as appropriate. This is followed numbers, and cable) of authorities responsible for by the title of the post of the chief executive. administering protected areas. Names are given in the original language or transliterated, with English Designations: National designation of protected area in translation in brackets as appropriate, and followed by the original language or transliterated, followed in the title of the post of the chief executive. brackets by the English translation as appropriate. For each designation this would be followed by: definition and addresses (with telephone, telex and fax Names of designation (if given in legislation), summary of non-governmental organisations numbers, and cable) of activities permitted or prohibited, ouUine of penalties for are actively involved in protected areas issues. Names offences, and, where relevant, reference to subsequent or transliterated, given in the original language with legislation relating to the original law. English translation in brackets as appropriate, and followed by the title of the post of the chief executive. Source: This may be "caiginal legislation", "translation of original legislation" or a referenced secondary source.
MAPS and LISTS
The descriptive sections are followed by lists of Categories and management objectives of protected areas, and maps showing their location. In protected areas most cases, the lists comprise all of those areas I Scientific Reserve/Strict Nature Reserve: to qualifying for inclusion in lUCN management protect nature and maintain natural processes in an categories I-VIII, which have an area of over 1,000 undisturbed in order to have ecologically hectares. However, forest and hunting reserves state representative examples of the natural environment qualifying for lUCN Management Category VIII have available for scientific study, environmental been omitted, largely because our information is not monitoring, education, and for the maintenance of comprehensive. Also, size has been ignored for island genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary nations. Note that in certain cases, nationally designated state. areas (such as some national parks) will not appear in the lists, as they do not meet the criteria. World Heritage II National Parle, to protect natural and scenic areas sites, biosphere reserves and Ramsar sites are also listed. of national or international significance for scientific, educational and recreational use.
XIV Information management m NaturalMonument/NaturalLandmark-.vopmtect resource pending the establishment of objectives and preserve nationally significant natural features which are based upon appropriate knowledge and because of their special interest or unique planning. characteristics. Vn Natural Biotic Area/Anthropological Reserve: to rV Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary: to allow the way of life of societies living in harmony assure the natural conditions necessary to protect with the environment to continue undisturbed by nationally significant species, groups of species, modem technology. biotic communities, ot physical features of the Vni Multiple-Use Management Area/Managed environment where these require specific human Resource Area: to provide for the sustained manipulation for their perpetuation. production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture, and V Protected Landscape or Seascape: tb maintain outdoor recreation, with the conservation of nature nationally significant natural landscapes which are primarily oriented to the support of economic characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man activities (although specific zones may also be and land while providing opportunities for pubUc designed within these areas to achieve specific enjoyment through recreation and tourism within conservation objectives). the normal life style and economic activity of these Abridged from lUCN (1984). Categories and criteria for areas. protected areas. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National parks, conservation, and development. The role of VI Resource Reserve: to protect the natural resources protected areas in sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution of the area for futile use and prevent or contain Press, Washington. Pp. 47-53 development activities that could affect the
INTERNATIONALLY DESIGNATED SITES
There are two international conventions and one World Heritage Sites international programme that include provision for The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World designation of internationally important sites in any Cultural and Natural Heritage was adopted in Paris in region of tiie world. These are the World Heritage 1972, and came into force in December 1975. The Convention, the Ramsar (Weflands) Convention, and the Convention provides for the designation of areas of Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. "outstanding universal value" as World Heritage sites, While there is a wide range of other international with the principal aim of fostering international conventions and programmes, these cover only regions, cooperation in safeguarding these important areas. Sites, or small groups of countries. which must be nominated by the signatory nation Both World Heritage sites and Ramsar sites must be responsible, are evaluated for their World Heritage nominated by a State that is party to the relevant quality before being inscribed by the international World convention. While diere is an established review Heritage Committee. Only natural sites, and those with procedure for World Heritage sites (and nomination is mixed natural and cultural aspects, are considered in this no guarantee of listing), all nominated Ramsar sites are publication. placed on the List of Wetlands of International Article 2 of the World Heritage Convention considers as Importance. Biosphere reserves are nominated by the natural heritage: natural features consisting of physical national MAB committee of the country concerned, and and biological formations or groups of such formations, are only designated following review and acceptance by which are of outstanding universal value from the the MAB Bureau. aesthetic or scientific point of view; geological or Each Contracting Party to the Ramsar (Wetlands) physiographical formations and precisely delineated threatened species Convention is obliged to nominate at least one wetland areas which constitute the habitat of of international importance. However, a country can be of animals and plants of outstanding universal value conservation; and party to the World Heritage Convention without having from the point of view of science or areas of outstanding a natural site inscribed on the List, and may participate natural sites or precisely delineated point of view of science, in the MAB programme without designating a biosphere universal value from the reserve. conservation or natural beauty. Criteria for inclusion in the list are published by Unesco.
XV Protected Areas of the World
The following States Pany to the Convention lie at least December 1975. This Convention provides a framework partially within the regions covered by this volume: for international cooperation for the conservation of wetland habitats. The Convention places general Australia obligations on contracting party states relating to the Bangladesh conservation of wetlands throughout their territory, with Fiji special obligations pertaining to those wedands which France have been designated to the "List of Wetlands of India International Importance". Indonesia Lao People's Democratic Republic Each State Party is obliged to list at least one site. Malaysia Wetlands are defined by the convention as: areas of Maldives marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or Nepal artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is New Zealand static or flowing, fresh, teackish or salt, including areas Pakistan of marine waters, the depth of which at low tide does not Philippines exceed six metres. Sri Lanka Thailand The following States Party to the Convention lie at least partially within the regions covered this volume: United Kingdom by United States America of Australia Viet Nam France India The following natural World Heritage sites lie within the Nepal regions covered by this volume: New Zealand Australia Norway Australian East Coast Rainfwest Paries Pakistan Great Barrier Reef South Africa Kakadu National Park Sri Lanka Lord Howe Island Group United Kingdom Tasmanian Wilderness United States ofAmerica Uluru (Ayers Rock) National Park Viet Nam Wet Tropics of Queensland Willandra Lakes Region The following wetlands which lie within the region have been included in the List of Wetlands of International India Importance: Kaziranga National Park Keoladeo National Park Australia Manas National Park Apsley Marshes Nanda Devi National Park Barmah Forest Sundarbans National Park Bool and Hacks Lagoons Cape Barren Is. East Coast Lagoons Nepal Cobourg Peninsula Royal Chitwan National Park Coongie Lakes Sagarmatha National Park Comer Inlet Eighty-mile Beach Zealand New Forrestdale and Thomsons Lakes South West New Zealand (Te Wahipounamu) Gippsland Lakes Tongariro National Park Gunbower Forest Hattah-Kulkyne Lakes Sri Lanka Hosnie's Spring (Christmas Island) Sinharaja Forest Reserve Jocks Lagoon United Kingdom Kakadu (Stage II) Henderson Island Kakadu (Stage I) Kerang Wetlands United States ofAmerica Kooragang Nature Reserve Hawaii Volcanoes National Park Lake Crescent (northwestern comer) Lake Albacutya Ramsar Sites Lake Warden System Lake Toolibin The Convention on Wetlands of International Lakes Argyle and Kununurra Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat was signed Little Waterhouse Lake in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971, and also came into force in Information management
Logan Lagoon various documents, including the Action Plan for Lower Ringarooma River Biosphere Reserves (Unesco, 1984). Macquarie Marshes Nature Reserve Moulting Lagoon Biosphere reserves differ from World Heritage and Ord River Floodplain Ramsar sites in that they are designated not exclusively Peel-Yalgorup System for protection of unique areas or significant wetlands, but for a objectives include research, Pittwater-Orielton Lagoon range of which monitoring, training and demonstration, as well as Port Phillq) Bay (western shorcline)/BelIaiine Peninsula Riverland conservation. In most cases the human component is Roebuck Bay vital to the functioning of the biosphere reserve, something which is always Sea Elephant Conservation Area not true for either World The Coorong and Lakes Alexandrina and Albert Heritage or Ramsar sites. Towra Point Nature Reserve The following biosphere reserves are located within the Vasse-Wonnerup System region: Western District Lakes Western Port Australia Croajingolong India Danggali Conservation Park Chilka Lake Fitzgerald River National Park HarikeLake Hatiah-Kulkyne National Park/Murray-Kulkyne Paik Keoladeo National Park Kosciusko National Park LoktakLake Macquarie Island Nature Reserve Sambhar Lake Prince Regent River Nature Reserve WularLake Southwest National Park Nepal Uluru (Ayers Rock-Mount Olga) National Park Koshi Toppu Unnamed Conservation Park of South Australia Wilson's Promontory National Park New Zealand Yathong Nature Reserve Farewell Spit France Firth of Thames - Atoll de Taiaro Kq)uatai Peat Dome Waituna Lagoon Indonesia Whangamarino Cibodas Biosphere Reserve (Gunung Gede-Pangrango) Pakistan DrighLake Gunung Leuser National Park Komodo National Park Haieji Lake KandarDam Lore Lindu National Park Reserve Khabbaki Lake Siberut Nature Tanjung Puting National Park Kheshki Reservoir Kinjhar (Kalri) Lake Pakistan Malugul Dhand Lai Suhanra National Park TandaDam Thanadarwala Philippines Palawan Biosphere Reserve Sri Lanka Puerto Galera Biosphere Reserve Bundala Sanctuary Sri Lanka Viet Nam Hurulu Forest Reserve Red River Estuary Sinharaja Fwest Reserve
Biosphere Reserves Thailand Hauy Tak Teak Reserve differs somewhat The designation of biosphere reserves Mae Sa-Kog Ma Reserve from tfiat of either of the previous designations in that it Sakaerat Environmental Research Station is not made under a specific convention, but as part of an international scientific programme, the Unesco Man and United States ofAmerica the Biosphere Programme. The objectives of a network Hawaii Islands Biosphere Reserve of biosphere reserves, and the characteristics which biosphere reserves might display, are identified in
xvii Protected Areas of the World
Internationally Designated Sites - World Heritage Convention
xviu Information management
Internationally Designated Sites - Biosphere Reserves
XIX Protected Areas of the World
Internationally Designated Sites - Ramsar (Wetlands) Convention
XX Indomalaya
BANGLADESH
Area 144,000 sq. km 23, wildlife sanctuaries enjoy a greater degree of protection than national parks. For example, entry or Population 114,800,000(1990) residence, introduction of exotic or domestic species of Natural increase: 2.5% per annum animals and lighting of fires is prohibited in wildlife sanctuaries, but not national parks. No specific rules are Ek:ononiic Indicators detailed for game reserves. The Article makes provision, GNP: US$ 170 per capita (1988) however, for the government to relax any of these Policy and Legislation Environmental policy in prohibitions for scientific, aesthetic or other exceptional Bangladesh is based on the following three broad reasons, and to alter the boundaries of protected areas. principles: precautionary, whereby harm to the Under Article 24, provision is made for the environment is avoided; originator, whereby the costs of establishment of private game reserves upon application ameliorating damage to the environment are borne by by the landowner. The owner of a private game reserve those responsible; and cooperation, whereby relevant may exercise all the powers of an officer provided under bodies are involved in planning for environmental the Act. Proposals are being drawn up to strengthen the protection (Rahman, 1983). existing legislation, largely through raising fines and terms of imprisonment for offences. The need for an explicit national policy on environmenlal protection and management has been repeatedly Conservation, use and exploitation of marine resources highlighted (BARC, 1987), and is presently under are provided for under the Territorial Water and consideration by the govemmenL Objectives of such a Maritime Zones Act, 1974. According to provisions in policy will be as follows: to create, develop, maintain and this Act, conservation zones may be established to improve conditions under which man and nature can thrive protect marine resources from indiscriminate in productive and enjoyable harmony with each other, to exploitation, depletion or destruction. At present, there fulfil the social, economic and other requirements of is no legal provision for the management of coastal present and future generations; and to ensure the attainment zones. of an environmental quality that is conducive to a life of The Forest Act, 1927, enables the government to declare dignity and well-being (Rahman, 1983). any forest or waste land to be reserved forest or protected Environmental impact assessment for anticipating forest (see Annex). Activities are generally prohibited in adverse impacts has not yet been incorporated into the reserved forests; certain activities, such as removal of development planning process, nor is it a mandatory forest produce, may be permitted under license in requirement of project-approving agencies. According protected forests, while others, such as quarrying of to government policy, sanctioning agencies should stone and clearing for cultivation, may be prohibited. ensure that project proposals contain adequate The rights of government to any land constituted as environmental safeguards but, in practice, this is not reserved forest may be assigned to village communities, strictly followed (BARC, 1987). with conditions for their management prescribed by government. Such forests are called village forests. Bangladesh has completed the first phase of a national Under the Forest (Amendment) Ordinance, 1989, conservation strategy aimed at integrating conservation penalties for offences committed within reserved and goals with national development objectives and protected forests have been increased from a maximum overcoming identified obstacles to sustainable of six months imprisonment and a fine of Tk 500 to five development (BARC, 1987). Some twenty sectors in the years imprisonment and a Tk 5,000 (US$ 1 ,700) fine. In current Third Five-Year Plan are identified for critical accordance with the National Forest Policy, adopted in analysis during a second phase, including the 1979, effective measures will be taken to conserve the conservation of genetic resources, and wildlife natural environment and wildlife resources. The Policy management and protected areas. The Bangladesh does not, however, deal explicitly with the need to set Agricultural Research Council, Ministry of Agriculture aside sp)ecial areas as protected forests, as distinct from is the lead agency for the implementation of Phase II productive forests, to preserve genetic diversity and which began in October 1989. maintain ecological processes within the context of sustainable development (BARC, 1987). There is no national wildlife conservation policy. The Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973, Other environmental legislation less specifically related promulgated under Presidential Order No. 23 on to protected areas is reviewed elsewhere (DS/ST, 1980; 27 March 1973 and subsequently enacted and amended Rahman, 1983). in two phases as the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, provides for the establishment International Activities Bangladesh is party to the of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, game reserves Convention concerning the Protection of the World and private game reserves (see Annex). Under Article Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Protected Areas of the World
Convention) which it accepted on 3 August 1983. No in 1985 to identify institutional and other measures natural sites have been inscribed to date. Bangladesh needed to improve current provisions for wildlife participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere conservation. Recommendations of the Task Force, Programme. Apart from a couple of reserved forests submitted to the government in July 1986, await proposed as candidate sites by the Bangladesh MAB approval by the competent authority. They include a plan National Committee in the late 1970s, there does not to immediately revive the erstwhile Wildlife Circle, appear to have been any significant development in review Phase II of the Wildlife Development Project and recent years. A proposal to become a party to the secure protection of 5% of the total land area of the Convention on Wedands of International Importance country for conservation purposes (Rahman and especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) Akonda, 1987). was submitted to the erstwhile Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry by the Forest Department and awaits The principal non-governmental conservation organisations within the country are the Society for approval. It is proposed to nominate the Sundarbans mangrove forests as a wetland of international Conservation of Nature and Environment (SCONE), which is mainly concerned importance, in partial fulfilment of the requirements of with environmental pollution, the Convention (Rahman and Akonda, 1987). and the Wildlife Society of Bangladesh. Pothikrit, based in Chunati, and Polli Unnayan Sangstha Administration and Management Wildlife (POUSH), founded in 1984, are boOi involved in conservation, including the management of protected promoting the adoption of sound management practices areas, is the responsibility of the Forest Directorate in and around protected areas. Their efforts are presently within the new Ministry of Environment and Forests focused on Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary and Teknaf formed in 1989. Previously, the Forest Directorate came Game Reserve. lUCN (The World Conservation Union) under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests while the has a project office in Dhaka. former Department of Environmental Pollution Control, that concerned largely with environmental pollution, was Given wildlife resources are vested largely in reserved forests, their conservation under the Ministry of Local Government and Rural has in the past been development. diametrically opposed to forest management practices. Few, if any, protected areas are effectively managed and In 1976 a Wildlife Circle was established within what protected. Lack of personnel trained in wildlife was then known as the Forest Department, with specific conservation is a further handicap (Gittins and Akonda, responsibility for wildlife matters under the charge of a 1982; Khan, 1985; OUvier, 1979). The very low priority
Conservator of Forests responsible directly to the Chief apparendy now accorded to wildlife conservation is
Conservator of Forests. A $ 1 3.3 million scheme, entitled reflected in the recent abolition of the Wildlife Circle, "Development of Wildlife Management and Game the reassignment of staff to normal duties, the lack ofany Reserves", was incorporated within the country's First separate financial provision within the Forest Five-Year Plan, but reduced to $92,000 in the Directorate's budget and the now moribund Wildlife subsequent Two-Year Approach Plan (Olivier, 1979). Advisory Board (Blower, 1985). The Wildlife Circle was subsequently abolished in June Systems Reviews is lowland, 1983, allegedly in the interests of economy and Some 80% of Bangladesh following the recommendations of the Inam comprising an alluvial plain cut by the three great river Commission. The post of Conservator of Forests systems (Ganges-Padma, Brahmaputra- Jamuna and that flow the (General Administration and Wildlife) remains but the Meghna) into Bay of Bengal. Typically, at incumbent has many other administrative duties least one-half of the land is inundated annually, with one-tenth subject to severe flooding. The entire flood unrelated to wildlife. Following its general plain well- die forest down-grading within the Forest Department, wildlife was vegetated, but much of has been replaced cultivations plantations in recent conservation has become the theoretical responsibility by and of the various divisional forest officers (Blower, 1985; decades due to mounting pressure from human populations. Here, the extensive tract forest Husain, 1986). Separate staff are deployed for protection only of remaining is the Sundarbans. Hills are confined chiefly purposes in a number of national parks and wildlife the sanctuaries (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). to east and south-east, notably the Chittagong Hills where forest cover is among the most extensive in the The Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)(Amendment) country. Act, 1974, also provides for die establishment of a According to the 1987 Statistical of Wildlife Advisory Board, which was set up in 1976 Yearbook under the chairmanship of the Minister of Agriculture. Bangladesh, forests cover 2.1 million hectares or 14.7% of total land area, this represents neidier The Board is supposed to approve important wildlife but the area under forest management decisions and directives (Olivier, 1979). nor that under the control of the Forest Department (Rashid, 1989).In 1980, Gittins and Akonda Although it still exists, it does not appear to be a dynamic force (Blower, 1985; BARC, 1987). (1982) estimated remaining natural forest to be 4,782 sq.km (3.3%) and scrub forest 9,260ha (6.5%). Actual
In view of the low priority accorded to protected areas, forest cover is presently estimated to be 1 million a Task Force was formed by the Ministry of Agriculture Bangladesh
hectares or 6.9% of total land area, a reduction of more Corbett Action Plan (lUCN, 1985), many of which are than 50% over the past 20 years (WRI/CIDE. 1990). based on earlier recommendations by Olivier (1979). More recently, wetlands of conservation value have been major forest types are mangrove, moist deciduous The identified (Scott, 1989). Of outstanding importance is sal Shorea robusta, restricted to the Madhupur Tract or the need to prepare a plan for the development of the evergreen and northern frontier with Meghalaya, and country's protected areas network. forests found in the eastern districts of Sylhel, Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts. A small amount Addresses of freshwater swamp occupies the basins of the north-east region. Office of the Chief Conservator of Forests, Conservator of Forests (General Administration and Wildlife), between Wetlands, variously estimated as covering Bana Bhawan, Gulshan Road, Monakhali, DHAKA eight million hectares or nearly of total seven and 50% 12 (Tel: 2 603537; Cable: FORESTS) wildlife, well being land area, support a variety of as as Forest Directorate, Chief Conservator of Forests, importance of enormous economic (Scott, 1989). Ministry of Environment and Forests, Bana Bhawan, Gulshan Road, Monakhali, DHAKA 12 (Cable: The only known coral reef is around Jinjiradwip (St FORESTS) Martin's Island) in the Bay of Bengal. It is reputed to be a submerged reef but little is known about it lUCN (The World Conservation Union), Country (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Representative, 35 B/2 Indira Road, Dhaka 1215 Conservation efforts began in 1966, prior to (Tel: 2 815061; FAX: 2 813466; Tlx: 671054 FRC independence, when the government of Pakistan invited BJ)
the World Wildlife Fund to assess its wildlife resources Polli Unnayan Sangstha, 43 New Eskaton Road, and recommend measures to arrest their depletion. Two DHAKA (Tel: 2 402801/ 406628; Tlx: 642639 expeditions were mounted (Mountfort and Poore, 1967, OCNBJ) 1968) and the severity of the situation confirmed, Pothikrit, CHUNATI VILLAGE, Chittagong District
whereupon the government was urged to appoint its own The Society for Conservation of Nature and Wildlife Enquiry Committee. The committee was Environment, Secretary General, 146 Shanti Nagar, established in 1968 and by 1970 had drafted a report. DACCA 17 (Tel: 2 409119; Cable: ENVIRON That part relating to East Pakistan was published as a DHAKA) separate report (Government of East Pakistan, 1971). Wildlife Society of Bangladesh, General Secretary, c/o Considerable progress was made with the establishment Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, of several protected areas (Mountfort, 1969), research DHAKA 1000 undertaken on the Sundarbans tiger population of East Pakistan (Hendrichs, 1975), and technical input from References UNDP/FAO (Grimwood, 1969). Then, in 1971, came BARC (1987). National conservation strategy for the War of Liberation which inevitably disrupted Bangladesh. Draft prospectus (Phase I). Bangladesh subsequent progress. In spite of political instability, Agricultural Research Council/IUCN, Gland, however, the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order Switzerland. 154 pp. was promulgated in 1973 and an ambitious programme Blower, J.H. (1985). Sundarbans Forest Inventory of wildlife management developed, followed by the Project, Bangladesh. Wildlife conservation in the formation of a Wildlife Circle in 1976 and further Sundarbans. Project Report No. 151. ODA Land technical assistance from UNDP/FAO (Olivier, 1979). Resources Development Centre, Surbiton, UK. Economic constraints, however, have subsequently been 39 pp. responsible for the loss of much of this initiative DS/ST (1980). Draft environmental profile on (Blower, 1985). Bangladesh. Science and Technology Division, The existing system of protected areas has been Library of Congress. Washington, DC. 98 pp.
reviewed recently (Green, 1989). It is not comprehensive, Gittins, S.P. and Akonda, A W. (1982). What survives 275-281. having been established with little leg^ to ecological and in Bangladesh? Oryx 16: of East Pakistan Report of the othCT criteria, and Ms well below the target of 5% Government (1971). recommended by the erstwhile Ministry of Agriculture Technical Sub-committee for East Pakistan of the Task Force. Some effort has been made to include Wildlife Enquiry Committee. Dacca. representative samples of the major habitats but, for Green, M.J.B. (1989). Bangladesh: an overview of its example, marine and freshwater areas have been largely protected areas system. World Conservation neglected (Gittins and Akonda, 1982; Khan, 1985; Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 63 pp. Ohvier, 19 9; Rahman and Akonda, 1987). Priorities to Grimwood, I.R. (1969). Wildlife Conservation in develop the present network of protected areas are Pakistan. Pakistan National Forestry Research and identified in the lUCN Systems review of the Training Project. Report No. 17. FAO,Rome. 31 pp. Indomalayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, Hendrichs, H. (1975). The status of the tiger Panthera 1986) and further recommendations are made in the tigris (Linne, 1758) in the Sundarbans mangrove Protected Areas of the World
forest (Bay of Bengal). Saugetierkundliche Rahman, S. (1983). Country monograph on institutional MitteilungenlS: 161-199. and legislative framework on environment, Husain, K.Z. (1986). Wildlife study, research and Bangladesh. UN/ESCAP and Government of conservation in Bangladesh. Eleventh Annual Bangladesh. 76 pp. Bangladesh Science Conference Section 2: 1-32. Rahman, S.A. and Akonda, A.W. (1987). Bangladesh lUCN (1985). The Corbett Action Plan for protected national conservation strategy: wildlife and areas of the Indomalayan Realm. lUCN, Gland, protected areas. Department of Forestry, Ministry of Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp. Agriculture and Forestry, Dhaka. Unpublished Khan, M.AJi. (1985). Future conservation directions for report 33 pp. Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Rashid, H. Er (1989). Land use in Bangladesh: selected Asia's natural heritage. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. topics. Bangladesh Agriculture Sector Review. Pp. 114-122. UNDP Project No. BGD/87/023. Pp. 106-155. MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. {\9%6).Reviewofthe Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Protected protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Realm. areas of Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), lUCN, Gland, Switzerland Cambridge, UK. 284 pp. Conserving Asia's natural heritage. lUCN, Gland, Mountfort, G. (1969). Pakistan's progress. Oryx 10: Switzerland. Pp. 36-38. 39^3. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory ofAsian wetlands. Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. ( 1 967). The conservation of lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. wildlife in Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, 1,181pp. Switzerland. Unpublished report 27 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UNEP Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to Pakistan. Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Unpublished. 25 pp. UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 440 pp. Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and WRI/CIDE (1990). Bangladesh environment and natural management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project resource assessment. Draft for review. World No. BGD/72/005. Forest Research Institute, Resources Institute/Centre for International Chiitagong. 121 pp. Development and Environment, Washington DC. 86 pp.
ANNEX DeFinitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) causing any disturbance (including firing ofany gun) (Amendment) Act to any wild animal or its breeding place, felling, tapping, burning or in any other way damaging any Date: 1974 plant or tree, cultivation, mining or breaking up any land, and polluting water flowing through a national Brief description: Provides for the preservation, park are not allowed. Such prohibitions may be conservation and management of wildlife in relaxed for scientific purposes, aesthetic enjoyment Bangladesh of the scenery or any other exceptional reason.
Administrative authority: Forest Directorate, Construction of access roads, rest houses, hotels and Ministry of Environment and Forests public amenities should be planned so as not to Designations: impair the primary objective of the establishment of a national park. National park A comparatively large area of Wildlife sanctuary An area closed to hunting outstanding scenic and natural beauty, in which the and maintained as an undisturbed breeding protection of wildlife and preservation of the ground, primarily for the protection of wildlife including all scenery, flora and fauna in their natural state is the natural resources such as vegetation, soil and water. primary objective, and to which the public may be allowed access for recreation, education and Entry or residence, cultivation, damage to research. vegetation, killing or capturing wild animals within
one mile (1.6km) of its Hunting, killing or capturing any wild animal within boundary, introduction of exotic or domestic species of animals, lighting of a national park or one mile ( 1 .6km) of its boundaries. fires, and pollution of water are not allowed, but any Bangladesh
of these prohibitions may be relaxed for scientific burning lime or charcoal; removing forest produce; reasons, or for the improvement or aesthetic and hunting, shooting, fishing, trapping and enjoyment of the scenery. poisoning water.
Game reserve An area in which the wildlife is Village forest Any land constituted as reserved protected to enable populations of important species forest that has been assigned to a village community to increase. Capture of wild animals is prohibited. by the government.
Hunting and shooting may be allowed on a permit Rules for regulating the provision of timber, other basis. forest produce or pasture to the community, and their duties for protecting and improving such forest may Private game reserve Area of private land set aside be prescribed by the government. by the owner for the same purpose as a game reserve. On application by the owner, such an area may be All provisions of the Act relating to reserved forest notified as a private game reserve. apply to village forest, in so far as they are consistent with the rules. The owner shall exercise all the powers of an officer under this Act Protected forest Any forest land or wasteland not included in a reserved forest and belonging to the legislation Source: Original government, or to which it has proprietary rights, may be declared a protected forest provided that the Title: Forest Act nature and extent of rights of government and of private persons in or over such land have been Date: 1927 recorded.
Brief description: An Act to consolidate the law Any trees or class of trees may be reserved; any relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and portion of forest may be closed for up to 30 years; the duty leviable on timber and other forest produce. and quarrying of stone, burning of Ume or charcoal, collection and removal of any forest produce, and Administrative authority: Forest Directorate, breaking up or clearing of any land for any purpose Ministry of Environment and Forests may be prohibited.
Designations: Rules may be made to regulate collection and removal of forest produce, granting of licences to Reserved forest Any forest land or wasteland inhabitants of nearby settlements to remove forest belonging to the government, or to which it has products for domestic consumption, granting of proprietary rights, may be constituted a reserved licences for commercial extraction of forest forest subject to completion of notification and products, clearing or breaking up of land for settlement procedures provided under the Act. cultivation or other purposes, and the protection from Prohibited activities include: making fresh clearings fire of timber lying in such forests and of trees or breaking up land for cultivation; kindling or reserved under the Act.
carrying fire; trespass and cattle grazing; felling or Source: Original legislation otherwise damaging any tree; quarrying stone. Protected Areas of the World
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Bangladesh
Protected Areas of Bangladesh
BHUTAN
Area 46,620 sq. km three reserved forests were designated. A further six sites were declared under Notification No. TIF/FAO/111-8/ Population 1,600,000(1990) 83/7049. The provisions of the Forest Act apply to these Natural increase: 2.1% per annum areas (see Annex), together with additional restrictions. These include: prohibition of entry except for Bhutanese Ek:onoiiiic Indicators officials or visitors with written permissiwi from the GNF. US$ 150 per capita (1988) Divisional Forest Officer; felling of trees or cutting of Policy And Legislation Government policy on other vegetation, except under the provision of a Forest environmental conservation is strong, with emphasis Department Working Plan; no use of land for consistently given to nature conservation and careful agricultural, horticultural or other purposes; and no management of natural resources. National development grazing by domestic cattie without permission from the plans have stressed the potential for ecological damage Forest Department. Penalties prescribed for from exploitation of the nation's natural resources, infringements are up to six months' impriscmment or a particularly its forests (Blower, 1989; World Bank, fine of up to Nu. 1,000/- (US$ 65). 1988). The need to formulate a national conservation While the present forestry legislation covers many of the strategy has been recognised and a proposal submitted essential requirements for conservation, there are serious to His Majesty's Government by Danida is under omissions with respect to such matters as the criteria for consideration (Tenzing, 1989). different categories of protected area and procedures for The existing National Forest Policy of 1974 emphasises their establishment and management. New legislation the importance of maintaining adequate forest cover, entitled Bhutan Wildlife (Protection) Act, based on the Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act, was drafted in 1985 with a minimum of 60% , in order to prevent soil erosion and to maintain climatic equilibrium. It recognises the but it was considered to be unnecessarily lengthy and problems caused by grazing and shifting cultivation, and complicated. Blower (1986) recommended that new the need to regulate both practices. A new National conservation legislation be formulated to provide the Forest Policy was prepared in 1985 at the express basis for an effective conservation programme. This command of His Majesty the King, but this has yet to be should take the form of a basic enabling act with more adopted. The new policy lays even greater stress on emphasis on the broader aspects of environmental conservation, its basis being that the nation's forest conservation, rather than merely on the protection of resources should be regarded more in terms of their wildhfe and control of hunting. A new Forest and Nature conservation value and less as a source of revenue. Conservation Act has since been prepared which will Prescriptions include: designation of all forest land replace the Forest Act of 1969. The new law expands on above 2,700m or on slq)es exceeding 60* as jwotection the forestry policy to include related aspects of wildlife forest; establishment of a protected areas network and biological diversity (Adams, 1989). It was due to (including biosphere reserves) to conserve representative have been presented to the National Assembly in 1988
samples of the diverse fauna and flora in their jnistine state; (H. Wollenhaupt, pers. comm., 1988).
control of shifting cultivation and its prohibition on slopes Interiiational Activities Bhutan is not as yet party to any of 45* and more; and the total banning of grazing in international convention concerned with prcxting forests reserved for protection or conservation (Blower, natural areas, such as the Convention Concerning the 1986, 1989). Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
The Bhutan Forest Act of 1969 is the only legislation (World Heritage Convention) and Convention on covering environmental conservation. Under this Act, all Wetlands of International Importance especially as forested land other than any privately owned, is declared Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), nor does it as government reserved forest Activities prohibited participate in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere within reserved forest are annexed. The maximum Programme. penalty fw any offence under the Forest Act is one Administration and Management The Forest month's imprisonment or a fine of Nu. 2(X)/- (US$ 13) Department, under the Ministry of Agriculture, is or both. There is no specific provision in the Forest Act responsible for the management of reserved forests in for the establishment or management of any other particular. It is headed by a Director-General and divided category of protected area, although it is mentioned that into various functional divisions (e.g. planning, "nothing shall be done to fell or damage trees or clear management) at its headquarters in Thimphu and a forests in the area of a national park ot game sanctuary number of territorial divisions. These coincide with the or the shooting grounds of His Majesty the King." administrative distiicts, or Dzongkhags, and are headed Protected areas, other than reserved forests, have b^n by a divisional forest officer (Blower, 1989). Forestry established by notification, notably No. TIF-11/74 of has a recent origin in Bhutan, beginning in 1 952 with the 1 November 1979 under which three wildlife establishment of the first administrative unit at Samchi. sanctuaries, one game reserve, one national park and Protected Areas of the World
Further divisions were established at Sarbhang in 1961 The enormous altitudinal range and varied climatic and Thimphu in 1967, but funding was very limited until conditions are reflected in the country's great ecological the Third Development Plan (1971-1976) when forest diversity, ranging from tropical moist deciduous forest development activities gathered momentum. A forest along the southern foothills, through extensive
guard school was established at Kalikhola in 197 1 , later temperate broad-leaved and coniferous forests across the shifted to Taba in 1977 and upgraded in 1982 for training middle of the country, to alpine scrub and meadows up foresters. Officials and rangers are trained in India to the permanent snowline to the north. (Tenzing, 1989). Bhutan's most valuable natural resources are its forests
Nature conservation is the responsibility of the Wildlife and its major river systems. Most of the original forest Division established within the Forest Department in remains. Analysis of LANDSAT 2 imagery for 1978 1984. The Division consists of two wildlife circles, each shows that some 53% of Bhutan is forested, of which under the charge of a deputy director. The Northern 19% is broad-leaved evergreen forest and 34%
Wildlife Circle, with its headquarters at Thimphu, is coniferous and deciduous. The remaining landcover nominally responsible for the whole of northern Bhutan comprises snow/water/scree (19%) and pasture/ including the vast Jigme Dorji Wildlife Sanctuary. With scrub/arable (28%) (Sargent, 1985; Sargentef al., 1985). a staff of only one forest ranger and three guards, this is This is lower than the official estimate of 64% forest obviously an impossible task. The Southern Wildlife cover (Negi, 1983), which is based on visual inspection Circle, based at Sarbhang, is responsible for southern of LANDSAT images without recourse lo objective
Bhutan, including the management of 1 protected areas. ground surveys (Sargent elal., 1985). There was Staff include two forest rangers, nine foresters and 36 extensive commercial exploitation of forest resources up guards under the charge of a deputy director. The budget until 1979, when logging operatives were nationalised for the Northern and Southern Wildlife Circles in and severe restrictions imposed on the export of timer in 1988/1989 was Nu. 420,000 (US$ 27,300) and the interests of sound forestry management and Nu. 1,708,000 (US$ 110,000), respectively. In addiuon, ecological stability (World Bank, 1984, 1986). WWF has contributed US$ 300,000 for the development The conservation importance of major rivers (Torsa/ of Manas WildUfe Sanctuary over a three-year period Ammo Chu, Paidak/Wong Chu, Sankosh/Mo Chu and (Blower, 1989). Manas) is reviewed by Scott (1989). Rivers are generally The Royal Society for the Protection ofNature is the first rocky and fast-flowing, with marshes restricted to flat non-governmental conservation organisation in the valley bottoms in the inner valleys. Most marshes have country, established in 1987 with assistance from WWF. been drained for agricultiu^ purposes but some of those
Its principal aim is to promote conservation and wise remaining are internationally important for management of natural resources through raising public black-necked crane. awareness, instituting programmes and acting as an Isolated for centuries by its remote geographic location information centre. Due to the Society's efforts, two and, latterly, its resistance to outside influence, areas (Phobjikah Valley and Bomdiling) have been by Bhutan has maintained a relatively pristine environment declared by the government as sanctuaries for cranes along with a strong cultural heritage. Following its (Adam, 1989; Bunting, 1989).
membership of the United Nations in 197 1 , a more open The Forest Department is short of trained personnel and foreign policy has emerged but, acutely aware of
this has led to a reduction of field staff in its Wildlife mistaJees made in neighbouring countries and elsewhere, Division from 66 in 1986 to 53 in 1989. The Wildlife the government has proceeded cautiously with its Division is so inadequately staffed as to be virtually development programme. Recognising the need to
ineffective as far as the country as a whole is concerned promote economic growth while sustaining the natural (Blower, 1989). resource base, the government has maintained a strong
traditional conservation ethic as the basis of its forest and Systems Reviews Bhutan is a small kingdom in the other policies (Bunting, 1989; Tenzing, 1989). In the Eastern Himalaya similar in size to Switzerland, but with case of tourism, for example, numbers of foreign visitors a much wider altitudinal range (200m to over 7,500m) are strictly limited to minimise erosion of the Buddhist and only one-fifth of the population density. There has culture (Hickman and Edmunds, 1988; Singh, 1989). been almost no industrial development in the country:
about 95% of the population is primarily dependent on Bhutan's oldest protected area is Manas, maintained as agriculture and animal husbandry. The Himalayan chain a royal hunting reserve for many years prior to being runs along the northern border and the interior of the notified a wildlife sanctuary in 1966 and more recently country is made up of a series of six major north- (1988) upgraded to a national park. The bulk of the south-aligned mountain ranges. The largest of these, the protected areas network, covering nearly 19% of the Black Mountains, rise to nearly 5,(K)0m and form a country, was established in 1974 and subsequently substantial physical barrier between eastern and western expanded by a further 2% in 1984. The entire north of
Bhutan. Four of the seven river valleys merge to form Bhutan, comprising nearly 17% of the total area, is the Manas and all of them flow southwards across the protected within the 790,495ha Jigme Dorji Wildlife plains of West Bengal and Assam into the Brahmaputra. Sanctuary. While such provisions are impressive.
10 Bhutan
Sanctuary. While such provisions are impressive, Forest Department (Director-General of Forests), exceeding those of all other countries in South Asia and Ministry of Agriculture & Forests, Royal many elsewhere, the protected areas system is unevenly Government of Bhutan, PO Box 130, Thimphu distributed, with inadequate representation across the (Cable: BHUFOREST; Tel: 22503; Fax: 22395) middle of the country. Moreover, the relative conservation value of protected areas varies enormously, Royal Society for the Protection of Nature (President), as does the effectiveness of their protection (Blower, Thimphu (Tel: 22056; FAX: 22578) 1985). The only areas considered to be under any form of effective management in 1986 were Manas and the References adjacent Nangyal Wangchuk (now combined within Adams, J. (1989). Bhutan: right from the start World Royal Manas National Park), and Mochu Wildlife Wildlife Fund Letterl9&9(6): 1-8. Sanctuary (Blower, 1986). These deficiencies are being Blower, J.H. (1985). Nature conservation and wildlife addressed, partly through various internationally management in Bhutan. FAO, Rome. Unpublished assisted development projects. WWF is presently report 23 financing a cooperative nature conservation programme pp. Blower, J.H. (1986). Nature conservation in Bhutan: to the extent of Nu. 9,120,000 for the period 1988-1993 project findings and recommendations. Project (Bunting, 1989;Tenzing, 1989). This includes assistance HDP/BHU/83A)22. FAO, Rome. 55 pp. for the institutional development of the Wildlife Blower, J.H. (1989). Nature conservation in northern Division and infrastructural support for Royal Manas and central Bhutan. Project BHU/85/016. FAO, National Park. Under the UNDP/FAO Integrated Forest Rome. 48 Management and Conservation Project (1987-1991), pp. Bunting, B. (1989). A strategy for environmental priorities for nature conservation have been identified, conservation in Bhutan: a WWF/RGOB cooperative including the strengthening of the protected areas system programme. Tiger Paper 16(4): 5-12. through the establishment of two large protected areas in Denholm, J. (1990). Bhutan must protect its green health. the middle of the country (Blower, 1989). As part of the Himal 3(1): 24. Forestry II Development Project financed by World Hickman, K. and Edmunds, T.O. (1988). Tourism in Bank, there are proposals to strengthen the protected Bhutan: "The serpent in paradise". The Geographical areas system, particularly with regard to the middle Magazine 60{n): 18-23. sector of the country, and to provide technical assistance Jackson, P. (1981). Conservation in Bhutan. for the development of a national conservation strategy Unpublished report 15 pp. (C.W. HoUoway, pers. comm., 1987). Mahat, G. (1985). Protected areas of Bhutan. In: Bhutan's natural resources are becoming increasingly Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia's natural threatened. While less pronounced than in other parts of heritage. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 26-29. the Himalaya, there is substantial evidence that uplands Sargent, C. (1985). The forests of Bhutan. Ambio 14: in Bhutan are being degraded at accelerating rates 75-80. Parsell, R. The (Denholm, 1990; Thinley , 1989). The main conservation Sargent, C, Sargent, O., and (1985). problem is the conversion of forests to other forms of forests of Bhutan: a vital resource for the Himalaya? land use as a result of human settlement, high domestic Journal of Tropical Ecology 1: 265-286. consumption of fuelwood and timber, shifting Scott D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory ofAsian wetlands. cultivation, overgrazing and encroachment, all of which lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. reflect the rising human population (Blower, 1985; 1,181 pp. Jackson, 1981; Mahat, 1985; Sargent, 1985). Forests are Singh, M.M. (1989). Controlled growth in Bhutan. grazed by excessive numbers of domestic livestock and Himal 20): n. are burnt, while the wildlife is declining due to habitat Tenzing, D. (1989). Forestry in Bhutan: policies and destruction, grazing competition with domestic programmes. Fores/ A/ewi 3(4): 5-9. livestock and, in some southern areas, organised Thinley, S. (1989). Upland conservation in Bhutan. poaching (Blower, 1985). The southernmost forest belt Forest News 3(4): \0-l5. has been almost completely cleared for human World Bank (1984). Bhutan, development in a setdement (Mahat, 1985). People are concentrated in the Himalayan kingdom. Worid Bank, Washington, DC. fertile valleys and, in the south-western foothills, at (Unseen) densities approaching an upper limit given present World Bank (1986). Bhutan Forestry II Development production methods, which are unlikely to change in the Project. Preparation Mission Report FAOAVwld near future (Jackson, 1981). Bank Co-operative Programme Investment Centre, FAO, Rome. (Unseen) Addresses World Bank (1988). Bhutan, development planning in a unique environment. Report No. 7189-BHU. World Northern Wildlife Circle (Deputy Director of Wildlife), Bank, Washington, DC. (Unseen) Forest Department, Thimphu (Cable: BHUFOREST; Tel: 22452; Fax: 22395)
11 Protected Areas of the World
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: The Bhutan Forest Act Shifting cultivation is allowed in areas where it was practised prior to issue of this Act, but this concession Date: 1 November 1969 may be withdrawn if highways or public property are endangered. Fresh clearance for shifting cultivation Brief description: To amend the law relating to is strictly prohibited. forests, forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produce All forest operations are prohibited within catchments that supply water to townships or are Administrative authority: Forest Department sites of hydroelectric projects. (Director-General of Forests) Only His Majesty the King of Bhutan may grant a Designations: "special permit for any forest produce".
Reservedforest Any land under forest to which no Rights and concessions of the local people include: person has acquired a permanent, heritable and cattle grazing (except in areas defined above), transferable right of use and occupancy is declared subject to payment of taxes; collection of timber for as government reserved forest. domestic consumption on payment of royalties; collection for Prohibited activities include: any fresh clearing or of firewood domestic consumption breaking up of land for cultivation or other purpose; from dead, dying and fallen trees (or from thinnings and cuttings if such is available); burning or leaving a fire unattended; felling; girdling; firewood not and collection of leaf-litter, tapping, lopping or otherwise injuring any tree; boulders, stones and sand for quarrying of minerals, rocks and sand; poisoning domestic consumption provided their removal does accelerate erosion. water, hunting and fishing, or setting traps or snares; not grazing cattle in new plantations, regeneration areas, Source: Original legislation catchments reserved for supply of drinking water and hydroelectric projects, and such areas as may be restricted by His Majesty's Government
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Bhutan
Protected Areas of Bhutan
13
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
Area 5,765 sq. km studies centre and to the possible redesignation of this area as a national park (Macklin, 1991). Population 300,000(1990) Natural increase: 2.5% per annum Administration and Management The Director of the Brunei Museum is responsible for wildlife conservation Economic Indicators in the country, including the administration and GNP: US$ 15,390 per capita (1987) enforcement of the Wild Life Protection Enactment, 1978. The Forestry Department, headed by the Director Policy and Legislation The Wildlife Protection Act, of Forestry of the raid: of Conservator of Forests, is 1978 provides for the establishment of wildlife responsible for the administration and management of sanctuaries (see Annex). A Wildlife Conservation forest reserves. A Parks and Conservation Department Enactment has been drafted as part of a Special has been established within the Forestry Department Report on Wildlife Conservation and Management The Director of the Fisheries Department is responsible prepared for the Negara Brunei Darussalam Master Plan for the enforcement of the Fisheries Enactment, 1972 2000 to provide, inter alia, for the establishment of including the protection of living marine resources. national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and nature reserves (Farmer el al., 1986). Non-governmental conservation organisations include the Brunei Nature Society, based in Bandar Seri The Forest Act, 1934 (together with the Forest Rules, Begawan and the Paiiaga Natural History Society, based 1955 and 1975) provides for the establishment of forest in Seria and run under the auspices of the Brunei Shell reserves. Land within forest reserves is allocated to one Petroleum Company Sdn Bhd. of four categories: protection forest; conservation area; forest (see Annex). recreational area and production Systems Reviews Brunei is a small country on the north-west coast of Borneo. The state is divided into two For some time, the Brunei Museum has used the parts by Limbang District in the Malaysian State of Antiquities and Treasure Trove Enactment, 1967 to Sarawak. The 130km coasUine bordering the South designate certain of Brunei's islands (namely the Pelong China Sea consists of high-profile sandy beaches with a Rocks and Pulau Punyut) as historical sites, with a view complex estuarine mangrove and mudflat zone in the to i»-otecting their fauna and flora. In addition, Pulau north-easL In the western part of the country, the alluvial Siarau has been unofficially designated a conservation and often swampy coastal plain is backed by low hills, area by the Brunei Museum for some years, in order to with further swamps inland. Most of the interior is below afford some protection to the proboscis monkey and 90m, rising to almost 4(X)m in the extreme west. The flying foxes. Several other islands in Brunei Bay have eastern part comprises a swampy coastal plain rising received partial protection on the pretext of preserving gradually through low hills to mountainous terrain historical sites and antiquities. Although not officially inland. The main mountain range along the border with gazetted, Tasek Merimbun is de facto Brunei's fust Sarawak rises to 1,850m (Bukit Pagoti). national park. It is managed jointly by the Tutong District Office, under whose jurisdiction the area falls, The natural vegetation throughout Brunei is tropical and the Brunei Museum which has been responsible for evergreen rain forest. Forest covers 4,690 sq. km (81% plans. preliminary scientific studies and management of total land area), of which 22% is secondary forest and plantations and 59% primary forest. Just ovct half of the Other relevant legislation includes the Fisheries primary forest is mixed dipterocarp, one quarter is peat Enactment, 1972 under which designated areas may be swamp forest and the remainder either swamp forest, closed to fishing and other forms of exploitation. heath or montane forest (Bennett, 1 99 1 ). The mangroves Brunei coast probably represent the largest International Activities Brunei does not participate in on the remaining intact mangroves in northern Borneo. any international conventions or programmes concerned Together with those in neighbouring countries in Brunei with protected areas, such as the Convention concerning they comprise one of the largest tracts of relatively the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Bay, undisturbed mangroves in eastern Asia. Mangrove Heritage (World Heritage Convention), the Convention are exploited for various purposes but to a on Wetlands of International Importance especially as resources in other countries in the region Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), and the lesser extent than Silva, 1988). The main areas of peat swamp forest Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. (de are along the basin of the Belait River in western Brunei. Field studies have been undertaken in Batu Apoi Forest Substantial areas of seasonally flooded peat swamp Reserve as part of the Brunei Rainforest Project forest occur in the middle reaches of the Tutong River. 1991-1992, an international cooperative programme All of these swamp forests are still in almost pristine involving the Royal Geographic Society (UK) and the condition (Scott, 1989). The dipterocaip forest, which University of Brunei, with a view to establishing a field covers most of the country, gives way to montane forest
15 Protected Areas of the World from about 700m upwards. In the upper Temburong (Ulu Mendaram); the mangroves of Brunei Bay; Tasek area, where the land rises above 1,500m, this in turn Merimbun (an area of freshwater and peat swamps); the gives way to montane vegetation with stunted, gnarled Bukit Batu-Sungei Ingei area, which is contiguous with trees covered with mosses (Bennett, 1991). These Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak; and the coastal forests have not been widely exploited, because most kerangas forests (Bennett, 1991). people live along the coast, and most of the country's development and economy has been centred around Addresses hydrocarbon fossil fuels (Farmer et al., 1986). Timber Brunei Museum (Director), extraction for local consumption is allowed, under Kota Batu, Bandar Sen Begawan strict control by the Forest Department, but clear felling Forest Department (Director is prohibited (Bennett, 1991), and no timber is exported of Forestry), Ministry of (Mittermeier, 1981). Industry and Primary Resources, Bandar Seri Begawan 2067 (Tel: 2 22450/22687; Fax: 2 41012) Little coral occurs due to the turbid nature of Brunei's Fisheries Department (Director), Ministry of coastal waters and its sedimentary and mangrove- Development, PO Box 2161, Bandar Seri Begawan fringed coastline (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The total extent (Tel: 242067/44131) of coralline areas within the territorial waters of Brunei Town and Country Planning Department, Ministry of is about 45 sq. km out of a continental shelf area of Development, PO Box 2204, Bandar Seri Begawan 9,390 sq. km. These areas are not heavily fished nor used (Tel: 224591) for recreation and tourism (de Silva, 1988). Brunei Nature Society, PO Box 2241, Bandar Seri All notified protected areas are forest reserves. Although Begawan these have an important role in nature conservation, their Panaga Natural History Society, c/o Brunei Shell original purpose was to protect forest resources for Petroleum Company Sdn Bhd, Seria (Tel: Seria commercial exploitation. Forest reserves cover about 2623) 3,190 sq. km (55% total land area), of which a quarter is considered unexploitable or has been allocated for References protection or conservation purposes (Farmer et al., 1986). In 1986 the Town and Country Planning Anderson, J.A.R. and Marsden, D. (1988). Brunei forest Department commissioned a special report on wildlife resources and strategic planning study. 2 volumes. conservation and management (Farmer et al., 1986) as Report to the Government of His Majesty the Sultan an addendum to the Negara Brunei Darussalam and Yang Di-Pertuan of Negara Brunei Darussalam. Master Plan 2000. Although this report contains Unpublished. recommendations for the designation of specific Bennett, E. (1991). Brunei. In: N.M.Collins, J.A.Sayer, protected areas and draft legislation, there is little T.C.Whitmore (Eds), The conservation atlas of evidence as yet of its implementation. In 1 989, the Forest iropicalforests. Asia and the Pacific. The Macmillan Department formulated proposals for forest Press Ltd, London. Pp. 98-102. development and conservation in a Forestry Strategic Bennett, E.L., Caldecott, J.D. and Davison, G.W.H. Plan. This Plan may prove to be one of the major vehicles (1984). A wildlife study of Ulu Temburong, Brunei. for consolidating the nation's protected area system, as Forest Department, Kuching and Universili well as maintaining the sustained use of forest for Kebangsaan, Malaysia. Unpublished report. 61 pp. production purposes. The situation is somewhat Farmer, A.S.D., Caldecott, J.O., Phillips, A., Prince, G. confused, however, as both the Brunei Museum and the and Thomson, N. (1986). Negara Brunei Town and Country Planning Department of the Ministry Darussalam masterplan. Special report: wildlife of Development also claim responsibility for planning conservation and management. 4 volumes. Huszar and managing protected areas other than forest reserves, Brammah and Associates/Department of Town and which are under the Forest Department (A.S.D. Farmer, Country Planning, Bandar Seri Begawan. pers. comm., 1991). lUCN (1985). The Corbett Action Plan for protected areas of the Indomalayan realm. lUCN, Gland, In general, the major habitat types are well represented Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp. within the protected areas system (MacKinnon and Mittermeier, R.A. (1981). Brunei protects its wildlife. MacKinnon, 1986), except swamp forest (Bennett, Oryx 16: 67-70. 1991). It has been recommended, however, that the MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (l986).Reviewofthe forest reserve network be developed, with boundaries of protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan realm. certain reserves altered and new reserves established lUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, (Anderson and Marsden, 1988). Additional UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 284 pp. recommendations include the establishment of Batu Macklin, D. (1991). Joining hands in jungle science. Apoi Forest Reserve as a national park (Bennett et al., Geographical Magazine 63(1): 44-46. 1984; Farmer et al., 1986; lUCN, 1985). Six key critical Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory ofAsian wetlands. sites merit priority attention and continued protection: lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. the primary inland forests of Ulu Temburong (Batu 1181pp. Apoi); the peat swamp forests of the Belait River system
16 Brunei Darussalam de Silva. M.WJi.N. (1988). The coastal environmental UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. profile of Brunei Darussalam. rropjca/Coar/a/ Area Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UNEP Management 3: 1-4. Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi. Kenya. 440 pp.
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Wildlife Protection Act birds and bats, peat, rock, sea sand, river sand, sea shells, shell sand, surface soil, trees and all their parts Date: 1978 or produce, silk, cocoons, honey and wax, edible birds' nests, timber, firewood, charcoal, getah, getah Brief description: Provides inter alia for the taban leaves, wood oil, bark, extracts of bard, damar establishment of wildlife sanctuaries by decree of and attap) the Sultan Administrative authority: Forest Department Administrative authority: Brunei Museum (Director of Forestry) (Director) Designations: Designations: Conservation forest To conserve adequate areas of Wildlife sanctuary May include the whole part of a all existing principal terrestrial habitats and forest reserve or a protected forest, in which case ecosystems nothing herein contained shall prohibit or restrict the management of the forest reserve or protected forest. Production forest To provide stands of timber of
economic ix>tential for exploitation on a sustainable basis Source: Original legislation Protection forest To safeguard water catchment very terrain against erosion Title: Forest Enactment areas and steep
Recreation forest To provide areas suitable for Date: 1934 recreation Brief description: Provides for the protection, Source: Original legislation management and exploitation of forest reserves, and
all associated forest produce (including guano of
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Protected Areas ofthe World
Protected Areas of Brunei Darussalam
18 CAMBODIA
Area 181,035 sq. km A lack of professional staff thereafter hamjiered forestry and conservation (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). Population 8,246,000 (1990) During the initial post-war reorganisation the Natural increase: 2.20% per annum Directorate of Forests and Hunting (Direction desForets et Chasse) was not operationally effective due to lack of Economic Indicators management, training and support staff. However, GNP: Not available accelerated training of new staff, promotion of forest GDP: Not available officers and forest-hunting staff has brought the number
Policy and Legislation There is currently no protected of personnel to 235. areas legislation. During the French colonial period a Systems Reviews Cambodia is situated in tropical number of wildlife reserves were established and, Mainland South-east Asia, straddling the Mekong River although these sites are still recognised by the current between Thailand and Viet Nam, with Laos to the government, they are not properly mapped, demarcated, north-easL The greater part of Cambodia comprises the protected or managed (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, plain of the lower Mekong valley, with the western 1986). Royal Ordinance No. 24 of 26 January 1940 slopes of the Annamite Chain to the east lying along the regulated hunting and afforded protection to a number international border with Viet Nam, and the isolated of species. Prakas No. 194 (1960) was a temporary highlands of the Elephant and Cardamom mountains in measure forbidding the hunting of large wild animals, the west The couiitry has a short coastline of only whilst in the same year a number of faunal reserves were 435km. The climate is dominated by the south-west and established (Anon., 1968). However, these regulations north-east monsoons; the south-west monsoon lasting have lapsed with subsequent changes in government. from May to October and the north-east from There are currently 172 production forest reserves November to March. The mean annual rainfall is covering 3,875,000ha, six forest reserves for wildlife 1200mm-1875mm, but rainfall of up to 3000-4000mm protection and a single national parte of 10,717ha. In may be experienced in the south-west. addition, there are 1,080 sites which encircle ancient monuments (Sarun, 1985). However, the legal basis of The Mekong River runs southwards across the plains, its these sites is not known. delta lying in Viet Nam. Part of the western plains are occupied by the shallow Tonl6 Sap (Great Lake), which International Activities Cambodia does not participate flows into the Mekong throughout most of the year, but in any international conventions or programmes which usually floods back from the main river during the concerned with protected areas, such as the Convention rainy season, becoming a vast storage reservoir. The Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural Cardamom Mountain range dominates the south-west, and Natural Heritage Convention (World Heritage rising to 1,563m. In the south and south-east are low Convention), the Convention on Wetlands of plains bordering the Mekong River, extensive areas of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl which are seasonally flooded. North of Tonl6 Sap, the Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and the Unesco Man and area leading to the border with Laos and Thailand the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. consists of rolling savanna country with some open In 1986 Cambodia signed international agreements with grassland areas of deciduous forest. A review of lUCN and her neighbours Laos and Vietnam to wetlands important for conservation is given in Scott cooperate in projects to conserve kouprey Bos sauveli (1989). (E) and to protect waterbirds in the Mekong wetlands. The most recent information on forest resources derives This may lead to transfrontier reserves comprising from FAO/UNEP (1981) which was published in FAO contiguous territory in all three countries (MacKinnon (1988). Closed broadleaved forests were estimated to and Stuart, 1989) cover an area of 71,500 sq. km. A 1990 estimate
Administration And Management Prior to 1975, indicates 66,500 sq. km of forest cover remains. The wildlife protection was the responsibility of the Water, 1981-1985 rate of deforestation is estimated at 300 Forest and Hunting Service of the Ministry of sq. km annually and most forest is lost to shifting Agriculture. In 1971 the Service had a budget of US$ cultivation (Collins et al., 1991). 4,200 for fauna protection and US$ 5,000 for Cambodia suffered prolonged periods of warfare in the reafforestation (McNeely, 1975). At present, the 1970s, during which agricultural output fell and Forestry Department includes divisions of conservation, extensive areas of forest were destroyed by bombing and silviculture, reafforestation and plantations, forest defoliation. From 1970 to 1975 a civil war was fought management, timber technology and forest research and the country slipped from a position of agricultural (Sarun, 1985). However, the number of professional surplus to extensive famine conditions (Shawcross, staff in all fields, including foresuy, was severely 1979). In 1975 the victorious Khmer Rouge instituted a depleted during the 1975-1979 premiership of Pol Pot.
19 Protected Areas ofthe World highly disciplined regime in which contacts with the Addresses outside world were severely curtailed, foreigners were expelled and towns and cities were forcibly evacuated. Directorate of Forest and Hunting, Ministry of Agriculture, Until defeat in 1979 by the Vietnamese, the Khmer Phnom Penh Rouge implemented a genocidal policy towards professional cadres, former officials and others. References Consequendy, all forestry and conservation activities Anon. (1968). Conservation in Cambodia. In Talbot, ceased and there was a severe shortage of professional L.M. and Anon. (1991). Phnom Penh prepared to staff in aU fields (MacKinnon, 1986). compromise for peace. Financial Times 19 August. P. 4. The principal activities of the Directorate of Forests and Talbot, M.H. (Ed.). Hunting are: the management and control of forests; Conservation in tropical South-east Asia. operation of saw mills and workshops at the industrial lUCN, Morges. Pp. 456-459. level for export, and at the craft level for local Collins, N.M., Sayer, J. A. and Whitrnwe, T.C. (Eds) consumption, as well as the transport of wood and wood (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests: products; and reforestation in the security zones of Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. non-forested provinces with the establishment of 256 pp. Davis, S. D., experimental nurseries for forest plants. In addition to Droop, S. J. M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, Lamlein professional staff, local labour is used for maintaining CJ., Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. in nurseries and plantations. Wide-ranging reforestation is (1986). Plants danger: what do we planned in other areas, based on the experience gathered know? rUCN, Cambridge. P. 201 from the experimental stations. The privatisation of saw FAO (1981). Tropical forest resources assessment project: resources mills and forest exploitation is envisaged in order to forest of Tropical Asia. FAO, achieve effective reforestation, by releasing the Rome. 475 pp. interim report Directorate of Forests and Hunting to focus its resources FAO (1988). An on the state of forest resources in the on protection and conservation of existing forests, and developing countries. FAO, Rome. 18 on silviculture. The Directorate also organises "tree" and pp. MacKinnon J. (1986). Bid to save the "nature" days which it uses to promote environmental kouprey. WWF 91-97. awareness (C. Sarun, pers. comm., 1991). Monthly Report: MacKinnon, J J?, and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of Projected activities of the Directorate for the period the protected areas systems in the Indo-Malayan 1990-2000 will focus on the restoration of the five large Realm. lUCN, Cambridge. forested regions which constitute the national forest MacKinnon, J.R. and Stuart, S.N. (Eds) (1989). The resource. These activities will include: inventory and kouprey: an action plan for its conservation. Prepared mapping of the areas concerned; surveys of areas that by the Species Survival Commission of lUCN and could be exploited; reforestation of areas for the WWF. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, production of veneer and paper and timber for both UK. 20 pp. export and local consumption; boundary demarcation; McNeely, J.A. (1975). Draft report on wildlife and commercial enrichment planting; and the development national parks in the Lower Mekong Basin. United of protection, recreation and wildlife forest reserves. Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia Development of wildlife reserves will ensure provision and the Pacific. Committee for the Coordination of of water sources and habitats. Attention will also be Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin. given the to development of protected areas for the Paxton, J. (Ed.) (1985). The Statesman' s yearbooL The conservation of Cervidae and Bovidae species, including Macmillan Press Ltd, London. P. 259 kouprey Bos sauveli (E) (C. Sarun, pers. comm., 1991). Paxton, J. (Ed.) (1990). The Statesman' s yearbooL The Macmillan Press Ltd, London. P. 261 Occupation by Viet Nam resulted in international Scott, D. A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory ofAsian wetlands. isolation, with an embargo on aid and development Compiled for WWF/IUCN/ICBP/IWRB. lUCN, assistance, and civil war continued in several areas. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Although the Vietnamese forces withdrew September by Pp. 795-807. 1990, hostilities continued between the administration in Shawcross, W. (1979). Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon and Phnom Penh and the three major guerilla groupings the destruction of Cambodia. London. Deutsch. (Paxton, 1990). An United Nations plan, including a 467 pp. truce, the demobilisation of all four disputing factions, Sarun, C. (1985). Intervention de la d616gation du and an extensive role for the UN in the country's Kampuchea. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving administration prior to elections, was due to be discussed Asia's natural heritage. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland during August 1991 at a meeting of the Cambodian and Cambridge, UK. 251 pp. Supreme National Council (Anon., 1991)
20 INDIA
Area 3,166,830 sq. km of the Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife (Dwivedi and Kishore, 1984). Population 853,400,000 (1990) Natural Increase: 2.1% per annum The protection of wildlife has a long traaition in Indian history. Wise use of natural resources was a Economic Indicators prerequisite for many hunter-gatherer societies which GNP: US$ 330 per capita (1988) date back to at least 6000 BC. The most notable of such traditions are sacred groves, totally inviolate to Policy and Legislation A commimient to protect and any human interference, and village groves where enhance the environment is enshrined within India's only limited use by members of the community is Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1977, as permitted. Many of these are still in existence. follows: Extensive clearance of forests accompanied the advance of agricultural and pastoral societies in of the need for "The State shall endeavour to protect and subsequent millenia, but an awareness prudence and many so-called improve the environment and to safeguard the ecological emerged conservation practices were retained forests and wildlife of the country." (Article pagan nature provisions for the 48A); and (Gadgil, 1989). Among the earliest establishment of protected areas are those codified in
"It shall be the duty of every citizen of India ... the Arthasashtra. Indica (321-300 BC), written by (g) to protect and improve the natural Kautilya, reputedly the Prime Minister of King environment including forests, lakes, rivers and Chandra Gupta Maurya. Prescriptions included rules wildlife, and to have compassion for living for the administration and management of forests, and creatures." (Article 51 A). provisions for three classes of forests, namely those reserved for the king, those allocated for ascetics and those for the public which could be used only for There is no provision, however, which enables the Union hunting purposes. Kautilya is also the first-recorded pertaining to environmental issues to enact legislation person to have advocated the creation of applicable to all states and union that is uniformly "Abhayaranyas", or sanctuaries for wildlife. The the separate federal and state territories. In addition to following century, during the reign of Emperor there exists a Concurrent List of legislative jurisdiction, Ashoka, the first-recorded conservation measures for powers which includes inter alia forests and the wildlife were enacted, and reserves were established protection of wild animals and birds. The Concurrent for wild animals (Singh, 1986; Mitra, 1989). Hindu, List gives over-riding power to the Union but executive Moslem and, latterly, British rulers continued these authority lies with the state governments (Dwivedi and traditions in subsequent centuries, setting up reserves Kishore, 1984). Among the recommendations of the for privileged hunting over much of India. As more Committee, a high-powered committee Tiwari and more land became settled or cultivated, so these the government in February 1980 to appointed by hunting reserves increasingly became refuges for suggest administrative and legislative reforms to wildlife. Many of these reserves were subsequently improve environmental protection in the country, was declared as national parks or sanctuaries, mostly after the introduction of environment protection in the Independence in 1947. Examples include Gir in Concurrent List of the Constitution. The constitutional Gujarat, Dachigam in Jammu & Kashmir, Bandipur in directives have provided a strong basis for the enactment Karnataka, Eravikulum in Kerala, Madhav (now of legislative measures for environmental protection. Shivpuri) in Madhya Pradesh, Simlipal in Orissa, and integrate environmental considerations with The need to Keoladeo, Ranthambore and Sariska in Rajasthan. economic development was explicitly articulated for the The fact that the great majority of the Indian first time in the 4di Five-Year Plan, 1969-1974 (Biswas population is vegetarian (devout Hindus and Jains) has and Bannerjee, 1984). undoubtedly helped to preserve that part of India's which remains today (Singh, 1985; The National Environment Policy envisages natural heritage Gadgil, 1989). conservation and development, as well as equity among environment, but these tend to be the people sharing the Following independence, a number of states (Goa, incompatible under much of the existing mutually Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, There is no statutory legislation (Singh, 1985). Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Mysore - now requirement for environmental impact assessment at Karnataka, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu) enacted present but a mechanism has been initiated whereby wildUfe preservation acts, while others (Assam, Uttar assessment is an integral part of the planning process, Pradesh and West Bengal) continued to enforce the with appraisals of major projects being the responsibility government of India Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912. National park acts were enacted by a few
21 Protected Areas of the World
states but only five national parks were established under this Act, no forest land can be de-reserved or diverted to these acts, namely Kanha, Bandhavgarh and Shivpuri in non-forestry purposes without the approval of Central Madhya Pradesh, Tadoba in Maharashtra and Hailey Govemment. Enforcement of this Act has had a salutary (now Corbett) in Uttar Pradesh. The Hailey National effect, the annual rate of diversion of forests having been Park Act of 1936 was probably the first law in India reduced from about 140,000ha pre- 1980 to 6,500ha in intended for the exclusive protection of wildlife and its the 1980s (Panwar, 1990). Other initiatives include a habitat GBWL, 1970; Kothari et al., 1989). moratorium imposed since 1983 on the felling of trees at altitudes of 1,000m and above (Ministry of Environment A National Wildlife Policy for India was first formulated and Forests, 1 985). The 1952 National Forest Policy was by an Expert Committee of the Indian Board for Wildlife superceded by a new National Forest Policy (Resolution in 1970 (IBWL, 1970). A major aim was to reserve at No. 3-1/86 FP) on 7 December 1988. Objectives include least 4% of the total land area for wildlife, both plants the maintenance of environmental stability, conserving and animals - an objective which has recently been the nation's natural heritage by preserving remaining exceeded. Much of this policy was subsequently natural forests, preventing soil erosion and denudation enshrined in the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The of catchment areas, and creating a mass people's Act provides the necessary uniform legislation for the movement with the involvement of women to achieve establishment of protected areas and has since been such aims and minimise pressure on existing forests. A adopted by all states and union territories. Provisions target has been set for one-third of the total land area of include inter alia the constitution of state wildlife the country to be under forest, as originally stipulated in advisory boards and the notification of sanctuaries, the 1952 National Forest Policy, but in the hills and national parks, game reserves and closed areas by state mountainous regions the target is two-thirds. In addition, governments (see Annex). Setting up a sanctuary forest management must provide "corridors" to link involves settling all private rights, either allowing protected areas and thereby maintain genetic continuity them to continue or acquiring them after adequate between artificially separated subpopulations of migrant compensation. Only a completely unencumbered wildlife. Also, full protection of the rights and area, in which all rights have become vested in the concessions of tribals and poor people dependent on government, may be declared a national park. Once forests is advocated (Govemment of India, 1988). established, its boundaries may not be altered except through a resolution passed by the stale legislature. A selected list of other environmental legislation is given in A Second Citizen' s Report (CSE, 1985). Of particular The basis to present nature conservation policy in India note is the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, which is the National Wildlife Action Plan (Department of provides a focus for environmental issues in the country Environment, n.d.). Drawing on the World Conservation and plugs loopholes in the existing legislation (Ministry Strategy launched by lUCN in March 1980, the Bali of Environment and Forests, 1987a). Action Plan arising from the 3rd Worid Parks Congress in October 1982, and the World Charter for Nature Inadequacies in the existing nature conservation proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in legislation are reviewed by Dwivedi and Kishore (1984) October 1982, it was adopted by the govemment of India and by Singh (1986). The recognition of only wild in October 1983 on the recommendation of the Indian animals and birds, without reference to plants, is an Board for Wildlife. Objectives include the establishment important omission from both the Wild Life (Protection) of a representative network of protected areas and Act and the Constitution. Uniform and comprehensive development of appropriate management systems forest legislation is urgently needed, with emphasis on (together with the restoration of degraded habitats), and forest conservation rather than the existing system of the adoption of a National Conservation Strategy, which resource exploitation. Both acts are currently under is now being formulated. revision.
The Indian Forest Act, first enacted in 1865 and International Activities India ratified the Convention succeeded by a more comprehensive act in 1927, conceming the Protection of the World Cultural and provides significant protection to wildlife through the Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 14 provision of reserved and protected forests which may November 1977. Five natural sites have been inscribed be established in any forest or waste lands belonging to on the World Heritage List to date. India acceded to ihe the govemment, or over which the govemment has Convention on Wetlands of Intemational Importance proprietary rights (see Annex). Some stales enacted their especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) own forest legislation after the National Forest Policy on 1 October 1981, at which time two sites were was announced in 1952, while others amended the Act designated as wetlands of intemational importance. to suit their own requirements. The Act also makes Four more sites were designated on 23 March 1990. provision for the rights of government over land Participation in the Unesco Man and Biosphere constituted as reserved or, in the case of a few slates, Programme began in 1972 with the constitution of the protected forest to be assigned to village communities. Indian National MAB Committee. The Indian Biosphere The Forest (Conservation) Act was promulgated in 1980 Reserves Programme will operate within the ambit of (and later amended in 1988) to stem the indiscriminate existing state and federal legislation; separate legislation diversion of forest land to non-forestry purposes. Under for biosphere reserves is not envisaged (Ministry of
22 India
Environment and Forests, 1987b). Thirteen potential Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal) had transferred biosphere reserves have been identified, of which Nilgiri only some of their national parks and sanctuaries
Biosphere Reserve is the first to have been established (Kothari etal., 1989; Ministry of Environment and but has yet to be nominated for inclusion in the Forests, 1987a). Management of protected areas in international biosphere reserve network. individual states and union territories is summarised by Pillai (1982). Administration and Management The Deparunent of Environment, Forests and Wildlife within the Ministry The Indian Board for Wildlife, under the chairmanship of Environment and Forests was created in September of the Prime Minister, is the main advisory body to the 1985. It serves as the administrative focus within central government of India on wildlife matters. First government for planning, promoting and coordinating constituted in 1952 as the Central Board for Wildlife, it environmental and forestry programmes, including the was later redesignated as the Indian Board for Wildlife. preservation and protection of wildlife and the biosphere Among its various achievements, it has been reserve programme (Ministry of Environment and instrumental in the formulation of the Wild Life Forests, 1987a). Previously, wildlife management was (Protection) Act, the establishment of many new the responsibility of the Forest Department within the protected areas (including tiger reserves), and in the Ministry of Agriculture. Following recommendations formation of separate departments for wildlife made by the Tiwari Committee, a separate Deparunent conservation both at the Centre and in the states. State of Environment was constituted on 1 November 1980 to wildlife advisory boards have been constituted under which wildlife management was transferred in statutory provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act to September 1982. This Department became part of a new advise state governments (Saharia and Pillai, 1982). Ministry of Environment and Forests, constituted under Presidential Notification No. 74/2/1/85-Cab. The administration of Project Tiger, initiated as a Central Sector in is dated 4 January 1985. At that time, the Ministry Scheme 1973, overseen by a Steering consisted of two departments, namely Environment and Committee headed by the Minister of State for Environment and Forests. The Director is responsible for Forests & Wildlife, but these were merged later that year coordinating the project within central government. (Government of India, n.d.; Ministry of Environment Execution the is and Forests, 1986, 1987a). Departments of Environment of project the responsibiUty of the chief conservators of forests in the relevant with have also been set up in a number of states (Biswas and states, tiger reserves Bannerjee, 1984). managed by field directors. The project's present status is that of a centrally-sponsored scheme, Wildlife, together with forestry, has traditionally been with costs shared equally between the union and state managed under a single administrative organisation governments (Panwar, 1982). within the forest deparunents of each state or union Training in wildlife management is the territory, with the role of central government being undertaken at mainly advisory. There have been two recent Wildlife Institute of India, which becamean autonomous institution of the of developments. First, the Wild Life (Protection) Act has MinisUy Environment and Forests with effect from 1 Its provided for the creation of posts of chief wildlife April 1986. objectives include training in protected areas management, research wardens and wildlife wardens in the states to exercise and extension services, building computerised wildlife statutory powers under the Act. This has largely been a information system, and providing advisory responsible for the creation of wildlife wings within each services. The Institute offers a one-year post-graduate diploma state headed by a chief wildlife warden. Under this Act, course for forest officers, a three-month certificate it is also mandatory for the states to set up state wildlife advisory boards. Secondly, the inclusion of protection of course for forest rangers and an M.Sc. Wildlife Biology course (WII, 1987). wild animals and birds in the Concurrent List of the Constitution, has provided the Union with some There are many non-governmental organisations legislative control over the states in the conservation of involved in nature conservation. The oldest is the wildlife (Pillai, 1982). Guidelines specifying that the Bombay Natural History Society, established in 1883 management of protected areas should be under the remit and currently comprising about 3,000 members. of the wildlife wings were issued by central government Whereas work undertaken in its early years was in 1975, but progress in implementing them was slow. concenuated on collecting, identifying and documenting This prompted central government to threaten cessation India's flora and fauna, the emphasis has shifted to of financial assistance to states which had not transferred conservation-oriented research in recent decades, protected areas to their respective wildlife wings. The particularly threatened species and habitats. Long-term situation has since improved, all states and union field studies are based in a number of protected areas, territories with national parks or sanctuaries having set such as Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan), Mudumalai up wildlife wings. However, by 1987, three states Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu) and Dalma Sanctuary (Bihar). (Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Tamil Nadu) had not The Society's Journal of the Bombay Natural History transferred control over any protected area to their Society is widely circulated in India and overseas. respective wildlife wings, while eight others (Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
23 Protected Areas of the World
World Wide Fund for Nature-India (formerly World Division is currendy engaged in a series of in-depth Wildlife Fund-India), established in 1969, has quickly studies of management issues in a selection of India's developed to become the largest non-governmental major protected areas. nature conservation organisation in India, with 20 Systems Reviews India branches and a total staff of about 130. Its activities is a nation of extraordinary include ecological research and surveys, policy reviews, diversity, the seventh largest and second most populous conservation projects, nature education and in the world. Its relief can be conceptualised in terms of three responsibility to the Ministry of Environment and well-defined regions: the Himalayan mountain system along its Forests for environmental information relating to federal northern margin; the Gangetic Plain, which extends and state legislatures, NGOs and the media. Two recent some 2,400km from Assam in the east to the initiatives underway are the establishment of the Indira Punjab in the west and southwards to the Rann of Gandhi Conservation Monitoring Centre and the launch Kutch in Gujarat; and the Deccan Plateau which is of a Community Biodiversity Conservation Movement. flanked on either side by the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghals (Mani, 1974). Its rich diversity of ecosystems, The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage, which range from tropical rain forests to deserts, and constituted in January 1984, has rapidly emerged as one from marine and coastal systems to high mountains, of the most progressive and influential conservation support an estimated 5-8% of the world's known bodies in India. It has 150 regional chapters spread over flowering plant and animal species, of which a India's 32 states and union territories, the ultimate goal significant proportion are endemic (Gadgil and being to establish a chapter in each district. Its aim is to Meher-Homji, 1986a). Important centres of biological develop an awareness among the public of India's diversity, particularly for plants, are the Western Ghats, cultural and natural heritage and to promote its north-eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar conservation. The Trust set up a Natural Heritage Cell in Islands (Nayar, 1989). May 1985 which promotes land-use planning and management in areas of critical conservation Forest once covered most of India but much of it has been importance. destroyed or severely degraded as a result of human population pressures, particularly in the fertile lowlands The Centre for Science and Environment aims to which are among the most densely populated areas in the publicise topical environmental issues, as well as world. For example, 4.1 million hectares of forest were promoting people's participation in environmentally- cleared mainly for agriculture between 1951 and 1980 sound rural development. Its findings are documented in (Singh, 1986; Vedant, 1986). Probably less than 1% of its citizens' reports, two of which have been published the total land area is covered by primary forest (Mani, to date (CSE, 1982, 1985). 1974). Forests are estimated to have covered 64.01 million hectares in 1985-1987, or 19.5% of total land Other national conservation organisations include the area comprising 1 1 .5% dense forest (at least 40% crown Wildlife Preservation Society of India, founded in 1958 density), 7.8% open forest (at least 10% crown density) and publisher of the journal Cheetat, and the Indian and 0.1% mangrove forest (FSI, 1989). Society of Naturalists, which publishes Environmental
Awareness. Details of some 700 environmental The total area of wetlands (excluding rivers) in India is non-governmental organisations can be found in a 58,286,000ha, or 18.4% of the country, 70% of which directory produced by WWF-lndia. comprises areas under paddy cultivation. A total of 1 ,193 wetlands, covering an area of 3,904,543ha, were Protected areas are often poorly managed, with little recorded in a preliminary inventory coordinated by the consideration given to the local people living in and Department of Science and Technology, of which 572 around them (Singh, 1986). The legal, ecological and were natural. In a recent review of India's wetlands, 93 management status of protected areas has recently been are identified as being of conservation importance examined by the Environment Studies Division, Indian (Scou, 1989). Institute of Public Administration (Kothari et al., 1989). The study was commissioned by the National Coral reefs occur along only a few sections of the Committee on Environmental Planning in 1984 and mainland, principally the Gulf of Kutch, off the southern sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. mainland coast, and around a number of islands opposite The survey shows, for example, that only 40% of 52 Sri Lanka. This general absence is due largely to the national parks and 8% of 209 sanctuaries have presence of major river systems and the sedimentary completed legal procedures for their establishment. Only regime on the condnental shelf. Elsewhere, corals are 43% of national parks and 28% of sanctuaries surveyed also found in the Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep have management plans; in many cases they are cursory groups, although their diversity is reported to be lower documents and have never been approved by the state than in south-east India (UNEPAUCN, 1988). government. Many of the deficiencies in protected areas management reflect a lack of commitment of resources Historically, conservation in India stems mainly from the creation large forest reserves on the part of state governments. For example, in of in the late 19th and early 1983-84, expenditure on protected areas was 1.5% of 20th centuries to safeguard timber, soil and water forest department budgets. The Environmental Studies resources. Superimposed on this network of reserved
24 India
forests has been a much smaller number of national parks Five-Year Plan (1991-1995) to enhance the protected and sanctuaries where the value of the biological areas network in accordance with the systems plan, and resource has persuaded authorities to reduce the level of to improve management of protected areas and promote forest product utilisation (Rodgers, 1985). Both the ecodevelopment in areas surrounding them, with adoption of a National Policy for Wildlife Conservation emphasis on at least 20 important national parks and in 1970 and the enactment of the Wild Life (Protection) sanctuaries (Panwar, 1990). Act in 1972 lead to significant growth in the protected Wildlife conservation in India has areas network, from 5 national parks and 60 sanctuaries met with tremendous success but protected areas management is with in 1960 to 69 and 410, respectively, in 1990 (Panwar, beset problems of inadequate fund allocation, reluctance 1990). The network was further strengthened by a a on number of national conservation projects, notably the part of the stales to establish national parks and sanctuaries because the land is lost forever for other uses Project Tiger, initiated on 1 April 1973 by the (moreover, Government of India with support from WWF (IBWL, industries are not permitted within 30km of the of sanctuary), 1972; Panwar, 1982), and the Crocodile Breeding and boundary a insufficient magisterial powers for wildlife staff to deal with poachers, Management F*roject, launched on 1 April 1975 with difficulties of technical assistance from UNDP/FAO (Bustard, 1982). communication in often remote areas, and lack of trained lower levels I*roject Tiger has been acclaimed as an internationally manpower at (Chandha, outstanding conservation success story. The number of 1989). tiger reserves has increased from 9 (covering a total area Other Relevant Information of 1 3,723 sq.km) at the time of its launch to 1 8 (covering 28,017 sq.km) by 1990 (Panwar, 1990).Itsachievements The following resumd of states and union territories is and shortcomings are reviewed by Panwar (1984) and based on a review by Pillai (1982), unless otherwise Singh (1986). The government of India subsequently indicated. Conservation priorities for individual states initiated a Snow Leopard Conservation Scheme along and union territories are identified elsewhere by Rodgers the lines of Project Tiger, but with the emphasis on and Panwar (1988). resolving conflicts between wildlife and resident human populations without having to relocate villagers from Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory within protected areas (Ministry of Environment and (8,249 sq. km) There are more than 325 islands (21 Forests, 1987a). This has yet to be implemented. inhabited) in the Andamans and more than 24 (13 inhabited) in the Nicobars, covering some 6,408 sq. km In fulfillment of one of the major objectives of the and 1,841 sq. km, respectively (Saldanha, 1989). Based National Wildlife Action Plan (Department of on Landsat imagery for 1985-1987, the total area of Environment, n.d.), the existing protected areas system forest is estimated to be 7,624 sq. km (FSI, 1989). has been reviewed and plans formulated for a Notified forests cover 7,144 sq. km. In the case of Little comprehensive network which covers the full range of Andaman, reserved forest covers 92% (671 sq. km) of biological diversity in the country (Rodgers and Panwar, the island (Saldhana, 1989). Much of the forest, perhaps 1988). In mid- 1987, there were 426 national parks and 70% in the case of the Andamans, is degraded, secondary sanctuaries covering a combined area of 109,652 sq.km, growth. The forests are unique in almost the whole of or 3.3% of the country. Major gaps in the network South-east Asia, with a protective belt of mangroves include inadequate representation (1%) of the following surrounding the islands, or in some areas giant evergreen biotic provinces: Ladakh, South Deccan, Gangetic forest growing right down to the sea. Inland from the Plains, Assam Hills and Nicobars. Recommendations in mangrove and littoral forests are evergreen dipterocarp the systems plan bring the total number of protected forests, within which occur patches of moist deciduous areas to 651, covering 151,342 sq. km or 4.6% of the and semi-evergreen foresL Higher slopes and ridges country. Particular emphasis is given to protecting sites support moist or dry deciduous forests (Whitaker, 1985). of high species diversity and endemism, as well as The total area of mangroves is estimated to be 1 ,150 sq. ecologically fragile areas. This plan for a national km, of which 500 sq. km occur in the Andamans network of protected areas has been accepted by central (Saldanha, 1989). government and commended to the slates for implementation. Proposals in the plan supercede The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and wildlife rules previous recommendations emanating from the Corbett have been enforced since 1973 and 1974, resf)ectively.
Action Plan (lUCN, 1985) and the IVCN systems review The Chief Conservator of Forests is designated as the of the Indomalayan region (MacKinnon and Chief Wildlife Warden. A Wildlife Advisory Board has
MacKinnon, 1986). They also endorse the earlier work been constituted. The status of conservation areas is of Gadgil and Meher-Homji (1986b), in which reviewed by Nair (n.d.) and Whitaker (1985). representation of the main vegetation types of India within the protected areas network is assessed. A number Andhra Pradesh State (276,820 sq. km) Forests cover of states are now implementing many of the 47,91 1 sq. km (FSI, 1989) and are mosUy of the tropical recommendations made in the systems plan, to the extent dry deciduous type. that total coverage by national parks and sanctuaries is The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced nearly 4%. There are financial provisions under the 8th in the state since 1973 and the rules framed under this
25 Protected Areas of the World
Act have been operative since 1974. A State Wildlife Bihar State (173,875 sq. km) Forests cover 26,934 sq. km Advisory Board was constituted in 1976, but this body (FSI, 1989). Moist deciduous and dry deciduous forest has not been very active. A separate wildlife wing under are predominant. an Additional Chief Conservator of Forests (Chief Wildlife Warden) has been created. The management of The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced since 1 February sanctuaries has not yet been transferred to the wildlife 1973 (Notification No. GSR 40(E)). wing. For implementation of the Wild Life (Protected) The Chief Wildlife Warden is an officer of the rank of Conservator Forests within Act, 1972, all territorial divisional forest officers have of working the Forest been delegated the powers of wildlife wardens. The Department appointment of honorary wildUfe wardens has also been Chandigarh Union Territory (114 sq. km) Forests initiated to augment conservation efforts. cover 8 sq. km (FSI. 1989).
Local non-governmental organisations include the The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced Andhra Pradesh Natural History Society. since 1977. A Wildlife Advisory Board has been constituted. Arunachal Pradesh State (83,578 sq. km) Forests cover The role of Wildlife Warden is assumed by a Forest Officer. 68,763 sq. km (FSl, 1989). According to Mehta (n.d.), the total forest area is 51,540 sq. km, of which 12,606 sq. DadraandNagarHaveliUnionTerritory (491 sq. km) km is reserved forest, 25 1 sq. km anchal reserved forest, Forests cover 205 sq. km (FSI, 1989). and 7 sq. km protected forest. The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 came into force on since 1973. There is no separate wildlife wing but a 15 May 1973 (Notification No. G.S.R. 272(E)). There Deputy Conservator of Forests functions as the Chief are six wildlife divisions under a Conservator of Forests, Wildlife Warden. There are no protected areas. ex officio Chief Wildlife Warden (PiUai, 1982). Each
national park and sanctuary is under the charge of a Daman andDiu Union Territory (112 sq. km) Forests Divisional Forest Officer (Mehta, n.d.). cover 2 sq. km (FSI, 1989). No protected areas exist at present, but there are plans to develop a sanctuary for Assam Slate (78,525 sq. km) Forests cover 26,058 sq. km tourism puposes (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988). (FSI, 1989) and are mostly of the tropical evergreen type.
Delhi Union Territory (1,485 sq. km) Forests cover Little was done to protect wildlife and its habitat in 22 sq. km (FSI, 1989). Assam prior to 1930, other than designate Kaziranga and Manas as game sanctuaries to protect dwindling The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced populations of Indian rhinoceros. already Measures had since 1 June 1973 (Notification No. GSR 299 (E)).
been taken to protect the elephant, in accordance with Wildlife rules were enforced in the same year. There is the Elephant Preservation Act, 1879, and in the early no separate wildlife wing. The Deputy Commissioner of 1930s the Elephant Hunting Rules became law. Later, in Delhi is designated as the Chief Wildlife Warden. 1938, the new Shooting Rules for the Preservation of Wild Life in Reserved Forests came into force, with Goa State (3,698 sq. km) Forests cover 1,300 sq. km limits and royalties set for each type of game shot by (FSI, 1989).
licence-holders. During World War II, large numbers of The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and wildlife rules military were stationed all over the province, with have been enforced in the state since 1973 and 1977, consequent indiscriminate shooting of wildlife. Early in respectively. The Conservator of Forests is designated as 1949, at the invitation of the Assam Government, a the Chief Wildlife Warden. A WUdlife Advisory Board survey of the status of the wildlife was carried out and has been constituted. recommendations made by the Bombay Natural History Society (Gee, 1950). Gujarat State (195,985 sq. km) Forests cover 1 1,670 sq. km (FSI, 1989). Mostly open dry deciduous and tropical The Assam National Park Act was introduced in 1969, thorn forests are predominant. prior to the adoption of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, which has been enforced since 1976. There are two Notified forests extend over 19,657 sq. km of the state wildlife divisions, each under a Deputy Conservator of (Ministry of the Environment and Forests, 1986). Forests, headed by a Conservator of Forests. The Chief Alarmed by the rapid denudation of the state's forests, Conservator of Forests is designated as Chief Wildlife the Forest Department began a social forestry Warden for the purpose of implementing the Wild Life programme in 1970 to meet fuel and fodder (Protection) Act. A State Wildlife Advisory Board was requirements. Its success led to the formulation of a constituted in 1977. Honorary wildlife wardens have community forest project in 1980 with backing from the been appointed. Assam has its own State Department of World Bank (Ranganathan, 1981). the Environment The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced
since 1 February 1973 (Notification No. GSR 42(E)). The Gujarat Wild Life (Protection) Rules were framed
26 India
in 1974 and these are under revision. A State Wild Life divisions, each headed by a divisional forest officer Advisory Board was constituted in 1973. A separate (Arya, n.d.). Revenue in 1987-1987 totalled Rs 29,000 wildlife wing, now headed by a special Chief and expenditure Rs 10.5 million, or 2.9% of total Conservator of Forests, was created in 1970. Honorary expenditure within the Department (DFFC, 1990). The wildlife wardens have been appointed in each district. In government of Himachal Pradesh has banned the addition, all district superintendents of Police have been commercial felling of trees within national parks and 21 appointed wildlife wardens to help implement wildlife of 29 sanctuaries. Legal procedures have been completed protection measures. Training courses in wildlife in the case of only two sanctuaries (Bandli and Shikari management are run from the Gujarat Forest Rangers' Devi). Neither of the two national parks have been College, Rajpipla (Rashid, n.d.). finally notified. Further details of the management status
of protected areas are given by Singh et al. (1990). Local non-government organisations include the Wild Life Preservation Society of Bhavnagar. Jammu & Kashmir State (138,942 sq. km) Forests, predominantly of temperate and sub-tropical types, Haryana State (44,220 sq. km) Forests cover only 563 cover 20,182 sq. km or 15% of the state (52% if the cold sq. km (FSI, 1989). Sal and tropical dry deciduous forests deserts of Ladakh and Zanskar are excluded) (J&K predominate. A pilot project to control flash-flooding Forest Department, 1987, 1989). and erosion in the Siwalik Hills, through construction of check-dams, has met with such success that it is being The Forest Department, created in 1891, is headed by a extended to hundreds of villages in the area, with Chief Conservatorof Forests. The total staff complement financial support from central government and the in 1986 was 5,920 (234 gazetted officers and the rest World Bank (Sharma, 1986). ungazetted). Revenue in 1986-1987 totalled Rs 400.0 million and expendi'ure Rs 217.5 million (J&K Forest The Wildlife Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and wildlife Department, 1987, 1989). rules have been enforced from 12 March 1973 (Notification No. GSR 63 (E)) and 1974, respectively. Jammu & Kashmir has enacted separate legislation The wildlife wing is headed by an Additional Chief known as the Jammu & Kashmir Wildlife Act, 1978, Conservator of Forests who is the Chief Wildlife modelled on the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, which Warden. A State Wildlife Advisory Board has been has been enforced since late January 1979. Full details constituted and is an active body. No honorary wildlife of the Act are given by Ganhar (1979). Legislation also wardens have been appointed to date. All divisional exists for the establishment of biosphere reserves. A forest officers with territorial responsibilities have been Wildlife Advisory Board has been constituted under the appointed wildlife wardens. provisions of the AcL A separate wing of the Forest Department, known as the Directorate of Wildlife Himachal Pradesh State (55,673 sq. km) Forests cover Protection, came into existence in 1978. This was 13,377 sq. (FSI, 1989) and are mosUy of the km upgraded to departmental status in 1982 with the sub-tropical, temperate sub-alpine types. Reserved and establishment of the Department of Wildlife Protection forest covers 1,896 sq. km and protected forest 33,350 (Bacha, 1986). This is headed by a Chief Wildlife sq. km (of which is demarcated and the rest 31% Warden of the rank of Chief Conservator of Forests. undemarcated) (DFFC, 1990). From an examination of There are three wildlife divisions at present, each forest department records, it seems likely that forest managed by a Deputy Conservator of Forests. The cover has not changed greatly over the past 50 years, conservation importance of Ladakh, India's largest despite periods of rapid forest destruction. More likely district and administratively part of Jammu & Kashmir, to account for accelerating siltation rates and flooding was first officially recognised in 1978, since when a along Himalayan rivers is the destruction of the forest network of conservation areas has been identified and understorey as result of overgrazing domestic a by given protected status (Bacha, 1985). livestock (Gaston, 1983). Karnataka State (191,775 sq. km) Kamataka was The Department of Forest Farming and Conservation is formerly the princely state of Mysore which became part headed by a Principal Chief Conservator of Forests. In of the Indian Union in 1956. The slate was renamed 1990 the total staff complement was 6,627, of which 255 Kamataka in 1973. were gazetted officers. Total revenue in 1986-1987 was Rs 213.7 million and expenditure Rs 356.4 million Forests cover 32,100 sq. km (FSI, 1989) Tropical (DFFC, 1990). evergreen, moist deciduous and dry deciduous forests . are predominant. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced since 2 April 1973 (Notificauon No. G.S.R. 19(E)). The A State Wild Life Advisory Board was originally State Wildlife Advisory Board was constituted in 1975 constituted in 1952, and in 1963 the Mysore Wild but it is not active. A separate wildlife wing, headed by Animals and Wild Birds Act was enacted to establish a a Chief Wildlife Warden of the rank of Additional Chief uniform code for wildlife (Spillet, 1968). The Wild Life
Conservator of Forests, has been created but it is not fully (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced since 1973. fledged because the administration of protected areas is There is a wildlife wing headed by a Chief Wildlife still vested with territorial staff. There are four wildlife Warden of the rank of Additional Chief Conservator of
27 Protected Areas of the World
Forests. Protected areas are managed by territorial staff Madhya Pradesh State (442,840 sq. km) Forests cover within the forest deparlmenL Project Tiger has now been 133,191 sq. km (FSI, 1989) and are mainly of sal. teak brought under the control of the Chief Wildlife Warden. and mixed types. Environmentalists are extremely There are proposals to reorganise the wildlife wing with concerned about the potential loss of forests from the creation of three wildlife divisions. Steps are also submergence and resettlement planned under the being taken to appoint honorary wildUfe wardens within Narmada Valley Project, described by the World Bank each district (Chief Wildlife Warden, 1985). In a recent as "the largest river basin population resettlement to review of the status of wildlife within the state, date" (Jackman, 1989). The amount of forest to be
protection status is considered to be inadequate in most submerged is estimated to be 3,500 sq. km, but this may sanctuaries and in one of the three national parks well be an underestimate (Kothari and Singh, 1988). (Karanth, 1987). Karnataka has its own State The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced Department of the Environment since 25 January 1973 (Notification No. GSR 28 (E)) Local non-governmental organisations include: Coorg and the wildlife rules since 1974. There were nine Wildlife Society, Madikeri; Life Environmental sancUiaries originally notified under Forest Rules that Awareness Foundation, Bangalore; Wildlife were not renotified under the present Act due to their Association of South India, Bangalore; Youth for unimpwrtance as conservation areas (Sinha, 1979). A Conservation, Bangalore; and Wildlife Preservation WildUfe Wing, headed by a Chief Wildlife Warden of Group, Bangalore (Chief Wildlife Warden, 1985). the rank of Chief Conservator of Forests, was created in 1977. Responsibility for managing protected areas has sq. km) Forests cover 10,149 sq. Kerala State (38,870 been transferred to this wing. Whereas directors of km (FSI, 1989). Forests are mostly tropical evergreen national parks report directly to this office, In the there had been and moist deciduous types. past, superintendents of sanctuaries work in close large-scale destruction of tropical evergreen forests to collaboration with the respective divisional forest hydroelec&ic projects. raise plantations and set up The officers (Joshi, 1985). The State Wildlife Advisory controversy over the proposed Silent Valley Board is very active and has been instrumental in making national and Hydroelectric Project became a important decisions for wildlife conservation. Honorary international issue (Variava, project was 1983). The wildlife wardens have been appointed to strengthen finally dropped in deference to the sentiments of the then conservation efforts. A training school for game guards Minister, Indira subsequently, in Prime Mrs Gandhi and has been set up in Bandhavgarh National Park. 1984, the area was included within Silent Valley National Park. Maharashtra State (307 J60 sq. km) Forests cover 44,058 sq. km (FSI, 1989). The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced
in the state since 1 June 1973 and the rules since 1979. The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced
Wildlife conservation gained momentum after the since 1 June 1973 (Noufication No. GSR 293 (E)) and launch of the National Action Plan, marked by the rules framed under the Act since 6 March 1975. There is establishment of a wildlife advisory board which met for an active State Wildlife Advisory Board (Anon., 1985).
the first time in January 1984. A separate wildlife wing, ManipurState (22327 sq.km)Forestscover 15,021 sq.km headed by a Chief Wildlife Warden of the rank of Chief (Government of Manipur, 1990). This estimate, based on Conservator of Forests, was created on 1 March 1985. Landsat imagery for 1987-1989, is lower than that of Management plans were due to be completed for all 17,885 sq. obtained by FSI (1989) using 1985-1987 protected areas by 1990, in accordance with central km government poUcy. imagery.
Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced Local non-governmental organisations include the The Wild since 15 May 1973 (Notification No. 269 (E)) and Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (Kerala Science & GSR wildlife rules since 1974. State Wildlife Advisory Literature Society) and Prakrithi Samrekshua Samithi A Board has been constituted. (Environmental Conservation Society) in Trivandrum, and the Society for Environmental Education in Kerala Meghalaya State (22,490 sq. km) Forests cover (SEEK) in Cannanore. 15,690 sq. km (FSI, 1989) but only 3% of total land area
is state-controlled forest, the remaining forest being Lakshadweep Union Territory (32 sq. km) The controlled district councils, local villages and clans, Lakshadweep Archipelago comprises 36 island, ten of by and under private ownership (Rodgers and Gupta, 1989). which are inhabited. There is virtually no natural vegetation remaining, most islands having been planted The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced with coconuts (Saldanha, 1989; Rodgers and Panwar, in the state since 1976 and wildUfe rules since 1977. A 1988). State Wildlife Advisory Board has been constituted.
The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, has been enforced There is only one Wildlife Division functioning in the since 1973. There are no existing protected areas. State.
28 India
Mizoram State (21,087 sq. km) The state has vast concessions to meet domestic fuelwood and timber natural forest resources but extensive tracts have been requirements (Department of Forest, Fisheries and degraded due to shifting cultivation. Forests cover Animal Husbandry, pers. comm., 1991). 18,178 sq. km (FSI, 1989). Reserved forests cover about The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced 6,400 sq. km, protected forests (in which utilisation of in the state since 1974 and Wildlife (Protection) (Orissa) any land is prohibited and cutting of trees not allowed Rules, since 1975. A separate Wildlife Conservation without permission) 1 ,447 sq. km, and village safety and Division created in six wildlife supply forests 1,485 sq. km. An important landmark in 1966 now has divisions and is Chief Wildlife the protection of forests was the notification of the Inner headed by a Warden of the rank of Additional Chief Conservator of Forests. All divisional Line Reserve (1,320 sq. km) in 1877, to which access by outsiders was prohibited (Government of Mizoram, forest officers (territorial) have been designated as wildlife for implementing 1989, 1991). wardens die Act and Rules. The Nandankanan Development Board, constituted by The scientific management of the forest estate was a low the state government, is responsible for the priority in the 1970s, as reflected in 1973 by the small administration and development of Nandankanan staffing levels (155 personnel under a Conservator of Biological Park. A State Wildlife Advisory Board has Forests) within the former Department of Forests. been constituted, and a fonim of the Orissa Legislative Considerable progress has been made since the creation Assembly on Environment also advises the state of the post of Principal Chief Conservator of Forests in government on wildlife conservation matters (Padhi, 1987. The Department of Environment and Forests now 1985). comprises 10 territorial forest divisions and 6 functional Non-governmental organisations registered with the divisions, of which one is the Wildlife Division. The state include the Nature and Wildlife total staff complement in 1990 was 1,238, with 47 in Conservation Society of Orissa and the Orissa Society the Wildlife Division. Revenue for the Department in Environmental 1989-1990 totalled Rs 7.7 million, of which (Padhi, 1985). Rs 2.7 million was collected by the Wildlife Division, Pondicherry Union Territory (492 sq. km) There are no and expenditure Rs 67.6 million (Government of forests or protected areas in Pondicherry. Mizoram, 1989, 1991). The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced since 1975. since 1974. A Wildlife Advisory Board has been constituted and is active. A Wildlife Division was Punjab State (50362 sq. km) Forest covers 1,161 sq. km created in 1986 and began functioning the following (FSI, 1989), much of the rest of the land being year. The Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle was predominantly under agriculture. appointed Chief Wildlife Warden, and all territorial Divisional Forest Officers as Wildlife Wardens of their The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and wildlife rules respective territories in 1986 (Government of Mizoram, have been enforced since 1975, prior to which a separate 1991). organisation already existed. A State Wildlife Advisory Board has been constituted and is reported to be active. Nagaland State (16,525 sq. km) Forests cover 14,356 sq. km. A unique feature is that 88% of the total Rajaslhan State (342,215 sq. km) Forests cover recorded forest is under private ownership (FSI, 1989). 12,966 sq. km (FSI,1989) and range from the tropical Deforestation is estimated to be currently about semi-evergreen forests of Mt Abu, tropical dry 180 sq. km per year (Thakkar, 1987). deciduous teak Tectona grandis forests of Banswara and tropical dry deciduous Anogeissuspendula forests of the The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced Aravalis to the tropical dry thorn forests of the desert since the 1970s. There is a State Wildlife Advisory zone (Sankala, 1964). Board. The Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) is designated as the Chief Wildlife. There is only one The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced Wildlife Division. since 1973. A separate Wildlife Organisation has been set up, headed by a Chief Wildlife Warden of the rank OrissaState (155,780 sq. km) Forests cover 47,137 sq. km of Additional Chief Conservator of Forests. A State Wild (FSI, 1989). Noufied forest totals 57,184 sq. km, of Life Board was constituted in 1955. which 27,087 sq. km is reserved forest and the rest mostly protected forest (Department of Forest, Fisheries Sikkim State (7,300 sq. km) Forests cover 3,124 sq. km and Animal Husbandry, pers. comm., 1991). or 43% of total land area (FSI, 1989). Alpine pastures and permanently snow-covered areas occupy a further A number of conservation measures have been 30% (Ali, 1981). A disturbing situation is that of the introduced in the fores&y sector since 1988. These 2,650 sq. km of notified forest, only 1,577 sq. km are include a ban on felling of trees widiin five districts, reserved forest; the rest is of nebulous legal status (FSI, namely Bolangir, Ganjam, Kalahandi, Koraput and 1989). Phulbani, and the involvementof village communities in the protection of reserved forests in return for
29 1
Protected Areas of the World
The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, and wildlife rules wildlife rules were also enforced in 1973. The Chief have been enforced since 1976, following the integration Conservator of Forests is designated as the Chief of Sikkim within the Indian Union in 1975. The Chief Wildlife Warden and wildlife management dutes are the Conservator of Forests is designated as the Chief responsibility of the territorial staff of the Forest Wildlife Warden. A State Wildlife Advisory Board has Department A State Wildlife Advisory Board has been been constituted and is active on conservation policy constituted. matters. Addresses Tamil Nadu State (130,058 sq. km) Forests cover 17,715 sq. km (FSI, 1989). Notified forests extend over Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife (Joint 21,938 sq. km (Tamil Nadu Forest Department, 1990). Secretary, Wildlife), Ministry of Environment and Forests, Paryavaran The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 and wildlife rules Bhawan, CGO Complex, Lodi Road. NEW DELHI have been enforced in the state since 1974 and 1976, 110 003 (Tel: 3061561; Tlx: 3163015 WILD IN; respectively. State Wildlife Advisory Board was A Cable: PARYAVARAN, NEW DELH) constituted in the 1960s. There is a Wildlife Department, Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife Chief Wildlife Warden of the rank of headed by a (Inspector-General of Forests), Ministry of Additional Chief Conservator of Forests. Five wildlife Environment and Forests, Paryavaran Bhawan, CGO divisions have been created but dual control still exists Complex, Lodi Road, NEW DELHI 1 10 003 (Cable: between wildlife and forest departments. Tamil Nadu is AGRINDIA, NEW DELHI) one of the few governments to appoint hunters as Project Tiger (Director), Bikaner House, New Delhi honorary game wardens, thereby involving them in 110011 conservation efforts. An historical account of wildlife Wildlife Institute of India (Director), PO New Forest, conservation in the state is given by Davidar (1987). Dehra Dun 248 006 (Tel. 27021-8, 28760, 27724; Tlx 585238 PRES IN, 585258 FRIC DM; Cable: Locally important conservation organisations include WILDLIFE) Nilgiri Wildlife and Environment Association, Madras Snake Park, Madras Crocodile Bank, Madras Naturalists Chief Wildlife Warden, PO Chatham, PORT BLAIR, Society, Tirunelveli Wildlife Preservation Society and Andaman & Nicobar 744 101 (Union Territory) Ramanathapuram Wildlife Society. Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), HYDERABAD,
Tripura State (10,475 sq. km) Forests cover 5,325 sq. km Andra Pradesh 500 004 (FSI, 1989). Only about 8% is dense natural forest, the Government of Arunachal Pradesh (Chief Wildlife rest having been much depleted by clearance for shifting Warden), ITANAGAR, Arunachal Pradesh 791 1 1 cultivation and, recently, for settlement of refugees from Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife Bangladesh (Paxton, 1990). Warden, Retabari, GUWAHATI, Assam 788 735 Chief Wildlife Warden, PO Hinoo, RANCHI, Bihar The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 was enforced on 834 002 2 October 1973 (Notification No. GSR 465 (E)). A Divisional Forest Officer and Chief Wildlife Warden, Conservator Forests is of ex officio Chief Wildlife Estate Office, Sector 17, CHANDIGARH 160 017 Warden. A State Wildlife Board has been constituted. (Union Territory) No honorary wildlife wardens have been appointed. Chief Wildlife Warden, SILVASSA, Dadra and Nagar Haveli 396230 (Union Territory) Uttar Pradesh State (294,411 sq. km) Forests cover ADM and Chief Wildlife Warden, Room 39, 1st Boor, 33,844 sq. km (FSI, 1989). Western Wing, Tis Hazari, DELHI 1 10 054 (Union The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced Territory) Wildlife and Parks Division since 1 February 1973 (Noufication No. GSR 44 (E)) and (Conservator of Forests and the wildlife rules since 1974. The Wildlife Preservation Chief Wildlife Warden), Junta House, 3rd Floor, Organisation was originally set up in 1956, with the PANAJI,Goa403 001 introduction of a Wild Life Preservation Scheme under Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief Wildlife the Second Five-Year Plan (Srivastava, 1969), and later Warden, Kothi Annexe, BARODA, Gujarat 390 001 Chief Wildlife reorganised in 1958. It is now headed by a Chief Wildlife Warden, Kothi 70, Sector 8, Warden of the rank of Additional Chief Conservator of PANCHKULA, Haryana 134 109 Forests. There are five wildlife divisions. Honorary Department of Forest Farming and Conservation (Chief wildlife wardens have been appointed. A State Wildlife Conservator of Forests, Wildlife and Chief Wildlife Advisory Board has been constituted. Warden), Talland, SIMLA, Himachal Pradesh 171 002 West Bengal (87,852 sq. km) Forests cover 8,394 sq. km Department of Wildlife Protection (Chief Wildhfe (FSI, 1989). Warden), Tourist Reception Centre, SRINAGAR, Jammu & Kashmir 190 001 The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been enforced since 1 May 1973 (Notification No. GSR 224 (E)). The
30 India
ChiefWildlife Warden, 1 1 Floor, Aranya Bhawan, 18th World Wide Fund For Nature-India (WWF-India) Cross, Malleshwaram, BANGALORE, Kamataka (Secretary General), Secretariat, 172-B Lodi Estate, 560 003 NEW DELHI 110 003 (Tel. 616532, 693744; Fax Additional Chief Conservator of Forests and Chief 626837) Wildlife Warden, TRIVANDRUM, Kerala 695 001 Administrator, Via Kavaratti, Lakshadweep 673 555 References (Union Territory) Ali, Mohammad S. (1981). Ecological reconnaissance in Forest Department (Chief Conservator of Forests, eastern Himalaya, r/ger Paper 8(2): 1-3. Wildlife and Chief Wildlife Warden), 1st Floor, Anon. (1985). A paper on wildlife and nature B-Wing, Satpura Bhawan, BHOPAL, Madhya conservation measures in Maharastra State. Paper Pradesh 462 001 presented at 25th Working Session of lUCN Chief Wildlife Warden, Nature Conservation, MS, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, NAGPUR, Maharashtra 440 001 Corbeu National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. Government of Manipur (Chief Wildlife Warden), PO 4 Sanjenthong, IMPHAL, Manipur 795 001 pp. Arya, S.R. (n.d.). Status the wild life protection areas Government of Meghalaya (Chief Wildlife Warden), of and their management in Himachal Pradesh. Risa Colony, SHILLONG, Meghalaya 793 003 Department of Forest Farming and Conservation, Department of Environment and Forests (Chief Wildlife Simla. 7 Warden), AIZAWAL, Mizoram 796 001 pp. Bacha, M.S. (1985). Ecological cum management plan Government of Nagaland (Chief Conservator of Forests, for Hemis High Altitude National Park, Jammu and WUdlife), DIMAPUR, Nagaland 797 1 12 Kashmir State. 1985-90. Department of Wildlife Additional Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) and Chief Srinagar. 31 Wildlife Warden, 315 Kharvel Nagar, Protection, pp. Bacha, M.S. Snow leopard recovery programme BHUBANESHWAR, Orissa 751 001 (1986). for Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, Jammu Chief Wildlife Warden, PONDICHERRY 605 001 and Kashmir State, 1986-87 to 1989-90. Department (Union Territory) of Wildlife Protection, Srinagar. 51 Chief Wildlife Warden, Punjab SCD 2463-64, Sector pp. Biswas, D.K. and Bannerjee, P.K. (1984). 22C, CHANDIGARH, Punjab 160 022 Environmental programmes of the Government of Chief Wildlife Warden, Van Bhawan, Bhagwan Das India. In: Singh, Shekhar (Ed.), Environmental Road, JAIPUR, Rajasthan 302 001 policy in India. Indian Institute of Public Forest Secretariat (Chief Wildlife Warden), Administration, New Delhi. Pp. 97-115. GANGTOK, Sikkim 737 101 Bustard, H.R. Crocodile breeding project. In Conservator of Forests, 62 James Cottage, (1982). Saharia, V.B. (Ed.), Wildlife in India. Natraj TIRUNELVELI 7, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu Publishers, Dehra Dun. Pp. 147-163. Government of Tripura (Chief Conservator of Forests Chandha, CM. (1989). National parks and sanctuaries and Chief Wildlife Warden), P O Kunjaban, in India. In: Proceedings of the International AGARTALA, Tripura 799 006 Conference on National Parks and Protected Areas. Wildlife Preservation Organisation (Chief Wildlife 13-15 November 1989, Kuala Lumpur. Department Warden), 17 Rana Pratap Marg, LUCKNOW, Uttar of National Parks, Penninsular Malaysia. Pradesh 226 001 Pp.111-114. Office of the Chief Conservator of Forests, West Bengal Chief Wildlife Warden (1985). Protected area of (ChiefWildlife Warden), P- 16 India Exchange Place Kamataka and their management: a status report. Extension, New CIT Building, CALCUTTA, West Paper presented at 25th Working Session of lUCN's Bengal 700 073 Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, Corbeu National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) (Curator), 4 Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, pp. CSE (1982). The state of India's environment 1982. A BOMBAY 400 023 (Tel. 243869, 244085; Cable: HORNBILL) first citizens' report. Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi. 189 pp. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) (Director), CSE (1985). The state of India's environment 1984-85. F6 Kailash Colony, NEW DELHI (Tel. 6438109) A second citizens' report. Centre for Science and Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage Environment, New Delhi. 393 (INTACH) (Director-Natural Heritage), 71 Lodi pp. Davidar, E.R.C. (1987). Conservation of wildlife in Estate, NEW DELHI 110 003 (Tel. 61 1362, 618912, Tamil Nadu. Journal of the Bombay Natural History 616581) Society 83 (Supplement): 65-71. Indian Society of Naturalists (INSONA), Oza Building, Department of Environment (n.d.). National Wildlife S ALATWADA, Baroda 390 001 Action Plan. Government of India, New Delhi. Wildlife Preservation Society of India (Honorary 28 Secretary), 7 Astley Hall, DEHRA DUN (Tel. 5392) pp. DFFC (1990). H.P. statistics 1 990. Department of Forest Farming and Conservation, Simla. 257 pp.
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Dwivedi, O.P. and Kishore, B. (1984). India's J&K Forest Department (1987). A digest of forest environmental policies: a review. In: Singh, Shekhar statistics 19&7. J&K Forest RecordNo. 1. 199 pp. (Ed.), Environmental policy in India. Indian Institute J&K Forest Department (1989). Jammu & Kashmir of Public Administration, New Delhi. Pp. 47-84. Forest Department. Activities andfuture strategies. FSI (1989). The state of forest report 1989. Forest 24 pp. Survey of India, Government of India, Dehra Dun. Joshi, N.K. (1985). Wildlife conservation in Madhya 50 pp. Pradesh. Paper presented at 25th Working Session of Gadgil, Madhav (1989). The Indian heritage of a lUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected conservation ethic. In: Allchin, B., Allchin, F.R. and Areas, Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February Thapar, B.K. (Eds), Conservation of the Indian 1985. 6 pp. Heritage. Cosmo Publishers, New Delhi. Pp. 13-21. Karanth, K.U. (1987). Status of wildlife and habitat Gadgil, Madhav and Meher-Homji, V.M. (1986a). conservation in Kamataka. Journal of the Bombay Localities of great significance to conservation of Natural History Society 83 (Supplement): 166-179. India's biological diversity. Proceedings of the Kothari, A., Pande, P., Singh, S., Variava, D. (1989). Indian Academy ofSciences (Animal Sciences/Plant Management of national parks and sanctuaries in Sciences) Supplement 1986: 165-180. India: a status report. Environmental Studies GadgU, Madhav and Meher-Homji, V.M. (1986b). Role Division, Indian Institute of Public Administration, of protected areas in conservation. In: Chopra, V.L. New Delhi. 298 pp. and Khoshoo, T.N. (Eds) Conservation for Kothari, A. and Singh, S. (1988). The Narmada Valley productive agriculture. Indian Council of Project: a critique. Kalpavriksh, Delhi. 24 pp. Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Pp. 143-159. MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (\9i6). Review ofthe Ganhar, J.N. (1979). The wildlife ofLadakh. Haramukh protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Realm. Publications, Srinager. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Gaston, A.J. (1983). Forests and forest policy in 284 pp. northwest India since 1800. Paper presented at Mani, M.S. (Ed.)(1974). Ecology and biogeography in Bombay Natural History Society Centenary India. Junk, The Hague. Symposium. Powai, Bombay. 30 pp. Mehta, J.K. (n.d.). Status paper on the protected areas Gee, E.P. (1950). Wildlife reserves in India, Assam. and their management in Arunachal Pradesh. Oryx 49: 81-89. Government of Arunachal, Itanagar. Unpublished. Government of India (n.d.). Department of 9 pp. Environment: a profile. Government of India, New Ministry of Environment and Forests (1985). India. Delhi. 23 pp. Country Report 1985. Presented to IX World Government of India (1988). National Forest Policy Forestry Congress. Government of India, New Delhi. 1988. Ministry of Environment and Forests, 53 pp. Government of India, New Delhi. 13 pp. Ministry of Environment and Forests (1986). Annual
Government of Manipur ( 1 990). Report on land use/land report 1985-86. Government of India, New Delhi. cover, Manipur State (Bishnupur, Chandel, 57 pp. Churachandrpur, Imphal, Senapati, Tamenglong, MinisU7 of Environment and Forests (1987a). Annual Thoubal and Ukhrul districts). State Remote Sensing report 1986-87. Government of India, New Delhi. Centre, Government of Manipur, Imphal and 73 pp. National Remote Sensing Agency, Government of Minis&y ofEnvironment and Forests (1 987b). Biosphere India, Hyderabad. Unpublished. reserves. Government of India, New Delhi. 250 pp. Government of Mizoram (1989). Mizoram forests. Mitra, D.K. (1989). A note on the ancient history of Forest Extension Series 89(2): 1-35. nature and wildlife conservatuon in India. Zoo's Government of Mizoram (1991). Progress report of Print 4{l2):n. forestry in Mizoram 1990. Department of Nair, S.C. (n.d.). Natural resources conservation and Environment & Forests, Government of Mizoram, development in Andaman and Nicobar islands. Aizwal. 73 pp. Department of Environment, New Delhi. 76 pp. IBWL (1970). Wildlife conservation in India. Report of Nayar, M.P. (1989). In situ conservation of wild flora the Expert Committee. Indian Board for Wildlife, resources. Paper presented at National Symposium Government of India, New Delhi. 149 pp. on the Conservation of India's Genetic Estate, New IBWL (1972). Project Tiger. A planning proposal for Delhi, 3-4 November 1989. 19 pp. preservation of tiger (Panlhera tigris tigrisLinn.) in Padhi, S.C. (1985). Wildlife management in Orissa. India. Indian Board for Wildlife, Government of Paper presented at 25th Working Session of lUCN
India, New Delhi. 1 14 pp. Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, lUCN (1985). The Corbelt Action Flan for protected Corbeu National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. areas of the Indomalayan Realm. lUCN, Gland, 4 pp. Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. 23 pp. Panwar, H.S. (1982). Project Tiger. In: Saharia, V.B. Jackman, B. (1989). India be dammed. Geographical (Ed.), Wildlife in India. Natraj Publications, Dehra Magazine 6\: 10-14. Dun. Pp. 130-137.
32 India
Panwar, U.S. (1984). What to do when you've Sharma, Sudhirendar (1986). Sukhomajri - an example succeeded: Project Tiger, ten years later. In: of effective conservation. Environmental McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National Conservation 13: 76-79. parks, conservation and development: the role of Singh, Chhatrapati (1985). Emerging principles of protected areas in sustaining society. Smithsonian environmental laws for development. In: Institution Press, Washington DC. Pp. 183-189. Bandopadhyay, J., Jayal, N.D., Schoettli, V., Singh, Panwar, H.S. (1990). Status of managementof protected Chhatrapati (Eds), India's environment: crises areas in India: problems and prospects (revised). and responses. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun. Regional Expert Consultation on Management of Pp. 247-275. Protected Areas in the Asia-Pacific Region, 10-14 Singh, Samar (1985). Protected areas in India. In: December 1990. FAO Regional Office for Asia and Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia's natural Pacific, Bangkok. Unpublished report. 21 pp. heritage. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge,
Paxton, J. (Ed.) (1990). The stateman's year-book UK. Pp. 11-18. 1990-91. The Macmillan Press, London. Pp. Singh, Samar (1986). Conserving India's Natural 689-690. Heritage. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun. 219 pp. Pillai, V.N.K. (1982). Status of wildlife conservation in Singh, S., Kothari, A. and Pande, P. (1990). Directory of states and union territories. In: Saharia, V.B. (Ed.), national parks and sanctuaries in Himachal Wildlife in India. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun. Pp. Pradesh: management status and profiles. 74-91. Environmental Studies Division, Indian Institute of Ram, A. (1991). Slippery slope for project controls. Public Administration, New Delhi. 164 pp. Panoscope 22: 6-7. Sinha, N.K. (1979). List of national parks and wildlife Ranganthan, Shankar (1981). Gujarat Forestry Scheme: sanctuaries in Madhya Pradesh. Journal of the
the start of something good. Parks 5(4): 10-1 1. Bombay Natural History Society 75: 469-472.
Rashid, M.A. (n.d.). Wild life and its conservation in Spillet, J J. (1968). A report on wild life surveys in south
' Gujarat State. Forest Department, Gujarat Stale, and west India. Journal of the Bombay Natural Vadodara. Unpublished report. 14 pp. History Society 65: 296-325. Rogers, W.A. (1985). Biogeography and protected area Srivastava, T.N. (1969). Wild life of Uttar Pradesh, planning in India. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), India. Wild Life Preservation Organisation, Conserving Asia's natural heritage. lUCN, Gland, Lucknow. Unpublished report. 21 pp. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 103-1 13. Tamil Nadu Forest Department (1990). Theforest cover Rodgers, W.A. and Gupta, S. (1989). The Pitcher Plant report. Government of Tamil Nadu, Madras. 48 pp. (Nepenthes khasiana HK.F.) Sanctuary of Jaintia Thakkar, Natwar (1987). Deforestation and Nagaland - Hills, Meghalaya: lessons for conservation. Journal a layman's observations. Views from keepers of the of the Bombay Natural History Society 86: 17-21. forests. Paper presented at Asia-Pacific NGOs Rodgers, W.A. and Panwar, H.S. (1988). Planning a Conference on Deforestation and Desertification. wildlife protected area network in India. 2 vols. New Delhi, 23-25 October 1987. 5 pp. Project FO: IND/82/003. FAO, Dehra Dun. 339, 267 UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. pp. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UNEP Saharia, V.B. and Pillai, V.N.K. (1982). Organisation Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. and legislation. In: Saharia, V.B. (Ed.), Wildlife in lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, India. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun. Pp. 53-73. UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 440 pp. Saldanha, C.J. (1989). Andaman. Nicobar and Variava, D. (1983). Silent Valley: a case study in Lakshadweep: an environmental impact assessment. environmental education. Paper presented at the
Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Delhi. 1 14 pp. Bombay Natural History Society Centenary Sankhala, K.S. (1964). Wildlife sanctuaries of Symposium, Bombay. 12 pp. Rajasthan. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Vedant, C.S. (1986). Comment: afforestation in India. Society 61: 21-24. Ambio 15: 254-255. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). i4 directory ofAsian wetlands. Whitaker, R. (1985). Endangered Andamans. lUCN, Gland, Switzeriand and Cambridge, UK. Environmental Services Group, WWF-India, New 1,181 pp. Delhi. 51 pp. WII {\9%1). Annual report 1986-87. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. 58 pp.
33 Protected Areas of the World
ANNEX Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Wild Life (Protection) Act in so far as they apply, are the same as those for a sanctuary. Date: 1972, last amended 1987 Game reserve An area in which only licensed Brief description: An Act to provide for the hunting is permiaed. protection of wild animals and birds, and related or ancillary matters Closed area An area closed to hunting for such periods as may be specified in the notification. Administrative authority: Central Government (Director of Wild Life Preservation), State Source: Original legislation Government (Chief Wild Life Warden) State-owned land leased or otherwise transferred to central govenunent Designations: may be declared as a sanctuary or national park by the federal authority. Sanctuary An area of "adequate ecological, Wildlife is defined in the Act as including any animal, bee, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or butterfly, crustacean, fish and moth, and aquatic or land zoological significance" declared may be a sanctuary vegetation which forms part of any habitat for the protection and propagation of its wildlife^ or environment Title: Indian Forest Act
Permission to enter or reside in a sanctuary may be Date: 1927, amended 1930,1933, 1948 (Central granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden for purposes Legislation) of photography, scientific research, tourism and transaction of lawful business with any resident. Brief description: An Act to consolidate the law Entry is restricted to a public servant on duty, a relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and person permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden to the duty leviable on timber and other forest produce reside in a sanctuary or who has any right over immovable property within a sanctuary, a person Administrative authority: Central Government using a public highway, or dependents of any of the (Inspector General of Forests) State Government above. (Chief Conservator of Forests)
Hunting without a permit, entry with any weapon, Designations: causing fire, and using substances potentially injurious to wildlife are prohibited. Fishing and Reserved forest Any forest land or wasteland grazing by livestock may be allowed on a controlled belonging to the government, or to which it has basis. proprietary rights, may be constituted a reserved forest once all lands within the proposed forest have National park An area of "ecological, faunal, become invested in the government. floral, geomorphological, or zoological importance" Prohibited activities include: may be declared a national park for the protection, making fresh clearings or breaking land for cultivation; propagation or development of its wildlife or up kindling or carrying fire; trespass cattle environment once all rights have become vested in and grazing; felling or the state Government. otherwise damaging any tree; quarrying stone, burning lime or charcoal; removing forest produce; No alteration of boundaries may be made except by and hunting, shooting, fishing, trapping and resolution passed by the state legislature. poisoning water.
Entry, unless used as a vehicle by an authorised Village forest Any land constituted as reserved person, and grazing of any cattle is prohibited. forest that has been assigned to a village community by the state government. Such an assignment may be Restrictions on entry, in so far as they apply, are the cancelled. same as those for a sanctuary. Rules for regulating the provision of timber, other Destruction, exploitation or removal of any wildlife forest produce or pasture to the community, and their or its habitat is prohibited, except with permission duties for protecting and improving such forest may from the Chief Wildlife Warden and provided it is be prescribed by the state government. necessary for the improvement and better management of wildlife. Other prohibited activities.
34 India
All provisions of the Act relating lo reserved forest Activities prohibited within reserved forests are apply to village forest, in so far as they are consistent subject to regulations in protected forests. In with the rules. addition, in protected forests, any trees, class of trees or portion of forest may be temporarily closed to all Protected forest Any forest land or wasteland not forms of exploitation, including the quarrying of included in a reserved forest and belonging to the stone and burning of lime. Government, or to which it has proprietary rights, may be declared a protected forest provided that the Source: Original legislation nature and extent of rights of government and any private persons in or over such land have been recorded.
35 1
Protected Areas of the World
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map National/international designation lUCN management Area Year rer. Name of area category (ha) notified
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS UNION TERRITORY
National Parks 1 Marine (Wandur) n 2 Mount Harriet Island 3 Saddle Peak
SancttMries 4 Barren Island 5 Battimalve Island 6 Benett Island 7 Bluff Island 8 Bondoville Island 9 Buchanan Island 10 Cinque Island
1 Crocodile (Lohabarrack) 12 Defence Island 13 East (Inglis) Island 14 East Island 15 Flat Island 16 Interview Island 17 James Island 18 Kyd Island 19 Landfall Island 20 Narcondum Island 21 North Reef Island 22 Paget Island 23 Pitman Island 24 Point Island 25 Ranger Island 26 Reef Island 27 Roper Island 28 Ross Island 29 Sandy Island 30 Shearme Island
31 S ir Hugh Rose Island 32 South Brother Island 33 South Reef Island 34 South Sentinel Island 35 Spike Island-2 36 Swamp Island 37 Table (Delgamo) Island 38 Table (Excelsior) Island 39 Talabaicha Island 40 Temple Island 41 Tillanchong Island 42 West Island
ANDHRA PRADESH STATE
Sanctuaries 43 Coringa 44 Etumagaram 45 Kawal 46 Kinnersani 47 Kolleru 48 Lanjamadugu India
Map^ Protected Areas of the World
Map^ NationaVinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
CHANDIGARH UNION TERRITORY India
Map^ Protected Areas of the World
Map National/international designation I UCN management Area Year ret. Name of area category (ha) notified
173 India
Map^ Protected Areas of the World
Map^ ref. India
Map^ Protected Areas of the World
Map Nationallinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notiHed India Protected Areas of the World
Protected Areas of North-east India
46 India
Protected Areas of North-west India
47
INDONESIA
Area 1,919,445 sq. km various government departments including the Department of Forestry. The Basic Forestry Act No. 5 of Population 189.4 miUion (1990) 1967 is the most comprehensive existing statement of Natural increase: 1 .8% per annum govenunent policy and describes the purpose, supply, availability and use of forests in the interests of Economic Indicators community development The Act also provides a GNP: US$430 (1988) number of conservation-related provisions such as Policy and Legislation Government policy regarding protection of flora, fauna, and water catchments conservation is based upon the desire to promote (GOI/IIED, 1985). To achieve these objectives, three cultural and economic development of the Indonesian categories of forestare defined under the Act: production people in harmony with the natural environment, as forest (Hutan Produksi), protection forest (Hutan expressed in the 1945 Constitution. According to this Lindung) and tourist forest, which is subdivided into policy, all forms of natural life and examples of all tourist park (Taman Wisata) and hunting park (Taman ecosystems have an important role in human welfare Bum). The designations of nature reserve and game and must be preserved for the benefit of present and reserve are reiterated under the term nature sanctuary future generations. This is elucidated in the Basic (see Annex). Environmental Law of 1982 which makes provision for International Activities Indonesia participates in a the management of the living environment. It number of international conservation-related emphasises the importance of forest lands, stating that conventions and programmes. It is a party to the they form the primary means of maintaining harmony Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural between man and the environment and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention)
Reserves were originally established on the basis of two which it accepted on 6 July 1989. Although no sites have colonial government ordinances, of which the Nature yet been inscribed, three protected areas have recently Protection Ordinance (Natuurbescherminge been nominated for inclusion on the World Heritage List
Ordannantie) of 194 1 (Staatsblad No. 167) rescinded the Indonesia is a contracting party to the ASEAN earlier Nature Protection Ordinance of 1932 (Staatsblad Convention, and has three designated sites to date: No. 17). The now obsolete 1941 Ordinance made Gunung Leuser and Kerinci Seblat in Sumatra, and provision for nature reserves (Cagar Alam) and game Lorentz in Irian Jaya. Indonesia also participates in the reserves (Suaka Margasatwa) and their management by Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. To date six the Forest Department, under the jurisdiction of the biosphere reserves have been declared. Other Ministry of Agriculture. The Forest Department was international activities include proposals for the given full ministerial status in 1981 and subsequently cooperative management of a number of reserves that assumed full responsibility for the management of the abut international borders with Papua New Guinea and national forest estate. Malaysia (Hadiseputro and Wardojo, 1990).
To overcome a number of weaknesses inherent in the Administration and Management The first earlier legislation, the Conservation of Living Natural organisation to be given responsibility for establishing Resources and their Ecosystems Act was passed on 10 and managing protected areas was the Directorate of August 1990. This rescinds the 1941 Nature Protection Nature Conservation and Wildlife (PPA), established in Ordinance and distinguishes between nature sanctuaries 1971 as a separate unit of the then Directcxate General (nature reserves and game reserves) and nature of Forestry, under the Ministry of Agriculture. With conservation areas (national parks and grand forest elevation of this Directorate to full ministerial status, parks). These designations, which are equally applicable PPA became the Directorate General of Forest to terrestrial or marine reserves, provide differing Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA) within degrees of legal protection ranging from nature reserves, which are four different directorates. Of these, the where no human activities are allowed, to national parks Directorate of Nature Conservation and the Directorate where utilisation of natural resources by local people is of National Parks and Recreation Forest are concerned permitted within a system of management zoning. The specifically with marine and terrestrial protected areas. Act also makes provision for existing protected areas to Responsibilities of the Directorate of Nature be established as biosphere reserves under the Unesco Conservation include overall planning of the terrestrial Man and the Biosphere Programme. Gazettement, and marine protected areas network, drafting of alteration and declassification of protected areas is by conservation legislation and the proposal, establishment decree of the Minister of Forestry. and management of individual protected areas. The Directorate of National Parks and Recreation Forest To date there is no clear and comprehensive enunciation deals specifically with development of the national parks of forest policy in Indonesia; it has developed through a programme (Sumardja and McNeely, 1980). Scientific series of laws, regulations and decisions on the part of bodies responsible for screening and approving technical
49 .
Protected Areas of the World decisions relating to terrestrial and marine conservation NGOs and networks. Of these, the Indonesian Forest are the Centre for Biological Research and Development Conservation Secretariat (Sekretariat Pelestarian Hutan and the Centre for Oceanography Research and Indonesia - SKEPHI) coordinates a network of some 54 Development, both of which are part of the Indonesian non-governmental organisations concerned with the Institute for Sciences (Scott, 1989). conservation of forest resources, maintains contact with the State Ministry of Population and Environment and regional In the field, PHPA operates through the frequently acts as a pressure group, lobbying the cause Nature Conservation, structure of the Directorate of of forest conservation. Other Indonesian NGOs include offices (Balai which consists of eight provincial the Natural Resource Conservation Group (Kelompok - Office of Natural Konservasi S umber Daya Alam Pelestarian Sumber Daya Alam - KPSA), which was in association Resources Conservation). These work established in 1983 to function as a mediator between boards with the regional planning (BAPPEDA) which the government and people, in order to facilitate the government. are ultimately responsible to provincial participation in conserving forests and maintaining supported several regional Sub-Balai They are by environmental quality. A list of Indonesian non- additional (SBKSDA) within each province, with an governmental organisations can be found in Scott national park which repeals directly to the office for each (1989). Directorate of National Parks and Recreation Forest. Management of the protected areas system is constrained greatly assisted The work of PHPA has been by by a number of factors, many of which are outside the a number of international non-governmental and PHPA's terms of reference. Despite progressively inter-governmental organisations. Of these, the Food increasing government budgets and international and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations investment programmes, management has been unable in conjunction with the United Nations (FAO), to keep pace with the increased workload demanded by Development Programme (UNDP), has initiated a an expanding protected areas network. Major constraints projects These number of major and programmes. in the field include insufficient trained and motivated include two successive UNDP/FAO programmes: personnel and a frequent absence of clearly and INS/73/013 Nature Conservation and Wildlife accurately defined protected areas boundaries. - Management from 1974 to 1978; and INS/78/061 Management problems are frequently compounded by - Development of National Parks from 1978 to 1982, the conflicting land use objectives of national and local Plan prepared under which a National Conservation was government, the conservation administration, and local for (FAO, 1981-1982). Under the Worid Wide Fund people living within and around the reserves themselves. initiated in Nature-Indonesia programme, 1977, WWF In order to overcome these difficulties, reserve has provided field and consultancy staff and assisted in management is becoming increasingly concerned with the preparation and implementation of numerous improving local welfare and recognising the important regional strategy protected areas management plans, a role local people can play in managing the areas they for Irian (Petocz, and a system plan for the Jaya 1989) utilise and perceive of as their own through traditional environment conservation of Indonesia's marine (adat) rights. In addition, the conservation of marine (lUCN/WWF, 1984) protected areas presents special difficulties, as PHPA capabilities and training programmes have traditionally Other international non-governmental organisations been oriented toward the terrestrial environment. beginning or extending programmes concerned with the protected areas system include Wildlife Conservation Systems Reviews Spanning two major biogeographic International, Conservation International, The Nature regions, the Oriental and Australian, the Indonesian International for Conservancy, the Council Bird archipelago consists of approximately 17,000 islands Preservation (ICBP) and the Asian Wetland Bureau stretching in an east-west direction for 5,2(X)km across (AWB), the latter's operations extending from regional the Sunda and Sahul continental shelves. Characterised and national wetland inventory preparation to detailed by an enormously varied physical structure of high studies of protected areas, and preparation of mountain ranges, volcanoes, alluvial plains, lakes, recommendations for their management swamps and shallow coastal waters, the archipelago
exhibits a biological diversity and richness which is At the national level, non-govemmenlal conservation without comparison in South-East Asia (FAO, 1981-82; organisations are increasingly active in lobbying Petocz, 1989; Scott, 1989). government and mobilising public support for national environmental issues. They frequently play crucial role a Historically, human settlement has concentrated on the by representing local interests and acting as so-called "inner islands" with fertile volcanic soils, intermediaries between local communities and particularly Java and Bali and to a lesser extent Lombok. government. Of the major groups, the Indonesian Although the population in Java in 1817 was estimated Environmental Forum (WALHI) was set up during the by Raffles to be only about four million, a tradition of early 1980s in order to strengthen the environmental intensive cultivation, with high population densities, has programme of Indonesian NGOs and to provide been in evidence for several generations. Introduction of nationwide exposure for their concerns. WALHI today estate crops, especially coffee, tobacco and tea, during is an umbrella organisation for over 500 Indonesian the 19th century contributed to the expansion of
50 Indonesia
cultivation into the uplands, destroying the natural growth on Java and Bali to the less populous outer forests in these areas. During the last half of this century, islands, thereby relieving pressure on critical increasing population pressure as well as changing watersheds. To avoid repetition of problems associated economic circumstances have led to the cultivation of with poor site plaiming, the Regional Physical Planning many of these former plantations. Today these islands Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT), a joint contain more than 64% of the population and produce cooperative venture between the Indonesian and British some 70% of the national food supply (IIED/GOI, 1985). governments, has been completed in order to provide a natural resources database for transmigration planning. With the exception of the Lesser Sunda Islands, the Currently, the transmigration programme is in its second natural vegetation of the "outer" islands of Sumatra, phase and is concerned primarily with upgrading Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Moluccas and Irian Jaya consists existing settlements rather than developing new sites. primarily of tropical moist forest of which Indonesia
holds approximately 10% of the world total The current protected areas network has its cxigins in the
(Davies et at., 1986). Deciduous monsoon forest occurs 19th century imder the Dutch colonial administration, in seasonally dry areas, particularly in southern and when Indonesia's first nature reserve was established at eastern islands such as the Lesser Sundas and the Cibodas, West Java, in 1889. Since the declaration of southern part of Irian Jaya. The vegetation types to the independence in 1949, by which time over 1(X) sites had east and west of the "Wallace-line" are divided by a been established, the network has expanded biogeographic boundary that extends from north to south considerably, and now covers 19 million ha, some 10% along the Sunda Shelf. Forests on the islands of the shelf of the total land area (Hadiseputro and Wardojo, 1990). itself are principally Malesian and dominated by the During this period, a number of systems reviews have commercially important Dipterocaipaceae, while those been published with recommendations for the further found to the east have greater affinities with the development of the protected areas system. Australo-Pacific realm and are dominated by mixed first of these, the National tropical hardwood species. Extensive natural wetlands, The Conservation Plan for Indonesia 1981-82), outlined including many of international importance, are found in (FAO, a programme for the of protected the low-lying alluvial plains and basins, flat-bottomed development a comprehensive areas 1 1.2 million valleys and mangrove estuaries of Sumatra, Kalimantan network covering ha of the terrestrial area. This subsequently the basis the and Irian Jaya. In addition, Indonesia contains some of formed fw Indonesian section of the the largest artificial wetlands in the world, including lUCN Systems Review of the millions of hectares of rice paddies and nearly 200,000ha Indomalayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, and all subsequent reviews. expanded of fish ponds (Scott, 1989). According to lUCN/WWF 1986) An and conservation (1984), Indonesia's marine habitats contain some of the updated strategy for Irian Jaya has since been produced (Petocz, most important coral reef systems in the world, with by WWF/IUCN 1984, 1989). establishment of protected fringing reef the most common type. These are almost The a areas network for continuous along the coasts of Sulawesi, Maluku, north Indonesia's marine environment was planned by provision and west Irian Jaya and the Lesser Sundas and the lUCNAVWF (1984), with of 10 miUion ha of Sumatran archipelagoes of Mentawi, Belitung and Riau. marine sites by 1990. Areas of the highest priority for inclusion in the marine reserve networic include those Habitat loss has been most acute on the heavily which directly safeguard current subsistence and populated central islands of Bali and Java. The commercial fisheries, threatened resources and the remaining natural forests on these islands consist largely tourist industry (Petocz, n.d.). Recommendations from of sub-montane and montane forests, the majority of these studies form the basis of the Corbett Action Plan natural lowland vegetation having long since been which was prepared by protected areas managers at the converted for agriculture. Given the high irapulation 25th Working Session of the lUCN Commission on density and limited job opportunities for the growing National Parks and Protected Areas (lUCN, 1985). number of landless and unemployed workers, illegal Despite the encroachment of forests for arable land, fuel and many of criteria for the design of the protected area system having livestock grazing seems set to continue (GOI/IIED, been met, a number of deficiencies remain. Wetlands in 1985). Forest degradation in the outer islands, by particular have received inadequate coverage in the existing network contrast, is a relatively recent phenomenon, the generally and are under-represented, partly poor, non-volcanic soils of islands such as Kalimantan because of insufficient information having discouraged extensive settlement for many regarding their conservation value. A preliminary inventory centuries. Although valuable timber and other forest of wetlands has been compiled by the Asian (Silvius products have been exported from these islands since Wetland Bureau el ai, 1987), in order to identify sites for incorporation into the protected areas early colonial times, it is only in the past two decades that efforts have been directed towards extensive network. A similar situation applies to lowland trc^ical rain forest, areas of will exploitation of their rich natural resources. An integral new which be difficult to allocate part of the development of the outer islands has been the to conservation due to their economic value and accessibility government's programme of ffansmigration, the primary (Sumardja and McNeely, 1980). The protection of Indonesia's natural heritage goal of which was to redistribute some of the population and resources for the benefit of future generations will therefore require
31 s
Protected Areas ofthe World
innovative conservation measures, possibly outside the IIED/GOI (1985). A review of policies (Meeting the existing protected areas network. That these must take sustainable development offorest lands in Indonesia. account of human needs is increasingly crucial, as many Vol. m. Background paper. International Institute areas of outstanding conservation value are both for Environment and Development/Government of populated and subject to conflicting land use demands Indonesia, Jakarta. 142 pp. of a growing economy (Leader-Williams et al., 1990). lUCN (1985). The Corbett Action Plan for protected areas of the IndonuUayan Realm. lUCN, Gland, Addresses Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp. lUCN/WWF (1984). The seas must live: a protected DiiectCHate General of Forest Protection and Nature areas system planfor the conservation cfIndonesia' Conservation, (Director of Nature Conservation), marine environment. 7 vols. lUCN/WWF rqmrL Jalan Ir H Juanda 15, PO Box 133, Bogor 16001 WWF-Indonesia, Bogor. 22 pp. (Tel: 251 24013/23067) MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1996). Review ofthe Directorate of National Parks and Recreation Forest, protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Realm. Jalan Ir H Juanda 100, Bogor 16123 (Tel: 251 lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, 321014) UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Pp. 257-258. Leader-Williams, Harrison J. and Green, MJ.B. (1990). Asian Wetland Bureau (National Coordinator), PO Box Designing protected areas to conserve natural 254/BOO, Jalan Arzimar III No. 17, Bogor 16001 resources. Scientific Progress Oxford 74: 189-204. (Tel: 251 325755; FAX: 251 325755; Cable: Petocz, R.G. (n.d.). Conservation in Indonesia: current INTERWADER) status and development ofan action strategy. Report Indonesian Environmental Forum (WALHI), Jin to the World Bank. 57 pp. Penjernihan 1, Komplek Keuangan No. 15, Petocz, R.G. (1984). Conservation and development in Pejompongan, Jakarta 10210 (Tel: 21 586820; Irian Jaya - a strategy for rational resource FAX: 21 588416/586181) utilization. WWF/IUCN Conservation for Indonesian Forest Conservation Secretariat (SKEPHI), Development Programme in Indonesia. Prepared for Jalan Ir Suryopranoto No. 8 Lt. IV, Jakarta Pusat Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature World Wide Fund For Nature-Indonesia, Jalan Ir H Conservation, Bogor. 173 pp. Juanda 9, PO Box 133, Bogor 16001 (Tel: 251 Petocz, R.G. (1989). Conservation Mid development in 327316; FAX: 251 328177) Irian Jaya: a strategy for rational resource World Wide Fund For Nature-Indonesia, Jin Pela No. 3, utilization. EJ. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands. 18 1^. Gandaria Utara, PO Box 29/JKSKM, Jakarta Selatan Scott. D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory ofAsian wetlands. 12001 (Tel/FAX: 21 7694726) lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 981-1103. References Silvius, M.J., Djuharsa, E., Taufik, A.W., Steeman, A.P.J.M. and Berczy, E.T. (1987). The Indonesian Davies, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., wetland inventory. A preliminary compilation of Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and existing information on wetlands of Indonesia. Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we PHPA, AWB/Interwader, EDWIN, Bogor. 268 knowl lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, pp. Sumardja, E.A. and McNeely, J.A. (1980). National UK. Pp. 173-178. parks and protected areas of Indonesia: an up-date. FAO (1982-83). A National Conservation Plan for Prepared for the 16th Working Session of the lUCN Indonesia. 8 volumes. UNDP/FAO National Parks Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, Development Project INS/78/061. FAO, Bogor. Perth, Scotland. Unpublished report 52 Hadiseputro, S. and Wardojo, W. (1990). Status of pp. UNEP (1977). Nature conservation and wildlife national parks management in Indonesia. Regional management: Indonesia. Interim Report Ex[)ert Consultation on management of protected INS/73/013. UNEP/FAO, Rome. 133 areas in the Asia-Pacific region, 10-14 December. pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. FAO Regional Office, Bangkok, Thailand. 7 pp. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Pp. 95-132.
52 Indonesia
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Basic Forestry Act Title: Conservation of Living Resources and their Ecosystems Act Date: 1967 Date: August 1990 Brief description: Provides for protection, management and exploitation of forest lands Brief description: Concerned with the maintenance ofbiodivo^ty and ecosystem function in the context of Administrative authority: Ministry of Forestry the sustainable utilisation of living natural resources.
Designations: Administrative authority: Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (Director Hutan Produksi (production forest) Forest which, of Nature Conservation) because of its natural condition or capacity, can give benefits in the form of timber and other forest Designations: products. The removal of forest products is regulated
in such a way that it can be continued permanently. Nature Sanctuary
Hutan Lindung (Protection forest) Forest whose A specific terrestrial or aquatic area having natural condition is such that it exerts a good influence protection as its main function to preserve upon soil, the surrounding environment and water biodiversity of plants and animals, as well as their control, and so must be maintained and protected. ecosystems which also act as life support systems.
Among forests classified as protective forest, there Cagar Alam (Nature reserve) A nature sanctuary are some from which, because of their natural which, because of its characteristic plants, animals condition, products can still be removed within and/or ecosystems, must be protected and allowed to certain limits, without detracting from/diminishing develop naturally. Activities permitted are research their protection. and the development of science, education and other activities protecting breeding stock. Management Nature Sanctuary shall be by the government in an effort to preserve the species diversity of plants and animals and their Cagar Alam (Nature reserve) No management or ecosystems. human interference is permitted that changes the character of soil, flora or fauna in any way or affects Suaka Margasatwa (Game reserve) A nature Access is for scientific its pristine condition. sanctuary having high species diversity and/or purposes only and is subject to written permission of unique animal species, in which the habitat may be the Directorate of Forest Protection and Native managed, in order to assure the continued existence Conservation (PHP A). of these species. Management shall be implemented by the government in an effort to preserve the diversity Suaka Margasatwa (Game reserve) No activities of plant and animal species and their ecosystems. are permitted that damage the flora, fauna or from the value of the landscape or that could detract Biosphere Reserve reserve. Provision is made, however, for hunting, subject to written permission of the Minister of An area of unique and/or degraded ecosystems,
Forestry, and also for development of forest which needs to be protected and conserved for its industries subject to a permit issued by the provincial research and education value. governor for collection of forest produce, grazing of the international conservation livestock and fishing. Within framework of and for those activities defined in Article 17, Tourist Forest "sanctuary reserves" and other specified areas can be established as biosphere reserves. Taman Buru (Huntingpark) Managed specifically for hunting and fishing. Kawasan Pelestarian Alam (Nature Conservation Area) Taman Wisata (Recreation park) Maintained for outdoor recreation purposes. A specific terrestrial or aquatic area where the main functions are to protect life support systems, to Source: 1977, 1982-83; Scott, 1989 FAO, preserve diversity of plant and animal species, as well as to conserve living natural resources and their ecosystems for sustainable utilisation.
53 Protected Areas of the World
Taman Nasional (National park) A nature research, science, education, supporting cultivation, conservation area which possesses natural culture, recreation and tourism purposes. ecosystems, and which is managed through a zoning Taman Wisata Alam (Nature recreation park) system for research, science, education, supporting A nature conservation area mainly intended for cultivation, recreation and tourism purposes. recreation and tourism purposes. Taman Hutan Agung (Grandforestpark) A nature Source: Translation of original legislation. conservation area created to provide a collection of indigenous and/OT introduced plants and animals for
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ Indonesia
Map^ National/international designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
12 Protected Areas of the World
Map^
Protected Areas of the World
Map^ Indonesia
Map^ NationaH'mternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
21 Protected Areas of the World
Map Nationallinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
72 Lembah Harau 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
80 Indonesia
Protected Areas of Irian Jaya
61 Protected Areas of the World
Protected Areas of Java
62 Indonesia
Protected Areas of Kalimantan
63 Protected Areas of the World
Protected Areas of the Lesser Sunda Islands
64 Indonesia
Protected Areas of the Moluccas
65 Protected Areas of the World
"~r~ 120° 122° 124" 126"
^
p
-0°
2°-
-4°
6° 6°-
200km
=!> o
120° 122° 124* 126°
_] I
Protected Areas of Sulawesi
66 Indonesia
LAO PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
Area 236,800 sq. km areas, for staff training and for development of an awareness of conservation issues within the population; Population 4,170,000 (1990) to promote the integration of conservation Natural increase: 2.92% per annum considerations into development planning; and to initiate the development of a national conservation strategy Economic Indicators (SIDA, 1988). A tentative tripartite agreement with GNP: US$ 171 per capita Kampuchea and Viet Nam, to establish a transfrontier GDP: Not available reserve for the conservation of kouprey , has been made Stuart, although this has no Policy and Legislation Laos is one of the few countries (MacKinnon and 1989), (R. Salter, in Asia that has neither protected areas legislation nor force in law and has not been followed up pas. protected areas. A number of central government decrees comm., 1991). dating from 1979 deal with various aspects of nature A Tropical Forestry Action Plan, with support from the conservation, including forest protection, wildlife trade Laotian Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, UNDP, and hunting and fishing, but these are not comprehensive FAO, Asian Development Bank, the World Bank and and have not been effectively implemented (Madar and SIDA commenced in September 1989; the main report Salter, 1990). However, a DraftNamre Conservation Act was produced in August 1990, which subsequently has been formulated and is now under consideration by received government approval in September 1991 government, and planning for a representative protected (R. Salter, pers. comm., 1991). area system is being undertaken with international assistance (see below). A comprehensive forestry policy Administration and Management Until recently there is also being formulated by government and this will has been no central government authority with specific include conservation components. responsibility for nature conservation nor for the establishment and management of protected areas. An International Activities Laos ratified the Convention administrative unit, established in 1983 to deal with concerning the World Cultural and Natural Heritage conservation concerns, was split in 1984 into the (World Heritage Convention) on 20 March 1987. No Environmental Protection Division, which has primary sites have been inscribed on the World Heritage List. responsibility for watershed management, and the Laos does not participate in the two other major Wildlife and Fisheries Conservation Division (WFCD), international conventions or programmes concerned which is responsible for wildlife management and for the with protected areas, namely the Convention on planning and establishment of a protected areas system. Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Both are under the Department of Forestry and Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and the Unesco Environment which is an administrativeAechnical unit Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Laos is also of the central government's Ministry of Agriculture and a party to the 1951 International Convention for Plant Forestry. Development of conservation programmes has Protection, the subsequent 1956 Plant Protection been consuained by a shortage of qualified staff and Agreement for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, and the limited budgets, but these concerns are now being 1982 Law of the Sea Convention. Two senior level addressed through support from the Forest Resources officials from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Conservation Project (FRCP). attended, as observers, the Fourth Meeting of the Ramsar
Parties held in Switzeriand in 1990, and accession to the At present, the central WFCD has 10 professional (B.Sc. Salter, Convention has been recommended (Madar and or equivalent) and 15 technical level staff. Four of the 1990). professional staff have attended the Post-Graduate Diploma Course in Wildlife Management at the Wildlife A large proportion of foreign aid has been dedicated to Institute of India; this is the highest level of academic the mechanisation of forestry, although an early training in conservation so far achieved, although most UNDP/FAO forest management project had a small of the professional and technical staff have also attended nature conservation and environmental education various short courses, study tours and technical meetings component (FAO, 1983). International collaboration in dealing with conservation subjects. these and other projects has been received from UNDP, International Development lUCN and the Swedish The national organisational structure is replicated in the Agency (SIDA). SIDA is cunently supporting a Forest provincial governments, although staff with Resources Conservation Project, for which lUCN is conservation related responsibilities generally also have objectives providing technical support. The long-term other duties. Forty provincial forest services staff have are: to conserve and achieve sustainable utilisation of the attended a two-month "Short Course for Field Staff in forest and wildlife resources of Laos; to establish a Protected Area Management" over the three-year period nature conservation capability within the Ministry of 1989-91, but as yet none has higher academic Agriculture and Forestry, and to develop programmes qualifications in conservation. for the establishment and management of protected
69 Protected Areas of the World
Systems Reviews The original forest cover consisted (Salter and Venevongphet, 1988), and in formulating a largely of evergreen and semi-evergreen forests management plan for the 200,000ha Phou Khao Khouay (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986; Salter and area (Salter and Phanthavong, 1990). Phanthavong, 1989). These comprised dry evergreen forests, which covered much of the mountainous Planning for the development of a representative northern part of the country; tropical montane evergreen protected area system is also proceeding. A recent forests, primarily along the Annamite Mountains and on analysis of needs and priorities (Sailer and Phanthavong, the Bolovens Plateau; and lowland semi-evergreen 1989) indicated that sufficient forest cover remains for forests over the Mekong Plain. Other original vegetation all forest formations to be protected at or about 10% of types were tropical montane deciduous forests scattered their original areas, and that for most (including throughout the north, dry dipterocarp and mixed evergreen types) 20% can still be protected. Biophysical deciduous forests in the south and on the Mekong Plain, profiles of 68 potential protected areas have been forest on limestone and pine forests in the Annami tes and developed, and priorities for field surveys and parts of the north, and a small area of subtropical establishment of protective measures have been montane forest in the extreme north (along the Chinese determined on the basis of size, completeness of original border). Seasonally flooded wetlands previously cover, representativeness, regional priorities and degree covered large parts of the Mekong Plain, but have now of threat Reconnaissance surveys of 28 of these areas largely been converted to rice cultivation. were carried out during 1988-9 1 , and four areas totalling over 6,000 sq. km have been selected for the The most recent data on forest cover (Lao Forest development and implementation of management plans Inventory and Management Office, 1991), based on during 1991-95 (Salter, in prep.). An additional four 1988-89 SPOT imagery, indicate a current forest cover areas covering over 7,000 sq. km have been selected for of 111,816 sq. km (47.2% of land area). An additional the development of management plans over the same 88,051 sq. km (37.2% of area) are classified as potential period, subject to the results of further field surveys. forest, including bamboo and secondary formations; 15,515 sq. km (6.6% of area) as other wooded areas, Address primarily savanna and scrub forest; 10,083 sq. km (4.3% of area) as permanent agricultural land; and Wildhfe and Fisheries Conservation Division (Director), 1 1,336 sq. km (4.8% of area) as other non-forest land, Department of Forestry and Environment, Vientiane including barren areas, grasslands, urban areas and wetlands. The best and most extensive forests are now References confmed primarily to the southern and central parts of Anon. (1978). Agriculture in the Lower Mekong Basin. the country, deforestation having been most severe in the Committee for the Coordination of Investigations of north and along the densely settled Mekong Plain. The the Lower Mekong Basin. Draft. total current forest area represents an approximately 2% Anon. (1991). Basic statistics about the socioeconomic decrease in forest cover from 1981/82 estimates. development in the Lao P.D.R. for 15 years Shifting cultivation, fires, uncontrolled hunting and (1975-1990). State Statistical Centre, Ministry of fishing, and unsustainable logging practices all represent Economy Planning and Finance, Vientiane. serious conservation problems in Laos. Probably the Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) The major current cause of actual deforestation is some (1991). conservation atlas of tropical forests: upland shifting cultivation systems which involve Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. conversion of primary forest areas and continuous, 256 pp. intensive cultivation and repeated fires. Nevertheless, FAO (1983). Forest management project. Lao People's large, sparsely populated areas remain, and these Democratic Republic. Nature conservation and continue to support a fauna of approximately 200 national parks. Project LAO/82/006. Final Report. mammal species, including tiger, leopard, two bear FAO, Vientiane. 59 pp. species, possibly six deer species, elephant, four species FAO/UNEP (1981). Tropical Forest Resources of wild cattle, including kouprey Bos sauveli (E), and Assessment Project. Forest Resources of Tropical probably rhinoceros Didermoceros sumatraensis (E) Asia. Three Volumes. FAO, Rome. Interim andjotRhinoceros sondaicus (E), and more than 6(X) bird Committee for Coordination of Investigations of species (FRCP (unpublished data); Interim Mekong the Lower Mekong Basin (1978). Wildlife and national parks in Committee, 1978; King and Dickinson, n.d.; Kinge/ al., the lower Mekong basin. Mekong 1975; Lekagul and McNeely, 1988). Commiuee Report, Bangkok. King, B.F. and Dickinson, E.C. (n.d.). A distribution Although some forest reserves have been declared in table of the birds of Southeast Asia. Unpublished the past, their total extent has been small (less than MS. 1,300 sq. km) and protection ineffective (FAOAJNEP, King, B.F., Dickinson, E.C. and Woodcock, M.W. 1981). The government has recently received assistance, (1975). Afield guide to the birds of Southeast Asia. through FRCP, in formulating and implementing a Collins, London. management plan for one of these reserves, the 808ha Lao Forest Inventory and Management Office (1991). Houei Nhang Forest Reserve just outside Vientiane National Forest Reconnaissance Survey of Lao
70 Laos
P.D.R. Department of Forestry and Environment, activities and recommendations. Part 3: Field Vientiane. surveys (June 1991). Lekagul, B. and McNeely, J.A. (1988). Mammals of Salter, R.E. and Phanthavong, B. (1989). Needs and Thailand. Second edition. Association for the priorities for a protected area system in Lao PDR. Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok. Forest Resources Conservation Project, MacKinnon, J.R. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of Lao/Swedish Forestry Cooperation Programme, the protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Vientiane. realm. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Salter, R.E. and Phanthavong, B. (1990). Phou Khao UK. 284 pp. Khouay Protected Area management plan. Forest MacKinnon, J.R. (1986). Bid to save the kouprey. WWF Resources Conservation Project, Lao/Swedish Monthly Report 1986: 91-97. Forestry Cooperation Programme, Vientiane. MacKinnon, J.R. and Stuart, S.N. (Eds) (1989). The Salter, R.E. and Venevongphet (1989) (revised). Houei kouprey: an action plan for its conservation. Prepared Nhang Forest Reserve management plan 1988-90. by the Species Survival Commission of lUCN and Forest Resources Conservation Project, WWF. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Lao/Swedish Forestry Cooperation Programme, UK. 20 pp. Vientiane. Madar, Z. and Salter, R.E. (1990). Needs and priorities Sayer, J. (1983). Nature conservation priorities in Laos. for conservation legislation in Lao FDR. Forest Tigerpaper 10: 10-14. Resources Conservation Project, Lao/Swedish SIDA (1988). Lao-Swedish forestry sector programme. Forestry Cooperation FYogramme, Vientiane. Programme documents (1988-1990). Swedish Salter, R.E. (in prep.). Forest Resources Conservation International Development Authority, Stockholm.
Project, Phase 1: 1988-9 1 . Summary report of project
71
MALAYSIA
Area natural habitat and intensively managed parks (Scott, 1989). Peninsular Malaysia: 132,750 sq. km Sabah: 73,620 sq. km Conservation is specifically recognised to be an essential Sarawak: 123,985 sq. km element of land use planning under the Town and Malaysia (total): 330,355 sq. km Country Planning Act (1976). The Act gives certain powers at both state and local levels to require that Population specific areas of land be conserved in one way or another. However, the form and content of the Town and Peninsular Malaysia: 14,303,000(1988) Country Planning Act adopted by states may differ Sabah: 1,371,000 (1988) significantly for the parent Federal Act. Other acts may Sarawak: 1,590,000(1988) then be used to delineate an area of land to be conserved Malaysia (total): 18,400,000(1991) and to specify the exact use to which that land should be put (Scott, 1989). Natural increase: 2.26% per annum (1990)
The Fisheries Act (1985) makes provision for the Economic Indicators establishment of marine parks and marine reserves by GNP: US$ 2,305 per capita (1991) the appropriate Federal Minister, in any Malaysian GDP: US$ 1,590 per capita (1990) waters, to afford protection to flora and fauna, and to make provision for scientific study and recreation. Policy and Legislation However, these reserves may not include any area above
Malaysia comprises 11 states and a federal territory in the high tide mark and inappropriate management of the Malay Peninsula, together with two other states and adjacent land may have serious impacts on such reserves. a single federal territory on the island of Borneo. Sabah The National Parks Act No. 226 of 1980 (amended in and Sarawak joined the Federation with some 1983) provides for the establishment of national paiks constituticmal safeguards that give them a greater degree and ^plies to the whole of Malaysia, except for Sabah of autonomy than the other states. and Sarawak. The Act, as amended, allows the
The Malaysian constitution reserves rights over land appropriate Federal Minister to request that any state matters to the respective state governments. Thus, the land be reserved for the purpose of a national park, jurisdiction of most land matters is controlled by state although this has no legal force. The states have been decision-making bodies and land ownership is retained reluctant to lose control over land ownership and the Act by the states. Sabah and Sarawak each have state laws has not been used. covering forestry, protected areas and wildlife. The Protection of Wild Life Act of 1972 is a
Statutes relating to biological resources are in force at consolidation of Federal laws relating to wildlife both state and federal levels, providing a complexity in protection in Peninsular Malaysia witii provisions for approach. Of the many legislative acts in place, only the both the protection of fauna and habitats. The Act Environmental Quality Act (1974) and the Fisheries Act provides for the establishment, alteration and extinction (1985) are applied nationally. The latter makes provision of wildlife reserves and sanctuaries by the state for the establishment of marine parks, intended for the governments, although all management is in the hands conservation of flora, fauna and habitat and the of the federal government. promotion of recreation. The National Forestiy Act (1984) provides for the State Federal/Peninsular Malaysia Since 1964, land use Director of Forests, with the approval of the State planning in Peninsular Malaysia has been partly guided Authority, to classify every permanent reserved forest. by the Land CapabiUty Classification, in which game The following classifications lend themselves reserves and protected forest reserves are included in particularly to the protection of wildlife habitat: forest Class V, which also includes land possessing litde or no sanctuary, virgin jungle reserve, amenity forest, mineral, agricultural or productive forest development education forest and research forest However, these potential. The Land Capability Classification Reports classes are not defined in the Act, and do not offer need only be taken as advice - there is no enforcement protection to wildlife habitat beyond that offered by of these overall government policies. forest reserve status (Scott, 1989). State governments have fomially agreed to adopt the categories within the Local authorities have broad powers under Parts VII and National Forestiy Act and there are restiictions on use in
Xn of the Local Government Act (1976) to establish and each category, although these differ slightly from state manage public places, including parks. These powers to state. For example, logging is prohibited in the can provide for the creation of small protected areas of category "forest reserve for wildlife".
73 Protected Areas of the World
The Aboriginal Peoples Act (1954) provides for the logged but they are supposed to protect the forest protection, wellbeing and advancement of aboriginal completely. Class VII is wildlife reserve. Commercial people in Peninsular Malaysia. Since many of these forest can be selectively logged under licence, but other people Uve near park areas, the provisions of this Act areas cannot be logged without state authority. Any areas affect paric management The Act states that no land previously constituted as forest reserves, but not within an aboriginal area can be declared a wildlife included in the schedule under the Forests (Amendment) reserve or sanctuary. Enactment (1984), ceased to be forest reserves on 8 March 1984. Legislation regarding existing forest Some 25 environmentally-related acts are currently reserves has been strengthened by Section 22 in the being reviewed, in order not only to make stronger legal amended Act, which states that "No Forest Reserve shall provisions available, but also to streamline and cease to be a Forest Reserve or any portion thereof shall complement the activities of government departments in be excised ft'om such a Reserve except by Enactment or relation to the environment Acts to be reviewed include except where it is required for conversion to a Park, a the Environmental Quality Act (1974), the Town and Game Sanctuary or a Bird Sanctuary under the law for Country Planning Act (1976), Local Government Act the time being in force relating thereto". The amended (1976), Land Conservation Act (1960), Forest Act also established two new wildlife reserves, Kulamba Enactment (1935)/National Forestry Act (1984), and Tabin, and transfers the power to excise wildlife National Land Code (1965), National Parks Act (1980) reserves fi-om the Chief Minister to the State Assembly. and the Protection of Wild Life Act (1972) (Shariif, 1991). The Fauna Conservation Ordinance (1963), amended in 1979, makes provision for the Forest Department to take Sabah The principal conservation laws in Sabah are the measures to conserve wildUfe and to establish protection Parks Enactment (1984), Forests (Amendment) areas for wildlife (SFD, 1986). Enactment (1984) and the Fauna Conservation Ordinance (1963), amended in 1979. Sarawak The principal protected areas legislation comprises the National Parks OrdinaiKe (1956), the The Sabah Parks Board of Trustees was constituted with Wildlife Protection Ordinance (1990) and the Forest the establishment of Kinabalu "National" Park in 1964 Ordinance (1954). under the National Park Ordinance (1%2). The 1962 Ordinance was replaced by the National Parks The National Parks Ordinance (1956) and amendments Enactment (1977), under which several other "national (e.g. National Parks (Amendment) Ordinance, 1990) parks" were established. The Parks Enactment (1984) provide for the constitution, maintenance and control of repealed the 1977 Enactment and all five "national" national parks. Such areas are totally protected and parks existing at that time were reconstituted as state aimed at the preservation of "animal and vegetable life parks to ensure that they remained under state legislation ... in a natural state", and are intended to be open to the rather federal control. Such areas are intended for both public for recreation. nature conservation and recreation (Ngui, 1 990) and may The Wildlife include marine areas that are not covered by the federal Protection Ordinance (1990) makes Fisheries Act (1985). The 1984 Enactment also provision for the gazettement of wildlife sanctuaries, being totally protected areas natural described the procedure by which the State Assembly of interest, protected may establish parks, streamlined the control, against all forms of exploitation, including tourism. The enacted management and administi'ation of parks and redefined Ordinance was to provide for the protection of wildlife and wildlife habitat. the boundaries of the parks. Land tide to the parks is vested in the Board of Trustees for a period of 99 years, International Activities Malaysia became a signatory free of all liabilities and encumbrances. to die Convention Concerning the World Cultural and The Forests (Amendment) Enactment (1984) was Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on introduced by the Chief Minister on 8 March 1984 and 7 December 1988, although no sites have yet been nominated for inscription on the World Heritage list. amended the Forest Enactment (1968). It classifies Research s:udies have been carried out under the Unesco forests on a I- VII scale. Class I is protection forest for Man and the Biosphere Programme, although no sites soil and water conservation. It is not supposed to be used have been designated under the Malaysia for commercial timber operations. Class II is commercial programme. not participate forest to be used for commercial timber operations and does yet in the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as forest produce collection. Class III is domestic forest for Waterfowl Habitat Convention), the use of village people for extracting forest produce (Ramsar and occasional small amounts of timber for personal use. International assistance has been given by the Asian Class IV is amenity forest which is often used for trials Development Bank, the International Development and research plots and has in many cases been logged in Research Centre (Canada), Japanese International the past. It can be developed for recreational use. Class Cooperative Agency, OECF, UNDP, UNEP, Unesco V is mangrove forest - there are various categories within and FAO. this definition. Class VI is virgin jungle reserve for genetic conservation. Most jungle reserves are, in fact.
74 Malaysia
Administration and Management The Department of Wildlife, under the state Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Development, is Federal/Peninsular Malaysia The Director General, responsible for the conservation and management of (within the Department of Wildlife and National Paries wildlife within the state under the provisions of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment), is Fauna Conservation Ordinance (1963). Amongst other and for responsible for managing Taman Negara responsibilities, the major role of the Department is the all matters arising from the Protection of implementing identification and establishment of sanctuaries, buf it Wild Life Act (1972) and the National Parks Act (1980). does not control land that has been set aside for wildlife park, the Federal Minister On the creation of a national conservation, a situation that is being reviewed over the general appoints a committee which has control (WWF-M, 1990). management and development of the park. The Committee consists of representatives of government The Forest Department has a responsibility for the departments considered necessary by the Minister. The conservation of adequate forest estate for recreation, Minister has authority to make regulations about education, research and protection of flora and fauna activities within the park. However, the Act has not yet (Mahedi and Ambu. 1989). been implemented and there are no national parks. Sarawak The National Parks and Wildlife Office of the The Forestry Department manages the permanent forest Sarawak Forest Department has responsibility for the estate. The Federal Fisheries Department is responsible conservation of wildlife and wildlife habitat under the for protection of marine resources throughout the provisions of the National Parks Ordinance (1956) and country, including the management of several marine the Wildlife Protection Ordinance (1990) (WWF-M, parks. This is complicated by state control over 1990). The number of staff within the Division needs to freshwater and coastal matters, requiring the Department be increased such that it can properly discharge its to seek either delegation of powers or specific approvals responsibihties, and there is insufficient institutional on a case-by-case basis for some parts of its management support for the Forest Department itself (Ngui, 1990). WOTk. Systems Reviews Unlike any odier nation in South-east In addition, numerous sectoral agencies are responsible Asia, Malaysia has a substantial land mass on both the for natural resource use and management and all states Asian mainland and in the Malay Archipelago. It forms can pass legislation to establish and manage protected a crescent well over 1,600km long between r00-7°00N areas (WWF-M, 1990). and 1 00'- 109'E. It occupies two distinct regions, namely the Malay Peninsula, which extends from the Isthmus of of Trustees, also known Sabah The Sabah Parks Board Kra to the Singapore Strait, and the north-western part as "Sabah Parks", is responsible for the managementand of Borneo (WWF-M, 1990). administration of state parks in Sabah. Thus, the six state
parks all come under the control of the state government, Lowland evergreen tropical rain forest is the principal
vj'a Sabah Parks which is a government agency under the original formation in Peninsular Malaysia on dry land at Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Development. low altitudes. In the extreme north-west this is replaced The Director of Sabah Parks, appointed by the Board, by semi-evergreen formations. The rain forest is rich in heads the administration, management and development Dipterocarpacae and may be sub-divided into lowland programmes which are formulated by the Board. The (below 300m) and hill (300m to 1,300m) forest, on the
Director is assisted by a Deputy and an Assistant basis of floristic composition. Along the east coast there Director, administrative personnel and field staff, remain a few patches of heath forest on recent totalling some 250 individuals. The administration is unconsolidated sands, but most have been degraded to based in Kota Kinabalu, and is divided into five open grasslands or scrub. Widely scattered patches of divisions, comprising administration, development, forest on limestone occur north of Kuala Lumpur, peat enforcement, research and education and regional swamp and freshwater swamp forests are extensive on administration. In addition, three regional offices have both east and west coasts, although most of the latter been established, namely, Kinabalu Ranau, West have been cleared for agriculture, and extensive montane Coast/Kota Kinabalu and East Coast/Sandakan, each rain forests are found. About 100 years ago rain forests headed by a park warden. Sabah Parks' primary probably covered 90% of the land area, much of it in the
management responsibility is to ensure that its parks are lowlands. In 1 966 it was estimated that 68% of land area maintained unimpaired in their natural condition as far was naturally forested (Lee, 1973). The National Forest as possible. The parks tend to be large enough to Inventory of 1970-1972 showed that this figure had maintain viable wildlife populations and the usual dropped to 83,633 sq. km (63% of land area) (Mohd
approach to conservation management is to alio w natural Dams, 1978). At the end of 1985, forest cover had processes to occur unhindered. In certain cases, diminished to 61,870 sq. km (47%) (Ministry of Primary however, positive management has been implemented, Industries, 1988) and a figure of 57,090 sq. km (43%) for example for the conservation of sUpper orchid and has been estimated for 1990 (FAO, 1987). However, marine turtles. Law enforcement and park protection is much of this remaining cover is disturbed and in 1985 as also given a high priority, with other government litde as 13,000 sq. km (9.8%) supported intact forest
agencies being involved (Alisaputra et al., 1989). (Collins e/ a/., 1991).
75 Protected Areas of the World
Both Sabah and Sarawak were originally clothed in sq. km of virgin jungle reserves and about 1 ,000 sq. km forest, including lowland evergreen rain forests, peat of protection reserved fwest that potentially play an swamps, heath forests, forests on limestone, a important role. Including all categories, 8.3% of floristically distinct formation on the ultrabasic rock Sarawak, and 8.9% of Sabah will be under protection for which forms a mountainous arc extending from Mount ecological and biological purposes if all new reserves are Kinabalu to the east coast and lower and upper montane gazetted. The protected areas system in both states forests. According to FAO (1987), the forest estate in covers a good representation of the natural communities Sarawak stood at 84,000 sq. km of broad-leaved forest present. However, there is concern that few of the areas in 1980 (67.5% of land area) and a predicted 79,639 are under complete protection, and they could be subject sq. km (64%) in 1990. In Sabah in 1953 natural forest to distiu-bance as pressure for land and timber increase. covered 63,725 sq. km (Fox, 1978) or 86% of land area. The main short comings are as follows. In Sabah, some Thirty years later the forest cover had diminished to of the virgin jungle reserves and other protected areas 46,646 sq. km (63%) (Sabah Forest Department, 1984). have been excised, or partially or totally logged, and may According to an FAO assessment in 1985, forest cover be under threat from shifting cultivators and poaching of was 33,130 sq. km (45%) and the prediction was that this wildlife. Although the state government passed a bill in would fall to 29,1 10 sq. km (39%) by 1990 (FAO, 1987). 1 984 requiring all dereservations to go to the floor of the State Assembly, areas have still been excised from The wetlands of Malaysia may be divided into ten Kinabalu Paik. Wildhfe sanctuaries in Sarawak had a groups, comprising mangroves, mudflats, nipa swamps, dual status as part of the Permanent Forest Estate, which freshwater swamps, peat swamp forest, lakes, oxbow gave less protection to biodiversity; the Wildlife lakes, river systems, marshes and wet rice paddies. These Protection Ordinance (1990) has addressed this are briefly described in DWNP (1987), and more shortcoming. In Sarawak, great progress has been made detailed accounts for some 90 wetland sites important in extending and managing the protected areas system in for conservation are also given. This inventory will be recent years. The State Conservation Strategy, still a revised during 1992 (D. Parish, pers. comm., 1991). An confidential document, identified various new areas for account of the coral reefs is given in UNEP/IUCN protection and good progress has been made, but until (1988), including a general description, an account of the proposed areas are gazetted important omissions reef resources, disturbances and deficiencies, legislation remain (Collins et al., 1991). and management and recommendations for further protection; a number of specific sites are described in Each state is responsible for the management of its more detail. forests, but it does so under a forest policy that is common. The 1977 Malaysia Forest Policy emphasises Species conservation dates back to 1924 when Krau that each state should maintain 47% of land area as forest Game Reserve was created. The first comprehensive reserves. Some 47,500 sq. km (36% of total land area) protected areas plan was contained in the Third of forest are currently allocated to the Permanent Forest Malaysian Plan (TMP) for 1976-1980, in which Taman Estate within Peninsular Malaysia, of which 28,500 Negara, 22 other wildlife reserves, game reserves and sq. km is managed for production and 19,000 sq. km for bird sanctuaries were recognised and a further two protection purposes (CoUins et al., 1991). Forested lands national parks and 21 other reserves were proposed. The outside the Permanent Forest Estate, apart from those TMP was designed to include representative ecosystems already established as conservation areas, are destined to and the major biological communities suggested by the be logged, relogged and may be eventually converted for Malayan Nature Society in its Blueprint for agricultural use. At present, only about 37% of Sarawak Conservation (MNS, 1974). The present record of and 45% of Sabah are gazetted under the Permanent conservation falls a little short of that proposed in the Forest Estate, although there are proposals to increase TMP, with a total of 8,239 sq. km gazetted against the this in Sarawak. In Sabah, 28 protection forest reserves 8,985 sq. km proposed, and the sites recommended in the have been gazetted, covering 9% of the Permanent TMP do not necessarily correspond to those that have Forest Estate. In Sarawak, "protected forests" cover been gazetted. about 30% of the Permanent Forest Estate but they are set aside by local administration and do not have the The existing protected areas system in Peninsular same legal status as the protection reserves in Sabah or Malaysia relies heavily on Taman Negara, one of the Peninsular Malaysia. A small number of communal largest parks in South-east Asia. However, a number of forests have been established for the use of local critical habitats remain under-represented, including communities (Collins et al., 1991). peat swamp forests in Pahang and Johor states, mangrove forests and open lake systems. Most A major cause of forest loss in Sarawak is shifting importantly, the lowland dipterocarp rain forests are cultivation, covering over 30,000 sq. km, with as many seriously under-represented. Existing "national" parks as 1,500 sq. km cleared annually for hill padi, although cover 0.92% and 1.9% of Sarawak and Sabah, some of this may have already been cleared on a previous respectively. Other categories of existing reserves cover occasion. Encroachment frequently occurs along 1.4% in Sarawak, and 4.9% of Sabah. Sarawak has a logging roads, where access is provided into previously further 5% in proposed "national" parks and 1.4% in inaccessible foresL There is concern that levels of timber proposed wildlife sanctuaries. In addition, Sabah has 883
76 Malaysia
extraction itiay be unsustainable, although measures are The Malayan Nature Society, PO Box 10750, 50724 being taken to attempt to improve sustainability Kuala Lumpur (Tel: 3 791 2185; FAX: 3 791 7722) (G. Davison, pers. comm., 1991). Shifting cultivation is Asian Wetland Bureau, Institute for Advanced Studies less of a threat in Sabah, covering only some 1 5% of total (IPT), University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, land area, although substantial areas in the lowlands are 59100 Kuala Lumpur (Tel: 3 757 2176/3 756 6624; under threat of conversion. Severe and extensive FAX: 3 757 1225; Tlx: UNIMAL MA 39845) fires, especially in logged forests, destroyed some 10,000 sq. km of forest in 1983. References
World Wide Fund for Nature-Malaysia (WWF-M) is a Alisaputra, L.A., Sidek, A.R. and Nais, J. (1989). The fully professional, local non-governmental organisation management and development of State Parks in working on a wide range of conservation matters, Sabah. In: Proceedings of the International frequently with government agencies. WWF-M is Conference on National Parks and Protected Areas. currendy contracted by the government to compile the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, national conservation strategy. The Malayan Nature Peninsular Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 13-15 Society, which publishes the Malayan Nature Journal November. Pp. 125-132. and produced a "Blueprint for Conservation in Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whimiore, T.C. (Eds) Peninsular Malaysia" in 1974, is the oldest scientific (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests: society in Malaysia. Its activities have included the Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. promotion of a protected area at Endau-Rompin, and it 256 pp. is currently developing a "Second Blueprint for DWNP (1987). Malaysian wetland directory. Conservation". Sahabat Alam Malaysia (Friends of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Kuala Earth Malaysia), the Environmental Protection Society Lumpur. 316 pp. of Malaysia and the Consumers' Association of Penang FAO (1987). Special study of forest management, all maintain more independent positions, frequently afforestation and utilization of forest resources in the critical of the government. The Asian Wetland Bureau, developing regions. Asia-Pacific Region, another fully professional, scientific non-governmental Assessment of Forest Resources in Six Countries. organisation which operates a joint programme with die Field Document 17. FAO, Bangkok. 104 pp Institute for Advanced Studies, University of Malaya, FAO (1987). Assessment of forest resources in six concentrates on protection and sustainable utilisation of countries. FAO, Bangkok. 104pp. wetland resources. Other organisations include the Fox, J.E .D. (1978). The natural vegetation Sabah, Sabah Society, Sarawak Nature Society and the Malaysia. The physical environment and Malaysian Society for Marine Sciences (WWF-M, classification. Tropical Ecology 19: 218-139. 1990). Lee, P.C. (1973). Multi-use management of West Malaysia's forests. Proceedings of a Symposium on Addresses Biological Resources and Natural Development 93-101. (Unseen) Federal Mahedi, P.A. and Ambu, L.N. (1989). Management of 1 Jalan Department ofWildlife and National Parks, Km endangered species in protected areas in Sabah. In: Lumpur (Tel: 3 905 2872; Cheras, 50664 Kuala Proceedings of the International Conference on FAX: 3 905 2873) National Parks and Protected Areas. Department of Forestry Department, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50600 WildUfe and National Parks, Peninsular Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur, 13-15 November. Pp. 125-132. Malayan Nature Society (1974). A blueprint for Peninsular Malaysia conservation in Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Km 10 Jalan Nature lournalTI: 1-16. Cheras, 50664 Kuala Lumpur (Tel: 3 905 2872; Mohd Darus, H.M. (1988). Forest conservation, FAX: 3 905 2873) management and development in Malaysia. Forest Sabah Department Headquarters, Kuala Lumpur. (Unseen) Sabah Parks, PO Box 10626, 88806 Kota Kinabalu Ministry of Primary Resources (1988). Forestry in Forest Department (Jabatan Perhutanan), Peti Surat 311, Malaysia. (Unseen) 90007 Sandakan (Tel: 660811; FAX: 89 669170; Muhammad, J. (1980). The national forestry policy Tlx MA 82016) {pdMiraV). Malaysian Forester Ay. 1-6. (Unseen) Ngui, S.K. (1990). The management status of protected Sarawak areas in Malaysia. Paper presented at the Regional Forest Department (Ibu Pejabat Perhutanan), Bangunan Expert Consultation on Management of Protected Wisma Sumber Alam, Jalan Stadium, Petra Jaya, Areas in the Asia-Pacific Region. FAO Regional 93660 Kuching (Tel: 82 442180; FAX: 82 441377) Office for Asian and Pacific, 10-14 December, World Wide Fund For Nature-Malaysia (WWF-M), Bangkok. 17 pp. Locked Bag No. 911, Jalan Sultan PO, 46990 Sabah Forest Department (1984). Annual report. State Petaling Jaya (Tel: 3 757 9192; FAX: 3 756 5594) of Sarawak. 31 pp. (Unseen)
77 Protected Areas ofthe World
Sabah Forest Department (1986). Forest Department UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. annual reportfor the year 1986. 69 pp. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf UNEP Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory ofAsian wetlands. Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, 1181pp. UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Pp. 95-132. Shariif, N. (1991). Streamlining environment laws. New World Wide Fund for Nature-Malaysia (1990). WWF Strait Times. 28 June. P. 2. country plan: Malaysia. Unpublished report 42 pp.
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
FEDERAL/PENINSULAR MALAYSIA Administrative authority: Director General of Wild Life and National Parks, appointed under the Protection of Wild Life Act 1972; National Title: National Forestry Act Parks Advisory Council; National Committee. Date: 24 December 1984 Designations: Brief description: An Act to provide for the National park The state authority may, on the administration, management and conservation of request of the Minister, reserve any state land within forests and forestry development within the States of the state, including any marine area, for the purpose Malaysia and for connected purposes. of a national park. Administrative authority: State Director of The object of the establishment of a national park is Forestry the preservation and protection of wild life, plant life Designations: and objects of geological, archaeological, histcnical and ethnological and other scientific and scenic The State Authority may constitute any land a interest and through their conservation and permanent reserved forest, under the following utilisation to promote the education, health, aesthetic classification: values and recreation of the people.
Timber production forest under sustained yield A committee shall be constituted by the Minister for Soil protection forest each national park, chaired by the appropriate state Soil reclamation forest secretary. Flood controlforest Water catchmentforest Title: Protection of Wild Life Act Forest sanctuaryfor wildlife Virgin jungle reservedforest Date: 1972 (amended February 1976, February Amenityforest 1988) Educadonforest Research forest Brief description: Consolidates the laws relating to Forestforfederal purposes and further provides for the protection of wild life and for other purposes connected therewith. The act Source: Translation of original legislation only applies to West Malaysia. Repealed the Wild Animals and Birds Protection Ordinance 1955. Title: National Parks Act Administrative authority: Director General of Date: 1980 (amended 1983) Wildlife and National Parks
Brief description: An Act to provide for the Designations: establishment and control of National parks and for Wild life reserve Declared by the Ruler, or State matter connected therewith. Applies to all Malaysia Governor, on any state land, which allows licensed except Sabah, Sarawak and the stale parks of hunting, but in which any species may be declared Kelantan, Pahang and Trengganu which together protected from hunting. The Protection of Wild Life constitute Taman Negara. (Amendment) Act 1988 stipulates that it is prohibited to disturb, cut or remove vegetation.
78 Malaysia
it is to hunt, Wild life sanctuaries Within which it is prohibited Within a park forbidden damage to shoot, kill or disturb any animal, or disturb or vegetation, introduce or remove animals or remove any vegetation. vegetation, remove minerals, archaeological objects etc, erect buildings or clear land, without prejudice Source: Translation of original legislation to rights gained prior to commencement of the act, and to provisions of any written law relating to SABAH mining, prospect for metals or minerals in any park.
Section II (17) constitutes six named parks. Title: Parks Enactment Source: Translation of original legislation Date: 14 March 1984 Act Brief description: An Enactment to repeal and Title: The Forests (Amendment) re-enact the law relating to the provision and control Date: 8 March 1984 of national parks in Sabah and to provide for matters therewith so as to incidental thereto and connected Brief description: An enactment to amend the the constitution, make better provisions respecting Forest Enactment, 1968 administration, procedure, functions and finance of parks. Repealed the National Parks Enactment Administrative authority: Sabah Forest (1977). Department
Administrative authority: Yang di-Pertua Negeri Designations:
Designations: Forest reserve
Protection forest (1) area of state land so declared under the Park Any Commercialforest (II) provisions Part of the Act. Any forest reserve of U Domesticforest (III) Enactment or any declared under the Forest (1968), Amenityforest (IV) sanctuary declared under the game sanctuary or bird Mangroveforest (V) Fauna Conservation Ordinance (1963) may be Virgin jungle reserve (VI) converted to a park. WildUfe reserve (yil)
provision for the establishment and Part III makes Source: Translation of original legislation constitution of a Board of Trustees
79 Protected Areas of the World
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ Malaysia
Map^ Protected Areas of the World
Protected Areas of Peninsular Malaysia (and Singapore)
82 Malaysia
Protected Areas of Sabah
83 Protected Areas ofthe World
Protected Areas of Sarawak
84 MALDIVES
Area 298 sq. km distinguishing between the two, but there are probably some 4,000-6,000 reefs (Kenchington, 1983). Natural Population 0.2 million (1989) vegetation of islands with good to reasonable soils is Natural increase: 3.7% per annum tropical rain forest. However, none remains undisturbed. Lesser islands have a cover of salt Ek:onomic Indicators hardy and drought-tolerant bushes and Cyperaceae. Coconuts GNP: US$ 300 per capita (1987) are the most important crop, palms being cultivated on the Policy and Legislation There is no legislation which greater part of inhabited and uninhabited islands. Other provides for the establishment of protected areas. A draft agricultural activity mostly takes place on the nature conservation act has been formulated. permanently inhabited islands (Munch-Petersen, 1985).
Administration and Management A National Tourism has increased enormously over the last decade, Environment Council has recently been created and and is the biggest source of foreign exchange. In 1989, presently functions under the Ministry of Planning and there were approximately 140,0(X) visitors, restricted to Environment, consisting of representatives from 61 tourist resorts (Munch-Petersen, pers. comm., 1990). different ministries, such as the Department of Tourism These resorts are limited by planning regulations to which has a particular interest in ensuring the previously uninhabited islands. Despite these careful conservation of natural resources. However, it has no planning controls, the increase in size of the tourist legislative power (UNEP, 1986). population, together with the rapidly increasing resident population, has resulted in various ecological problems. International Activities The Maldives have ratified the Reef destruction to provide building materials takes Convention concerning the Protection of the World place to a significant extent in and near the Mal^ (Kaaf) Cultural Natural Heritage and (World Heritage and Ari (Alif) atolls where the majority of tourist resorts Convention) no natural sites have in but been inscribed are located. Prior to the 20th century, building in coral the list It World Heritage to date. is not party to the rock was limited to mosques, shrines and tombstones, Convention Wetlands International on of Importance but it is now the main construction material on Mali and especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), tourist resort islands (Brown and Dunne, 1988; Moutou, nor are any biosphere reserves designated under the 1985). A major ecological problem is siltation from the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. removal and transport of coral rock causing die-offs of reef parts (Munch-Petersen, pers. comm., 1990). Systems Reviews The Maldives form the central and Another significant impact of tourism has been the heavy largest part of the Laccadive-Chagos Ridge, which dependence on speed boat travel, which also has a silting extends southwards from India to the centre of the Indian impact on live corals, and excursions where anchorages Ocean and consists entirely of a chain of low atolls and are not controlled with the ensuing destruction of large associated coralline structures, rising from a submarine coral areas (Munch-Petersen, 1983). In the capital. Maid, ridge which is generally only 270-380m deep but inadequate waste disposal and fresh water shortage descends to more than 1 ,000m between the main group create additional ecological threats (Munch-Petersen, of atolls and Suvadiva and Ari in the south. Although the pers. comm., 1990). islands cover more than 867km in length, only a small part is dry land with a maximum altitude of no more than Global warming and accompanying rises in sea level 5m above sea level (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Official pose serious long-term threats (Anon., 1988; Pemetta, sources that there state are 1,190 islands (MPE, in lilt., 1988; UNEP/IUCN, 1989; Wells and Edwards, 1989). 199 1). Most are small: only nine are larger than 2 sq. km, and of these only three exceed 4 sq. km. Ancient rocks Proposals for the aeation of a nature conservation act to are absent from the present geological structure, basic protect fauna and flora and to establish nature reserves materials being coral sand and coral rock. Soils are given in an environmental report to the Government accordingly are shallow, alkaline, lack significant of the Maldives (Munch-Petersen, 1983). nutrients and minerals, and have little water retaining ability. Fresh water is found on most islands at a depth Addresses of one to three metres in the form of freshwater lenses Environment Research Unit, Ministry of Planning and floating on the salt water below. A number of islands Environment, Mal6 (Tlx: 661 10 mpdmale mf; FAX: have fresh and brackish lakes (Munch-Petersen, 1985). 960 327351)
Areas with vegetation cover vary from a few sq. m to 6 sq. km (Munch-Petersen, 1985). Within each atoll is a References complex of sand banks and reefs, many of which support Anon. (1988). A sinking feeling. The Economist vegetated islands. There is no available count of reefs 1 October. P. 72. and sand banks, partly due to the difficulty in
85 Protected Areas of the World
Brown, B.E. and Dunne, R.P. (1988). The environmental Munch-Petersen, N.F. (1985). Man and reef in the impact of coral mining on coral reefs in the Maldives. Maldives. Continuity and change. Proceedings ofthe Environmental Conservation 15: 159-165. Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti 2: Kenchington, R.A. (1983). Report on mission to the 254. Republic of the Maldives. Unesco, Paris. Pernetta, J.C. (1988). The Maldives: present Unpublished. 57 pp. environment and future sea-level rise. The Siren 39: Moutou, F. (1985). Briefly: the Maldive Islands. Oryx 25-26. 19: 232-233. UNEP (1986). Environmental problems of the marine MPE (1991) Statistical yearbook of the Maldives. and coastal area of the Maldives: national report. Ministry of Planning and Environment, Mal6. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies 76. 33 r). (Unseen) UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Munch-Petersen, N.F. (1983). Tourism Development Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf UNEP Plan Republic of Maldives. Final Report, May 1983 Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. (2 volumes). Vol.2: Selected Projects: Project No.5: lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Protection of Environment and Wildlife UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 440 pp. Conservation. Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Wells, S., and Edwards, A. (1989). Gone with the waves. Development/Dangroup Planning Consultants, New Scientist 1690: 47-51. Denmark. Pp. 5.1-5.55.
86 UNION OF MYANMAR (formerly the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma)
Area 676,550 sq. km Wildlife Protection Regulation No. 1 of 194 1 , published by the Defence Department, Political Branch, on Population 41,300,000(1990) 10 February 1941. Tun Yin (1954) details the Natural increase: 2.05% per annum application of the regulations to specific areas. The 1936 Act makes provision for the establishment of wildlife Economic Indicators sanctuaries on any government-owned land or on private GNP: US$ 203 per capita (1988) land where the owner's consent has been obtained. The Policy and Legislation The 1947 Burmese Constitution, Act prohibits all hunting, fishing and wilful disturbance implemented after independence in 1949, defined the to any animal in sanctuaries, and similar activities in state as the "ultimate owner of all lands". Consequently, reserved forests have to be licensed (see Annex). In the state has the right to regulate, alter or abolish land addition, nationwide closed hunting seasons were tenures or resume possession of any land for established and a limited number of species received redistribution as it sees fit (Maung, 1961). year-round protection. Although the 1902 Forest Act and the 1936 Wildlife Protection Act theoretically provide Forest policy recognises the basic tenets of conservation, protection for wildlife in both reserved forests and in and has three salient principles: the maintenance of wildlife sanctuaries, neither act includes measures environmental stability for the preservation of specifically to protect habitat. In 1985, new legislation permanent forest estates; preservation of natural heritage was proposed which would not only strengthen by conserving species and ecosystem diversity and the conservation efforts but also for the first time make establishment of a system of protected areas; and provision for the establishment of national parks and ensuring sustainable utilisation of forest resources for the nature reserves (FAO, 1985b). direct benefit of present and future generations (Forest Department, 1991). International Activities Myanmar is not yet party to any of the three major international conventions Legal protection of natural resources currently rests on concerned with nature conservation, namely the Unesco two acts, both dating from the pre-World War 11 colonial Man and the Biosphere Programme, the Convention on period. The 1902 Burma Forest Act repealed all earlier Wetlands of International Importance especially as forest acts. This Act allows the Ministry of^Agriculture Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and the and Forests to establish game sanctuaries and reserved Convention concerning the Protection of the World forests on any land at the disposal of the government, and Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage places responsibility for their management and Convention). protection on the Forest Department (see Annex). Game sanctuaries were primarily intended to protect hunting Administration and Management Responsibility for stock and the first was established in 1911. The managing protected areas remains with the Forest procedure for establishing reserved forests, as laid down Department, which is one of the oldest in Asia. Myanmar in the Act, entails the appoinunent of a settlement officer is divided into some 40 forest divisions, each of which to adjudicate in disputes over extant rights and forest use, is supervised by a Divisional Forest Officer; final and makes provision for certain activities, such as responsibility rests with the Director-General of agriculture, to continue after designation. Under the Act, ForesU7. The Forest Department is responsible for a wildlife is defined as "forest produce", and local network of 722 forest reserves, although these are governments are able to issue Game Rules. However, managed primarily for production (FD, 1991). It also these were not comprehensively formulated until 1927 manages an Elephant Control Scheme whereby (Weatherbe, 1940). The application of the Act was extensive, temporary sanctuaries are established, and complex, and some areas, occupied by hill tribes, were elephant capture by the State Timber Corporation is exempt suspended. However, these sanctuaries have no legal status (FAO, 1983). The Forest Department is The 1902 Forest Act was enhanced by the 1936 Burma overshadowed by the politically more influential State Wild Life Protection Act, a consolidation of the earlier Timber Corporation which generates about 25% of the
Wild Birds and Animal Protection Act of 1912 which nation's foreign exchange through its monopoly on was repealed in 1936. Under Sections 26 and 28 of the timber exploitation in reserved forests (Blower, 1985; 1936 Act, the Burma Wildlife Protection Rules were FAO, 1985a). published in the Department of Agriculture and Forests
Notification No. 2, dated 2 January 1941 and effective A Wildlife Conservation and Sanctuaries Division has from 11 January 1941. Similar to the 1902 Forest Act, been established within the Department, mainly the 1936 Act was not applicable nationwide and certain responsible for the management of "national parks" and tribal areas were exempt under the Scheduled Areas other protected areas. It has a mandated staff of 2,251,
87 Protected Areas of the World with 498 appointed by 1987; the number of staff coniferous pine forest; bamboo forest and scrub currently employed is not available. In addition to formations comprising dry scrub and indaing scrub responsibilities for protected areas, the Division is (FAO, 1985a). concerned with species conservation activities. Results from the UNDP/FAO National Forest Survey Management of wildlife sanctuaries tends to be on an and Inventory Project, based on Landsat MSS and RBV ad hoc basis, usually limited to infrequent patrols, and is imagery for the period 1979-1981, indicate that the total hampered by inadequate staff, resources, support and area of closed and degraded forest was 42.3% of total relevant infrastructure in the Forest Department. land area. However, for reasons given below, the figure Priorities within the Forest Department have tended to probably exaggerates the cuirent state of Myanmar's be production oriented, with only modest support for forest but more recent imagery is not yet available. conservation activities. Consequently, there has been a Comparison with satellite imagery for 1975 shows that, failure to stem both poaching and illegal felling in at a conservative estimate, forest was being depleted at sanctuaries and reserved forests, some of which have lost a rate of 6,(XX) sq. km (2. 1 %) annually (Allen, 1984). The their original conservation value (FAO, 1985a; Than, area of natural forest remaining in 1988/1989 was 1989). probably about 245,(XX) sq. km (35% of land area). However, the extent of closed forest is certainly less than Systems Reviews Situated between the Indian 20% (J. Sayer, pers. comm., 1989). Much of the closed subcontinent and the South-east Asian peninsula, canopy forests are temperate formations in the north, extends some 2,093km from north to south. Myanmar dominated by oak Quercus spp., Castanopsis spp. and a Between these extremes there exists an ecological variety of Ericaceae. Effectively, all forest in the Shan spectrum of almost unique variety, ranging from tropical states has been affected by shifting cultivation and is rain forests and coral reefs in the south to temperate consequently degraded or cleared. There is litde intact forests of conifers, oaks and rhododendrons in the far forest in the Arakan Yoma in the west, with forest on the mountains to 5,729m high north, where snow-capped up coastal side degraded to bamboo and only some eastern extremity of the High mark the Himalaya. managed mixed deciduous formations on the eastern mountain ranges form a continuous barrier along the side. Conditions in the southern and northern Chin Hills Bangladesh, extending western border with India and are extremely degraded with only very small islands of southward parallel with the coast to the Ayeyarwady natural forest remaining (J. Sayer, pers. comm., 1989). (Irrawaddy) Delta. In the north-east, the border with The status and distribution of forests is discussed further China follows the high crest of the Irrawaddy-Salween in Collins eJflZ. (1991). divide, then bulges out eastward to enclose the ruggedly mountainous Shan Plateau forming the border with Laos A current summary of wetlands is given in Scott (1989). and Thailand. Between these mountain barriers to the With a coasdine of 2,278km, several very large estuarine east and west lies the fertile, heavily-populated basin of and delta systems and numerous offshore islands, the Ayeyarwady, with its largest tributary, the Chindwin, Myanmar possesses a considerable diversity of coastal joining from the north-west. Myanmar's other great wetland habitats, including coral reefs, sandy beaches river, the Salween, flows south through neighbouring and mudflats. The most extensive wetlands in the interior Yunnan and then cuts through the Shan Plateau in deep, of the country are the seasonally inundated floodplains heavily forested gorges before finally reaching the sea in of the three main river systems: Ayeyarwady-Chindwin, the Gulf of Martaban. Further south, Tenasserim extends Siltaung (Sittang) and Salween. These plains have a in a long, mountainous arm bordering Thailand down to surface area of some six million hectares during the the Kra Isthmus (Blower, 1982). monsoon season, providing feeding grounds for waterfowl and spawning grounds for fish, notably carp, The climax vegetation in coastal areas is lowland rain catfish and perch. The practice of constructing forest, with mangroves and freshwater swamp forest in embankments and cultivating flood plains restricts major the Ayeyarwady Delta and flood plain. The Ayeyarwady areas of natural flood plain to the north. Permanent Basin includes central dry zone of open, stunted dry a freshwater bodies, including the two main lakes, Inle and deciduous woodland, known as indaing. Peripheral to Indawngy, cover about l,300,000ha (Scott, 1989). At this dry zone are extensive mixed deciduous forests least 17 important weUand sites have been identified which are of great economic importance the source of as (Scou, 1989). Myanmar's teak and other commercial hardwoods. These are in turn surrounded by a fringe of moist, The main coral reefs lie in the Mergui Archipelago semi-evergreen and evergreen forest on the semi-circle (Duncan, 1889; Harrison and Poole, 1909). There are no of higher hills to the west, north and east, merging in the data on the ecology of these reefs but 65 species in 31 far north with temperate oak and conifer forests and genera have been described in a more recent study (Kyi, ultimately fir, birch, rhododendron and other sub-alpine 1985), suggesting a moderate diversity. It may be vegetation (Blower, 1989). The Forest Department assumed from the brief early descriptions and by
recognises 1 1 Burma Standard Forest Types, as follows: inference from the better-known islands of adjacent
closed broad-leaf forests, comprising tidal mangroves, Thailand, that coral reef development in Mergui is beach and dune, swamp, evergreen, mixed deciduous, appreciable. Rosen (1971) predicts that perhaps 43 or 44 deciduous dipterocarp, and hill formations; closed coral genera may be found. There are no known major
88 Myanmar
coral reefs along the mainland coast, although corals identifies a number of goals for the region, and makes have been reported near the mouth of the Bassein River the following specific recommendations for Myanmar and around Thamihla Kyun (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). upgrading of Kyatthin Game Sanctuary to a nature reserve and establishment of Thamihla Kyun, South the and In 1980 the government requested Food Moscos and Kadonlay Kyun as marine reserves; Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations and the accession to, and implementation of the World Heritage assist in United Nations Development Programme to a Convention; exchange of expert staff with national and National Parks Project joint Nature Conservation management agencies in Thailand, India, Sri Lanka and Settlement Board. with the Working Peoples The Indonesia, to address control and management 1981-1984 FAOAJNDP Nature Conservation and problems; and promotion of intergovernmental Project formulated to conserve National Parks was cooperation to implement bilateral management of protect endangered species and natural ecosystems, species (for example, elephant and tiger, which cross the nature reserves. develop a system of national parks and borders with Bangladesh, Bhutan and India) and riverine the development of Immediate objectives included ecosystems (for example, the Naaf, Mekong and for conservation, assistance in surveys and institutions Salween rivers). feasibility studies for the establishment of national paries and nature reserves, and preparation of management Sanctuaries cover only 0.7% of the total land area, which plans and their implementation. A comprehensive set of is considered to be an inadequate sample of the nation's recommendations was made, covering the following: natural resources (FAO, 1985a). In contrast, reserved policy, legislation and organisation; recruitment and forests, which for conservation purposes are in many training; conservation education; coordination of respects comparable to wildlife sanctuaries, cover some surveys and planning; establishment, development and 100,222 sq. km or 14% of the total land area. Coastal management of protected areas; establishing species protected areas are limited to Thamihla Kyun and conservation priorities, law enforcement; control of Moscos Islands wildlife sanctuaries, but there is no hunting and capture; control of trade in wildlife and current legislation for establishing marine protected wildlife products; completing natural resource areas. The most serious omissions from the current inventories; and obtaining external assistance for a protected areas system are lowland evergreen, hill second-phase project (FAO, 1983). evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (FAO, 1985a; MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986) and tidal forest required for the planning and The principal measures (R.E. Salter, pers. comm., 1987). The proposed Pakchan implementation of an effective nature conservation Nature Reserve, and Natma Taung and Pegu Yomas the establishment of protected areas programme, and a national parks are intended to rectify much of this (FAO, system, is discussed in some detail in FAO (1985b), 1985a; MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). However, drawing on the experience of FAOAJNDP Nature MacKinnon and MacKinnon (1986) suggest that even project. Conservation and National Parks The with the designation of the proposed protected areas all recommendations cover a broad range of topics, namely: vegetation types, with the exception of sub-alpine, will recruitment policy, legislation and organisation; staff remain threatened. Wetlands are unprotected, even in and training; conservation education; coordination of Wethtigan Wildlife Sanctuary which provides surveys and planning; establishment, development and protection for wildlife but not habitat. The proposed Inle management of protected areas; and the establishment of Lake and Mong Pai Lake wildlife sanctuaries, and Implementation of these species conservation priorities. Moyingj'i Game Sanctuary are intended to address this recommendations has been slow, with some omission. development of Alaungdaw Kathapa, Hlawaga Wildlife Park and Mount Popa Mountain Park. A further Protected areas are directly threatened by inadequate FAO/UNDP project to implement the recommendations size, both individually and in aggregate, by failure to was proposed for implementation during 1987-1990, but provide representative coverage of several important this was not finalised. Entitled "Support to nature biota, and by weak and poorly-enforced legislation conservation programme", the project was intended to (Blower, 1982). Effective law enforcement and build on the earlier work with the following objectives prevention of poaching in reserved forests and game in view: development and management of protected sanctuaries are difficult due to the shortage of Forest areas, especially for the benefit of local communities; Department field staff and to the large numbers of protection of watersheds, landscapes, representative firearms in the hands of military personnel, para-military ecosystems and threatened species; and the People's Militia and, in some areas, insurgents strengthening of institutions and administrative (Whitmore and Grimwood, 1976). There is also capabilities (UNDP, 1985). Funding for this is available extensive encroachment in many of the existing forest but due to political uncertainties the project has not yet reserves (J. Blower, pers. comm., 1989). Game been implemented. sanctuaries only legally protect fauna and not habitat. Many have been seriously damaged and some of the the 25th Session of lUCN's Commission on At Working smaller areas, for example Maymyo Game Sanctuary, National Parks and Protected Areas, regional field have little justification for being retained as protected managers developed an action plan for protected areas areas (FAO, 1985a). Continuing civil unrest, particularly in the Indomalayan realm (lUCN, 1985). The plan
89 Protected Areas of the World in more remote regions, largely precludes development Forest Department (1991). Forest resources of of the protected areas system. Myanmar: conservation and management. Forest Department, Yangon. 13 pp. Addresses Harrison, R.M. and Poole, M. (1909). Marine fauna from Mergui Archipelago, collected by JasJ. Simpson, Wildlife Conservation and Sanctuaries Division M.A., B.Sc. and R.N. Redmose Brown, B.Sc, (Director), Forest Department, Gyogon, Yangon University of Aberdeen. Madreporaria. Proceedings Forest Department (Director General), Yangon of the Zoological Society ofLondon 1909: 897-912. lUCN (1985). The Corbeti Action Plan for protected References areas of the Indomalayan Realm. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 Allen, P.E.T. (1984). A quick new appraisal of the forest pp. Kyi, A. (1983). Systematic study of some Scleratinian cover of Burma, using Landsat satellite imagery at Corals from Mergui Archipelago of Burma. M.Sc. 1:1,000,000 scale. FAO/UNEP National Forest thesis, Moulmeim Degree College, Moulmeim, Survey and Inventory. BUR/79/011. Technical Note Burma. (Unseen) 11: 1-6. MacKinnon,J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review o///i« Anon (1937). Note on the Burma Wild Life Protection protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Realm. Act. Journal of the Bombay Natural History 39(3): Gland, 606-608. lUCN, Switzerland and Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 284 pp. Blower, J. (1982). Species conservation priorities in Maung, K. (1961). Burma's Constitution. Martinus Burma. In: Mittermeier, R.A. and Konstant, WJ?. Nijhoff, The Hague. 340 pp. (Unseen) (Eds), Species conservation priorities in the tropical Rosen, B.R. (1971). The distribution of reef coral genera forests of South-east Asia. lUCN SSC Occasional in the Indian Ocean. In: Stoddart, T)B.. and Paper No. 1:53-58. Yonge, CM. (Eds), Region Variation in Indian Ocean Coral Blower, J. (1985). Conservation priorities in Burma. Reefs. Symposium the Zoological Society Oryx 19: 79-85. of of London 28: 263-299. Blower, J. (1989). Burma: conservation of biological Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory Asian wetlands. diversity. Draft. World Conservation Monitoring of lUCN, Gland, Swiuerland and Cambridge, UK. Centre, Cambridge, UK. 13 pp. 1,181 Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) pp. Tun Yin, U. (1954). Wildlife preservation and (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests: sanctuaries in the Union of Burma. Journal the Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. of Bombay Natural History Society 52: 264-284. 256 pp. Than, A (1989). A proposal for ecological study and Duncan, P.M. (1889). On the Madreporaria of the conservation of brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi Mergui Archipelago, collected for the trustees of the thamin) in Myanmar (Burma). Unpublished. 19 Indian Museum by Dr John Anderson FRS, pp. UNDP (1985). Support to nature conservation superintendent of the Museum. Journal of the programme: project of The Socialist Republic of the Linnean Society (Zoology) 21: 1-25. (Unseen) Union of Burma. Revised draft. 16 FAO (1983). Summary of currently available pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs the world. information on internationally threatened species in of Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf UNEP Burma. Nature Conservation and National Parks Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Project BUR/80/006. Field Document No. 7. FAO, lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Rangoon. 76 pp. UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 440 FAO (1985a). Burma: survey data and conservation pp. Weatherbe, D'A. (1940). Burma's decreasing wild life. priorities. Nature Conservation and National Parks Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 42: Project BUR/80/006. Technical Report No. 1. FAO, 150-160. Rome. 102 pp. Whitmore, T.C. and Grimwood, I.R. The FAO (1985b). Burma: project findings and (1976). recommendations. Nature Conservation and conservation of forests, plants and animals in
South-east Asia. Volume 2. Part 1 . Continental South National Parks Project DP/BUR/80AX)6. Terminal East Asia. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished Report. FAO, Rome. 69 pp. report 82 FAO/UNEP (1981). Tropical forest resources pp. assessment project:forest resources oftropical Asia. FAO, Rome. 475 pp.
90 Myanmar
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: The Burma Forest Act Title: Burma Wild Life Protection Act
Date: 27 March 1902 (amended 1906, 1912, 1926, Date: 1936 (amended 1954) 1938 and 1941) Brief description: Makes provision for the Brierdescription: An Act to consolidate and amend establishment of sancuiaries (game sanctuaries) on the law relating to forests, forest produce and the duty any land at the disposal of the government or, subject leviable on timber. After independence in 1948, the to the consent of the owner, any land which is private Act was reinstated with only the tides of government property. Also provides for the protection of a and authorities changed (Adaptation of Laws, Order number of named species outside sanctuaries and 1948, dated 4 January 1948). reserved forests.
Administrative authority: Forest Department Administrative authority: Wildlife Consolation and Sanctuaries Division, Forest Department Designations: Designations: Reservedforest^ A forest and every part of a forest a) declared to be a reserved forest under the Game sanctuary No person is permitted to hunt provisions of Section 18 of this Act or the without the special permission of the local corresponding section of any enactment previously government (which is only granted for scientific in force in Burma; or b) declared to be a reserved purposes or to preserve the balance of animals) or, forest under the provisions of any rules in force in drive, stampede or wilfully disturb any animal. Lower Burma previous to 1st July 1882, and brought Reserved forest No person shall hunt, drive, within the provisions of the Burma Forest Act 1881 stampede or wilfully disturb any animal or remove by Section 30 of that Act, which shall not, at the time any animal or part of product thereof except under a being, have ceased to be a reserved forest under licence. Section 29 of this Act or the corresponding provision enactment or rules. of any such Source: Anon (1937)
activities include trespass, pasturing, Prohibited Forest is classified as follows: commercial reserves, managed damaging trees, setting fires, quarrying, cultivation, for the production ofhardwoods for domestic consumption and poisoning or dynamiting, hunting, shooting, fishing export; and local supply reserves in close proximity to villages or setting traps or snares. and managed for supply of minor forest products for domestic consumption. Land at the disposal of the state, other than Source: Original legislation reserved forest, may be constituted as public forest land to meet local requirements for forest products and to discourage encroachment into reserved forest. Timber may also be extracted for commercial purposes from public forest land (Forest DeparUnent, 1991).
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ Nationallinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Park
1 Alaungdaw Kathapa II 160.580 1984
Park 2 Popa Mountain V 12,691 198S
^Location of the National Park is shown on the accompanying map.
91 Protected Areas of the World NEPAL
Area 141,415 sq. km such as shingo nawa, chitaidari and kipat, disappeared with the handing over of private forests to the state in Population 19,100,000(1990) 1957 under the Forest Nationalisation Act This Act was Natural increase: 2.5% per annum introduced to bring forests under management and also to prevent land being converted agriculture. Economic Indicators to Increasing pressures on land in the terai led to the GNP: US$ 170 per capita (1988) passing of the Forest Act in 1961 to protect forests, by Policy and Legislation The new Constitution of the restricting access to them, and to regulate forest Kingdom of Nepal 2047 (1991) formally recognises the utilisation. State, panchayat, panchayat protected, need to preserve the environment and use natural religious and contract forests are defined under this Act resources wisely. In Chapter 4 it is stated that "The (see Annex). Following recent changes to Nepal's Kingdom of Nepal will give priority to raising public political system, these terms are due to be replaced by awareness on environmental issues, to mitigating the national, community plantation, community protected, adverse effects development works have on the religious and leased forests, respectively, under new environment, and to the conservation of rare fauna and forest legislation which awaits approval by the newly flora." The Constitution makes provision for the elected government. The Forest Protection Special Act, formation of committees on Natural Resources and 1968 provides forest officials with policing and judicial Environmental Conservation by the House of powers. Such measures, introduced to help counter
Representatives (Chapter 8). encroachment and wanton destruction of forests, became less applicable with the change in policy towards A National Conservation Strategy for Nepal was community forestry and decentralisation. For example, completed in 1 987 and endorsed as policy in 1 988 (HMG various rules such as the Panchayat Forest Rules, 1978 Nepal/IUCN, 1983, 1988). Policy resolutions cover the and Panchayat Forest Protection Rules, 1978 were basic requirements of the people, as well as the need to framed under the Forest Act to give local communities safeguard natural and aesthetic values and to maintain access to or ownership of forest lands to encourage the country's cultural heritage. It is also resolved that a sustained use of such resources. Other forestry-related separate body, the National Council for the Conservation legislation includes the Soil and Watershed of Natural and Cultural Resources, replace the National Conservation Act, 1982 which enables the Department Commission for the Conservation of Natural Resources of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management to and be responsible for implementing the National declare, develop and conserve critical watersheds. Under Conservation Strategy and formulating policy guideUnes this Act, any area may be designated as a protected concerning resource conservation matters. This council watershed area (see Annex). The Act has not yet been has since been formed and represents the most important applied but two nationally impwrtant watersheds are step to date towards establishing an institutional under consideration for designation as protected framework for cooperative environmental management watershed areas (MFSC, 1988). and protection in the country. Nepal has a well-developed mechanism for formulating
Conservation awareness dates back many centuries in and declaring policy through its national five-year plans. Nepalese society. The tradition of preserving large Stated fjolicies that affect the forestry sector are more or expanses of forest adjacent to places of worship or less adequate, the main problem being translating policy important sources of water is deep-rooted. In Kathmandu to legislation and in its effective implementation. Valley, for example, there are 45 sacred forests ranging Moreover, existing laws are not always consistent with in size from one to several thousand hectares which have current policy. Present forest policy is based on the 1976 been preserved in by countless generations accordance National Forestry Plan. Its main objectives are to meet with ancient religious traditions (Mansberger, 1990). the people's needs for forest products, to maintain and Various traditional systems of resource adminisu^ation restore the ecological balance through programmes of have also evolved: for example, the shingo nawa (forest reforestation and watershed management, and to derive caretakers) in Sherpa society; the kipat system of maximum economic gains from forest products. Policies exclusive and unalienable communal rights over large are incorporated within the most recent (seventh) areas in the Eastern Hills; and the chiiaidar (local five-year plan. A new forestry sector policy (1989) was non-official functionaries) responsible for the use of formulated under the Master Plan for the Foresuy Sector. village forests in the 19th century (HMG Nepal/IUCN, It was proposed that: forest resources be managed with In 1988). the fu'st half of this century there was a National priority given to products that best contribute to the Code under which forests in the hills were controlled by needs of the people; forest resources be managed village heads and private forests by forest watchers, with according to their ecological capability so as to conserve the district administrator holding superior authority. the forests, soil, water, flora, fauna and scenic beauty, Forest clearance was prohibited unless the authorised by with representative examples of ecosystems unique to government. Traditional forms of resource conservation.
93 Protected Areas of the World
Nepal protected and tourism regulated according to local application of the National Parks and Wildlife carrying capacities; and community forestry and the Conservation Act In addition to the adoption of a establishment of private forests on leased and private working policy, the Act needs to be amended to lands be promoted in accordance with the principles of strengthen protected areas management by providing for decentralisation policy. Official endorsement and zonation (including the creation of buffer zones), the implementation of this new policy was considered to be addition of a new category (biological reserve) of a priority, requiring extensive reform of existing forest protected area for biologically important areas and legislation (MFSC, 1988). A revised forestry sector wetlands that do not meet national park or wildlife policy (1991) has since been prepared under the Master reserve criteria nor need the restrictions on entry of the Plan. controlled natural reserve, and income for community development It is also proposed that the long-term national conservation programme was initiated by A security of protected areas be strengthened by requiring HMG Nepal in 1971. This was given a legal basis that their alienation or transfer be made subject to special following the passing of the National Parks and Wildlife legislation passed through the National Parliament Conservation Act, 2029 in March 1973 which provides (MFSC, 1988). for the establishment and administration of protected areas and "the conservation of animals and birds and Certain other legislation relates to tourism in their habitats." This act supercedes the Wildlife protected areas. Under the Tourism Act, 2035 (1979),
Conservation Act, 20 1 5 ( 1 958) and the Hunting Rules of mountaineering expeditions must obtain a permit firom 1967, under which six royal hunting reserves were the Ministry of Tourism in order to climb listed established in July 1969. The 1973 Act enables the Himalayan peaks, some of which are in national parks. government to establish any area as a national park, Similarly, tourists wishing to trek anywhere in Nepal reserve (i.e. controlled natural reserve, wildlife reserve must obtain permission firom the Central Immigration and hunting reserve) and, following an amendment in Office, Home Ministry, in accordance with the Trekking 1989, conservation area (see Annex). A controlled and River Rafting Regulations, 2041 (1985). Many of natural reserve (more commonly referred to as strict the popular trekking routes are in national parks. nature reserve) is at the protection end of the spectrum, International Activities Nepal into with entry permitted only for scientific study (none has has entered a number of obligations and cooperative agreements been created to date); a hunting reserve is at the related to conservation. It is utilisation end and managed for recreational hunting on a signatory to the Convention concerning the the a sustained yield basis. National parks and wildlife Protection of World Cultural and reserves both provide for the conservation of fauna and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) which it in their habitats, but national parks have a broader emphasis accepted 20 June 1978. Two natural sites, Sagarmatha and encompassing landscape values. A conservation area Royal Chitwan national parks, have been inscribed the provides for a flexible system of resource management on World Heritage List Nepal acceded to the Convention on Wetlands of through people's participation. It may be managed by the International especially relevant government agency or entrusted to a Importance as Waterfowl Habitat non-governmental organisation. The government may (Ramsar Convention) on 17 December 1987, at which time Koshi Tappu was to the List alienate, transfer ownership or alter the boundaries of added of Wetlands of International national parks, reserves or conservation areas by Importance established under notification in the Nepal Gazette. The various the terms of the Convention. Nepal participates in the and regulations introduced under the Act are the National Unesco Man Biosphere Programme. A National Committee for was established in 1974 under the Parks and Wildlife Protection Regulations, 2030 (1974), MAB framework of the Nepal National Committee for Unesco Royal Chitwan National Park Regulations, 2030 (1974), formed in 1971. biosphere reserves Wildhfe Reserve Regulations, 2034 (1977), Himalayan No have been established Following National Park Regulations, 2036 (1979) and Khaptad to date. initiatives by MAB/ National Park Regulations (1987). Provisions under the Unesco and MAB/Nepal in 1975, the International for Himalayan National Park Regulations include the Centre Integrated Mountain Development was established in in disposal of rubbish in designated places, prohibition of Kathmandu 1983 following an the use of forest products or their purchase from local agreement between HMG Nepal and Unesco signed in 1981. Its objectives residents by visitors, self-sufficiency in fuel for visitors, primary are "to help promote the of exemption of park entry fees for pilgrims, and collection development an economically and environmentally sound mountain ...", of forest products and grazing of livestock by residents ecosystem thereby complementing in places designated by the warden. Conservation Area regional efforts towards conservation. Participating Regulations are under preparation. While the Act and nations are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, accompanying regulations provide considerable China, India, Nepal and Pakistan (Glaser, 1984; discretionary powers to authorised officers, the lack of ICIMOD, 1989). policy guidelines is a major constraint to achieving Other regional initiatives concerned with resource effective management of protected areas. A working conservation in which Nepal participates are the South policy has recently been drafted as part of the Master Asian Cooperative Environmental Programme and the Plan for the Forestry Sector and represents a guide to the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.
94 Nepal
Further details are given elsewhere (HMG Nepal/IUCN, from headquarters and NRs 22.2 million firom parks and 1988). reserves (BJ>J. Upreti, pers. comm). In recent years, income generated from tourism, concessions, permits Nepal and China have both established protected areas and other sources has consistently exceeded expenditure respective sides of Mount Everest on their if the costs of the protection units are excluded. The plans are (Sagarmatha/Chomolangma). Management Smithsonian-Nepal Tiger Ecology Project was launched under cooperative agreements with the being formulated in 1973 as a joint programme supported by HMG Nepal Mountain Institute in the case of both Woodlands and the US government. The project was based in Royal countries. Chitwan National Park and in 1984 was succeeded by the Smithsonian-Nepal Terai Ecology Project. Recently, Administration and Management A new institutional in 1988, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife structure for the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation signed a 12-year cooperative agreement Conservation was developed during the formulation of with the Woodlands Mountain Institute to support the the Master Plan for the Forestry Sector and this is being Makalu-Barun Conservation Project (Shrestha et al., implemented ahead of legislative reforms under 1990). directives issued by His Majesty the King on
1 May 1988 (MFSC, 1988). The focus of the The Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed is strengthen the field units in organisational changes to Management was established in 1974 in response to a Forest in order to develop community the Department of growing awareness of soil conservation and watershed private forests based on people's participation and and degradation problems. Its objectives are to maintain to develop national forests based on management by ecological equilibrium by conserving important one of government agencies. The Department of Forest, watershed areas and by reducing the incidence of natural within the Ministry, and headed four departments now disasters such as soil erosion, landslides and floods. The Director General, is responsible for protection and by a Department is a project-based territorial organisation. It utilisation forest resources. It is split into four of is split into Environment and Management and administration, planning, divisions responsible for Technology Development divisions, and three sections, management and community forests, respectively. There with a total complement of 594 staff in 1988, of which regional directorates forests, each headed are five of by 274 were permanent and the rest temporarily assigned to forest offices, each under a Regional Director, 75 district projects (MFSC. 1988). a District Forest Officer, and 222 range offices, each under a range officer. In addition, 453 forest service The Shivapuri Watershed and Wildlife Reserve Board centres are proposed to assist with community forestry. was established in 1975 with the aim of improving the Protection responsibilities are assigned to the armed quaUty and quantity of drinking water in Kathmandu forest guards in the case of national forests, but in Valley, conserving the natural environment and community forests they are the responsibiUty of the user developing it for tourism. A watershed area of groups. The total number of approved posts in 1988 was 144 sq. km has been demarcated by a boundary wall and 8,855, of which 1,329 were for armed forest guards. declared a wildlife reserve. The reserve is managed by a committee, members of which include the Director- Wildlife conservation, prior to the National Parks and General of the departments of Forests, National Parks Wildlife Conservation Act, was the responsibility of the and Wildlife Conservation, and Soil Conservation and Forest Department, which established wildlife and Watershed Management It is planned that management hunting licences controlled hunting reserves, issued and of the reserve should eventually be handed over to the hunting within forest reserves. A National Parks and Department of National Parks and Wildlife WildUfe Conservation Office was set up in July 1972 as Conservation (MFSC, 1988). a semi-autonomous branch of the Forest Department
(FAO, 1980). In 1982, it was upgraded to departmental The shortcomings of the Ministry of Forests and Soil status within the Ministry of Forests, now the Ministry Conservation were assessed as part of the Master Plan of Forests and Soil Conservation. The Department is the process (MFSC, 1988). It is widely accepted that: primary agency for in situ conservation of ecosystems protective forestry as a general strategy for forest and genetic resources. It is headed by a Director General conservation has failed; management of forests located and comprises two divisions (National Parks and close to farmland should be handed over to the local Reserves, Planning and Research), three sections people; and that only areas which can be legitimately (Administration, Financial Administration, Hatisar/ defined and demarcated can be managed successfully by Elephant Camps) and a Central Zoo. Law enforcement a professional body such as the Department of Forest. within parks and reserves has been the responsibility of Constraints within this Department include a distorted the Royal Nepal Army since 1974 (MFSC, 1988). The staffing distribution, due primarily to the large number total number of approved posts for 1990/1991 is 998, of of vacancies still to be filled in the remote areas. The which 595 are field units (but not protection units) Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed responsible for administering parks and reserves. The Management is relatively new and lacks the resources to
Department's financial allocation for 1990/1991 is NRs fulfil its mandate. In the long-term, the Department
124.3 million, of which 84% is for protection units should become economically sustainable. Criteria need (Royal Nepal Army). Revenue totalled NRs 0.6 million to be formulated to identify priority areas and authorities.
95 Protected Areas of the World
with a view to optimising the allocation of scarce (20%) extending from the heavily populated hills of the resources. The Department of National Parks and Middle Mountains to the tree line; Middle Mountains or Wildlife Conservation has been inadequately staffed for Middle Hills (30%) of central Nepal; Siwaliks (13%), the size of its task, a problem exacerbated by representing the first and lowest ridges of the Himalayan secondments, research assignments and overseas system and extending from the Gangetic Plain to the fellowships. Many of these constraints have been Mahabharat Lekh at the southern edge of the Middle addressed in the recent organisational reform of the Mountains; and the terai (14%), a northern extension of Ministry. Within the Department of National Parks and the Gangetic Plain (Kenting, 1986; MFSC, 1988). There Wildlife Conservation, however, the assignment of are four main ecological zones: trans-Himalaya (a small, protection responsibilities to the military continues to be semi-arid zone north of the main Himalayan axis in a considerable drain on the Department's financial Western Nepal), highlands, subtropical/temperate resources. Moreover, this sharing of responsibilities is a midlands, and tropical lowlands or terai (HMG Nepal/ constraint to the effective management of protected lUCN, 1988). The main river systems from west to east
areas (Upreti, 1990). are the Mahakali, Kamali, Narayani and Kosi, all of which originate from the Himalaya. Together with other The King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation is an smaller rivers rising in the Mahabharat Lekh and autonomous non-profit organisation established in Siwaliks, they contribute up to 40% of the annual flow October 1983 under the King Mahendra Trust for Nature of the Ganges River and 71% of its dry season flow. Conservation Act 2039. The King Mahendra Trust for Other wedands include numerous small lakes, reservoirs Nature Conservation Regulations 2041 were published and village tanks, and a number of large reservoirs under on 15 October 1984. The Trust aims to conserve and construction in the Gandaki, Bagmati and Kamali river manage natural resources in order to improve the quality basins (Scott, 1989). of life of the human population, complementing the efforts of HMG and foreign agencies. The Trust has been Based on aerial surveys in 1978/1979, it has been instrumental in the establishment of the Annapuma estimated that forest (i.e. land with at least 10% tree Conservation Area (pending legal notification) and crown cover) covers 56 million hectares or 38% of the entrusted with its management. Support for protected country (most of which is found in the Siwaliks, Middle areas has also been extended to preliminary surveys of Mountains and High Mountains). Scrubland accounts the Barun Valley in cooperation with the Woodlands for a further 4.7%, cultivations and non-cultivated Mountain Institute, USA (Rana et at., 1986). Major inclusions 26.8%, grasslands 11.9%, and other lands objectives planned for 1988/1989-1991/1992 include 18.5%. Much of this forest is in poor conditions with the implementation of the conservation area concept in only a scattering of trees: forest cover at 40% tree crown the Annapuma basin and the establishment of the Nepal cover is only 28.1%. Furthermore, it is estimated that Conservation Research and Training Centre at Sauraha there has been a 5.7% of loss of forest land during the in Royal Chitwan National Park (KMTNC, 1988). preceding 14 years, most of which occurred in the terai and Siwaliks. Such losses are due to uncontrolled The Nepal Nature Conservation Society, founded in exploitation for fodder, fuelwood, timber and grazing 1971, encourages local interest in natural history and and to conversion for agriculture, exacerbated by the conservation but is seriously handicapped by lack of mass migration of people from the Middle Mountains fmancial resources (FAO, 1980). Other non-governmental following the eradication of malaria in the lowlands. organisations with conservation a outlook include the Although forest cover may not have changed Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists, and Nepal significantly in the Middle Mountains from 1964/1965 Forestry Association. A small-scale but effective to 1978/1979, its quality deteriorated more than initiative is the Jara Juri programme whereby each year anywhere else in the country. Moreover, deforestation leading efforts to promote resource conservation by an has been more extensive in the Middle Mountains (with individual or community are formally recognised (HMG 41% forest cover) and terai (23%) during recent Nepal/IUCN, 1988; Pandey, 1988). lUCN (The Worid historical times, than in the Siwaliks (76%) and High Conservation Union) has a project office in Nepal to Mountains (55%) (Kenting, 1986). assist with implementing the Nepal Conservation
Strategy. Following initiatives in the late-1950s to protect the
Indian rhinoceros and its habitat, the need to establish Systems Reviews Nepal, with its rich biological protected areas elsewhere in Nepal was highlighted diversity and spectacular landscape, extends for 800km under the HMG/UNDP/FAO Trisuli Watershed Project along the southern slopes of the Himalaya, separating the (Caughley, 1969). Subsequently, in 1973, HMG arid Tibetan Plateau to the north from the fertile Gangetic embarked on a National Parks and Wildlife Plain to the south. More than 80% of the total area is Conservation Project with assistance from UNDP and covered by rugged hills and mountains, including FAO. Its objective was to ensure the more effective Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) and another seven of the conservation and management of Nepal's valuable yet world's ten highest peaks. Five physiographic zones can diminishing wildlife resources and associated habitats be distinguished: High Himal (23% total area) by establishing a system of national parks and reserves comprising alpine meadows, rock and ice between the which, in addition to their conservation role, would tree line and Great Himalayan divide; High Mountains
96 Nepal
contribute to the development of the country's Phulchowki Mountain in Kathmandu Valley, severely economically important tourist industry. Many of threatened by quarrying and removal of fuelwood Nepal's protected areas were established under this (Inskipp and Inskipp, 1989), and the Mai Valley in the project which ended in 1979. A conservation education far east. A comprehensive systems review, covering the programme was included in the project and wildlife staff full range of habitat types and floral and faunal were trained overseas under this project and a New assemblages, is needed to assess the adequacy of the Zealand CooperaUon Project (FAO, 1980). In 1974, protected areas system (MFSC, 1988). Policy regardipg Royal Chitwan National Park, Royal Kamali Wildlife the selection of additional lands for protection is Reserve (renamed Royal Bardia Wildlife Reserve) and outlined in the national conservation strategy (HMG Royal Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve were identified by Nepal/IUCN, 1988). HMG as important areas for tiger conservation and Nepal's natural resources are exploited received substantial support for their development from being above their sustainable capacity to meet the increasing needs WWF under the aegis of Operation Tiger. The New of a Zealand government was instrumental in the rising human population that is predominantly agrarian establishment of Sagaimatha National Park, providing and subsistence in nature. The pressure on land and forest resources to meet daily food, fuelwood and fodder funds for its development over a six-year period requirements inevitably leads to conflicts the beginning in 1975 (Lucas, 1977). A third two-year at HMGAJNDP/FAO National Parks and Protected Areas boundaries of protected areas (Upreti, 1985). Major development projects also threaten the integrity Management Project was launched in 1986 to strengthen of protected areas, in the the the capability of the Department of National Parks and as case of proposed irrigation and hydropower projects planned near Royal Chitwan Wildlife Conservation to effectively manage its protected areas by preparing and implementing National Park (now listed as a threatened protected area the management plans and integrating local people into the by lUCN Commission for National Parks and Protected Areas) and Royal Bardia National Park. planning and management process (Heinen et al., 1988). The need to integrate conservation and development needs is Initiatives are now underway to extend the protected recognised gradually areas network to the Annapuma and Makalu-Barun widely and being addressed through, regions, with particular emphasis on promoting the for example, the national planning process and implementation the national "conservation area" concept to facilitate people's of conservation strategy. participation in conserving natural resources (Upreti, Other Relevant Information Protected areas play a 1990). very important role in the tourism industry, being a ]X)pular destination for mountaineers, trekkers, those Nepal has a fairly extensive protected areas network and interested in Nepal's wildlife or cultural diversity. The covering 7.7% of total land area. It is in the process of being expanded by a further 2.9%, with the number of visitors to Nepal increased from 45,000 in 1970 to 223,000 1986. During this period, the establishment of conservation areas in the Annapuma by number of tourists who came for trekking and mountaineering and Makalu-Barun regions (Sherpa et al., 1986; rose from 12,600 to 33,600. In 1985, tourism accounted Shrestha et al., 1990), and a number of earlier proposals for of gross foreign for setting up hunting reserves remain outstanding 48.5% exchange earnings (HMG Nepal/IUCN, 1988). In protected areas (Wegge, 1976a, 1976b). General recommendations to 1989, received a total of 84,840 visitors, Annapuma Conservation develop the protected areas network are made in the Area and Royal Chitwan National Park being the mostpopular lUCN Review of the Protected Areas system in the Indo-Malayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, destinations. 1986) and in the Corbett Action Plan (lUCN, 1985). A Addresses more recent assessment shows that of Nepal's five physiographic zones, the Middle Mountains are poorly Department of National Parks and Wildlife represented with only 1.4% protected areas coverage, as Conservation (Director General), PO Box 860, Babar compared with at least 4% for all other zones and 17.1% Mahal, Kathmandu (Tel: 1 229012/220850/227926; in the case of the High Himal. The limited coverage of FAX: 1 227675; Tk: 2567 kmmc np) the Middle Mountains is improved somewhat by the Department of Forest (Director General), Babar Mahal, royal forests of Nagarjun (l,600ha) and Gokarna Kathmandu (Tel: 1 220303/221231) (250ha), and there are two protected watersheds due to be established in this zone (MFSC, 1988). A more lUCN (The World Conservation Union), Senior refined review of protected areas coverage of Nepal's Advisor, PO Box 3923, Kathmandu (Tel: 1 521506; forests with respect to breeding birds (Inskipp, 1989) FAX: 1 226820; Tlx: 2566 HOHIL NP) shows that all upper temperate, subalpine and alpine and King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation most tropical forest types are well represented. Tropical (Secretary), PO Box 3712, Kathmandu (Tel: evergreen forests, subtropical and lower temperate 1 223229/220109; FAX: 1 226602; Tlx: 2567 kmmc broad-leaved forests in the far east, and subtropical np; Cable NATRUST) broad-leaved forests further west are unrepresented or Nepal Nature Conservation Society (General Secretary), very high priority for bird poorly represented. A Kathmandu conservation is protection of the species-rich forests of
97 Protected Areas of the World
References MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Reviewofthe protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Realm. Caughley, G. (1969). Wildlife and recreation in the lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Trisuli Watershed and other areas in Nepal. Report UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 284 pp. No. 6. HMG/FAO/UNDP Trisuli Watershed Mansberger, J. (1990). Keeping the covenant; sacred Development Project, Kathmandu. 44 pp. forests of Nepal. The New Road 12: 2. FAO (1980). National parks and wildlife conservation, MFSC (1988). Master Plan - Forestry Sector Nepal. 13 Nepal: project findings and recommendations. reports. HMG Nepal/ADB/FINNIDA with Jaakho Terminal Report, Rome. UNDP/FAO 63 pp. Poyry/Madecor Consultancy, Kathmandu. Glaser, G. (1984). The role of ICIMOD: a presentation Pandey, S. (1988). Jarajuri - A Nepal NGO with a of the Centre. In: Mountain Development: challenges MkKncQ.Tiger Paper {Forest News) 15(1): 11-13. and opportunities. International Centre for Rana, P.S J.B., Pandey, N.R. and Mishra, HJl. (1986). Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu. An introduction to the King Mahendra Trust for Pp. 59-63. Nature Conservation. King Mahendra Trust for Heinen, J.T., Kattel, B. and Mehta, J.N. (1988). National Nature Conservation Publication Series No. 1. park administration and wildlife conservation in 35 pp. Nepal. Draft. Department of National Parks and Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory ofAsian wetlands. Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu. 72 pp. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. HMG Nepal/IUCN (1983). National conservation 1,181 pp. strategy for Nepal: a prospectus. lUCN, Gland, Sherpa, M.N., Cobum, B. and Gurung, C.P. (1986). Switzerland. 36 pp. Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal Operation Nepal/IUCN (1988). Building on success. The HMG Plan. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation, National Conservation Strategy for Nepal. HMG Kathmandu. 74 pp. National Planning Commission/NCS for Nepal Shrestha, T.B., Sherpa, L.N., Banskota, K. and Nepali Secretariat, Kathmandu. 179 pp. R.K. (1990). The Makalu-Barun National Park and ICIMOD (1989). The years - a summary first five Conservation Area management plan. Department presentation. International Centre for Integrated of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Mountain Development, Kathmandu. 25 pp. Kathmandu/Woodlands Mountain Institute, West Inskipp, C. (1989). Nepal's forest birds: their status and Virginia, USA. 85 pp. conservation. International Council for Bird Upreti, B.N. (1985). The park-people interface in Nepal: Preservation Monograph No. 4. 160 pp. problems and new directions. In: McNeely, J.A., Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. Pulchowki - hill of (1989). Thorsell, J.W. and Chalise, S.R., People and flowers. Oryj: 23: 135-137. protected areas in the Hindu Kush - Himalaya. King lUCN The Corbett Action plan protected (1985). for Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation/ areas the Indomalayan Realm. lUCN, Gland, of International Centre for Integrated Mountain Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp. Development, Kathmandu. Pp. 19-24. Renting (1986). HMG Nepal/Government Canada of Upreti, B.N. (1990). Status of national parks and Land Resource Mapping Project. Kenting Earth protected areas in Nepal. Tiger Paper 18 (2): 27-32. Sciences Limited, Kathmandu. Wegge, P. (1976a). Terai shikar reserves: surveys and KMTNC (1988). Strategy environmental for management proposals. Field Document No. 4. conservation in Nepal. The initial five-year FAO/NEP/72/002 Project, Kathmandu. 78 pp. (1988/89-1992/93) Action Plan of The King Wegge, P. (1976b). Himalayan shikar reserves: surveys Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC). and management proposals. Field Document No. 5. KMTNC, Kathmandu. 70 pp. FAO/NEP/72/002 Project, Kathmandu. 96 pp. Lucas, P.H.C. (1977). Nepal's park for the highest mountain. Parks 2(iy. 1-4.
98 Nepal
ANNEX Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Forest Act, 2018 Religious forest State forest, or part thereof, located at a place of religious importance entniste'l
Date: 27 December 1961, amended 1963, 1977, to a religious institution for its protection and proper 1978 management
Brief description: To provide for the demarcation Contractforest^ State forest, or part thereof, devoid and administration of state forests of trees, or has only stray trees, entrusted to any individual or agency for production and consumption Administrative authority: Department of Forest, of forest products. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation
(Director-General) Privateforest reserve Any person may plant a forest on his land. Such forested land must be registered Designations: with the state. Activities may be controlled or prohibited within a private forest reserve State forest All forest, inclusive of waste land, by order streams and ponds, or paths, other than a forest park published in the Nepal Gazette. If any order is contravened, management and Panchayat forest as mentioned in this Act. may be transferred to the local forest officer for Designated by the government by notification in the up to a maximum period of 30 years. Nepal Gazette. No person has any rights within state forests unless provided through contract or permit by All provisions of this Act relating to state forests are the government. applicable to private forests.
Prohibited activities include deforestation, Source: Translation of original legislation cultivation, setting fires, grazing, damaging trees,
removing stone, manufacturing charcoal or lime etc,
Title : and removing forest products. The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 2029 Any state forest may be declared a forest park. Date: March 1973; amended 1975 and 1983 Panchayat forest State forest, or part thereof, which has been rendered waste or contains only Brief description: To provide for national parks and stumps, entrusted to any village Panchayat for the conservation of wildlife reforestation in the interest of the village community. Administrative authority: Department of National Under the Panchayat Forest Rules, 1978, ordinarily Parks and Wildlife Conservation (Director General) up to 200 bighas in the terai or 2,500 ropanies Designations: (125ha) elsewhere shall be maintained as Panchayat
forest in each Village Panchayat. The Panchayat is National Park Area Set aside fcff conservation, obliged to plant and maintain the forest, and act in management and utilisation of animals, birds, accordance with the operational plan of the relevant vegetation and landscape together with the natural Forest Division. It is forbidden sell, mortgage, to environment alienate, reclaim, cultivate or use the land in any
manner other than prescribed in the approved plan. Entry is restricted to persons possessing an entry permit or written permission from an authorised Panchayat protected forest State forest, or part officer, except in the case of government officials or thereof, entrusted to a local Panchayat for its persons travelling on an existing right-of-way. protection and proper management. Prohibited activities include: hunting or damaging Under the Panchayat Protected Forest Rules, 1978 any animal; building or occupying any form of (amended 1980), ordinarily 400 bighas in the terai or shelter or house; occupying, clearing or cultivating 10,000 ropanis (500ha) elsewhere shall be land; pasturing or watering any domesticated animal; designated as Panchayat protected forest in each damaging, felling or removing any tree or other Village Panchayat The Panchayat is obliged to: plant; mining, quarrying or removing stone, maintain and protect the forest; prevent poaching of minerals, or earth; carrying or using any weapon, forest produce, fu-es, destruction and damage to trees ammunition or poison; carrying any domestic or and quarrying; and to act in accordance with a other animal or trophy, except by a government specified working plan. It is forbidden to damage, official on duty or by a person travelling along an mortgage, sell or alienate, reclaim, or cultivate the existing right-of-way; blocking or diverting any forest, or deviate from the agreed working plan.
99 Protected Areas of the World
river, stream or other source of water flowing into a Designations: national park, or introducing any harmful or poisonous substance therein; and damaging or Protected watershed area Area protected to conserve removing any boundary marks, signposts or notices. soil and watersheds, and in which measures for afforestation may be taken. Services or amenities may be provided by HMG or Official permission is under contract to the government required for cutting trees and other plants or forest products. Land use, including Reserve Means controlled natural reserve, wildlife cultivation and planting of trees, may be subject to reserve or hunting reserve. official controls.
None of the activities prohibited within a national Source: MFSC, 1988 park is permitted without written permission from an authorised officer.
Controlled natural reserve (Strict nature reserve) Designations have recently been revised under the Area of ecological or other significance set aside for Master Plan for the Forestry Sector and are due to be the purpose of scientific study. incorporated within new forest legislation. Definitions,
as provided by the Department of Forests , are as follows: Entry is restricted to persons having written permission from an authorised officer. National Forest All forests except those designated otherwise. Wildlife reserve Area set aside for the conservation and management of animals, birds and other Community Forest Government forest land resources and their habitats. entrusted to user groups to encourage sustained use
of such resources. It is further subdivided according Hunting reserve Area set aside for the management to the management criteria. of animals, birds and other resources to provide for hunting. Community plantation forest Any government forest land, devoid of trees or in which only scattered Conservation area ( 1 989 amendment) Area managed trees or shrubby vegetation is left, which has been in accordance with an integrated plan for the notified for forest development through reforestation conservation of the natural environment and the by the active participation of user groups. sustainable use of natural resources. Community forest Any government forest which Source: Original legislation has been notified for management and conservation by the active involvement of user groups.
Title : Soil and Watershed Conservation Leasedforest Forest on land that has been leased by Act, 2039 central or local agencies of the government, village Date: 1982 development committees or private owners to individuals, cooperatives, institutions or commercial Administrative authority: Department of Soil firms for forest production purposes. Conservation and Watershed Management Religious forest Forest belonging to religious Brief description: Not available institutions under the Guthi Act.
100 Nepal
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Nationallinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Protected Areas of the World
Protected Areas of Nepal
102 ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN
Area 803,940 sq. km Government of India Circular No. 22-F (19 October 1894) represented a more comprehensive fewest policy Population 114,600,000(1990) statement, which emphasised management of forests tor Natural increase: 3.0% per annum timber production, watershed protection and
maintenance of productive capacity. It also provided Ekronomic Indicators guidelines on basic principles associated with rights of GNP: US$ 350 per capita (1988) people living adjacent to forest lands (Mumtaz, 1989). Policy and Legislation Environmental protection and Among the first pieces of legislation that directly ecology are included in the concurrent legislative list of benefited wildlife were the rules and regulations Pakistan's 1973 constitution. This initiative, together formulated in Sind under the Indian Forest Act in 1887 with the formation of an Environment and Urban Affairs and later incorporated in the Bombay Forest Manual. Division in 1973, was largely responsible for enactment Under this legislation, forests were protected from of the Environment Protection Ordinance, 1983. The grazing by livestock but hunting was not legally Ordinance is a landmark in Pakistan's legislation and controlled. Hunting and other forms of resource represents official recognition of a holistic approach to exploitation were subsequently controlled within areas environmental issues. It provides for the control of declared as reserved or protected forests under the Indian pollution and preservation of a comprehensive national Forest Act, 1927, the title of which was changed to environmental policy, and filing of detailed Pakistan Forest Act, 1927 following Pakistan's adoption environmental impact statements by proponents of of the Act after partition in 1947 (Ferguson, 1978; Rao, projects likely to adversely affect the environmenL The 1984). The 1927 Act sought to "consolidate the law main drawback of the Ordinance, however, is its much relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and the narrower scope - focusing on anti-industrial pollution - duty leviable on timber and other forest produce." It than was envisaged in the original draft, which included further "empowers the government to set aside forest legal provisions for the protection of Pakistan's natural reserves, appoint officers charged with the management resource base (Mumtaz, 1989). of those territories, enforce rules governing the use of A significant step towards meeting the environmental forests, determine the degree to which timber and other challenge was taken in 1988, with the support of lUCN, products may be exploited, and regulate the movement by initiating the national conservation strategy (NCS) of cattle upon these lands. Moreover, the Act authorises development process. A secretariat has been set up in the the government to punish violators of the stipulations Environment and Urban Affairs Division (Ministry of contained in it." The 1927 Act has since been amended Housing and Works), which reports to a high-level by the West Pakistan Goats (Restriction) Ordinance of steering committee comprising representatives of eight 1959 and the West Pakistan Goats Restriction Rules of ministries directly concerned with natural resources, and 1961, which enable the government to protect five from the private sector. The NCS development rangelands from grazing damage by goats through process represents an unique policy review of economic limiting their numbers and movements. issues and their collective impacts on the environment. The 1927 Act is not conservation-oriented, commercial Public consultations are an integral part of this review forestry interests being foremost. Subsequent forest and planning exercise (Kabraji, 1986; Mumtaz, 1989). policy, under the directives of 1955, 1962 and 1980, has As part of the review process, a national workshop was attempted to bring forests under sound scientific held in 1986 (lUCN/GOP, 1987). The first phase of the management and included provisions for the creation of development process, namely the formulation of national parks to conserve major ecosystems, but it has Pakistan's NCS, was completed in 1990 (JRC, n.d.). not been successful (Mumtaz, 1989). The need to Early Hindu and Muslim rulers, recognising the reassess and redefme policy is being addressed by the inadvisabihty of uncontrolled hunting, were the first to Forest Department, following on from a recent set aside game reserves wherein hunting was restricted evaluation of Pakistan's forest policy at an international during breeding seasons. By the late 16th century, the seminar organised by the Ministry of Food, Agriculture Mughals had codified regulations pertaining to hunting and Cooperatives in 1989. Existing forest legislation is and these policies were adopted by succeeding Sikh and regulatory in nature. It needs to be revised to meet the British administrations (ALIC, 1981). Indiscriminate requirements of development and extension forestry, exploitation of forest resources during the 19th century with more persuasive rather than punitive provisions led to the realisation of the need for a forest policy. (ShekhandJan, n.d.). Although not of direct relevance to Pakistan, the first Wildlife conservation legislation inherited from British forest policy directive issued by the government of India India was superseded by the now obsolete West Pakistan was in the form of a Memorandum (3 August 1855) for Wildlife Protection Ordinance, 1959 and the West the protection and extraction of teak. It restricted the Pakistan Wildlife Protection Rules, 1960 issued under rights of forest dwellers to conserve the forests.
103 Protected Areas of the World
that ordinance. Apart from prohibiting the killing of International Activities Pakistan ratified both the certain species of fauna, this legislation made provision Convention concerning the Protection of the World for the declaration of game sanctuaries, in which hunting Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage was prohibited, and game reserves, in which hunting was Convention) and the Convention on Wetlands of controlled under license, but did not protect the habitat International Importance especially as Waterfowl against settlement, cultivation, grazing and other forms Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 23 July 1976. No of exploitation. Furthermore, both the West Pakistan natural sites have been inscribed to date under the World Wildlife Protection Ordinance and the Pakistan Forest Heritage Convention. Nine wetlands were designated at
Act applied only to the settled areas of Pakistan (i.e. the the time of Pakistan's ratification of the Ramsar flood plains of the Kabul and Indus rivers and all the land Convention, of which two (Kandar Dam and Kheshki to the east of them); neither were applicable to the Reservoir) are no longer considered to be of international Special/Tribal Areas, which constituted most of the importance (Scoa, 1989). Pakistan participates in the mountainous half of the country to the west of the Indus Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, but there and where much of Pakistan's remaining wildlife was to does not appear to have been any significant be found (Grimwood, 1969). development in recent years. Pakistan also participates in the South Asian Cooperative Environmental A Wildlife Enquiry Committee was set up in 1968 Programme. to review inter alia the existing conservation legislation, based on recommendations by World Administration and Management Originally, the Wildlife Fund (Mountfort and Poore, 1967, 1968). Game Department was responsible for administering the Legislation was drafted by this committee West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance up until
(Government of Pakistan, 1971) and, with minor 1967, when it was absorbed into the Forest Department modifications, was subsequently adopted at (Grimwood, 1969). Following the recommendations of provincial level through the provision of various the Wildlife Enquiry Committee (Government of acts and an ordinance, namely: Sind Wildlife Pakistan, 1971), a National Council for Conservation of Protection Ordinance, 1972, Punjab Wildlife (Protection, Wildlife was established on 7 July 1974 within the then
Preservation, Conservation and Management) Act, 1974, Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture. It has an Baluchistan Wildlife Protection Act, 1974, and advisory board, and is responsible for coordinating North-West Frontier Province Wildlife (Protection, central and provincial government effort in the Preservation, Conservation and Management) Act, formulation and implementation of wildlife policies.
1975. Separate laws were passed for the Northern The Inspector General of Forests is assisted by a Areas, Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir and Federal Conservator of Wildlife, who acts as an adviser on Capital Territory of Islamabad. These are the Northern wildlife, but the actual management of wildlife is Areas Wildlife Preservation Act, 1975, Azad Jammu handled by the provincial forest (wildlife) departments. and Kashmir Wildlife Act, 1975 and the Islamabad Punjab and Sind have separate wildlife administrations, Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation and but in Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir, Baluchistan, Management) Ordinance, 1979 (Rau, 1984). This is Northern Areas and North-West Frontier Province the first time in the history of Pakistan's wildlife wildUfe is administered by branches of the respective legislation that an attempt has been made to provide forest departments. In practice, forest staff look after for the conservation of habitat (although limited to wildUfe in reserved or protected forests, and wildlife protected areas) and species other than game species. staff are responsible for protecting wildlife in other protected areas and elsewhere. In North-West Frontier All of these statutes provide for the creation and Province, wildlife staff are responsible for wildlife management of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries everywhere. Within the Federal Capital Territory of (synonymous with wildlife reserves in the Northern Islamabad, the Directorate of Environment is Areas Act), game reserves (synonymous with controlled responsible for the administration of protected areas. hunting areas in the Northern Areas Act) and, in the case Legal provision has been made for the creation of of the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province and wildlife management boards to approve wildlife policies Islamabad legislation, private game reserves (see and monitor development activities in Punjab, Sind, Annex). Parts of areas protected under some statutes may Nonh-Wesi Frontier Province and Islamabad Sind has be denotified under pressure for agricultural extension an effective wildlife management board, while those of or land development (Khan and Hussain, 1985; Rao, North-West Frontier Province and Punjab are 1984). To date, there are no notified private game progressing. Boards exist in Azad State of Jammu & reserves but a number exist in Baluchistan (e.g. Goth Kashmir, Baluchistan and Northern Areas but only in an Raisani, Serajabad, Nasirabad area) and Sind (e.g. advisory capacity. That for Islamabad is not yet active. Khairpur), where there is no legal provision for their Provision has also been made for the appointment of establishment, and in Punjab (e.g. Kalabagh). Existing honorary officers to help implement wildUfe legislation wildlife legislation is reviewed by Rao (1984). Model in all political units except Baluchistan and Islamabad. legislation (Pakistan Wildlife Protection Act) is The idea was first introduced in Sind in the 1970s and currently being prepared by the National Council for proved to be very successful in Kirthar National Park, Conservation of WildUfe (Rao, 1987). resulting in the recovery of markhor and other large
104 Pakistan
mammal populations. It has since been adopted in Azad (Grimwood, 1972; Rao, 1984), perhaps by the State of Jammu & Kashmir and Punjab with the introduction of nature reserves and country parks to appointment of local dignitaries as honorary game replace wildlife sanctuaries. Protected and reserved wardens invested with considerable legal power to help forests continue to be managed under forest working enforce the law within protected areas (Ferguson, 1978; plans after being designated national parks or wildlife Mumtaz, 1990, 1991; NCCW, 1978; Rao, 1984; Roberts, sanctuaries, thereby undermining the purpose of their 1983). renotification. Hunting in game reserves is not controlled on a sustained yield basis, permits being issued Allocation of funds to the forestry sub-sector has arbitrarily and subject to political influence (Rao, 1984). increased from 10.2% in the Sixth Five-Year Plan The Government of Punjab, however, has restricted the (1983-1988) to 12.5% in the Seventh Five-Year Plan number of shoots under an amendment to the Punjab (1988-1993). Of the Rs 2 billion allocated to the Wildlife Act (Khan and Hussain, 1985). Weak sub-sector under the Seventh Plan, Rs 332 million enforcement of the law is an overall constraint, but also (16.6%) is earmarked for wildlife conservation (Sheikh safeguards against habitat degradation within protected and Jan, n.d.). Within the wildlife sector, the total budget areas are inadequate (Rao, 1984). This is largely a allocated to the federal units in 1990-1991 is Rs 93.4 reflection of inadequate financial and technical million (US$ 4.3 million), of which 52.5% represents resources. In addition, except in Punjab, present recurrent expenditure and 47.5% capital development administrative arrangements handicap wildlife and costs. The total number of staff within the wildlife sector protected areas management due to the lack of is 3,206: 121 are administrative and executive, 2,375 are independence of the wildlife administrations within the protection and operational, and 710 are supporting staff federal units (Mumtaz, 1990, 1991). (Malik, 1990). Systems Reviews Predominantly arid and semi-arid, The Environmental Protection Ordinance is Pakistan is a land of great contrasts. Nearly 60% of the enforced by the Pakistan Environment Protection country consists of mountainous terrain and elevated Council, but this has not yet been formed. The plateaux; the rest is lowland, generally below 300m. The Council is also responsible for establishing a highlands comprise: the Himalaya and adjacent national environmental policy, providing direction mountain ranges to the north, rising to 8,61 Im at the top to conserve renewable and expendable resources of K2, the world's second highest peak; the central and ensuring that environmental considerations are Sulaiman Range and its southern extensions (Ras Koh, incorporated within national development plans and Siahan and Kirthar ranges); and the western Baluchistan policies. Administration of the Ordinance is the Plateau. The lowlands comprise the Indus River plain responsibility of the Pakistan Environment Protection and a narrow stretch of coastline bordering the Arabian Agency. Provincial Environment Protection Agencies Sea. A profile of the environment has been prepared by have been set up, but other implementation procedures the Government of Pakistan (1989). have yet to be streamlined (Mumtaz, 1989). Pakistan did not inherit a very rich forest resource base, Among the non-governmental organisations involved a reflection of its arid climate and the incessant cutting with conservation is the Pakistan Wildhfe Conservation of trees throughout much of the country over the last few Foundation, a registered charity established in 1979. Its centuries. Under extensive reforestation schemes and president is appointed by a resolution of the National extension programmes, forest coverage has increased Council for Conservation of Wildlife. A main objective from 1.4 million ha at the time of independence to is to promote wildlife conservation activities through 4.6 million ha (5.2% of total land area) by 1984. One provision of funds in accordance with the policies of the million ha of forest, for example, was planted in National Council for Conservation of WildUfe. lUCN North-West Frontier Province with the cooperation of (The World Conservation Union) has a country office in the people. Forest cover is most extensive in Azad State Karachi. Field programmes concerned with protected of Jammu & Kashmir (27.7%), North-West Frontier areas management issues are focused on Korangi/Phitti Province (13.9%) and Northern Areas (13.4%); in the Creek in the Indus Delta, juniper forests in Baluchistan other three states it is below 5%. There are two types of and Khunjerab National Park in the Northern Areas. forest in Pakistan: production forest managed for World Wide Fund for Nature-Pakistan (formerly World commercial extraction of timber; and protection forest Wildlife Fund-Pakistan) has offices in Lahore and which has no commercial value and is primarily for soil Karachi. Two bodies are concerned specifically with protection. Only 27.6% of forest is commercially used, promoting the conservation of pheasants, namely the the bulk (72.4%) of this resource being under protection World Pheasant Association (Pakistan) and the Pheasant (Sheikh and Jan, n.d.; JRC, 1989). Conservation Forum.
Most of Pakistan's remaining wildlife is to be found in Emphasis on the management of national parks has the mountainous country west of the Indus, where human been given to the development of recreation facilities pressures have not been as great as in the plains. The two for tourists rather than nature conservation as, for regions of outstanding importance are the Himalayan example, in Lai Suhanra and Margalla Hills national and Karakoram massifs in the extreme north and the parks. Management categories need to be modified desert in the south-west of the country (Grimwood,
105 Protected Areas of the World
1969). To the east of the Indus, Hazara Division in commercial value, where timber and minor forest North-West Frontier Province and several areas in products are harvested. Enforcement is better in national Punjab have a considerable amount of wildlife (M.M. parks but only Kirthar currently has a management plan. Malik, pers. comm., 1987), as does the Neelum Valley Plans for some of the other national parks are due to be in Azad Slate of Jammu & Kashmir (G. Duke, pers. prepared, although that for Khunjerab has met with comm., 1990). Wildlife resources and their exploitation difficulty due to land ownership disputes between the have been reviewed for Baluchistan (Groombridge, government and local people (Malik, 1990, 1991). 1988; Mian and O'Gara, 1987; Roberts, 1973) and Sind Protected (Roberts, 1972). Major irrigation systems, built to tap the areas have been created haphazardly, often in the absence of any criteria for their water resources of the Indus and its tributaries to meet selection, and the demands of an increasing human population, have boundaries drawn with little or no ecological basis. Priorities resulted in the disappearance of extensive tracts of the to develop the existing network of protected areas are original tropical thorn scrub, riverine swamp and forest identified in the lUCN systems review of the in the plains (Roberts, 1977). In a recent review of Indomalayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986) and further recommendations are in critical ecosystems in Pakistan, Roberts ( 1 986) identifies made the the Indus riverine zone, and the Chaghai Desert and Corbett AcUon Plan (lUCN, 1985). Malik (1990, 1991) juniper forests of Baluchistan as being of unique recommends a doubling of protected areas coverage. ecological interest and international conservation While most major habitats are represented within the importance. existing protected areas system (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986), a comprehensive systems review Pakistan possesses a great variety of wetlands disdibuted has never been carried out at the national level. Clearly, throughout much of the country. Inland waters cover this is a priority in order to plan the further development 7.8 million ha, over half of which comprises of Pakistan's protected areas network. waterlogged areas, seasonally flooded plains and saline wastes. Coastal mangrove swamps cover at least Other Relevant Information 260,000ha. Pakistan's wetlands are important for waterfowl, particularly those of the Indus Valley - a Federal Capital Territory The Directorate of major wintering ground for a wide variety of central and Environment, within the Capital Development Authority, northern Asian species, as well as being of is responsible for protected areas management. It is socio-economic value (Scott, 1989). headed by a Director, who is supported by a Deputy Director, two Assistant Directors, a field staff of 68 and Prior to 1966, Pakistan had taken no significant steps 30 other staff. The Directorate is well organised and towards establishing a protected areas network. That enjoys good support from other government agencies by year, at the invitation of the government, the World virtue of being in the capital (Malik, 1990). Wildlife Fund carried out a survey of the country's Northern wildlife resources and recommended measures to arrest Areas The Northern Areas Forest Department their deterioration (Mountfort and Poore, 1967, 1968). manages protected areas in its jurisdiction. Apart from These included the establishment of two large national Khunjerab National Park, which is independently parks and eight wildlife sanctuaries. This initiative was managed under a Park Director, wildlife staff are followed by the constitution of a Wildlife Enquiry attached to the territorial forest divisions under Committee in 1968, which made further recommendations Divisional Forest Officers. The total number of wildlife staff for the establishment of four national parks, 18 wildlife is 87, of which 60 are operational/protection sanctuaries and 52 game reserves (Government ofPakistan, personnel. The budget allocated for 1990-1991 is million, 1971). These recommendations have been substantially Rs 1.8 of which 83.3% is recurrent expenditure exceeded: four national parks, 44 wildlife sanctuaries and and the rest (16.6%) for development costs (Malik, 1990). 65 game reserves had been declared by 1 978 (ALIC, 198 1). During the period 1968-1971, various technical assistance North-West Frontier Province Protected areas was receival firom the Food and Agricultural Organisation management has been assigned to an independent of the United Nations, which latterly included the Wildlife ^^ ing within the Forest Department, headed by appointment of an adviser to the Wildlife Enquiry a Conservator of Wildlife. The province is divided into Committee (Grimwood, 1969, 1972). The network six wildlife divisions, each headed by a Divisional Forest currently comprises 10 national parks, over 80 wildlife Officer, Wildlife. A wildlife ranger is allocated to each sanctuaries and over 80 game reserves, covering 7.2 million of the 14 districts, as well as to each of the two national ha (9% total land area). Although extensive, given parks. The total number of wildlife staff is 502, of whom Pakistan's human population, only a fraction of the network 357 are operational/protection personnel. Although the is protected. Game reserves, in particular, which are often Wildlife Wing enjoys considerable independence in on private land, receive minimal protection due to lack of its operations, policy and financial constraints are a legal provisions to control land use. Wildlife sanctuaries source of conflict The budget allocated for 1990-1991 enjoy better protection but, in practice, legal restrictions are Rs 9.9 million, of which 67.7% is recurrent expenditure seldom enforced other than preventing hunting. Most and the rest (32.3%) for development costs (Malik, sancUiaries have been designated in reserved forests of 1990).
106 Pakistan
Addresses Ferguson, D.A. (1978). Protection, conservation, and management of threatened and endangered species Conservation of Wildlife National Council for in Pakistan. US Fish and Wildlife Service, (Conservator, Wildlife), Ministry of Food, Washington DC. Unpublished report 62 pp. and Cooperatives, 485 Street 84, G-6/4 Agriculture Government of Pakistan (1971). Summary of Wildlife ISLAMABAD (Tel. 829756; Tlx 5844 MINFA PK; Enquiry Committee Report. Printing Corporation of Cable AGRIDIV) Pakistan Press, Islamabad. 44 pp. Agriculture and Cooperatives Ministry of Food, Government of Pakistan (1989). Environmental profile of Forests), Room 323, Block B, (Inspector-General ofPakistan. Environment & Urban Affairs Division, Pakistan Secretariat, ISLAMABAD (Tel. 825289; Government of Pakistan, Islamabad. 248 pp. Cable Tlx 5844 MINFA PK; AGRIDIV) Grimwood, I.R. (1969). Wildlife conservation in Pakistan. Pakistan National Forestry Research and - (Wildlife Forest Department Wildlife Wing Training Project. Report No. 17. UNDP/FAO, Rome. Warden), Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir, 31pp. MUZAFFARABAD (Tel: 18) Grimwood, I.R. (1972). Wildlife conservation and Forestry and Wildlife Department, (Divisional Forest management. Report No. TA 3077. FAO, Rome. Officer, Wildlife), Government of Baluchistan, 58 pp. Spinny Road, QUETTA (Tel: 71298) Groombridge, B. (1988). Baluchistan Province, Directorate (Director), Capital Development Environment Pakistan: a preliminary environmental profile. lUCN Authority, Sitara Market, ISLAMABAD (Tel: Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 826397) Unpublished report. 104 pp. (Conservator of Forests), Northern Forest Department lUCN (1985). The Corbett Action Plan for protected Areas, Box 501, GILGIT (Tel: PO 360) areas of the Indomalayan Realm. lUCN, Gland, Forest Department - Wildlife Wing (Conservator, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp. Wildlife), of North-West Frontier Government lUCN/GOP (1987). Towards a national conservation Province, Shami Road, PESHAWAR (Tel: 73184) strategy for Pakistan. Proceedings of the Pakistan Wildlife Department, (Conservator of Forests, Parks and Workshop 1986. Asian Art Press, Lahore. 367 pp. Sanda Road, Wildlife), Government of Punjab, 2 JRC (n.d.) Towards sustainable development: the LAHORE (Tel: 61798/63947) Pakistan National Conservation Strategy. (Conservator of Sind Wildlife Management Board, JoumaUsts' Resource Centre for the Environment, Forests, Wildlife), Aiwan-e-Saddar Road, PO Box lUCN Pakistan, Karachi. 3722, KARACHI 1 (Tel: 523176) Kabraji, A.M. (1986). A national conservation strategy for Pakistan. In: Carwardine, M. (Ed.), The nature of lUCN, The World Conservation Union (Country Pakistan. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 69-71. Representative), 1 Bath Island Road, KARACHI Khan, A. and Hussain, M. (1985). Development of Tlx: 75530 (Tel: 573046/79/82; 24154 MARKPK) protected area system in Pakistan in terms of Foundation, 485 Street Pakistan Wildlife Conservation representative coverage of ecotypes. In: Thorsell, Tlx: 84, G-6/4 ISLAMABAD (Tel: 829756; 5844 J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia's natural heritage. MINFA PK; Cable AGRIDIV) lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 60-68. Pheasant Conservation Forum (Secretary), c/o National MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review ofthe for Wildlife, Ministry of Council Conservation of protected areas systems in the Indo-Malayan realm. Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives, 485 Street 84, lUCN, Gland, Switzeriand and Cambridge, UK. G-6/4 ISLAMABAD (Tel: 829756; Tlx: 5844 284 pp. MINFA PK; Cable AGRIDIV) Malik, M.M. (1990). Management status of protected (Chairman), World Pheasant Association-Pakistan areas in Pakistan. Paper presented at Regional Expert Aziz-Bhatti Mall, 7 Road, The LAHORE Consultation on Management of protected areas in Nature-Pakistan, I Bath Island Word Wide Fund For the Asia-Pacific Region. FAO Regional Office for Tlx: Road, KARACHI 75530 (Tel: 573046/79/82; Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 10-14 December 24154 MARKPK) 1990.40 pp. For Nature-Pakistan (Director), World Wide Fund Malik, M.M. (1991). Management status of protected (Tel: 851174, 856177; PO Box 5180, LAHORE areas in Pakistan. Tiger Paper 18(1): 21-28. FAX: 370429; Tbc 44866 PKGS PK) Mian, A. and O'Gara, B.W. (1987). Baluchistan and wildlife potentials. University of Baluchistan, References Quetta, Pakistan and University of Montana, Missoula, USA. Draft. 32 pp. ALIC (1981). Draft environmental profile: the Islamic Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1967). The conservation of Republic of Pakistan. US Agency for International wildlife in Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Development/US National Park Service/US Man Switzerland. Unpublished report. 27 and the Biosphere Secretariat. Arid Lands pp. Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Information Centre, Office of Arid Lands Studies, Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to Pakistan. University of Arizona, Tucson, USA. 227 pp.
107 Protected Areas of the World
World Wildlife Fund, Merges, Switzerland. on the wildlife resources of the region. Pakistan Unpublished. 25 pp. Journal ofForestry 22: 89-96. Mumtaz, K. (1989). Pakistan's environment: a historical Roberts, T.J. (1973). Conservation problems in perspective. In: Shirkat Gah-Women's Resource Baluchistan with particular reference to wildlife Centre, Pakistan's environment: a historical preservation. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 23: perspective and selected bibliography with 117-127. annotations. Journalists' Resource Centre for the Roberts, TJ. (1977). The mammals of Pakistan. Ernest Environment-rUCN Pakistan, Karachi. Pp. 7-38. Benn, London. 361 pp. National Council for Conservation of Wildlife (1978). Roberts, TJ. (1983). Problems in developing a national Wildlife conservation strategy: Pakistan. National wildlife policy and in creating effective natural paries Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Islamabad, and sanctuaries in Pakistan. Paper presented at Pakistan. Unpublished report 73 pp. Bombay Natural History Society Centenary Rao, Ai. (1984). A review of wildlife legislation in Seminar. Powai, Bombay, December 1983. 9 pp. Pakistan. MSc. thesis. University of Edinburgh, Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory ofAsian wetlands. Edinburgh, UK. 66 pp. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Rao, A.L. (1987). Nature conservation in Pakistan. In: 1.181 pp. Towards a national conservation strategy. Pp. 223-250. Sheikh, M.I. and Jan, A. (n.d.). Role of forests and Roberts TJ. (1972). A brief examination of ecological forestry in national conservation strategy of Pakistan. changes in the province ofSind and their consequences Draft for comment National Conservation Strategy Secretariat, Islamabad. 86 pp.
ANNEX Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Pakistan Wildlife Ordinance (Draft) facilities and public amenities must be carefully planned so as not to impair the primary objective of NOTE: This legislation, drafted by the Wildlife a park's estabUshment. Enquiry Committee, was subsequently adopted (with minor modifications) at provincial level through Wildlife sanctuary An area set aside as an various enactments. undisturbed breeding ground, primarily for the protection of wildlife including all natural resources, Date: 1971 such as soil, water and vegetation.
Brief description: An ordinance to amend and Prohibited activities include entry or residence by consolidate the laws relating to preservation, any person, cultivation of land, damage or conservation and management of wildlife in Pakistan destruction of vegetation, hunting, killing or capture
of any wild animal within one mile of its boundaries, Administrative authority: Provisional Government introduction of any exotic species of animal, entry of Designations: any domestic animal, causing any fire, and polluting water flowing through it, unless authorised by the National park A comparatively large area of provincial government for scientific or aesthetic outstanding scenic merit and natural interest, purposes.
wherein the primary objective is to protect the Game reserve area landscape, flora and fauna in its natural state and to An declared as such fw the which the public are allowed access for purposes of protection of wildlife and increase in populations of recreation, education and research. important species.
The provincial government No hunting or trapping of any wild animal is may permit hunting and shooting of wild permitted within one mile of its boundary. Disturbing animals under a special permit any wild animal, damaging or destroying any plant, restricting the number of animals killed, and the area duration its clearing or breaking up land for cultivation, and and of validity. polluting water flowing though a park are prohibited, Private game reserve An area of private land set unless authorised by the provincial government for aside by its owner for the same purpose as a game scientific or other exceptional purposes. Harvesting reserve, subject to the satisfaction and notification of of forest produce on a sustained basis is allowed the provincial government. provided park values are not jeopardised. Construction of access roads, accommodation Source: Govemmentof Pakistan (1971)
108 Pakistan
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map NationaUinternadonaldesignation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notined Protected Areas ofthe World
Map^ Pakistan
PHILIPPINES
Area 299,765 sq. km not used these terms in any clear or consistent manner. Furthermore, this decree was subsequendy amended by Population 62,413,000(1988) Presidential decrees nos. 705 and 1 559, although without Natural increase: 2.28% per annum reference to a national system. It is, therefore, unclear whether the entire Presidential Decree No. Economic Indicators 389 has been repealed, or merely amended in an GNP: US$630 per annum undefined manner (NRMC, 1983). Aji analysis of laws and enactments Policy and Legislation The 1987 Constitution pertaining to national parks prior to the 1986 revolution mandates the state ownership of all natural resources, is given in NRMC (1983). Forest land use legislation, which includes fisheries, forests or timber, wildlife, flora including that relevant to protected areas, is analysed by and fauna and other natural resources. Furthermore, it Natividad (1987). has ordained that the boundaries of forest and national Protected areas were first established during the parks must be marked clearly on the ground and there US administration, with the enactment of Executive Order after be conserved and neither enlarged nor diminished No. 33 on 25 April 1910 establishing the diminutive except by Act of Congress (PAWB, 1991). Rizal (Dapitan) National Park. The first formal protected The 1990 Philippine Strategy for Sustainable area legislation was Act No. 3915, "An Act for the Development (DENR, 1991) is the outcome of a series Establishment of National Parks Declaring such Parks as of broad consultations between the government, NGOs, Game Refuges and Other Purposes", passed on the business and academic sectors. The Strategy has been 1 February 1932. The Act came into force on endorsed by the Cabinet, and includes a clear 1 January 1934 in Forestry Administrative Order No. 7 commitment on the behalf of government to establish (National Park Regulations) which provided regulations protected areas as the principal instrument for for the establishment, supervision and special uses of conservation (WWF, 1991). Ten strategies are national parks. Act No. 39 1 5 describes national parks as promulgated, with the aim of addressing the issues of "a portion of the public domain reserved or withdrawn environment and development in the Philippines. These from settlement, occupancy or disposal under the laws are: the integration of environmental considerations in of the Philippine Islands which, because of its decision making; proper pricing of natural resources; panoramic, historical, scientific or aesthetic value, are property rights reform; establishment of a national dedicated and set apart for the benefit and enjoyment of integrated protected areas system; rehabilitation of the people of the Philippine Islands". A more degraded ecosystems; pollution control; integration of contemporary definition of national parks is given in the population concerns and social welfare in development Forestry Reform Code, Presidential Decree No. 705 planning; inducing growth in rural areas; promotion of dated 19 May 1975, as "a forest land reservation environmental education; and strengthening citizen's essentially of primitive or wilderness character which participation. However, the Strategy itself lacks a clear has been withdrawn from settlement or occupancy and mechanism for funding and implementation (Roque, set aside as such exclusively to presei ve the scenery, the 1991). natural and historic objects and the wild animals or plants therein, and to provide enjoyment of these features in The legal basis for protected areas is complex and since such a manner as will leave them unimpaired for future 1900 there have been at least 262 enactments. These generations" (NRMC, 1983). Forest Administrative in variety have been a of forms, such as RepuWic acts, Order No. 7 identifies the purpose of national parks as proclamations, administrative orders, executive orders. to: preserve panoramic, scenic or aesthetic interest; Presidential letters of instruction and others, mostly provide for recreation; and to preserve flora and fauna, relating to the estabUshment or modification of protected geological features, historic or prehistoric remains and areas. In a number of cases enactments have been any other feature of scientific or ethnological interest. overlapping or inconsistent, or have not provided However, neither a precise definition of national parks, sufficient information for a protected area to be nor specific criteria for selecting areas for national park accurately delimited. There has been a marked tendency status is given (Sema, n.d.). to issue amending enactments which has lead to further confusion. Thus, for example, the legal and There are numerous confusing and overlapping laws administrative status of Quezon Memorial National Park concerning the establishment of marine protected areas. can only be ascertained by reference to at least 12 The legislation for, and management of, marine enactments. Another difficulty arises from overlapping protected areas is discussed in UNEP/IUCN (1988). The legislation. For example, Presidential Decree No. 389 first national marine park, Tubbataha Reefs, was clearly indicates that the protected areas system established on 1 1 August 1988 by virtue of Presidential comprises national parks, national recreation areas, Decree No. 306. The tourist zone, a new category, was national historic parks, national seashore parks and devised in the 1970s. These come under the jurisdiction national marine parks. Nevertheless, enactments have of the Phihppines Tourism Authority and within them
113 Protected Areas of the World
tourism is given priority over conservation. Puerto of Environment and Natural Resources, under the Galero Biosphere Reserve falls into this category, provisions of Executive Order 192. Simultaneously, the although other such zones have been set up under six Bureau of Forest Development was dissolved and a presidential proclamations (1520, 1522, 1551, 1653, number of new bureaux established within the DENR, 1667-A and 1801) (NRMC, 1983). including the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau and the Forest Management Bureau (Scott, 1989). The The lack of clear definition and criteria for selecting Bureau of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture and areas has led to a proliferation of national parks. The total Natural Resources (DANR) was responsible for the number of national parks created is open to debate, with adminisU'ation of national parks between 1932 and 1952. some authorities stating a total of 62 (NRMC, 1983; In August 1952 the Commission on Parks and Wildlife, 1991), 59 (Anon., 1988a), 60 (Basa, 1988) or 72 PAWB, direcdy under the Office of the President, was created the discrepancies probably stemming (Petocz, 1988), under provisions in the Republic Act No. 826. from the fact that several agencies are responsible for Government Re-organization Plan No. 45 of 1956 managing protected areas. placed the Parks and Wildlife Office under the control of the DANR. A further reorganisation of the A draft 1991 National Integrated Protected Areas government in 1972 led to the merging of the Parks and System Act has been prepared and is before Congress at Wildlife Office with the Bureau of Forestry and the present. This will enable the establishment of the Reforestation Administration to form the Bureau of Integrated Protected Areas Systems (IPAS) and is being Forest Development When, in 1974, the DANR was sponsored by the Department of Environment and divided into the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Passage of this bill is essential to the Department of Natural Resources, the Bureau of Forest implementation of the IPAS because it makes provision Development was assigned to the latter Department for the establishment of the protected areas, funding, Between 1982 and 1987, the development and administration etc. The Bill has passed the Lower House management of all national parks in the provinces of and is currently before the Senate (C. Roque, pers. Leyte, Negros Occidental and Palawan were entrusted to comm., 1991). The successful passage is a pre-condition the Natural Conservation Office under the direct for the release of substantial World Bank funds under the supervision of the Minister of Natural Resources, Global Environmental Facility (Roque, 1991). pursuant to Ministry of Natural Resources
A review of the current legislative background is being AdminisUative Order No. 47. conducted by the Foundation for Sustainable The Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) is Development as part of the IPAS programme. This one of the staff bureaux of the DENR, with a primary includes compiling and reviewing all existing legal responsibility for the establishment and management of instruments, developing guidelines for the proposed protected areas and the conservation of wildlife IPAS Bill, conducting consultative meetings and resources. Its functions are to: formulate and recommend submitting the draft legislation to the Philippines policies, guidelines, rules and regulations for the legislature (WWF, 1991). establishment and management of an IPAS, such as
International Activities The Philippines ratified the national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and refuges, marine Unesco Convention Concerning the Protection of the parks and biosphere reserves; formulate and recommend World Cultural and Natural Heritage Convention (Worid policies, guidelines, rules and regulations for the Heritage Convention) on 19 September 1985, although preservation of biological diversity, genetic resources, no natural sites have been inscribed, and also participates the endangered Philippine flora and fauna; prepare an in the Unesco Programme on Man and the Biosphere. up-to-date listing of endangered Philippine flora and Puerto Galera Biosphere Reserve is internationally fauna, recommend a programme of conservation and recognised as a component of the global biosphere propagation of the same; assist the Secretary (of DENR)
reserve network. The Philippines is a member of in the monitoring and assessment of the management of ASEAN (Association of Soulh-East Asian Nations) and the IPAS and provide technical assistance to the regional two parks have been recognised as ASEAN Heritage offices in the implementation of programmes for these; Sites. However, the country has not yet become a and perform any other functions as may be assigned by contracting party to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands the Secretary and/or provided by law. The Bureau is of International Importance Especially as a Waterfowl headed by a Director assisted by an Assistant Director Habitat and complemented by six divisions and two staffs (PAWB, 1991). Administration and Management As many as ten different bodies have administrative responsibility for PAWB cooperates with the regional offices of the national parks (Lewis, 1988), although the Department DENR, providing technical assistance, briefing on
of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is wildlife policy, resource inventories, education predominant Furthermore, the adminisU'ation has been programmes and field operations, the Provincial centralised and subject to several reorganisations. Environment and Natural Resource Offices and the Following the popular revolution of 1986, the MinisUy Community Environment and Natural Resources of Natural Resources was reformed into the Department Offices of the Regional Offices of the DENR perform
114 Philippines
the actual work of maintaining protected areas. Activities Systems Reviews Tropical forests originally covered include patrols, habitat restoration, maintenance and ahnost 280,000 sq. km (93%) of the total land area of the interpretation for visitors (PAWB, 1991). Philippines, and still two-thirds of it at the end of World War II (Cox, 1988). There are many published estimates has number of major programme areas, but one PAWB a of the cunent extent of forests, but these are based on is the of the most important establishment and different defmitions of forest cover and on various areas. Activities include management of protected information sources covering different periods of time. identification of sites, boundary marking and new Consequently, an overall synthesis of the situation is periodic assessment, as well as restoration of degraded difficult. An estimated 30% (90,000 sq. km) still sites, of buffer zones and visitor facilities. management supports productive or regenerating forest (Cox, 1989). Figures published by Revilla (1986) indicate, however, Protected areas administration has historically been that forest with at least 40% crown cover may cover only weak, due to the many institutional reorganisations as 22% of total land area. The most valuable forests, both well as institutional and juridical struggles. This was economically and biotically, are old-growth dipterocarp particularly true during the period when the Parks and formations which cover 9,840 sq. km (3.3%) (Penafiel, Wildlife Office was subsumed into the Bureau of Forest 1991). Multispectra/SPOT satellite imagery from Development (NRMC,1983).Further,staffing,funding, 1987-1988 clearly shows the fragmentary nature of the training and administrative support have been remaining cover, as forests are divided into increasingly inadequate (Fernandez, 1988; Penafiel, 1990). isolated vegetation islands (Collins et al., 1991).
In common with terrestrial areas, marine protected areas Furthermore, forest cover is largely restricted to higher also suffer from a confused legislative and land, as human activities preferentially clear lowland administrative background and there is no national vegetation. Major forest blocks, therefore, are restricted governmental mechanism to manage marine areas. In to the Sierra Madre and Cordillera Central in Luzon, 1977 the Marine Park/Reserve Development Central Samar, the highlands around Mt Ragang and Inter-Agency Task Force was set up by Special Order other areas to the east in Mindanao. The only extensively No. 61 to formulate an integrated system of plans and forested island is Palawan, principally due to low human programmes for marine conservation. Under the population density. However, projected deforestation Presidential Proclamation No. 1801 of 1978 the trends suggest that all but an irreducible minimum of Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA) assumed approximately 1 ,000 sq. km of montane and low quality responsibility for the promotion and development of scrub forest will remain in Palawan by 2010 (HTS, aquatic sports. This has led to the establishment of several 1985). The annual rate of national deforestation is marine reserves and tourist zones. The Coral ReefResearch difficult to define precisely. Estimates range from the Team, within the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic highest of 3,790 sq. km between 1972 and 1982 Resources (Ministry of Natural Resources), is responsible (Ganapin, 1986), 3,235 sq. km between 1970 and 1979 for marine conservation within marine reserves. (FAO, 1981), to low estimates of 1,700 sq. km (Cox, 1988) or 910 sq. km (WRI/IIED, 1986). Existing tropical The non-governmental organisation movement in the rain forest cover may be lost by the end of the century Philippines has been gaining considerable momentum (Petocz, 1988). over the last few years. Since the overthrow of the Marcos government, both NGOs and the media have Mangroves, which covered some 4,500 sq. km in 1920, become more vocal against issues of pollution, forest have been depleted both by legal and illegal felling over degradation and destructive practices in the marine the last 60 years (Alvarez, 1984). Some 1,461 sq. km of environment There are now some 11 conservation and mangroves remained in 1978 (Davies et al., 1990), but environmental NGOs and 17 university or only 1,190 sq. km remained in 1990 (Penafiel, 1990). academic-related organisations in the country. The Only 814 sq. km can still be classified as undisturbed Haribon Foundation has taken on a leading role for the (Petocz, 1988) and cover is decUning by 50 sq. km each environmental NGO network and an environmentally year (Howes, 1987). Other major wetland habitats sympathetic constituency is forming among the public include estuaries/mudflats, seagrass beds, lakes, and in the new senate and congress (Petocz, 1988). The freshwater swamps and marshes; a descriptive inventory Haribon Foundation has also been directly involved in of wetlands considered to be important for conservation the development of protected areas (Balete, 1990). is given by Davies et al., (1990). University research centres and institutes, such as the The Philippine fauna is exceptionally rich with some 960 Marine Science Institute at University of Philippines, terrestrial vertebrates. Many species are forest obligates Diliman, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology and Marine and are acutely threatened by forest loss. Endemism Research Institute at SiUiman University, the Institute of collectively amounts to 43% of species, with 59% Environmental Science and Management at University endemic mammals ( 1 00 species out of a total of 1 67) and of Philippines, Los Banos and Ecosystems Research and as many as 85% of non-volant mammals (79 species) Development Bureau of the Department of Environment (Heaney, 1986; Petocz, 1988). There are 162 endemic and Natural Resources stationed at University of bird species out of a total of 388 resident s[)ecies (Bruce, Philippines, Los Banos have all contributed significantly 1980). Endemism is also unusually high in the to developing conservation activities in the country.
115 Protected Areas of the World
herpetofauna at 63% (160 species) whilst 17% (240 At least 59 national parks have been created since 19(X), species) of the icthyofauna is endemic (Petocz, 1988). but they provide little effective protection for the Plant endemism is estimated at 44% (3,500 species) but country's terrestrial environment, and in 1986 the only 5% (75 species) in Palawan (Davies et al., 1986) Haribon Foundation (Haribon Foundation, 1986) indicated that none would satisfy international protected The Philippine National Conservation Strategy (Haribon areas standards established by lUCN. The integrity of Society, 1983), produced under the guidance of the FAO virtually all the reserves in the existing Philippines in 1985, has not yet been formally adopted by the protected areas system, which includes less than 1 .3% of government, but is in the process of being reviewed and the country's total land siuface, is poorly maintained. In revised by the Department of Environment and Natural 1975, it was reported that approximately 72,000 people Resources prior to being presented to the President and were permanently settled in park lands and that 54,0(X)ha legislature for approval. The National Conservation of the protected area estate were imder some form of Strategy is intended to reflect the needs and priorities in cultivation (DAP, 1975). A further 4,000ha were being preserving biological diversity, endorse the new logged by timber companies. Recent information is not comprehensive national protected areas network (Anon., available, but it is likely that these figures now 1988a) and provide guidance for sustainable drastically underestimate the current situation. Park development and resource utilisation. The National boundaries are frequently not demarcated (Basa, 1988), Conservation Strategy may also be used to promulgate law enforcement is lacking and current staffing and policies on family planning and population stabilisation financial provisions are such that the PAWB is unable to (Petocz, 1988). deploy an effective corps of forest guards and park rangers (WCMC, 1988). The Australian Association for Research, Exploration and Aid (AREA), in cooperation with the PhiUppines A systematic attempt to identify an integrated protected Ministry of Natural Resources, founded a Department of areas system (IPAS) was initiated in 1986, supported by Special Projects deal with specific (1982) to WWF-US, Department of Environment and Natural conservation problems, e.g. the "Palawan Conservation Resources and the Haribon Foundation (Anon., 1988a). Programme" set up to coordinate and develop all This identified 27 "priority one" potential protected national parks and conservation activities on Palawan areas and a further 41 "priority two" areas; only 19 island. Strategic Environment Plan for Palawan, A existing national parks were included. The report funded by the EEC, has been completed after eight years' recommended that the remaining sites be excluded national and international consultants. plan work by The from the IPAS programme. Although the specific provides a comprehensive framework for sustainable recommendations of this study were not accepted by the of in both terrestrial marine development Palawan and government, the principle of a planned protected areas extent to which this environments (Petocz, 1988). The system became established. The IPAS was further plan has been implemented is not currently known. pursued in the World Bank's FFARM (Forestry, Fisheries and Agricultural Management) Study which The new government's more enlightened approach to included recommendations to the government for the environmental conservation led to an agreement between establishment and management of a national protected the Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources and areas system. The current. World Bank funded IPAS, is the Asian Development Bank on 5 April 1988 to provide effectively a component of the Asian Development more than US$ 100 million in soft loans for a national Bank-funded Master Plan for Forestry Development programme of reforestation, social forestry, timber stand (DENR, 1989) and is coordinated by WWF-US, with a improvement, watershed management, development of number of participatory organisations within the rattan plantations and forest protection programmes for Philippines. It aims, initially, to identify and initiate 1988-1992. The loan is supplemented by a technical management for ten priority sites (WWF, 1991). The assistance grant of US$ 665,000 for studies of forestry long term strategy is to place the last adequate, remaining development and serves as an excellent model for other stands of forest, significant marine areas and wetlands Asian governments (Petocz, 1988). under a protected areas regime, with as much as 20% of Funding for conservation activities has been made the country included (Roque, 1991). However, the available through "debt swap" agreements. In the first current funding for the IPAS is short-term, and the full such agreement in Asia, the World Wide Fund for Nature implementation of the system will require both agreed in June 1988 to purchase US$ 2 million of long-term and more substantial funding than is currently Philippines external debL The funds are made available available. The proposed IPAS law will recognise an in local currency to the Haribon Foundation and the "Indicative List", in which some 330 sites in 15 Department of Environment and Natural Resources for biogeographical regions are named. In addition, all the a variety of nature conservation activities. These include remaining old growth forest, some 70,000 sq. km, will the development of St Paul's National Park on Palawan, be included within the system under various categories El Nido National Marine Park (Anon., 1988b), Mount according to both size and site (C. Roque, pers. comm., Pulog in Benguet (PAWB, 1991), field surveys of 1991). several recommended protected areas and other activities (J. Tongson, pers. comm.).
116 Philippines
Addresses Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology, University of the Philippines, Banos. Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, Department of Davies, J., Magsalay, P.M., Rigor, R., Mapalo, A. and Environment and Natural Resources, Visayas Gonzales, H. (1990). A Directory of Philippines Quezon City (Tel: 978511-15; Avenue, Diliman, 2 wetlands. Two Volumes. Asian Wetiand Bureau envinar ph) FAX: 2 981010; Tlx: 7572000 Philippines Foundation/Haribon Foundation. Davies, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Ecological Society of the Philippines, 53 Tamarind Leon, C J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Road, Forbes Park, Makati, Metro Manila, PO Box Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we (FAX: 631 Tlx: 29006 JRS PH) 1739, MCC 7357; know! lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Camteidge, The Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural UK. 461 pp. Resources, Suite Richbelt Towers, 17 901, DENR (1989). Master plan for forestry development: Annapolis Street, Greenhills, San Juan, Metro protected areas management and wildlife (Tel: 722 7180/722 6357; FAX: 722 71 ManUa 19) conservation. Asian Development Bank TA 993 PHI. Department of Environment and Natural References Resources, Quezon City. 82 pp. DENR (1991). Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Asian Development Bank (1988). Environmental Development. Department of Environment and legislation and administration: briefing profiles of Natural Resources, Quezon City. (Unseen) selected developing member countries of the Asian Development Academy of the Philippines (1975). The Development Bank. ADB Environment Paper No. 2. development plan for the Philippine National Park 69 pp. System. Volumes I-IX. Development Academy of Anon. (1988a). Development of an integrated protected the Philippines, Quezon City. (Unseen) areas systems (IPAS) for the Philippines. FAO (1981). Tropical forest resources assessment WWF-US/Department of Environment and Natural project: the Philippines. Report prepared by the Food Resources/Haribon Foundation for the Conservation and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations of Natural Resources. 190 pp. as cooperating agency with the United Nations Anon. (1988b). First debt-for-nature swap in Asia. Environment Programme. UN32/6. 1301-78-04. CNPPA Newsletter. No 43. Technical Report 3. FAO, Rome. Pp. 391-416. Alvarez, J.B. (1984). Our vanishing forests. Greenfields Fernandez, P.V. (1988). A community care system for 14(2): 6-16. national parks (proposal for legislation). Integrated Balete, D.S. (1990). Final report on the faunal and Protected Areas (IPAS) Workshop. University of tlie socio-economic surveys of Ml Isarog National Park, Philippines, Los Banos, 15-17 March. Pp. 90-108. Camarine Sur, Luzon Island. A Debt-for-Nature Ganapin, DJ. (1986). Forest resources and timber trade Swap project of the Haribon Foundation for the in the Philippines. In: Proceedings ofthe Conference Conservation of Natural Resources in collaboration on Forest resources Crisis in the Third World. with the Department of the Environment and Natural Sahabat Alam, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Pp. 54-70 Resources and World Wildlife Fund-US. Ganapin, DJ. (1987). Forest resources and timber trade Unpublished. 53 pp. in the Philippines. In: Proceedings ofthe Conference Basa,V.F. (1988). Current report boundaries of national in Forest Resources Crisis in the Third World, parks. Integrated protected areas technical 6-8 September 1986, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. workshop. WWF-US/Department of Environment Sahabat Alam, Kuala Lumpur. Pp. 54-70. and Natural Resources/Haribon Foundation for the Haribon Foundation (1986). Assessment and study of Conservation ofNatural Resources. University of the national parks: a proposal. Unpublished manuscript. Philippines, Los Banos, 15-17 March. 5 pp. 16 pp. Bruce, M.D. (1980). A field list of the birds of the Haribon Society (1983). Philippine national Philippines. Traditional Explorations. Sydney, conservation strategy: a strategy for sustainable Australia. 8 pp. development. Haribon Society/fUCN/The Philippine Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. , and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) Presidential Committee for the Conservation of the (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests : Tamaraw. Manila. Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. Heaney, L.R. (1986). Biogeography of mammals in SE 256 pp. Asia: estimates of rates of colonisation, extinction Cox, C.R. (1988). The conservation status of biological and speciation. Biological Journal of the Linnaean resources in the Philippines: a report by the lUCN Society li:\n-\(,5. Conservation Monitoring Centre. Draft. Cambridge. Howes, J. (1987). Rapid assessment of coastal wetlands 37 pp. in the Philippines. IPT-Asian Wetland Bureau, Cox, C.R. (1989). The Philippines. Draft prepared for Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (Unseen) lUCN/BP Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests. HTS (1985). Palawan Integrated Area Development World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge. Project: environmental monitoring and evaluation David, W.P. (1987). Soil erosion and soil conservation system. Annual Report 1985. Hunting Technical planning - issues and implications. College of Services Limited, Borehamwood, England. 137 pp.
117 Protected Areas of the World
Leong, B.T. and Scrna, C.B. (1987). Status of Revilla, A.V. (1986). Fifty-year development program watersheds in the Philippines. National Irrigation for the Philippines. In: Proceedings of the Seminar Administration, Quezon City. on the Fifty-Year Forestry Development Program of Lewis, R.E. (1988). Mt Apo and the other national paiks the Philippines. Philippine Institute for Development in the Philippines. Oryx 22: 1(X)-109 Studies and Forestry Development Center, MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of University of the Philippines, Los Banos. Pp. 1-20. the protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Roque, C. (1991). Prospects for sustainable development Realm. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, in the Philippines. Paper presented to the XVII UK. 284 pp. Pacific Science Congress, 27 May-2 June 1991, MacKenzie D. (1988). Uphill battle to save Filipino Honolulu. 15 pp. trees. New Scientist 1 18 (1619): 4243. Scott,D.A. (1989).A directory ofAsianwetlands. lUCN, Myers, N. (1980). Conversion of moist tropicalforests. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. National Academy of Sciences, Washington. Sema, C.B. (n.d.). The national parks of the Philippines. (Unseen) Bureau of Forest Development Unpublished report Myers, N. (1988). Environmental degradation and some 4 pp. economic consequences in the Philippines. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Environmental Conservation 15(3): 205-214. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UNEP Nepomuceno, P.M. (1977). Status of Philippines parks. Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Canopy 3(5). Forest Research Institute, Philippines. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, NRMC (1983). An analysis of laws and enactments UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 440 pp. pertaining to national parks. Volume 1. Study on WWF (1991). Inception report: integrated protected national park legislation. Natural Resources areas system of the Philippines. Feasibility studies, Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources. preliminary design and other support components. Quezon City. 127pp. World WUdlife Fund-US, Washington, DC. 31 pp. Petocz, R. (1988). Philippines: strategy for WCMC (1988). The conservation status of biological environmental conservation. A draft plan. resources in the Philippines. A report by the lUCN Unpublished manuscript 60 pp. Conservation Monitoring Centre prepared for the Philippine National Mangrove Committee (1987). International Institute for Environment and Philippines. In: Umali, R. M. et al. (Eds), Mangroves Development. World Conservation Monitoring of Asia and the Pacific: Status and Management. Centre, Cambridge, UK. 68 pp. Natural Resources Management Center and National White, A. (1981) Philippines marine parks: past and Mangrove Committee, Ministry of Natural current status. ICLARM Newsletter 3(14): 17-18 Resources. Manila. Pp. 175-210. WRI/IIED (1986). World Resources 1986. Worid PAWB (1991). The protected areas and biological Resources Institute/International Institute for diversity of the Philippines. Protected Areas and Environment and Development Basic Books, New Wildlife Bureau, Department of Environment and York. 353 pp. Natural Resources, Quezon City. 30 pp. Yaman, L. (1982). An analysis of the National Park Rabor, D.S. (1977). Philippine birds and mammals. System of the Philippines. Journal of the Natural University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City. Resources Management Forum 3(4). (Unseen) Zamora, P.M. (1985). Conservation strategies for Repetto, R. (1988). Theforestfor the trees? Government Philippine mangroves. Enviroscope 5(2): 5-9. policies and the misuse offorest resources. World Zamora, P.M. {\9%i). Diversity offlora in the Philippine Resources Institute, Washington, DC. 105 pp. mangrove ecosystems. Paper presented at Technical Workshop in Philippine Biological Diversity, 1-2 March, University of the PhiUppines, Quezon City. 57 pp.
118 Philippines
ANNEX Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Act No. 3915 nests or eggs of such birds, or take or kill and fish or shellfish.
Date: 1 February 1932
Title: Forestry Administrative Order No. 7 Brief description: An Act providing for the (National Park Regulations) establishment of national parks , dec laring such parks as game refuges and for other purposes Date: 1 January 1934 Administrative authority: Director of Forestry/ Brief description: Pursuant to the provisions of Department of Environment and Natural Resources section 4 of Act No. 39 1 5 , entitled "An Act providing Designations: for the establishment of national parks, declaring such parks as game refuges and for other purposes", National parks Areas of the public domain, which this Administrative Order setting forth the rules and because of their panoramic, historical, scientific or regulations governing the establishment, supervision aesthetic value, should be dedicated and set apart as and protection, maintenance and use of national
a national parks for the benefit and enjoyment of the parks, is hereby promulgated for the information and
people of the Phihppine Islands. guidance of all concerned.
Game refuges and bird sanctuaries National parks Designations: declared as game refuges and bird sanctuaries, and tract shall except as provided for in the act, within which it is National park Such of land as have been unlawful for any person to hunt, take, wound or kill, set aside by proclamation of the Governor-General or in any manner disturb or drive away therefrom, under the provisions of Act No. 3915. any wild bird or wild animal, or take or destroy the
119 Protected Areas of the World
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ Philippines
126° 116° 118° 120° 122° 124°
-20° 20°-
18°-
16°-
-14°
-12°
'?- .:: -6°
100 200 300km
116° 118°
SINGAPORE
Area 636sq. km Trees Act, the Commissioner for National Development is responsible for making rules for the management and Population 3,000,000(1991) control of public parks. The Paries and Trees Rules Natural increase: per annum 1.07% (1983) drawn up under this section make strict limitations on activities permitted within public parks. Economic Indicators Under Section 21 of the Parks and Trees Act, the GNP:US$ 11,575 per capita (1991) Minister for National Development is responsible for Policy and Legislation Historically, protection of making rules for the management and control of public forests dates from the 1840s, when the Governor parks. "absolutely prohibited the further destruction of forests The principal non-governmental organisation concerned on the summits of hills" (Logan, 1848). The with conservation in Singapore is the Malayan Nature establishment of forest reserves dates from 1 882 when a Society (Singapore Branch). network was flrst proposed and a Forest Department reserves for the established (Cantley, 1884). The were Systems Reviews Singapore consists of one main island supply of timber and firewood, prevention of soil (41.8km long and 23km wide) with 58 islets within its erosion, protection of water supply, and improvement of territorial waters. The centre of the island has a series of the climate. Subsequently, in 1936, all existing reserves, low hills of granite and other igneous rocks. Bukit except for Bukit Timah, and parts of the mangroves at Timah, die highest hill, attains 163m and only three and Kranji, were revoked and regazetted in 1939 Pandan others exceed 100m m height. In the west and south-west as forest reserves. The Nature Reserves Act was enacted of the island is a series of low ridges aligned north-west in provide for the establishment of certain lands 1951 to to south-east, formed from sedimentary rocks. The as nature reserves. The National Parks Act of 1990 coasUine is mostly flat and muddy although 5,400ha of repealed the Nature Reserves Act, made provision for this has now been covered by extensive landfill (Hails, parks nature reserves estabUshed the national and and 1989). National Parks Board (see Annex). The Parks and Trees Act (1985) provides for public parks and for the creation Prior to the establishment of the British colony in 1819, of the office of the Commissioner of Parks and the great bulk of the island was covered in pristine forest, Recreation. The Birds (Sanctuaries) (Amendments) comprising 82% lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain Order (1981) passed pursuant to the Wild Animals and forest, 13% mangrove and 5% freshwater swamp. As Birds Act, lists a number of areas in die country which early as 1890, as much as 90% of this vegetation had are to be sanctuaries for birds. been cleared. Today, more than half the island is urban in character and natural rain forest is restricted to the International Activities Singapore does not participate 8 1 ha Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and scattered patches, conventions or in any international programmes totalling 50ha, in the adjacent Central Catchment Area. with protected areas, such as the Convention concerned There are, in addition, some l,800ha of 50 to 100 year Protection of the Cultural and Concerning the World old secondary forest in the catchment area, on land Heritage Natural Heritage Convention (World cleared during the last century, which may have growing Convention), the Convention on Wetlands of value for the conservation of biological diversity International Importance Especially as Waterfowl (Collins era/., 1991). Habitat (Ramsar Convention) or the Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. The history of the establishment of protected areas and a review of current legislation is given by Corlett (1988). Originally, forest Administration and Management All the primary forest remnants are protected legally in reserves under the control of the Forest came nature reserves. However, there is heavy human impact they the Department; then, in 1939 became as the reserves are not fenced, are often surrounded by responsibility of the Director of the Botanic Gardens in residential or industrial areas, and, in the case of Bukit his of Forests. There are no capacity as Conservator Timah, subject to high and largely uncontrolled visitor longer any forest reserves, such, to administer. Nature as pressure. The current legislation fails to distinguish reserves, originally the responsibility of the Nature between primary and secondary vegetation and areas Reserves Board, are now managed, together with that should receive strict protection are still used national parks, by the National Partes Board. The board essentially as recreation areas (Collins et al., 1991). is also empowered inter alia to acquire and dispose of property and to make rules to give effect to this The Malayan Nature Society (Singapore Branch) has legislation. Parks are the responsibility of the Parks and formulated a "Masterplan for the Conservation of Nature Recreation Department, within the Ministry of National in Singapore". Twenty-eight sites have been identified, Development. The Parks and Recreation department is comprising areas which may already have some form of responsible inter alia for constructing new parks and protected status, as well as unprotected areas of die most green open spaces. Under Section 25 of the Parks and important sites. Three are within gazetted nature
123 Protected Areas of the World
reserves, while the rest includes four wetland areas Parks and Recreation Department (Commissioner), 5th (Kranji, Khatib Bongsu, Sungei Buloh and Senoko), two Storey, National Development Building Annexe B, islands (Pulau Tekong and Pulau Ubin) and a mangrove No. 7 MaxweU Rd, SINGAPORE 0106 (Tel: 322 area (Mandai), all of which are to the north of Singapore. 6410; FAX: 221 3101; Tlx: RS 22603 PRD) Singapore Institute of Biology, Zoology Department, Conservation in Singapore must be concentrated on National University of Singapore, Lower Kent Ridge minimising extinction rates in existing reserves and Road, SINGAPORE 051 1 (Tel: 772 2913) maximising benefits from man-made habitats. Three measures are the most urgent: protection of the margins Malayan Nature Society-Singapore Branch (Secretary), of existing reserves, restriction of military training in the Department of Botany, National University of reserves and diversion of recreational pressure away Singapore, Lower Kent Ridge Rd, SINGAPORE from the most sensitive areas. A more ambitious idea 051 1 (Tel: 7722858; FAX: 7795671) would be to accelerate succession in the secondary forests of the catchment area by assisting seed dispersal References and planting primary forest species. It may also be possible to reintroduce locally extinct forest vertebrates, Candey, N. (1884). Report on the Forests of the Straits particularly birds, from Malaysia, now that hunting and Settlements. Singapore Printing Office, Singapore tr^ping have been gready reduced (Collins e/ a/., 1991). 24 pp. (Unseen) Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) Major threats to the protected areas are the possibility of (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests: degazettement; increasing recreational use of Bukit Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. Timah and the MacRitchie Reservoir area; and the small 256 pp. size of the reserves which exacerbates edge effects, Corlett, R.T. (1988). Bukit Timah: the history and isolation and extinction (Collins etal.,\99\). Singapore, significance of a small rain-forest reserve. however, is the second most densely populated country Environmental Conservation 15: 37-44. in the world, and with the great demand for land, Hails, CJ. (1989). Singapore. In: Scott, D.A. (Ed.), A conservation has received a low priority (Hails, 1989). directory of Asian wetlands. lUCN, Gland, Swamp forest feUing and reservoir construction have Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 899-910. reduced the wetlands to one small area. Similarly, Logan, SK.. (1848). The probable effects on the climate industrial development and exploitation have reduced of Pinang of the continued destruction of the hill the mangroves to 2-3% of the original cover (Hails, jungle. Journal of the Indian Archipelago and East 1989). Asia 2: 534-536. (Unseen) MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (,19&6). Review ofthe Addresses protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan realm. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, National Parks Board (Executive Director), Singapore UK. P. 268. Botanic Gardens, Cluny Road, SINGAPORE 1025 (Tel: 474 1 165; FAX: 475 4295)
124 Singapore
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: The National Parks Act 1990 (No. 10) animal; erect any building; cultivate any land; follow any activity which damages any plant, Date: 31 March 1990 animal or property of the board; introduce any animal. Brief description: Makes provision for national parks and nature reserves and establishes a National Title: Parks Board and to repeal the Nature Reserves Act Parks and Trees Act, Chapter 216
Administrative authority: National Parks Board Date: 1985
Designations: Brief description: Provides inter alia for the development, protection and regulation of public National park and nature reserves An area for the parks and for the Commission on Parks and propagation, protection and preservation of the flora Recreation. and faiuia; for the study, research and preservation of objects and places of aesthetic, historical or scientific Administrative authority: Parks and Recreation interest; and also for the study, research and Department, Ministry of National Development dissemination of knowledge in botany, horticulture, Designations: biotechnology and natural and local history. Public park Any walk, recreation ground, Unless written authority is previously obtained it is playground, open space, traffic island, side table or forbidden to: garden maintained by the Commissioner
— remove or damage any plant; prospect, mine, Unless written permission is previously obtained, quarry or remove any soil of any sort; disturb or activities prohibited include inter alia, felling trees injure any animal or its nest; set traps to harm any with a girth exceeding Im and damaging trees.
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map National/internationaldesignation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Nature Reserve Central Catchment IV 2,715 1951
125 Protected Areas of the World
Protected Areas of Singapore (and Peninsular Malaysia)
126 DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF SRI LANKA
Area 65,610 sq. km earliest times in preserves specifically created for such purposes. It was not until 1885, however, with the Population 17.2 mUUon (1990) enactment of the Forest Ordinance (No. 10), that legal Natural increase: 1.5% per annum provision was made to protect wildlife through tne establishment of sanctuaries, first Yala (Block n of Economic Indicators Ruhuna National Park plus the strict natural reserve) in GNP: US$ 420 per capita (1988) 1900 and then Wilpattu in 1905 (Crusz, 1973;
Policy and Legislation The 1978 Constitution of the Gour-Tanguay, 1977; Hoffmann, 1969; Padmalal, Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka provides the 1989). foundation for the government's policies on conserving Game sanctuaries were abolished with the passing of the the environment. According lo Chapter 6 Article 27(14) Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (No. 2) in 1937. of the Constitution, "The State shall protect, preserve and This Ordinance, last amended in 1970, makes provision improve the environment for the benefit of the for national reserves (embodying only crown land) and community", and under Article 28F it is recognised that: sanctuaries (comprising both crown and private land), "The exercise and enjoyment of rights and freedom is and their adminisU'ation by the Department of Wildlife inseparable from the performance of duties and Conservation. National reserves and sanctuaries may be obligations and accordingly, it is the duty ofevery person declared, altered or abolished by ministerial order. Full in Sri Lanka to protect nature and conserve its riches." protection is afforded to wildlife in both national The National Environment Act, 1980, provides a legal reserves and sanctuaries, but in sanctuaries the habitat is and institutional framework for coordinating totally protected on land belonging to the state, while environmental agencies and policies under the Central traditional human activities may continue to be practised Environmental Authority. A serious drawback of the on privately-owned land. Three categories of national reserve, viz. strict natural reserve, national park and Act, however, is the lack of legal provisions to ensure compliance with environmental requirements. The intermediate zone (since deleted from the legislation), identified in the original legislation and a further Central Environmental Authority is also responsible for were developing guidelines for environmental impact two, viz. nature reserve and jungle corridor, were assessments, with appraisal, approval, and monitoring of introduced in an amendment to the Ordinance in 1964 development projects delegated to 1 5 Project Approving (see Annex). Agencies under various ministries. Environmental The need for a wildlife conservation policy has long been impact assessments were made mandatory for all recognised (Hoffmann, 1973). A new National Policy development projects in 1984, but only the Coast for Wildlife Conservation was approved by the Cabinet Conservation Department has made provisions to in June 1990. Eleven specific policy items are identified, enforce compliance with such assessments (Jansen, of which the following relate specifically to protected 1989). A synopsis of a national conservation su-ategy for areas: to formulate a manifesto of varied objectives Sri Lanka has recently been prepared by a task force which would suit each area declared for protection; to under the Central Environmental Authority (CEA, reassess ways and means of enabling existing and 1988). It includes directions for the establishment of a proposed protected areas to meet their objectives; to comprehensive system of protected areas and, in the identify and control sustainable uses of resources within forestry sector, for the identification of forests for protected areas that are compatible with their objectives; protection by statute. to permit sustained multiple use of resources within Conservation of nature and culture are ancient tfaditions protected areas, and zone protected areas accordingly; in Sri Lanka. King Pandukabaya marked out sanctuaries and to effectively manage protected areas to maintain natural levels. It is for aborigines, who always enjoyed royal protection, in their resource potential at proposed the 4ih century BC. One of the world's first wildlife that this policy should be incorporated into an effective sanctuaries was established in the 3rd century BC by Conservation Act, which should be sufficiently flexible King Devanampiyatissa in whose reign Buddhism was to permit a variety of conservation practices as strong introduced to the country. Succeeding kings continued advocated in the policy, but should provide wilfully to uphold the Buddhist precept of forbidding the killing punitive measures against those who destroy wildlife resources through personal greed or of any form of life, as is recorded on rock inscriptions national throughout the country. In the 12th century AD, King prospects of commercial gain (DWC, n.d.). Kirti-Nissanka-Mala proclaimed that no animals should The national forest policy dates back to 1929, since when be killed within a radius of seven gav (35.7km) from the it has been modified in the 1970s and later in 1980 city of Anuradhapura. Large tracts of forest, such as (Pushparajah, 1985). A salient feature of the present Udawattekele and Sinharaja, were protected as reserves policy is "To maintain, conserve and create forests for by Sri Lankan rulers, sometimes serving as refuges for the preservation and amelioration of the environment. themselves, and privileged hunting was enjoyed from the
127 Protected Areas of the World
soil and water resources and for the protection of the In general, much of the legislation relating to natural local fauna and flora when they are required for resources has not kept abreast with the changing needs aesthetic, scientific, historical and socio-economic of society and is oriented towards the exploitation rather reasons." The Forest Ordinance No. 16, 1907, as than sustainable use of such resources. Some laws have amended by Act No. 13 of 1966, makes provision for the suffered from a lack of implementation for social, establishment of reserved forests and village forests (see economic or political reasons, while others have Annex), and for the protection of forests and their remained fragmentary, with responsibilities spread products, although its primary function has always been among a multiplicity of agencies and institutions to provide for the controlled exploitation of timber. Both (Jansen, 1989). In the case of the Fauna and Flora reserved and village forests may be declared, altered or Protection Ordinance, the lack of any criteria to abolished by ministerial order. Management of village differentiate between the various designations of forests is subject to ministerial regulations. The term protected area has resulted in inconsistent application of reserved forest is interpreted as including plantations and this system of classification. The national park chenas (cultivations established under slash-and-bum designation, for example, has been used for some areas practices). Proposed reserves, which are a legacy from which are uninhabited and others, notably in the the first half of this century, are areas of reserved forest Mahaweli development area, which have a human awaiting notification but are nevertheless subject to the population (Bere, 1959; Alwis, 1%9; NPS. 1985). The provisions of the Forest Ordinance. Under the national Ordinance is being amended to provide inter alia for the Man and Biosphere Programme, arboreta representative creation of new categories of reserve, such as buffer of the main bio-climatic zones of the island have been zones, refuges, wetlands and marine reserves, and to demarcated within reserved forests. Nationally referred enhance the present grossly inadequate penalties for to as MAB reserves, timber exploitation and other forms infringements (Hoffmann, 1983; Jansen, 1989). of interference are excluded from these conservation International Activities areas (Bharathie, 1979). At the international level, Sri Lanka has entered a number of obligations and
To overcome the inherent weaknesses in the Forest cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is Ordinance, the National Heritage Wilderness Areas Act, party to the Convention concerning the Protection of the No. 3 was passed in 1988. Any piece of state land having World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage unique ecosystems, genetic resources or outstanding Convention) which it accepted on 6 June 1980. One natural features (including the habitat of threatened natural site has been inscribed to date and initiatives are species) may be declared a national heritage wilderness underway to nominate several more natural sites. Sri area by the minister, subject to the approval of the Lanka became a contracting party to the Convention on president and endorsement by parliament (see Annex). Wetlands of International Importance especially as Other provisions include the acquisition of land, the Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 15 October preparation of a management plan by the competent 1990, at which time one site was included in the List of authority (Conservator of Forests) in respect of areas Wetlands of International Importance established under declared under the Act, and the over-riding of anything the terms of the Convention. Sri Lanka participates in the contradictory in the provisions of any other written law Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme (Bharathie, other than the Constitution. Entry to a national heritage 1979). To date 47 national biosphere reserves have been wilderness area is by permit and restricted for purposes declared by the Forest Department, of which Sinharaja of observing the fauna and flora or conducting scientific and Hurulu are designated as part of the international research. Both the Forest Ordinance and National biosphere reserve network. Heritage Wilderness Areas Act are administered by the Forest Department Sri Lanka is one of seven countries cooperating in the South Asian Cooperative Environmental Programme, Other legislation concerned with the conservation of which was launched in the 1980s to ameliorate the natural resources is reviewed by Crusz (1973), environment in the region, particularly regarding Gour-Tanguay (1977), NPS (1985), Jansen (1989) and, montane, mangrove, island and marine ecosystems, in the case of marine resources, UNEP/IUCN (1988). through legislation, education and training (Rau, 1984). Special attention has been given to coastal and marine Administration and Management the areas under the Coast Conservation Act (No. 57), 1981, Under provisions which provides for the protection of the coast from of the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, the Wildlife is erosion or encroachment by the sea and includes the Department of Conservation responsible for wildlife planning and management of development activity conservation and protected areas within the coastal zone, defined as the area between management The Department was set up in 1949 as the Wildlife prior 300m landwards of the mean high water line and 2km Conservation Department, to which all matters relating wildlife seawards of the mean low water line (Wijewansa, 1985). to fell within the remit of the Forest Deparunent. The first warden (director) Under this Act, which is administered by the Coast was appointed Conservation Department, sites can be designated as in December 1950, and the Department critical habitats for protection (non-development areas). became fully functional as an independent unit in 1957 (Alwis, 1969; Bere, 1959). Originally under the Ministry of Lands and Land Development, and subsequently the
128 Sri Lanka
Ministry of Tourism and Shipping (1970-1977) and point for international activities in science and Ministry of Stale (1960s and 1980s), the Department of technology. The National MAB Committee, for Wildlife Conservation was transferred to the Ministry of example, is placed under this authority. The Central Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli Development in 1989. Environmental Authority, created in 1981, was intended
It is headed by a director, under whom are three deputy to be at the apex of governmental agencies concerned directors in charge of administration, technical, and with environmental matters. Included within its mandate veterinary and research divisions, respectively. Field has been the preparation of a national conservation
staff are deployed mostly in the national reserves and strategy. To date it has served largely in an advisory marginally outside them. The Department has recently capacity, its effectiveness having been limited by its
taken on responsibility for the Mahaweli Environment inability to influence the actions of agencies outside its Project, begun in 1982 as part of the Accelerated own Ministry of Local Government and Housing Mahaweli Development Programme. The Mahaweli (Jansen, 1989). Environment Project has been concerned with the Non-governmental organisations have recently played development and management of a system of protected an active role in mobilising public opinion and lobbying areas in the Mahaweli Ganga and adjacent river basins. government on national conservation issues, often The Department is presently being restructured in view successfully as in the case of the Sinharaja rain forest or of the urgent need to upgrade and develop its services. the national Forestry Master Plan. They have also A five-year development plan has been prepared for directly supported various conservation programmes, submission to donor agencies for funding (Kotagama complementing the work of government agencies. Most rta/.,1990). non-governmental organisations are registered with the The Forest Department, under the provisions of the Central Environmental Authority. Some of the more Forest Ordinance, is inter alia responsible for the important ones are represented on various national protection and management of natural and plantation committees, such as the Fauna and Flora Advisory forests, including any declared as biosphere reserves. It Committee, and the Environmental Council of the
is headed by a conservator of forests, supported by seven Centt-al Environment Authority. deputy conservators of forests, 1 3 assistant conservators By far the largest and oldest conservation non- of forests, and a number of foresters and forest rangers. governmental organisation is the Wildlife and Nature The recent Forestfy Master Plan, 1985-2020 (Jaakko Protection Society. Originally established on 23 May Poyry International Oy, 1986) received much criticism 1894 to cater for sport-hunting interests, and later because of its bias towards the exploitation of timber and incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1968, the Society fuelwood, with little regard to the ecological, has become increasingly concerned with the hydrological, social and aesthetic values of forests conservation of the island's biological resources through (Fernando and Samarasinghe, 1988; Jansen, 1989). In negotiation and cooperation with the state. The Society response to public agitation, the Plan was reviewed by has about 4,000 members. It produces a biannual wildlife lUCN (1989) and a conservation review of remaining journal, Loris. More recently, in 1980, March for natural forests has now been incorporated into the Plan. Conservation was set up to focus attention, through Meanwhile, a moratorium has been imposed on logging education, training and research, on the rapid in the wet zone, until such lime as natural forests are degradation of the island's natural resources. Its evaluated with regard to their conservation value in particular strength lies in the university basis of its maintaining biological diversity and environmental 300 members, providing it with a strong research capability. stability. Members have undertaken research in the Sinharaja rain Conservation of natural resources outside protected forest, national parks, coastal zones and the Mahaweli
areas falls within the mandate of a number of other development area. The organisation publishes scientific agencies. The Coast Conservation Department, Ministry literature on natural resource issues, and has been
of Fisheries, is responsible for planning and managing instrumental in forming rural-based conservation activities within the coastal zone, including the societies, particularly in the vicinity of the Sinharaja rain conservation of marine and coastal resources. Similarly, forest The Nation Builders Association is a rural-based the National Aquatic Resources and Research Agency, organisation, composed largely of village youth and set up under the National Aquatic Resources Research involved in forestry activities mainly in Kandy District and Development Agency Act (No. 54), 1981, is The Environmental Foundation provides the legal teeth concerned inter alia with the management and to the non-governmental environmental movement It conservation of aquatic resources in the inland waters, comprises a group of young lawyers with a mandate to 2(X)-mile exclusive economic coastal zone and in the protect the country's natural resources from damaging deep seas. The Natural Resources, Energy and Science activities through legal action. Other non-governmental Authority of Sri Lanka was set up to coordinate scientific organisations include the Sri Lanka Association for the activity within the country and to advise the President on Advancement of Science, which provides a forum for matters pertaining to the application of science and scientists of all disciplines to promote and advance the
technology. It has ten working committees, including sciences, and the Ceylon Bird Club, which has one for natural resources, and also functions as the focal maintained bird records for nearly 50 years and has
129 Protected Areas of the World organised mid-winter waterfowl counts since 1983. offers the greatest opportunities for agricultural Limited financial resources and the lack of time of expansion in conjunction with irrigation schemes. In the volunteer members to devote to the conservation effort face of a lack of food, overpopulation and is a serious constraint A step in the right direction was unemployment in the wet zone, the former colonial taken in 1985 when a number of these voluntary groups government devised a scheme under the Land joined together under the umbrella of the Sri Lanka Development Ordinance, 1935, to translocate peasant Environment Congress in order to pool their resources farmers and the unemployed from the wet zone to the dry and generate a more powerful and united front to the zone (Drijver et al., 1985). After independence, the Sri environment movement. Further details of these and Lankan government developed the scheme into the much other voluntary organisations are given elsewhere more ambitious Mahaweli Development Programme, (Hoffmann, 1969; Jansen. 1989; Wijewansa, 1985). with the accelerated phase scheduled for completion in 1986-1987. This is one of the largest development lUCN (The World Conservation Union) has a country schemes ever undertaken in South Asia, with 360,000ha office in Sri Lanka. Projects include implementing of land in the basins of the Mahaweli Ganga and the management plans in two biologically diverse and south-eastern rivers irrigated for agricultural purposes critical ecosystems. Knuckles Range and Sinharaja, and for the benefit of nearly one million people to be settled executing part of the UNDP/FAO/GoSL Environmental in the area (Wijewansa, 1985). A major limiting factor, Management in Forestry Development Project. however, is the availability of water which will be enough for year-round irrigation of only 200,0(X)ha There are a number of constraints to the effective (Perera, 1984). protection of reserves. Both the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Forest Department are severely The main forest types are the tropical wet evergreen handicapped by a lack of financial resources to (below 1 ,(XX)m) and montane (above 1 ,0(X)m) forests of administer such areas effectively. Forest reserves, in the wet zone, tropical moist/wet semi-evergreen forests particular, are often unstaffed with the result that few of of the intermediate zone, tropical dry mixed evergreen the smaller ones exist on the ground, while many of the forests of the dry zone and semi-evergreen thorn forest larger ones are heavily encroached. Enforcement of the arid zone. Large tracts of forest have been cleared measures are handicapped by the absence of clear-cut during the last hundred years to accommodate the boundaries that are easily recognisable on the ground. growing human population, which has risen from 3.5 Lack of local involvement in protected areas is limiting million in 1900 through 5 million in 1950 to nearly 15 their effectiveness. Political interference is a further million by 1980. Natural forest cover has dwindled obstacle to natural resource conservation (Anon., n.d.; rapidly from an estimated 89% in 1889 to 46.5% in 1956 Hoffmann, 1983; Jansen, 1989). and28% in 1981-1983 (Nanayakkara, 1987).Theannual rate of deforestation of closed forest (3.5%) was among Systems Reviews Sri Lanka became an island probably the highest in the world for the period 1981-1985 in the late Miocene. It consists of a soulh-cenaal massif, (Repetto, 1988). It has been estimated from the Forest rising to some 2,500m, surrounded by a coastal plain Cover Map produced by iheSurvey Department in 1981, which encompasses about 75% of the total geographic which is based on satellite imagery supplemented by area. The massif has a major influence on the climate, ground-truthing, that natural forest cover had shrunk to with conditions ranging from wet in the south-west to 24.9% by 1981, of which only 1.5% comprised lowland dry in the north and east. Radiating from this massif is a wet-zone forest, biologically the most valuable forest network of major rivers (Fernando, 1984). These type. This estimate is lower than the later figure of 28% features are largely responsible for the wide variety of natural high forest for mid-1983 derived from the FAO ecosystems present in Sri Lanka and the associated rich inventory (Forest Department, 1986). Extrapolating diversity of plants and animals, many of which occur in from the FAO data, natural forests covered an estimated the wet zone and are endemic (Wijesinghe et al., 1989). 1.58 million ha (24% total land area) in 1989 (Baldwin, The status of the country's natural resources and trends 1991). in their use is reviewed by Baldwin (1991).
The wetlands of Sri Lanka comprise a variety of coastal The pattern of land use has been strongly influenced by and inland systems, ranging from estuaries, lagoons and the different climatic zones. The first major changes in mangroves to rivers, villus and tanks (reservoirs). Many land-use patterns took place during the colonial era when of the tanks date back 1 ,500 years when they formed part forests in the wet zone were cleared for cultivation of of an intricate irrigation system for rice cultivation. In coconut and rubber in the lowlands and coffee, later to recent decades, several large reservoirs have been be replaced by tea, in the uplands (Jansen, 1989). The constructed as part of large-scale hydro-power and wet zone, which receives in excess of 2540mm of rainfall irrigation projects, notably in the Mahaweli catchment per year, is now densely populated and intensively used area. There are over 10,000 tanks in Sri Lanka, of which for agriculture, with little potential for further expansion. 3,500 are considered to be significant water bodies. Only The dry zone, on the other hand, until about the 13lh 60 of these exceed 300ha in size. The wetlands support century AD the centre of a highly advanced civilisation a variety of wildlife, as well as being of socio-economic based on irrigated agriculture, receives less than 1905mm of rainfall annually, is sparsely populated and
130 Sri Lanka
importance, particularly for irrigation purposes (Scott, Marine Sanctuary (Kotagama et al., 1990). In the dry 1989). zone, important areas with inadequate conservation status include the Samanalawewa area in the Walawe Coral reefs are reported to be most extensive off the Ganga basin and the core of the Mirmeriya-Giritale south-east eastern coast, although the Basses off the Nature Reserve (T.W. Hoffmann, pers. comm., 1990). north-west are coast and those of Dutch Bay off the coast These and other deficiencies in the existing network are among the most spectacular. Reef resources are being addressed by a conservation review of remaining reviewed in UNEP/IUCN (1988). natural forests, implemented by lUCN as part of the UNDP/FAO/GoSL Environmental Management in The present growing awareness of the need to conserve Forestry Development Project. the island's natural resources can be traced back to at least 1 873 when the colonial government warned against Addresses the replacement of natural forests with plantations in view of its serious impact on the climate (Hooker, 1873 Department of Wildlife Conservation, Director, cited in Jansen, 1989). Within the forestry sector, forests Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli were reserved from 1875 onwards but they continued to Development, 82 Rajamalwatte Road, Battaramulla, be maximally exploited for timber until the 1960s. In COLOMBO 6 (Cable: WILDLIFE; Tel: 566601) 1938, a law prohibiting the clearing of forests above Forest Department, Chief Conservator of Forests, l,5(X)m was enacted. Beginning in 1969 under the Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli national Man and Biosphere Programme, the Forest Development, 82 Rajamalwatte Road, Battaramulla, network of Department began to establish a national MAB COLOMBO 6 (Tel: 566631-3) reserves, the most important of which (Sinharaja) has since Coast Conservation Department, Director, New wilderness area. been upgraded to a national heritage Secretariat, Maligawalte, COLOMBO 10 Central Environmental Authority (CEA), Director Within the wildlife sector, one-third of the present General, Maligawatte New Town, COLOMBO 10 protected areas network had been set up by 1950, (Tel: 549455/6, 437488/9) following the enactment of the Fauna and Flora Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Protection Ordinance. The network grew progressively Lanka (NARESA), Director General, 47/5 Maitland in subsequent decades, with a major expansion recently Place, COLOMBO 7 (Tel: 596771-3) following an initiative begun in the early 1980s to mitigate the impact of the Accelerated Mahaweli Ceylon Bird Club, Chairman, PO Box 1 1, COLOMBO Development Programme (Jansen, 1985). This initiative, (Cable LANKABAUR; Tlx 21204 BAURCO CE; carried out under the Mahaweli Environment Project, Tel: 20551) followed in the wake of environmental assessments Environmental Foundation, Executive Director, 29 carried out by TAMS (1980,1981). Needs forenvironmental Siripa Road, Road, COLOMBO 5 (Tel: 588804; action were subsequently identified in a study commissioned FAX: 546518; Tlx 22894 SAGCO CE) by the European Community (Driver et al., 1985). lUCN (The World Conservation Union), Country
Sri Lanka currently has a fairly extensive system of Representative, No. 7 Vajira Lane, COLOMBO 5 protected areas, covering nearly 14% of its total land area (Tel: 587031; FAX: 580089) (12% under the Department of Wildlife Conservation March for Conservation, c/o Department of Zoology, Colombo, Minidas Kumaratunga and nearly 2% under the Forest Department), but it is not University of comprehensive. Priorities to develop the existing Mawatha, COLOMBO 3 (Tel: 549136) network are identified in the lUCN systems review of Wildlife and Nature Conservation Society of Sri Lanka, the Indomalayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, President, Chaitiya Road, Marine Drive, Fort, 1986), and specific recommendations are made in the COLOMBO 1 (Tel: 25248) Corbelt AcUon Plan (lUCN, 1985). While most habitats are represented within the existing protected areas References system, most of the major conservation areas lie within Alwis, L. de (1969). The national parks of Ceylon: a the dry zone. Coverage of tropical wet evergreen and hill guide. Department of Wildlife Conservation, forests is still far from adequate (MacKinnon and Colombo. 89 pp. MacKinnon, 1986). Here lie a number of floristically Anon. (n.d.). Draft environmental report on Sri Lanka. important regions, such as the forests of Kottawa, Paper presented at 25th Working Session of lUCN's Hinidumkanda, Kanneliya and Gilimale, which have not Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. been allocated for conservation (Gunatilleke and Corbett National Park, India, 4-8 February 1985. Gunatilleke, 1990). In the case of the Knuckles Range, Anon. (1988). Management policies for national parks, it is the subject of a conservation plan supported by nature reserves and sanctuaries in Sri Lanka. Draft lUCN. Demarcation of protected areas in the wet zone 10 pp. is considered to be a high priority in the new national Baldwin, M.F. (Ed.) (1991). Natural resources of Sri wildlife conservation policy (DWC, n.d.). Other gaps in Lanka: conditions and trends. Keells Business the network include coastal and marine protected areas, Systems, Colombo. 280 pp. the only one established to date being Hikkaduwa
131 Protected Areas ofthe World
Bere, R.M. (1959). Some of the wild life problems of Kotogama, S.W., Fernando, V.P. and Ishwaran, N.
Ceylon. Oryx 5: 126-137. ( 1 990). Afive-year development planfor the wildlife Bharathie, KP. Sri (1979). Man and Biosphere Reserves conservation andprotected area management sector in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Forester 14: 37-40. of Sri Lanka. Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and CEA (1988). The national conservation strategyfor Sri Mahaweli Development, Colombo. 50 pp. Lanka: a synopsis. Central Environmental Authority, MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Wevjewo/r/if Colombo. 28 pp. protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Realm. Crusz, H. (1973). Nature conservation in Sri Lanka. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Biological Conservation 5: 199-208. UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 284 pp.
Drij ver, C, Toomstra, F. and Lionel S inwardena, S.S . A. Nanayakkara, V.R. (1987). Forest history of Sri Lanka. (1985). Mahaweli Ganga Project in Sri Lanka: In: Vivekanandan, K. (Ed.), 1887-1987 100 years of evaluation ofenvironment problems and the role of forest conservation. Forest Department, Colombo. settler-households in conservation. Centre for (Unseen) Environmental Studies, State University of Leiden. NPS (1985). Policy recommendations for national 77 pp. reserves and sanctuaries of Sri Lanka. Draft. DWC (n.d.). A national policyfor wildlife conservation Department of Wildlife Conservation, Colombo. of Sri Lanka. Department of Wildlife Conservation, 32 pp. Ministry of Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli Padmalal, U.K.G.K. (1989). Some aspects of wildlife
Development. 1 1 pp. management and conservation in Sri Lanka. In: Gour-Tanguay, R. (Ed.) (1977). Environmental policies Karim, G.M.M.E., Akonda, A.W. and Sewitz, P. in developing countries. Erich Schmidt Verlag, (Eds), Conservation of wildlife in Bangladesh. BerUn. Pp. 818900/00-81900/10. German Cultural Institute/Forest Department/Dhaka GunuUeke, I.A.U.N. and GunuUeke, C.V.S. (1990). University/Wildlife Society of Bangladesh/Unesco, Threatened woody endemics of the wet lowlands of Dacca. Pp. 71-78. Sri Lanka and their conservation. Biological Perera, N.P. (1984). Natural resources, settlements and Conservation 55 (in press). land use. In C.H. Fernando (Ed.), Ecology and Fernando, C.H. (Ed.)(1984). Ecology and biogeography biogeography in Sri Lanka. Dr W. Junk, The Hague. in Sri Lanka. Dr W. Junk, the Hague. 505 pp. Pp. 453-492. Fernando, R. and Samarasinghe, S.WJl. de A. (1988). Pushparajah, M. (1985). Forest policy and management Forest conservation and theforestry master planfor of wet zone forests. Sri Lanka Forester 17: 6-8. Sri Lanka - a review. Wildlife and Nature Protection Rau, A.L. (1984). A review of wildlife legislation in Society of Sri Lanka, Colombo. 76 pp. (Unseen) Pakistan. M.Sc. thesis. University of Edinburgh, Forest Department (1986). A nationalforest inventory of Edinburgh. 66 pp. Sri Lanka 1982- 85. GOSL/UNDP/FAO Project Repetto, R. (1988). Theforestfor the trees? Government SRL/79/014. Forest Deparunent, Colombo. 238 pp. policies and the misuse offorest resources. World Hoffmann, T.W. (1969). The Wildlife Protection Resoiu-ces Institute, Washington. 105 pp.
Society of Ceylon: some historical reflections on the Scott, D. A. ( 1 989). A directory ofAsian wetlands. lUCN, occasion of its 75lh anniversary. Lorn 11: 1-13. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,186 pp. Hoffmann, T.W. (1973). The need for a policy. Lorn 1 1: Somasekaram, T. (Ed.) (1988). The national atlas ofSri 10-15. Lanka. Survey Department, Colombo. Hoffmann, T.W. (1983). Wildlife conservation in Sri TAMS (,19S0). Environmental assessment - Accelerated Lanka: a brief survey of the present status. Bombay Mahaweli Development Programme. Volume 2. Natural History Society Centenary Seminar Terrestrial Environment. Tippets, Abbet, McCarthy (1883-1983).Powai,Bombay,India,6-10Decemberl983. and Sffatton, New York. (Unseen) lUCN (1985). The Corbett Action plan for protected TAMS (1981). Environmental plan of action - areas of the Indomalayan Realm. lUCN, Gland, Accelerated Mahaweli Development Programme. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp. Tippets, Abbet, McCarthy and Stratton, New York. lUCN (1989). Forest Sector Development Project: (Unseen) Environmental Management Component. lUCN UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. (The World Conservation Union), Gland, Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. lUCN, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 42 pp. Gland, Switzeriand and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Jansen, M. (1985). A network of national parks for Sri Nairobi, Kenya. 440 pp. Lanka. Tigerpaper 12(1): 4-7. Wijesinghe, L.C.A. de S., Guntilleke, I.A.U.N., Jansen, M. (1989). Sri Lanka - biological diversity and Jayawardana,S.D.G.,andGuntilleke,C.V.S.(1989). tropical forests. Status and recommended Biological conservation in Sri Lanka (a national conservation needs. Revised version. USAID/Sri status report). Natural Resources, Energy and Lanka, Colombo. Unpublished report 70 pp. Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Colombo. 64 pp. Jaakko Poyry International Oy (1986). Forestry Master Wijewansa, R.A. (1985). Sri Lanka: natural resources Plan for Sri Lanka. Forest Resources Development expertise profile. CDC/IUCN Gland, Switzerland. Project, Ministry of Lands and Land Development. Unpublished report. 130 pp. Unpublished. 146 pp.
132 Sri Lanka
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
except Title: Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance Nature reserve Similar to a national park, that human activities traditionally permitted on (No. 2) crown land are allowed to continue. Date: 1937, last amended 1970 Jungle corridor Provides for the safe movement of Brief description: An ordinance to provide for the wildlife, particularly migratory elephant, in areas protection of fauna and flora of Sri Lanka where human activity is permitted.
Administrative authority: Department of Wildlife Sanctuary Conservation (Director) Specified area of land (other than land declared as a Designations: national reserve) which may include both crown and non-crown land. National reserve Activities prohibited are: hunting, killing or removal Area of crown land, all or any specified part of which of any wild animal; and destroying eggs or nests of park, intermediate is a strict natural reserve, national birds and reptiles. zone (this category has since been deleted from the legislation), nature reserve or jungle corridor. Nature Source: Original legislation reserve and jungle corridor categories were introduced in an amendment to the Ordinance in Title: Forest Ordinance (No. 16) 1964. Date: 1907, amended by Act No. 13 of 1966 Strict natural reserve No person may enter a strict natural reserve or in any way disturb its fauna and Brief description: An ordinance to consolidate and flora, nor may any animal or plant be collected, amend the law relating to forests and the felling and damaged or destroyed. Entry is prohibited except for transport of timber the purpose of scientific research, subject to written Administrative authority: Forest Department authorisation by the Warden. (Conservator of Forests) Activities prohibited are: hunting, killing or removal Designations: of any wild animal; destroying eggs or nests of birds and reptiles; disturbing wild animals or interfering Reservedforest (i.e. forest reserve) Any crown land with their breeding; felling or otherwise damaging declared by ministerial order and published in the any plant; breaking up land for cultivation, mining or Gazette. any other purpose; kindling or carrying fire; and possessing or using any tfap, explosive or poison to Activities prohibited include: trespass by persons or
damage plant or animal life. their cattle; felling trees or collecting forest produce; poisoning water; quarrying stone and burning lime National park No person may enter a national park or charcoal; making fires or fresh clearings; breaking except to observe the fauna and flora, nor may any up land for cultivation or any other purpose; animal or plant be collected, damaged or destroyed. constructing temporary or permanent buildings, Entry is subject to the conditions of a permit issued sawpits, or roads; and pasturing cattle, hunting, by the prescribed officer on payment of a prescribed shooting or fishing in contravention of any fee. ministerial regulations.
Activities prohibited are the same as those prohibited Village forest Any portion of a forest may be in a strict natural reserve. constituted a village forest for the benefit of a village community. Intermediate zone Any person, subject to such conditions and restrictions as may be prescribed, may Activities prohibited within village forests include: enter an intermediate zone to hunt, kill or collect any poisoning of water, and injuring by fire or other wild animal. means any tree listed in Schedule I of the Ordinance.
Various activities are prohibited. Management of village forests, including pasturing
cattle, is subject to ministerial regulations. Originally envisaged as a buffer zone, providing for of controlled hunting, this category has since been Source: Original legislation deleted from the latest revision of the Ordinance.
133 Protected Areas of the World
Title: National Heritage Wilderness Areas Entry is by permit and restricted only for purposes of Act, No. 3 observing the fauna and flora or conducting scientific research. Date: 4 March 1988 Activities prohibited include: marking, damaging or Brief description: An act to make provision for the removing any plant, tree or part thereof or any other
declaration of national heritage wilderness areas; for forest produce; cutting grass or pasturing cattle; the protection and preservation of such areas; and for polluting water, disturbing, collecting or destroying matters concerned therewith or incidental thereto any animal (or egg or nest in the case of birds ox reptiles); erect (and occupy) any temporary or Administrative authority: Forest Department permanent building (Uiis provision does not apply to (Conservator of Forests) the competent authority); make any fresh clearing, or break up any land for cultivation or other purpose; Designations: kindle, keep or carry Are; construct any road; and National heritage wilderness area Any portion of damage, alter or remove any boundary mark. state land having unique ecosystems, genetic Source: Original legislation resources or outstanding natural features.
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ Sri Lanka
Map^ Protected Areas of the World
Protected Areas of Sri Lanka
136 TAIWAN (REPUBLIC OF CHINA)
Area 36,960 sq. km natural preservation zones, the latter being designated as ecological preservation areas or natural preservation Population 20,440,000 (1991) areas under the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act 1982. Natural increase: <2% per annum This Act was being reviewed during 1989 in order to clarify this system of Economic Indicators classification. Coastal protection areas are protected from any activities detrimental GNP: US$ 7.997 (1990) to their environmental quality; environmental impact Policy and Legislation The history of protected areas assessments are required for any proposed developments establishment dates back to the Japanese occupation, within them. Under this Act, a Commission on when three mountainous areas in the centre of the island Natural/Cultural Landscapes has been established and were designated as national parks in the 1930s, but never nine nature preserves have been declared cooperatively placed under management. Following the return to by the Ministry of Economic Affairs and the Council of Chinese rule in 1945, the Taiwan Forestry Bureau Agriculture, one of which lies within a coastal protected became the leading nature conservation organisation for area, namely Tanshui River Mangrove Forest Nature many years and established several forest recreation areas, Preserve. Nature preserves provide for the protection of notably at Alishan and Chitou (McHenry and Lin, 1984). fauna and threatened species and their habitats, as well as having educational and research roles. The Cultural National Park The Law, promulgated on 13 June 1972, Heritage Preservation Act also provides the basis for the is designed to protect some of Taiwan's remaining promotion of the Taiwan Nature Conservation Strategy wilderness and historically important sites, as well as (CPA, 1985; Lee, 1988). providing for public recreation and scientific research
(see Annex). Under this Act the Ministry of Interior is The Wildlife Conservation Law was passed by the empowered to set up a National Park Planning Legislative Yuan in June 1989. It provides for the Commission authorised to designate, alter or abolish conservation and protection of wildlife, replacing the areas for national parks and to review national park earlier Hunting Ban of 1972. Responsibility for its management plans. All decisions relating to the implementation falls on the Council of Agriculture af establishment and abolition of national parks and the national level, Taiwan Provincial Government at declaration and alteration of their boundaries require the provincial level, and country and municipal approval of the Executive Yuan (Cabinet). A national governments at local level. Under this Law, wildlife park may be divided into the following zones for protection areas may be established for the conservation management: existing use areas, recreation areas, of any animal listed under its protection (see Annex). cultural/historic areas, scenic areas and ecological International Activities Participation in international protection areas. In general, collection of specimens, use nature conservation activities is one of the objectives of of pesticides and herbicides, and construction of the Taiwan Nature Conservation Strategy (CPA, 1985). facilities are prohibited in ecological protection areas. Taiwan is not yet a party to any international or regional Entrance to such areas is by permit only. Building, conventions or programmes concerned with the prospecting, farming, grazing livestock, fishing and conservation of natural ecosystems/heritage, such as the other activities may be allowed in existing use areas or World Heritage Convention, the Unesco Man and the recreation areas with approval from the national park Biosphere Programme, Ramsar Convention and authorities (CPA, 1984). It was not until 1977, five years ASEAN Environment Programme, principally because later, that instructions were given by the Executive Yuan the country has been rejected on political grounds. to establish a national park in the Kenting area (finally operational in 1984). In April 1979 the Executive Yuan Administration and Management Under the National approved the Comprehensive Development Plan for the Park Law (1972), the Ministry of Interior is the authority Taiwan Area in which a total of six national parks was ultimately responsible for national parks. Following the proposed, four of which have since been established reorganisation of the Ministry in March 1981, the (Shueshan and Tapachienshan are outstanding). A Construction and Planning Administration was set up National Park Planning Commission was appointed in and the National Park Department established under its September of that year to plan these areas (CPA, 1985; jurisdiction in December 1981. This Department is McHenry and Lin, 1984). responsible for planning and administering national parks, as well as implementing the Taiwan Coastal Area In addition, seven coastal protection areas have been Natural Environmental Protection Plan. designated under the Taiwan Coastal Area Natural Environment Protection Plan promulgated by the Under the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, the Executive Yuan (McHenry and Wu, 1985). Coastal Council of Agriculture is responsible for the planning protection areas are managed as general conservation or and managing nature preserves, as part of its wider
137 Protected Areas of the World responsibilities for wildlife conservation. The Council of National forest, which occupies a total area of Agriculture is also responsible for the establishment and l,786,500ha, is managed and developed for management of wildlife protection areas. conservation of water resources, protection of national
land, timber production and recreation. Some 4 1 1 ,384ha In order to coordinate government agencies with (23%) of national forest had been reclassified as for nature conservation, the Council of responsibilities protection forest by the end of 1983, being land occupied Agriculture established an inter-agency Commission on by railways, highways, reservoirs, power supplies, Nature/Cultural Landscapes in 1984, with one watersheds, etc. (TFB, 1984). There is a moratorium on committee comprising representatives from many timber extraction in areas above 2,500m and in the government departments, and another with different a coastal zone. Following severe water shortages membership comprising scientific experts (Patel and experienced several years ago, quotas have been fixed Yao-Sung, 1988). for timber production. A total ban on cutting is anticipated in the next year or so. Systems Reviews Taiwan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Most of this population Taiwan has developed remarkably quickly, moving is distributed along the western coastal plains. Straddling from a pre-World War II agricultural society to become the Tropic of Cancer, Taiwan exhibits a wide variety of one of the world's most prosperous industrial nations. climate/habitat associations from coral reefs and tropical Gross national product per capita has risen from US$ 48 monsoon forests to high mountains snow-capped in in 1952 to over USS 5,000 and foreign exchange winter. Two-thirds of the island is mountainous. Annual reserves presently exceed USS 75 billion, second rainfall varies from less than 1000mm to more than highest in the world after Japan (Andrews, 1988). Due 5000mm. The distribution of vegetation is influenced by to this rapid growth in the economy, natural resources elevation, climate and soils. The original vegetation can have been heavily exploited, species, particularly large be classified as follows: alpine tundra formations, mammals (McCullough, 1974), have been lost, and the subalpine coniferous forest, cold temperate montane environment has become seriously polluted. Following coniferous forest, warm temperate coniferous forest, in the wake of initiatives taken to conserve the country's warm temjjerate rain forest, tropical rain forest, littoral biological diversity through the establishment of a forest and savanna formation , and these are described by protected areas network and protection of wildlife, and Severinghaus brief account of the status, (1989). A recognising the need to redress the balance, the distribution and conservation of tropical rain forest in Executive Yuan requested the Ministry of IntericM' to Taiwan is given in ColUns et al. (1991). Wetlands develop a nature conservation strategy to promote a tidal mangrove and salt include mudflats, swamps national nature conservation policy and sound resource marshes, primarily along the west coast, and a few small management system based on principles of sustainable lakes and ponds in remote mountain areas. Previously, development (CPA, 1985). Goals identified in the there were 80,000ha of inlertidal flats along the mud strategy include the establishment of national parks, west coast, although 1 ,000ha have been reclaimed and 1 green belts and urban forests, and the protection of there are plans to reclaim a further 15,(X)0ha (Scott, coastal resources. Outstanding, with regard to protected 1989). Twelve of the most important wetland sites are areas, is the proposal to develop a nationwide inventory described in detail in Scott Corals are found in (1989). of natural areas and development of a national park all the waters around Taiwan, except the sandy area on system plan to provide a long-term strategy for the west coast. The main reef area is around the southern protecting nationally important natural (and cultural) tip in the vicinity of Kenting where coral communities resources (Bright, 1987). Natural areas are already in the with small fringing reefs are found. The status and process of being inventoried by the Taiwan Forestry distribution of corals is further discussed in UNEP/IUCN Research Institute (McHenry and Lin, 1984). (1988) and number of specific sites are described in detail. The Society of Wildlife and Nature (SWAN),
established on 15 April 1982, is the principal nature Species diversity and endemism per unit area are among conservation society in Taiwan. It currently has 850 the highest in the world. There over are 4,000 species of individual and group members, including government vascular plants endemic), 61 of mammals (1,075 (42 agencies, corporations and bird and other nature clubs. endemic), 428 of birds endemic), (70 135 of freshwater Other non-governmental conservation organisations fish, 90 of reptiles, 30 of amphibians, and over 400 include the Animals Protection Society, concerned species of butterflies (McHenry and Lin, 1984). with the protection of wetlands and waterfowl, and various bird societies. By 1989, there were some The forests of Taiwan cover l,864,700ha, or 52.1% of 17 non-governmental conservation organisations the country. The rest of the land area comprises (L.L. Severinghaus, pers. comm., 1989). cultivations (32.3%), fish ponds (1.4%), rivers and riverbeds (4.7%) and other lands (9.6%). The The most serious threats to Taiwan's national parks are distribution ofTaiwan's forests coincides approximately logging, surface mining and hydroelectric development with that of the Central Mountain Range, peripheral There is pressure on the parks authorities to permit such coastal plains having been largely cleared for agriculture activities (L.L. Severinghaus, pers. comm., 1989). More and other uses. subtle is the constant pressure for installation of military
138 Taiwan and communications facilities and noise pollution CPA (1984). Laws and regulations on construction and from military and civil aircraft. Other threats are major planning. Construction and Planning Administration, road constructions, adverse land use practices on Ministry of Interior, Taipei. 225 pp. privately-owned holdings within parks, outdoor CPA (1985). The TaiwanNature Conservation Strategy. advertising, vandalism, junk-yards, litter, and Construction and Planning Administration, Ministry commercial shows and pageants (Bright, 1987). of Interior, Taipei. 39 pp.
Assessment of visitor carrying capacity and Lee, San-Wei ( 1 988). The work of nature and ecological implementation of appropriate controls to maintain the conservation in the past three years - retrospective. quality of the "wilderness experience" is a priority for Council ofAgriculture Forestry Series 16: 59-65. the more popular parks (McHenry and Lin, 1984). McHenry, TJ.P. and Lin, Yau-Yaw (1984). Taiwan's first national paiks. Parks 9(3/4): 13-16. Addresses McHenry, TJP. and Wu, Chuan-An (1985). Coastal
zone protection in Taiwan, r/ger /"aper 1 2( 1 ): 1 3- 1 6. National Park Department, Construction and Planning Patel, A.D. and Yao-Sung, L. (1988). History of Administration, Ministry of Interior, 194 Peihsin wildlife conservation in Taiwan. Draft manuscript Road, Section 3, Hsintien, Taipei Hsien, Taiwan Unpublished. Council of Agriculture, 37 Nan Hai Road, Taipei, Scott, D.A. (1989)..A directory ofAsian wetlands. lUCN, Taiwan 10728 (Tel: 2 314 7213/331 7541/3124045; Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1 181 pp. Fax: 2 331 0341/312 5857; Tlx: 8515 TAIPEI) Severinghaus, L.L. (1989). Natural resources. In: The Steering Committee (Eds), Taiwan 2000: Balancing Society for Wildlife and Nature (SWAN), IF, No. 7, Economic Growth and Environmental Protection. Lane 58, Woh Long Street, Dah Au Chiu, TAIPEI Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, (Tel: 2 741 2 741 2827; FAX: 1512) Taipei, Taiwan. Pp. 49-127 TFB (1984). Forestry in Taiwan, Republic of China. References Taiwan Forestry Bureau, Taipei. 35 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Andrews, J. (1988). Taiwan: transition on trial. The Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Economic, 5 March. Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests: UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. 256 pp.
ANNEX Dennitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Wildlife Conservation Law Privately-owned land within a wildlife protection area may be purchased or expropriated by the Date: 23 June 1989 government according to law and managed by the authorities. If not purchased or expropriated, the Brief Description: Enacted to conserve and protect owner should provide habitat for wildlife according wildlife, and to maintain the balance of natural to stipulations made by the authorities. ecosystems. Whatever is not regulated by this law may be regulated by other compatible legislation. Creation, cancellation or change in status of a Supersedes 1972 Hunting Ban. wildlife protection area should be authorised by the Council of Agriculture. Administrative authority: Council of Agriculture;
Taiwan Provincial Government; County and Source: Translation of original legislation Municipal governments
Designations: Title: National Park Law
Wildlife protection area Area established for Date: 13 June 1972 conservation animals (defined as those animals Brief description: Enacted for the purpose of protected under this law and including endangered, preserving the nation's unique natural scenery, wild rare and valuable species, and any other species fauna and flora, and historic sites and providing for requiring conservation), and in which restoration public recreation and scientific research. activities may be carried out.
139 Protected Areas of the World
Administrative authority: Ministry of Interior Prohibited activities are: burning vegetation or setting fires to clear land; hunting animals or catching Designations: fish; polluting air or water; picking or removing flowers; defacing trees, bark, stones or signs; littering National park Area whicli represents the natural (including fruit skins); driving outside designated heritage of the nation, including unique scenery, areas; and any conduct prohibited by the responsible landscapes, landforms, fossils, living fossils, and authority of the national park. fauna and flora in naturally evolving communities.
Activities permitted within the different types of Area which has educational significance for the management zone are specified in the legislation (see perception of nature and which includes important CPA, 1984). pre-historic and historic sites and their surroundings which require long-term preservation by the nation. Source: Translation of original legislation (CPA, 1984) Area which possesses outdoor recreation resources and unique scenery which are of easy access for public use.
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Taiwan
Protected Areas of Taiwan
141
THAILAND
Area 513,517 sq. km were also made to automatically rescind logging concessions that remained in force within national parks Population 55.702,000 (1990) under Section 30 of the National Parks Act. and in increase: per annum Natural 1.35% wildlife sanctuaries, following a Thai Judicial Council ruling in 1987 under which logging concessions granted Economic Indicators within sanctuaries prior to gazettement remained in GNP: US$ 1.000 per capita (1988) force. It is possible that this ban could be lifted, but the Policy and Legislation The earliest official logging ban within national parks and wildlife conservation measures were taken during the 13th sanctuaries can only be removed with a change in the century by King Ram Khamkaeng the Great who law. Thus, establishment of these two protected area established Royal Dong Tan Park. Parks were also categories is now seen as the principal means by which established around temples and other religious sites. remaining forests can be protected from logging. which, due to the Buddhist prohibition on killing, Consequently, the protected areas systems is being functioned as wildlife sanctuaries (Kasetsart University, enlarged rapidly (Wongpakdee, 1990). However, the 1987). Thereafter, conservation fell into abeyance until logging ban does not cover mangroves, and increased the establishment of the Royal Forest Department in timber prices may have encouraged further illegal 1896. The Department inffoduced modem management logging (Lohmann, 1990). practices to achieve the maximum, and theoretically Nature conservation in all fields was strengthened when sustainable, yield of forest products. The current the Enhancement and Conservation of National enabling legislation of Ihe Department is the Forest Act Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2518 (1975) was B.E. 2484 (1941). passed. This provided for the establishment of the
In the 1940s and 1950s the Royal Forest Deparunent National Environment Board, within the Office of established a limited number of "forest parks" for the Prime Minister, charged with submitting recreation and habitat protection. Protected areas recommendations on environmental policy to the legislation, and other nature conservation measures, was Cabinet. The National Environment Board operates established in the early 1960s with the passing of two through its executive arm, the Office of the National key acts. The Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Environment Board, which has divisions responsible for Act B.E. 2503 (1960) makes provision for the environmental information, policy, planning, impact establishment of wildlife sanctuaries and non-hunting evaluation and standards. areas, the regulation of hunting, con&ol of wildlife trade National parks are established solely on government and provides a limited number of species with total legal land and by Royal Decree to conserve both living natural protection. The National Parks Act B.E. 2504 (1961) is resources and landscapes, and to make provision for primarily concerned with the establishment and public education and recreation. Theoretically, complete management of national parks (lUCN, 1979; Kasetsart protection from all activities except research and University, 1987). The National Forest Reserves Act recreation is provided. Wildlife sanctuaries, termed wild B.E. 2507 (1964) was passed to strengthen the animal preserved areas in the 1960 Act, are established inadequate forest protection afforded by the earlier under Royal Decree and, again, exist only on land owned Forest Acts. This Act also defines two forest types: by public bodies. Sanctuaries exist largely for species production and conservation. National parks, wildlife conservation and protection is rigorous: hunting of all sanctuaries and most non-hunting areas are classified in taxa is prohibited and habitat is also protected. the latter category. The 1 964 act also formalised the legal Recreation is not encouraged and unauthorised entry and status of forest parks. other activities are prohibited. Non-hunting areas are
In December 1985, the Thai Cabinet approved a Draft designated by the Ministry of Agriculture and National Forest Pohcy which reaffirmed the standing Cooperatives on either private or state land for the sole policy of maintaining at least 40% forest cover in the purpose of conserving named species. Non-hunting country, and further divided the forests into two areas are frequently defined by discrete features, such as categories. Protected forests, which should account for lakes or temple grounds, to protect, for example, 15% of land area, encompasses all those sites set aside seasonal over-wintering or nesting birds. Activities such for nature conservation, watershed protection, research as agriculture, hunting or timber felling are not and recreation, including national parks and wildlife prohibited within a non-hunting area and there is no sanctuaries. The second category, accounting for the restriction on access or habitation unless proscribed by remainder of all forest land, is productive forest, which other legislation, such as the National Forest Reserves was to be utilised for the exploitation of timber and forest Act(FAO, 1981; Kasetsart University, 1987). products. In May 1989 two Royal decrees were passed Proposals for both parks and sanctuaries originate within to amend and supplement the Forest Acts, making the National Parks Division and Wildlife Conservation provision for a nationwide ban on logging. Provisions
143 Protected Areas of the World
Division, respectively, and are considered by either the University, 1987). The 1990 budget was 165 million baht National Park or the Wild Animals Reservation and (USS 6.6 million), increasing to 286 million baht Protection Committee as appropriate. The protected area (USS 11.44 mUUon) in 1991. Some 20 miUion baht is gazetted when a Royal Decree, with a map showing (USS 800,000) was generated by entrance fees the boundary lines, is promulgated. The extension or (Wongpakdee, 1990). cancellation of a park or sanctuary is also only possible The Wild Animals Reservation and Protection by Royal Decree. Non-hunting areas differ inasmuch Committee, which includes members from the Ministry that a ministerial order alone is sufficient for their Agriculture establishment or degazettemenL of and Cooperatives, the Royal Forest Department, Land Department, Office of the National International Activities Three biosphere reserves have Environment Board, Budget Bureau, Dusit Zoo, been established since June 1976 under the Unesco Man government departments of animal husbandry, foreign and the Biosphere programme. Two national parks, trade, customs, mineral resources and others, acts as an Khao Yai and Tarutao, are ASEAN Heritage sites, in advisory and decision-making body for the Wildlife recognition of their regional importance. Thailand Conservation Division. There are nine sub-divisions: ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of the extension, technical, wildlife sanctuaries, law World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage enforcement, administration, planning, non-hunting Convention) in 1987 and three sites were nominated for management, propagation and foreign affairs. inscription on the World Heritage List during 1991. Professional staff includes 85 graduates, 192 officials with diplomas and 482 guards, of whom all have Administration and Management In the early 1960s, received in-service law-enforcement training. A the Royal Forest Department devolved its responsibiUty substantial but indeterminate number of daily-paid for protected areas upon the National Parks and the labourers are also employed. The divisional budget in Wildlife Sections of its Silviculture Division. The 1986 stood at 1 16.2 million baht (USS 4.4 million), of National Parks Section was upgraded to "Sub-Division" which 42% was allocated to wildlife sanctuaries and status in 196S and, with an increasing workload, to 24% to salaries. During 1986 the budget allocation for divisional level in 1972. For similar reasons, the Wildlife non-hunting areas, on a per unit area basis, was Conservation Division emerged out of the former approximately twice that of wildlife sanctuaries. Recent Section in 1975. Neither the National Park Division nor budget figures for the Wildlife Conservation Division the Wildlife Conservation Division has regional offices are not available, although they are said to be increasing and both operate out of a common headquarters in in line with allocations to the National Parks Division; Bangkok. some 20 miUion baht (USS 800,000) was derived from entrance fees during 1990 (Wongpakdee, 1990). The National Park Division is headed by a Director and is controlled by the National Park Committee which Since 1975, forest reserves have been the responsibility includes representatives from government departments, of the Royal Forest Department's National Forest Land the Office of National Environment Board, Kasetsarl Management Division. This has seven sub-divisions, University, the Tourist Authority of Thailand and others. viz. forest land development, forest land use, survey and The Division comprises seven sub-divisions, viz. planning, land use cooperation, construction, forest administration, technical, national park management, improvement and administration. The Division has over forest park management, extension, planning, and 500 staff, supported by some 350 regional forestry construction and maintenance (Kasetsart University, officials. The 1986 budget allocation for reserved forests 1987). A management planning section is to be was 50 million baht (USS 1.9 million), which is established for the preparation of management plans approximately twice that disbursed annually between (Anon., 1986). The Director has considerable autonomy 1977 and 1981 (Kasetsart University, 1987). within the Royal Forest Deparunent and in 1986 the
Division had a staff of 128 graduates, 87 officials with Protected area management is concentrated on site technical school certificates and 539 persons without demarcation, patrols and law enforcement, occasionally formal qualifications, the majority of whom, however, supported by local police and regional forestry officers. have received law-enforcement training within the All existing parks have permanent headquarters, Division. In addition, more than 3,000 daily-paid although the provision of guard stations, tourist workers are employed. The number of staff totalled accommodation and staff housing is generally 4,500 during 1990, comprising 250 with professional inadequate. The supply of staff vehicles, weapons, qualifications, 700 forest guards and the remainder being radios, as well as roads, trails, telephones, electricity and park assistants and manual workers. A number of water supply tends not to be sufficient to meet demand. training programmes have been organised and are These deficiencies hamper the implementation and planned for park personnel, covering topics such as development of education, interpretation and research management skills, law and administration activities, although a number of parks are used by (Wongpakdee, 1990). The Division's budget nearly visiting scientists and non-governmental nature doubled from 70 million baht (USS 2.5 million) in 1982 conservation organisations. The Tourism Authority of to 125 million baht (USS 4.7 million) in 1986, with some Thailand has recently committed some 5 million baht 57% being allocated to staff salaries (Kasetsart (USS 190,000) to assist the National Parks Division in
144 Thailand
developing the recreation and tourism infrastructure of been lost to agriculture. Extensive tracts persist only on selected parks. Similar, but rather more severe, the hills, but during the last decade even these have come deficiencies exist in the wildlife sanctuaries. Nearly all under assault, principally from rubber plantations, which sanctuaries have some research facilities, although these have often been established with international aid lend not to be comprehensive. Despite these failings, the (ColUns era/., 1991). protected area system remains relatively intact and the The great variation in sites often stand in sharp contrast to their developed topography and climate has led to surroundings (Kasetsart University, 1987). the development of a complex mosaic of forest types in which the drier, more open deciduous formations in the Systems Reviews The country divides naturally into six seasonal areas give way, with increasing rainfall, to regions. The Northern Highlands extend from the variety of semi-evergreen and evergreen facies, borders with Myanmar and Laos south to about 18° including evergreen forest Mangrove forests also occur latitude. They mainly comprise ridges oriented in saline, silt-rich coastal waters. In the mid-1940s some north-east to south-east, reaching an elevation of 70-80% of Thailand's land mass supported closed forest between 1,500m and 2,000m, and separated by wide Despite state ownership of all forests in the form of valleys at between 300m and 500m. Originally, the national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and forest reserves, mountains above 1,000m were clad in evergreen more recent estimates indicate a severe decline in cover montane rain forest, with mixed deciduous monsoon and to 33% in 1978 (FAO, 1981), 30% in 1982 (Round. dry dipterocarp savanna forests on their flanks. The 1985), and 26% in 1990 (Collins et al., 1990). It is now valleys, however, have long been wholly cultivated. This officially recognised that total open and closed canopy region suffers from the steady southward push of hill forest cover may have fallen to 127,940 sq. km (25 %) tribes such as the Hmong and Yao, which cultivate and that much of this remaining forest may have been upland rice and, at higher elevations, the opium poppy. subject to considerable disturbance (Collins etal.,1 990). Undisturbed forest is now restricted to a few scattered The proportion of different forest types, according to patches in remote areas. Round (1988), is 43.6% evergreen, 21.8% mixed deciduous, 31.4% dry dipterocarp, 1.4% coniferous and The Korat Plateau covers the north-east of Thailand. It 1.8% mangrove. Regional variation in forest cover is forms a shallow depression at 100m and 200m, rimmed considerable, ranging from 59.9% forest cover in the by the Petchabun Range in the west, and the Dangrek northern region to 17.2% cover in the north-eastern Range in the south. These reach 500m to 1,400m and region. The 1973-1982 rate of deforestation also shows meet in the highlands of Khao Yai National Park. The marked regional variation, with a 10.8% reduction in plateau is now largely devoid of forest, but extensive total forest cover in the peninsular and 48.9% in the less areas still persist on the ranges. Dry monsoon forests on prosperous north-eastern region (Round, 1985). The the lower slopes grade into evergreen rain forest on the aggregate figure of forest loss during 1985-1988 is hills and finally into pine woodlands on the ridge tops. estimated at 2,354 sq. km annually (FAO, 1988). Permanent agricultural encroachment and swidden The Central Plain of the Chao Phraya River is now agriculture are the principal causes of deforestation, in almost entirely under intensive rice cultivation and its addition to both previously government sanctioned and original swamp and monsoon forest has completely illegal logging, the widespread practice of annual disappeared. burning of forest undergrowth, and developments such The South-East Uplands are an extension of the as hydroelectric projects and highway construction. Cardamom Mountains from across the Cambodian Despite a cabinet directive in 1981 that 50% of border. Rainfall approaches 5000mm in some areas. Thailand's land area should be forested, relatively Small remnants of the once prevalent tropical rain forest undisturbed protected areas are increasingly isolated, still survive in protected areas. thus possibly contributing to a decline in diversity. A number of protected areas have been adversely affected The Tenasserim Hills extend south from about 18*N in by development activities, such as hydroelectric projects the Northern Highlands, along the Myanmar border to and highway construction, whilst mineral extraction, the Kra Isthmus, at about lO'N, rising steeply to about resettlement programmes and recreation increase the
1 ,000m. Since the Thai side of the Tenasserim lies in the pressure on wildlife and forests (Jintanugool et al., 1982; rain shadow of higher hills on the Burmese side, it is Round, 1985). The 1989 logging ban has reUeved some relatively dry, but semi-evergreen rain forest persists of pressure from protected areas by nullifying logging higher elevations along the border. The upper flanks are concessions, but many of the fundamental causes of often precipitous, with bare rock. The slopes, once deforestation, such as rural poverty and illegal logging, clothed in deciduous monsoon forest containing some persist There is also concern that the ban will have an teak and much Shorea spp., are now deforested and adverse effect on the poorer countries in the region which covered with bamboo and grassland. will be enticed to increase their own rates of felUng to satisfy the demands of Thai sawmills (Round, 1989). The Southern Peninsula extends to the Malaysian border from a Une joining Chumphon to Ranong at lO'N. It is Thailand supports an extremely diverse fauna and an area of heavy rainfall and was originally covered in flora. Situated in the Indo-Chinese peninsula of the rain forest However, most forest in the lowlands has
145 Protected Areas of the World
Oriental region, the country has been described as a fanning operates at Phu Khiew Wildlife Sanctuary "zoogeographic cross roads". For example, the (Kasetsart University, 1987). In 1986 US-AID funded an avifauna comprises Sino-Himalayan, Indo-burmese, assessment of protected areas in Thailand (Kasetsart
Indo-Chinese and Sundaic elements, to which may be University, 1 987). The report brings together a disparate added large numbers of migrant visitors from the body of information on protected areas and made Palaearctic region (Round, 1988). Current knowledge of recommendations concerning budget, staff numbers, the flora and fauna is not complete, but it estimated that training and services, law enforcement, tourism, some 20,000 to 25,000 species of vascular plants are recreation and education, the combination of the present, including 10,000 to 15,000 flowering species. National Park and Wildlife Conservation divisions and This includes more than 500 tree species and 1,000 their promotion to departmental level, formulation of orchid species. Approximately 891 bird species have explicit policy statements, establishment of regional been recorded, of which roughly 638 breed or formerly offices, and amendment of extant legislation to reflect bred within the country. In a review of the status and the role of protected areas in socio-economic conservation of forest birds , Round ( 1 988) estimates that development. at least 521 species are present in existing national parks The leading national non-governmental organisation, and wildlife sanctuaries, although 106 land birds, and since the demise of the water birds associated with forests are considered Association for the Conservation of Wildlife, is Wildlife Thailand, an affiliate threatened and six species are considered to be extinct. Fund body Mammals number about 265 species (Lekagul and of WWF and member of lUCN. Amongst the Fund's major projects is a rural development scheme at McNeely, 1977), fish approximately 1,450, reptiles at Baan Saap Tai, ecological surveys in Thung Yai and Huai least 300 and amphibians at least 100 (Nuthaphand, Kha Khaeng, the operation of mobile conservation unit. 1979; Taylor, 1962, 1963, 1965). and a The Conservation Data Centre at Mahidol University A national conservation plan for Thailand was compiled holds information on flora and fauna both within and by lUCN at the request of the National Environment outside protected areas and manages a computerised Board and completed in 1979. The guidelines suggested conservation database. in the plan were included in the fifth Five-Year National The major threat to protected areas is poaching, and Social and Economic Development Plan ( 1 982- 1 986), in habitat loss to agricultural encroachment. this particular the need to expand the protected areas system due For reason, parks and sanctuaries tend higher (lUCN 1978; Kasetsart University, 1987). The national to be on ground that is less favourable for agriculture and lowland forest park system was expanded from 16 sites (9,357 sq. km) is not well represented in the protected area system in 1979 to45 sites (24,222 sq. km) in 1985. By December (Round, Although partly 1990 some 63 national parks had been established, 1985). stemming from the lack including 14 with a marine component, covering of a systematic protected area acquisition policy, measures to tackle encroachment were made in 1975. 33,687 sq. km (6.6% of total land area). A further 45 are The Cabinet directed that reserved forests that have been proposed, to cover another 22,617 sq. km. At the same heavily time there were 32 wildlife sanctuaries, covering degraded by encroachment and settlement be developed into "forest villages". This gives families the 24,950 sq. km (4.9% of total land area), with a further right to remain on the land indefinitely which six proposed to cover an additional 2,196 sq. km. hc^fully will prevent further forest destruction. Approximately The proposed and existing national parks and wildlife 474,000 families, occupying some 770,()00ha, have sanctuaries will cover 16.3% of the total area of the officially taken part in the programme (Kasetsart country (Wongpakdee, 1990). The national forest University, 1987). Similarly, a number of projects, some reserve network covers 232,393 sq. km, but this total with Royal patronage, are intended to encourage hill includes many national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, tribes in the north to abandon swidden agriculture which as well as 1,218 forest reserves (RFD, 1989). is a major cause of deforestation and a serious threat to parks such as E>oi Inthanon. In 1982 UNDP/FAO presented a report (FAO, 1981) which identified the strengths and weaknesses of the Most national parks and wildlife sanctuaries were protected area system. In 1984 the fu'st protected area originally designated as national forest reserves, with an management plan was compiled with assistance from emphasis on production, and with a tendency for villages WWF and lUCN. The success of this has prompted the to be established in and around them. Logging preparation and implementation of management plans concessions were frequently granted. Subsequently, for a further 23 protected areas as an integral part of encroachment has continued and considerable areas are the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1987-1991), funded by lost from protected areas each year. An additional US$ 6 million from the government (Anon., 1986). An problem has been the continuing validity of logging additional component of the project was the concessions in areas that were designated as national establishment of a jMtJgramme of rural development for parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Until the 1989 national conservation amongst villages surrounding Khao Yai logging ban it had been legally possible for logging National Park. This channels benefits from the park to companies to continue their operations within protected local villagers thus helping to stem poaching and areas, under Section 30 of the National Park Act encroachment; a similar scheme based on wildlife (Wongpakdee, 1990).
146 Thailand
A systematic problem acax)ss the country is the poor or Dixon, J.A. and Sherman, P.B. (1990). Economics of even absent marking of protected area boundaries, protected areas: a new look at benefits and costs. making patrolling and law enforcement difficult. Budget Island Press, Washington, DC. 234 pp. allocations are generally inadequate, due to the rapid Kasetsart University (1987). Assessment of national expansion of the jwotected areas systems; a delay of three parks, wildlife sanctuaries and other preserves in to five years may pass fix)m the date of gazettement to Thailand. Final Report. Kasetsart University, Royal the provision of a management budget. There is also Forest Department, Office of the National conflict with other land uses, promoted by government Environment Board and US Agency for International agencies, such as road construction, military facilities Development. 130 pp. etc., with protected areas being opened to further FAO (1981). National parks and wildlife management: encroachment along newly-constructed access roads. Thailand. A review of the nature conservation Only a limited number of sites have management plans, programmes and policies of the Royal Forest and there is a lack of both skilled personnel and funding Department. THA 77/003. Bangkok. 104 pp. to address this omission. Similarly, there are insufficient FAO (1988). An interim report on the state offorest staff and funding to carry out research and resource resources in the developing countries. FAO, Rome, inventories within protected areas which hampers good Italy. 18 pp. management (Wongpakdee, 1990). lUCN (1978). National Conservation Plan for Thailand 1980-1984. lUCN/UNEP/FAO, Marges. An economic analysis of the costs and benefits of Switzerland. 131 pp. protected areas has been conducted, with case studies lUCN (1979). Conservation for Thailand - policy focusing on Khao Yai National Park, Khao Soi Dao guidelines. Vol. 2. Appendices. lUCN/UNEP, Wildlife Sanctuary and Thale Noi Non-hunting Area Morges, Switzerland. 139 pp. (Dixon and Sherman, 1990). Nature conservation in Jintanugool, J., Eudey, A.A., Brockelman, W.A. (1982). Thailand, with an emphasis on the protected areas Species conservation priorities in Thailand. Species systems, is discussed by Arbhabhirama el al. (1988). conservation priorities in the tropical forests of southeast Asia. Occasional paper No. 1. lUCN Addresses Species Survival Commission (SSQ. 58 pp. Lekagul, B. and McNeely, J.A. Royal Forest Department, (Director-General), (1977). Mammals of Thailand. Association for the Conservation of Phaholyothin Road, Jatujak, Bangkok 10900 Nature, Bangkok. National Parks Division, (Director), Royal Forest Nutaphand, W. (1979). The turtles of Thailand. Department, Phaholyothin Road, Jatujak, Bangkok Siamfram Zoological Garden, Bangkok. (Unseen) 10900 (Tel: 2 579 4842/0529; FAX: 2 579 8532/2791) Round, P.D. (1985). Status and conservation resident Wildlife Conservation Division, (Director), Royal of forest birds in Thailand. Association for the Forest Department, Phaholyothin Road, Jatujak, Bangkok 10900 Conservation of Wildlife. 143 pp. Round, P.D. (1989). Implications of the logging ban for the conservation of Thai wildlife. Reports Conservation Data Centre, Mahidol University, Rama 6 WWF October/November. 4 Road, Bangkok 10400 (Tel: 246 1358-74 Ext. 431) pp. Royal Forest Department (1989). Forestry statistics of Thailand 1989. Forest Wildlife Fund Thailand, 251/88-90 Phaholyothin Road, Statistics Sub-Division, Planning Division, Bangkok. 79 Bang Khen, Bangkok 10220 (Tel: 521 3435, 552 pp. Taylor, E.H. The amphibian fauna of 21 11/2790; FAX: 552 6083) (1%2). Thailand. University of Kansas Scientific Bulletin: 45(9). (Unseen) References Taylor, E.H. (1963). The lizard fauna of Thailand.
Arbhabhirama, A., Phantumvanit, D., Elkington, J. and University ofKansas Scientific Bulletin: 44(19). Ingkasuwan, P. (1988). Thailand Natural Resources Taylor, E.H. (1965). The serpents of Thailand and Profile. Oxford University Press, Singapore. adjacent waters. University of Kansas Scientific Pp. 179-236. Bulletin 45(9). (Unseen) Anon. (\9S3). ASEAN heritage parks and reserves. The Vejaboosakom, S. (1985). The development of a ASEAN Experts Group On The Environment and protected area system for Thailand in terms of The United Nations Environment Programme. representative coverage of ecotypes. In: Thorsell, Bangkok. 94 pp. J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia's natural heritage.
Anon. (1986). Thailand : park planning uniL CNPPA lUCN, Gland, Switeerland and Cambridge, UK. Members Newsletter. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 237 pp. Pp.35. Wongpakdee, S. (1990). Thailand national parks and Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) wildUfe sanctuaries. Paper presented at the Regional (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests: Expert Consultation on Management of Protected Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. Areas in the Asia-Pacific Region. FAO Regional 256 pp. Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 10-14 December. 15 pp.
147 Protected Areas of the World
ANNEX Definition of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: National Parks Act the public in which hunting of any wild animal ofany
kind or category is prohibited. Date: 3 October 1961 (B.E. 2504) Monastic precincts Within the precinct of a Brief description: Act making provision for the monastery or pbce provided for religious observance establishment and management of national paries of the public, hunting, collecting or endangering any wild animal is prohibited. Administrative authority: Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives (Director, National Park Division, Source: Translated original legislation Royal Forest Department) Wildlife sanctuary is the commonly used terminology Designations:
Title: National Forest Reserves Act National park Any land or natural feature which is of interest to be maintained with a view to preserving Date: 16 April 1964 (amended 1989) it for the benefit of pubUc education and pleasure,
with the provision that such land in not owned or Administrative authority: Minister of Agriculture legally possessed by any person other than a public and Cooperatives (Director General, Royal Forest body. Department)
Prohibited activities are defined in Chapter 3 of the Brief description: An act to amend the law on the Act to provide comprehensive habitat and wildlife protection and reservation of forest protection, but with provision for recreation. Designation: Source: Translated original legislation National reservedforest A forest designated as such under this or, preceding but repealed, acts on Title: Wild Animals Reservation and protection and reservation of forest (1938, 1953, Protection Act 1954) for the purpose of preserving forest, timber, forest products or other natural Date: 26 December 1960 (B.E. 2503) resources, by recourse to a Ministerial Regulation Within such a Brief description: A law for the reservation and forest it is forbidden to hold or possess land, clear protection of wild animals land, bum forest, work Limber, gather forest products or do any act detrimental to the nature of the national Administrative authority: Ministry of Agriculture reserved forest with the exception of: and Cooperatives (Director, Wildlife Conservation Division, Royal Forest Department) (1) working timber or gathering forest products under Section 15, utilising or dwelling under Designations: Section 16, acting under Section 17, putting to use under Section 18 or acting under Section 19 Wild animal preserved area (Wildlife sanctuary) or 20; Any area deemed appropriate for the preservation of the breed of animal and on land not owned or legally (2) working prohibited timber or gathering possessed by any person other than a public body. prohibited forest products under the laws on foresL Non-hunting area Any place used for official
service or public interest or place for common use of NB: Amended in 1989 to remove the right of exploitation.
148 Thailand
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ Protected Areas of the World
Map Ntttionallinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
55 Thailand
Protected Areas of Thailand
151
THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIET NAM
Area 331,690 sq. km transferred to cooperatives, households and individuals who will be obliged to implement management plans Population 66,693,000 (1990) applicable to each forest type. Protection forests are Natural increase: 2.1% per annum further classified into forest for coastal protection (1,500 sq. km) and watershed protection (55,000 sq. Economic Indicators km). Production forests cover 122,000 sq. km and have GNP: US$ 198 per capita been allocated to state enterprises (60,(XX) sq. km), GDP: Not available cooperatives and individuals (62,000 sq. km), on the Policy and Legislation Article 5 of the Law on the basis of long term leases (Hoang and Vo, 1990). Protection of Forests, promulgated on 5 September A preliminary revised classification of protected areas 1972, makes provision for the establishment of protected has been proposed (Le Trong, 1 99 1 ), as follows: national areas. The Article states "the government delimits forest park, provincial park, natural reserve, cultural protected preserves aimed at protecting flora and fauna, historical area, no hunting area, protected forest and biosphere and cultural relics and public health, conducting reserve. scientific research or other special interests". Within forest preserves it is not permitted to fell trees (other than International Activities On 20 September 1987 the for management purposes) or shoot birds and other Government of Viet Nam became a Contracting Party with wildlife (MoF, 1985). Some activities are allowed, to the Convention on Wetlands of International the permission of either the Minister of Forests or the Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Council of Ministers, for example erecting buildings and Convention), and designated part of the Red River collecting fuelwood or scientific specimens (CoM, Delta for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of 1986). In general, implementation of this law has been International Importance. Viet Nam ratified the weak, due to socio-economic difficulties, low literacy Convention concerning the World Cultural and levels and weak provisions within the law itself (Hoang Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 6 and Vo, 1990). October 1987, although to date no sites have been inscribed on the World Heritage list. Nam Ba Cat The current protected areas system is largely based on Tien National Park (35,000ha) has been proposed as a Council of Ministers Decision No. 194/CT, promulgated biosphere reserve under the Unesco Man and the on 9 August 1986. This was made on the basis of Biosphere Programme (Thai van Trung, 1985). Article 5, and the later decisions No. 41/TTg of 24 January 1977, No. 360/TTg of 7 July 1978 (which An international agreement has been signed with Laos established Nam Cat Tien National Park), No. 65/HDBT and Cambodia, under the auspices of the tripartite of 7 April 1982, No. 85/CT of 1 March 1984 and Commission for Economic and Cultural Cooperation, in No. 79/CT of 31 March 1986 (which established Cat Ba order to protect kouprey Bos sauveli (E), sarus crane National Park). The Ministry of Forestry has set a target Grus antigone and migratory waterfowl; mutual of 900,000- l,000,000ha of forest to be set aside for the measures may include the establishment of transfrontier purpose of protecting gene pools, historic relics and for reserves (Kemf, 1986c; MacKinnon, 1986; MacKinnon tourism (Anon., 1984) and Decision No. 194/CT lists 73 and Stuart, 1989). International assistance for the "forbidden forests" which are categorised as national management of protected areas has been made available parks, nature reserves and historical and cultural under FAO's Technical Cooperation Programme, reserves. including support for the development of Cue Phuong National Park (G. Child, pers. comm., 1989). However, An Environment Law has been prepared with the lUCN, poor economic performance and a lack of aid firom much although no details are available at present. A Forest Law of the international community considerably limits has been formulated and was due to be submitted to the conservation and development (Agarwal, 1984; Westing National assembly by the end of 1990. and Westing, 1981).
The forest estate is divided into special-use forests, There is hope that bilateral and multilateral development protection forests and production forests. Special-use assistance may be renewed through the mechanism of forests have been further classified into 87 protected the Tropical Forestry Action Plan. With technical areas, comprising 7 national parks, 49 nature reserves assistance to national foresters, a strategic plan that will and 31 historical, cultural and environmental sites, embrace industrial forestry, fuelwood production, covering some 9,000 sq. km. The Ministry of Forestry is ecosystem protection and institution building is being reviewing boundaries with a view to extending some developed (Collins et al., 1991). Training programmes protected areas. Each area has a management board for implemented at the Centre for Natural Resources protection and administration. Protection forests cover Management and Environmental Studies have been 57,000 sq. km . Management boards are to be established supported by lUCN and WWF. The World Bank is for controlling these areas, and in general they are to be
153 Protected Areas of the World
formulating a project profile to support the Ministry of within their area are responsible for providing Forestry to train conservationists, with an estimated information on the regulations to local residents, as well inputofUS$ 2.7 million. as organising law enforcement patrols. The Decision also sets out a five-year work plan (1986-1990) for the The state research programme 52D, implemented by the Ministry of Forests, to include natural resource surveys, Natural Resources Management and Environmental provision of management plans, establishing rules for Studies Centre, has received assistance from lUCN, management of forbidden forests and investigating the WWF, International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research potential of exploiting some sites for commercial or Bureau, International Council for Bird Preservation, tourist uses. International Crane Foundation and the Swedish International Development Agency, with a focus on Management of reserves, undertaken by forestry elaborating the National Conservation Strategy, personnel, appears to be generally inadequate, with studying and formulating the Environment Law and insufficient staff and irregular budget allocations (Trung, implementing wildlife surveys. 1985). Despite some 10,000 forestry police, even priority areas are not adequately protected (lUCN, Administration and Management The main 1985), although there are a number of notable exceptions administrative body is the Department of Basic such as Cue Phuong National Park (MacKinnon and Inventory in the State Committee for Science and MacKinnon, 1986). A number of army units have been Technology. This Department is responsible for actively and successfully involved in forest protection, submitting plans for the establishment of protected as well as contributing to establishment of plantations. areas to the government and implementing effective coordination between different research institutes. The Training has been implemented although to a limited Ministry of Forestry is responsible for the development degree. The Centre for Natural Resources Management and management of protected areas. The Ministry and Environmental Studies has organised two six-month submits its outline master plans for protected areas both duration post-graduate training course for 80 officers to the government and to the Department of Basic who have since been deployed to national parks and Inventory for their approval. The Deparmient of Forest nature reserves.
Management and Protection in the Ministry of Forests is responsible for the management of protected forests, Systems Reviews Viet Nam extends from 8'30*N to while national parks, nature reserves and historic and 23*30'N along the south-eastern margin of Mainland cultural reserves, including protected waterbird Southeast Asia. Three-quarters of the country is hilly, with colonies, are managed by the forestry officers of the peaks rising to more than 3,000m in the north-west, but grading into approximately 360 local People's Committees (Scott, rolling dissected plateaux in the south. 1989). The Annamite Mountain chain forms the natural boundary between Viet Nam, Laos and Cambodia. Land The Forestry Inventory and Planning Institute has a suitable for agriculture covers approximately 100,000 particular responsibility for surveying protected areas sq. km and is mostly situated in the larger fertile plains and preparing management plans for them. By 1989 of the Nam Bo and Bac Bo, which include the Mekong management plans had been prepared for Cue Phuong and Red River deltas respectively (Vu Tu Lap, 1979). and Cat Ba national parks and a plan was being prepared The climate varies from humid tropical in the southern for Nam Bai Cat Tien (Collins et al.. 1991) as well lowlands to temperate conditions in the northern several other sites (Hoang and Vo, 1 99 1 ). However, even highlands. Mean annual sea temperatures vary basic resource inventories are generally lacking for most accordingly from 27*C in the south to 2rc in the protected areas (Le Trong, 1991). extreme north. The approximate mean annual rainfall is 2000mm but this increases on the narrow central The Ministry of Water Resources and the Ministry of mountainous region to 3000mm, sufficient to support Agriculture are involved in the establishment of tropical rain forest. There are three monsoon seasons, protected wetland areas. The Division of Agricultural namely the north-east winter monsoon, and the Water Supply in the Ministry of Water Resources plays south-east and western summer monsoons. Destructive an important role in the decision-making process, while typhoons sometimes develop over the East Sea during the Ministry ofAgriculture is responsibility for resolving hot weather (Scott, 1989). conflicts between agricultural development and wetland conservation (Scott, 1989). The original vegetation of Viet Nam almost entirely comprised tropical forest, two-thirds of which was dry A definition of the responsibilities of the Ministry of evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (lUCN, 1985; Forests and the People's Committees is given in MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). By 1943 forest Decision No. 194/CT. In particular, the Ministry of cover had declined to around 43% of total land area, with Forestry is responsible for coordinating State extensive areas cleared in coastal regions and in the Committees, Ministries and People's Committees in agriculturally valuable flood plains of the Mekong and establishing, planning and protecting forbidden forests, Red rivers. as well as defining boundaries both on maps and on the ground. People's Committees that have forbidden forests
154 Viei Nam
Forest cover has declined even more rapidly since as providing wildlife habitat. However, many areas hostilities ceased (Kemf, 1986b) principally due to continue to remain barren (Collins et ai, 1991). agricultural clearance, forest fires, fuelwood and timber The legacy of war continues to hamper development and gathering and urban expansion (lUCN, 1985; Kemf, conservation efforts, with unexploded munitions and 1988; Vo Quy, 1985), migration into the uplands and discarded military equipment found throughout the poorly managed forest exploitation (Le Trong, 1991). country. Large areas of secondary grass Imperata Deforestation is particularly severe in the midlands cylindrica and Pennisetumpolyslachyum have replaced where some 130,(XX) sq. km has been cleared leading to forests and some 20 to 25 million bomb craters hamper siltation, floods, drought and heavy losses of topsoil. agriculture and irrigation (lUCN, 1985). Persistent An assessment of forest cover was made between 1973 dioxin impurities in "Agent Orange" herbicide has and 1976 with the aid of Landsat satellite imagery contaminated soil, entered food chains and is a (FAOAJNfEP, 1981). Estimated total broad-leaved suspected carcinogen (Agarwal, 1984; Kemf, 1986b). closed forest cover in 1980 was 74.000 sq. km (22% of Furthermore, Uiis contamination appears to have blunted total land area), of which only 15,000 sq. km (4%) were reafforestation efforts with some areas remaining barren. in an undisturbed, natural slate. Of the total cover, Between lOO.OOOha to 1 50,000ha of forest are replanted 36,700 sq. km (11%) were considered unsuitable for annually but due to fires, pests and illegal felling only logging but potentially at risk from agricultural about one-third survives (lUCN, 1 985 ; Kemf, 1985b). In encroachment Legally protected forest covered only subsequent years die survival rate has steadily increased, 5,600 sq. km (2%). Figures published by FAO (1987) thanks to intensified efforts by forestry officials, and in suggest that earlier estimates may have been exaggerated some areas between 85% and 100% of saplings survive and that closed forest cover in 1980 was only (E. Kemf. pers. comm., 1987). During 1987 the area 61,650 sq. km (19%). The same report estimated that replanted totalled 160,000ha, and annual targets of up to closed forest covered 48,620 sq. km (15%) in 1985. 300,000ha have been identified (Kemf, 1988). The Projections for 1990 suggest closed forest may have Ministry of Education has made tree planting part of the fallen to 34,060 sq. km (10%). with just 3,000 sq. km school curriculum and in 1985 and 1986 students planted (1%) in an undisturbed state (FAO, 1987). Unpublished some 52 milUon trees. It is estimated that full recovery information from the Ministry of Forestry in 1989 of mangroves may take more than 50 years (Kemf, provides another set of statistics. Based on interpretation 1986a), and large areas, for example 20% of the of 1987 Landsat data, it indicates that 87,254 sq. km mangroves on the Camua Peninsula, remain banen. Rear (26%) of natural forest remain, 79,054 sq.km (24%) of mangroves oi Melaleuca have also been slow to recover which are closed broad-leaved forest. Some 189,000 sq. from defoliation and napalming because invasive km (57%) are classified as forest land and 24,200 sq. km grasses rapidly colonised the cleared area. However, (73%) of natural forest has been allocated as protection areas of the Mekong Delta are already in an advanced foresL However, these latter statistics are seen as unduly state of recovery with a sustainable supply of fuelwood optimistic (Collins el ai, 1991). being produced at Rung Sat, south-east of Ho Chi Minh Extensive mangrove forest and associated brackish City (Kemf, 1988). A popular summary of the water forests of Melaleuca occur in the Mekong Delia. rehabilitation of the environment in Viet Nam is given Small areas are also found in the Red River Delia and in Kemf (1988). along the northern coast close to the Chinese border. The In recognition of the severe environmental problems Red River mangroves, once extensive, have now been facing the country, tiie Programme for the Rational almost entirely cleared for agriculture, fisheries and Utilisation of Natural Resources and Environmental forestry (Collins ei ai, 1991). Protection (Committee 52 02) was established in 1981 The period from 1945 to 1975 witnessed almost to assemble researchers from leading education and uninterrupted warfare, with severe damage to natural research institutions to review the state of the resources. An estimated 22,000 sq. km of forest and environment, identify issues and find appropriate farmland were destroyed, mainly in the south of the solutions. In 1984, in collaboration widi lUCN, a country, by intensive bombing, tactical spraying of National Conservation Strategy was drafted by the 72 million litres of herbicides (including 44 million litres Committee (lUCN, 1985). The major environmental of "Agent Orange"), mechanical forest clearance, tiireats were identified and it was recommended that napalming of flammable Melaleuca forests and direct priority be given to: reducing the population growth rate attacks on potentially useful wildlife such as elephants to zero; increasing the rate of reafforestation to
(Agarwal, 1984;Kemf, 1986a; VoQuy, 1985). The most 1 .OOO.OOOha per annum, witii a final target of covering severely damaged ecosystem was the mangrove forests 50% of the land mass; and establishing a National Board of the Mekong Delta, of which an estimated 40% of Environmental Coordination at ministerial level, with (12,400 sq. km) were destroyed (Kemf, 1985). A wide cross-sectoral powers, to formulate and enforce massive mangrove replanting programme was started new environmental legislation and regulations. Also after the war, which, after initial setbacks, has now led recommended is the establishment of a parks and to the successful re-establishment of thousands of protected forests system, a model national park at Cue hectares, providing fuelwood, fish and prawns, as well Phuong and protected marine areas (fUCN, 1985). A
155 Protected Areas of the World
National Board for the Conservation of Nature was References established in 1986, thus endorsing the strategy at the Agarwal, A. after highest level (Kemf, 1986a), although the Council of (1984). Vietnam the storm. New Ministers has not formally adopted the Strategy Scientist 1409: 10-14. Anon. (1984). Viemam. Tigerpaper 11(2): 14. (Collins et al., 1991). Several important decisions have Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and been made on the basis of the Strategy, for example, the Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) conservation establishment of the Centre for Natural Resources (1991). The atlas of tropical forests: Asia and the Macmillan Management and Environmental Studies, participation Pacific. Press Ltd, London. 256 in the Unesco MAB Programme and the establishment pp. CoM (1986). Decision by the Chairman of the Council of 87 protected areas. A revised National Conservation of Ministers on stipulations of forbidden forests. Strategy is due to be prepared in 1995 (Hoang and Vo, Council of Ministers, Ministry 1991). As a continuation and expansion of the of Forestry, Ha NoL 2 programme for research, in 1986 the old Committee pp. Le Trong, C. (1989). The current issues of natural (52 02) was replaced by a new Committee (52D) to conservation in Vietnam. administer the national programme for the period Tigerpaper. July-September. 1986-1990, with an enlarged scope and increased Pp. 7-10. Le Trong, C. Biodiversity conservation in budget The programme for this period paid much (1991). relation to development in Viemam. Paper presented attention to research for establishing nature reserves and at the XVII Pacific Science Congress, Honolulu, national parks to protect viable examples of all main 27 to 2 June. natural ecosystems, supplemented where necessary with May 33 pp. Special Forest «-«/« conservation (LeTrong, 1991). FAO (1987). Study on and Utilization of Forest Resources in the Developing Region. The government started to estabUsh nature reserves in Asia-Pacific Region. Assessment of Forest 1962, and the system grew rapidly during the 1980s. Resources in Six Countries. FO:MISC/88/7. FAO. However, a lack of staff, resources and management Rome. 18 pp. experience prevents the system fulfilling its maximum FAG/UNEP (1981). Tropical Forest Resources conservation potential. Some protected areas cover Assessment Project Volume 3. FAO, Rome. 475 pp. substantial tracts of land, but many are small due to the Hoang, H. and Vo, Q. (1990). Nature conservation in fragmented condition of the remaining forest. Vietnam: an overview. Paper presented at the Regional Nevertheless, forests retained for watershed protection Expert Consultation on Management of Protected are important for wildlife and as corridors between Areas in the Asia-Pacific Region. FAO Regional Office reserves and isolated forest patches. It is highly desirable for Asia and the Pacific, 10-14 December, Bangkok. that a forest corridor be created down the length of the 40 pp. Annamite Mountains, since this is an important habitat lUCN (1985). Vietnam: national conservation strategy. for elephant and other large mammals. The extensive Draft. Prepared by the Programme for Rational wetlands in the Mekong Delta are also of critical Utilisation of Natural Resources and Environmental
importance. Forest cover in this area is vital to ensure the Protection (Programme 52-02) with assistance from proper flow of water through the Delia's many channels, lUCN. Environmental Services Group, World for protecting banks, fish and prawn nurseries and Wildlife Fund-India, New Delhi, India. 71 pp. providing refuges for water birds. The conservation of Kemf, E. (1985). "Ecocide" in Viemam. WWFNews 34. wetlands in the Mekong Delta and in other parts of the 8 pp. country is discussed in detail in Scott (1989). Kemf, E. (1986a). The re-greening of Vietnam. WWF Monthly Report: 85-89. One of the major difficulties in the management of Kemf, E. (1986b). The re-greening of Viemam. WWF protected areas is the presence of settlements within News 41: 4-5. reserves. These populations are expected to increase, Kemf, E. (1986c). Indochina unites to save the kouprey. with a concomitant increase in the level of shifting WWF News 4\.S pp. agriculture, hunting and forest exploitation. Some Kemf. E. (1988). The re-greening of Viemam. New resettlement programmes have been carried out, Scientist 1618: 53-57. although these are hampered by a lack of resources and MacKinnon, J. (1983). Report on a visit to Hanoi. suitable land (Hoang and Vo, 1990). Programme of Natural Resources and Environmental Research and Protection. Bogor. 8 pp. Addresses MacKinnon, J. (1986). Bid to save the kouprey. WWF Monthly Report: 91-97. Centre for Natural Resources Management and MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K.(l9S6).Reviewofthe Environmental Studies (CRES), University of protected areas system in the Indomalayan Realm. Hanoi, 19 Le Thanh Tong, Hanoi lUCN, Cambridge, UK. Forestry Inventory and Planning Institute; Ministry of MacKinnon, J.R. and Stuart, S.N. (Eds) (1989). The Agriculture; Ministry of Forestry; Ministry of Water kouprey: an action plan its conservation. Resources (addresses not known) for Prepared by the Species Survival Commission of
156 Viet Nam
lUCN and WWF. lUCN. Gland, Switzerland and Conserving Asia's natural heritage. lUCN, Gland, Cambridge, UK. 20 pp. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 251 pp. MoF (1985). Rung cam Viet Nam (Forest Preserves in Westing, A.H. and Westing, CE. (1981). Endangered Vietnam). Ministry of Forestry. 40 pp. species and habitats of Viet Nam. Environmental Pfeiffer, E.W. (1984). The conservation of nature in Viet Conservation 8: 59-61.
Nam. Environmental Conservation 11 : 2 1 7-22 1 . Vo Quy (1985). Rare sp)ecies and protection measures Scott, D. A. (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. proposed for Vietnam. In: Thorsell, J.W. (E4.), lUCN, Gland, Switzeriand and Cambridge, UK. Conserving Asia's natural heritage. lUCN, Gland, 1181pp. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 251 pp. Trung, Thai van. (1985). The development of a protected Vu Tu Lap (1979). Viet Nam Geographical Data. area system in Vietnam (condensed from an original Foreign Language Publishing House, Hanoi. (Unseen) paper presented in French). In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.),
ANNEX Definition of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Law on the Protection of Forests Title: Council of Ministers Decision No. 194/CT Date: 5 September 1972 Date: 9 August 1986 Brief Description: Article 5 makes provision for the establishment of protected areas. Brief Description: Makes provision for the present system of protected areas Administrative Authority: Administrative authority: Ministry of Forestry Designations: Designations: Forest preserves Delimited by government and intended to protect flora and fauna, historical and Special-useforest cultural relics and public health, and for conducting National park scientific research or other special interests. Nature reserve Historical, cultural and environmental reserve It is not permitted to fell trees (other than for Production forest management purposes) or shoot birds and other Protectionforest wildlife (MoF, 1985). Some activities are allowed, Coastal protection with the permission of either the Minister of Forests Watershed protection or the Council of Ministers, for example erecting buildings and collecting fuelwood or scientific specimens (CoM, 1986).
157 Protected Areas of the World
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Nationallinternationaldesignation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Viet Nam
Map' Nationallinternationaldesignation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
53 Protected Areas of the World Oceania
COOK ISLANDS
Area The territorial seas and Exclusive Economic Zone Council, has started preparing separate conservation cover nearly 2 million sq. km, whilst total land area is plans for these islands. The Service has proposed only about 240 sq. km (Utanga, 1989). developing legal mechanisms under which parks and reserves could be established on native freehold land. Population 17,463 (SPREP, 1989) The outline concepts include land-leasing and Natural increase: No information shared-management regimes (McCormack, 1989).
Economic Indicators The traditional system of resources management was GNP: No information based on the subdivision of land on high islands with boundaries running along dividing ridges to include Policy and Legislation The Cook Islands Act (1915) entire valleys, alluvial plains, storm ridges on the coastal constitutes the earliest conservation legislation. Sections plain, the beach and lagoons fronting the valley and out 356 and 357 cover the acquisition and reservation of land to the outer edge of the reef. Such subdivisions, known for public purposes, such as recreation. Section 487 as ra'hui, and invested with supernatural powers (tapu or provides for the establishment of native reserves to taboo), were held by a Sub-Chief (Mataiapo or protect sites of historic or scenic interest and sources of Rangatira) under a Chief, for members of the tribe. Tribal water supply. Local Island Council Ordinances also members were allocated different areas for planting, make provision for the reservation of land for public gathering and fishing. In addition, areas within the purposes. The 1915 Act was effectively superseded by sub-division could be set aside for exclusive use of the the Conservation Act ( 1975) which became the principal Chief, and comparable prohibitions on removing legislative instrument for the conservation of nature and specific natural resources, such as brilliant plumage natural resources, protection of historic sites and the required in ceremonies, fruits, trees, ferns or medicinal environment, and the establishment of national parks and plants, animals and others. This system was curtailed other protected areas (SPREP, 1985b). when all land below mean high water mark was defined The 1975 Act was largely unused and was repealed and as Crown property, and in the Southern Group is largely replaced in April 1987 by the 1986-87 Conservation Act. used today for the control of trespass, and conservation fruit In The 1986-87 Act is essentially similar to the 1975 Act, of fruit trees, bats, wildfowl and other game. contrast, the traditional systems ofresource conservation but is equally binding on both government and the atolls, for public. The principal difference is that the Conservation are more intact in the northern example Although there has been some codification of Service is established as an independent corporation, Pukapuka. Island by-laws, system of reserved whereas previously it was within the Ministry of Internal ra'hui as Council a Affairs and Conservation. The Act, which applies in full areas for the protection of food plants, fishing grounds, only to Rarotonga and Aitutaki, provides for the post of sea birds, coconut crab, and turtles controlled by the Director of Conservation with wide-ranging powers to community, is essentially traditional. The management protect, conserve, manage and control parks, wildlife, of natural resources allows an usually high population to forests, water catchments and resources. Under the Act inhabit a relatively small island (Utanga, 1989). (Sections 27 and 28), any land, lagoon, reef or island, or Other legislation affecting protected areas includes the portion of the seabed with its superjacent waters, can be 1966 Local Government Act, which provides for the declared a national park or reserve. The Director is creation of Island Councils and enables them to regulate obliged to prepare a management plan for any national the use of any reserve or park under their control. Under park or reserve declared under the Act and, after the Trochus Act (1975), three fishing reserves have been approval, to implement iL National parks, as defined in established, at Aitutaki, Palmerston and Manuae, Section 30, are intended for the protection, conservation respectively, in which unlicensed diving and fishing for and management of wildlife and natural features, the trochus shell is prohibited. The Territorial Sea and encouragement and regulation of the appropriate use, Exclusive Economic Zone Act, 1979, controls the appreciation and enjoyment of the park by the public and management, conservation, exploitation and exploration the protection of special features, e.g. archaeological of marine resources within the territorial sea sites, water catchments and soil resources. The Act does reserves. are not, however, define the purpose of There International Activities The Cook Islands is not yet protection the coastal also specific provisions for the of party to any of the international conventions or zone and Cook Island waters from unauthorised programmes that direcdy promote the conservation of control activities. Finally, the Act has provisions for the natural areas, namely the Convention concerning the of soil erosion, siltation, aggregate extraction, pollution Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage and agricultural encroachment. (World Heritage Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands As the Conservation Act (1986/87) does not provide of International Importance esf>ecially as Waterfowl adequate protection for the Outer Islands, the Habitat (Ramsar Convention). Conservation Service, in liaison with each Island
161 Protected Areas of the World
At a regional level, the Cook Islands ratified the 1976 which are also shaped by annual periodic climatic Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South effects, and episodic events such as drought, inundation Pacific on 24 June 1987. Known as the Apia Convention, and cyclones, but the principal influence on biological it entered into force during 1990. The Convention is diversity is the physical structure of the islands. The coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and Cook Islands, however, have a long history of human represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate habitation and consequently much of the natural
on environmental matters. Among other measures, it environment has been modified, especially on coastal encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve flats (Dahl, 1980a). indigenous flora and fauna. Vegetation varies from montane rain forest on The Cook Islands is also party to the South Pacific Rarotonga (Merlin, 1985), through lowland limestone Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and the rain forest on Mauke, beach forest on atolls and reef Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources islets, to scrub and grassland formations. Freshwater and Environment of the South Pacific Region, 1986 marsh is found on Mangaia, Rarotonga, Mauke, Mitiaro (SPREP Convention) was signed on 25 November 1986 and Atiu, whilst tidal salt marsh is restricted to and ratified on 9 September 1987. The Convention Ngatangiia Harbour, Rarotonga (Dahl, 1980a). Natural entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls vegetation on coastal flats has been largely modified by upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to man (Stoddart, 1975c) and lowland forest has been protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or almost totally destroyed (Davis el al., 1986). However, endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of upland forest above 250m remains largely intact (Sykes, protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to 1983) and the forest cover of deep valley heads and sharp adverse effect the species, have an on ecosystems and ridges and peaks appears to be pristine (Philipson, 1 97 1 ). biological processes being protected. However, as this Coastal vegetation on Rarotonga has been heavily provision only applies to the Convention area, which by modified and burning has spread to such a degree that definition is o[)en ocean, it is most likely to assist with valleys are covered by introduced grasses and weeds. the establishment of marine reserves and the Hills near the sea mostly support Gleichenia thickets or conservation of marine species. forest (G. McCormack, pers. comm., 1989). The
mainland and reef island vegetation of Aitutaki is Other international and regional conventions concerning described by Stoddart (1975b and 1975c). environmental protection to which the Cook Islands is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983). All Cook Islands feature coral formations, which are frequently fringing and lagoon reefs. Within the southern Administration and Management The 1986-87 Cooks, windward and leeward atoll reefs are restricted Conservation Act is administered by the Conservation to Manuae and Palmerston, whilst barrier reefs are found Service. The Conservation Service is run by a Council only at Aitutaki (Dahl, 1980b). UNEP/IUCN (1988) appointed by the Minister of Conservation. The Director, provides a brief summary of each island's reefs, and responsible for administration of the Service, is the more detailed accounts for Aitutaki, Manihiki, Chairman of the Council pers. comm., (G. McCormack, Ngatangiia Harbour and Muri Lagoon, Pukapuka and 1989). The function of the Conservation Service is to Suwarrow Atoll National Park. Crossland (1928) and promote the conservation of the environment for the use Dana (1898) gave early descriptions of the fringing reefs and enjoyment of present and future generations. Within around Rarotonga and more recent work has been carried the Conservation Act there are specific regulations out by, for example, Dahl (1980b), Gauss (1982), Lewis concerning some aspects of the environment, but there et al. (1980) and Stoddart (1972; 1975a; 1975b; 1975c). are also provisions under which the Conservation Service can estabhsh additional regulations (McCormack, 1989). Proposals to designate protected areas in the central uplands of Rarotonga date back to the 19th cenoiry, but Systems Reviews The Cook Islands are extremely Suwarrow Atoll National Park is the only major gazetted remote oceanic islands, lying approximately 3,000km protected area at present. Previously recorded as having north-east from the nearest major land mass, namely an area of 13,468ha, a recent legal clarification has New Zealand, and are defined by statute as all islands reduced this to only 160ha, comprising the land area lying between OS'S and 23*S and 156*W and 167*W. It above mean high water mark. This represents 0.07% of is divided geographically into a Northern Group, the terrestrial Cook Islands and an even less significant comprising atolls, and a Southern Group, mainly proportion of the marine area, and whereas previously comprising high volcanic islands, but also Manuae, an algal ridge, reef flat, patch reef and open lagoon were atoll and Takutea, which is a sand cay. The depths of the protected, these are now excluded from the protected surrounding ocean, reaching 1,3(X)- 1,500m, precluded areas system. the formation of land bridges during glacial periods.
The islands are also located remotely on a biological One of the most recent proposals, originating in the diversity gradient which diminishes westward from Department of Internal Affairs and Conservation,
continental land masses, and both northward and envisaged a 1 ,000ha kakerori reserve specifically for the southward away from the equator. These biogeographical conservation of Rarotongan flycatcher Pomarea dimensions have contributed to distinctive ecosystems. dimidiata (Anon., 1985; SPREP, 1985a). Difficulties in
162 Cook Islands establishing agreement between customary land owners a commercial plantation export economy. The deeply and the government have led to this proposal being incised, mountainous interior, rising to 652m, restricts dropped in favour of two smaller sites in the same area agriculture to a circumferential belt some 1km wide (McCormack, 1988). Proposals to gazette Takutea (Johnston, 1959). Reefs, reef flats and lagoons play a Island, and Rarotonga water catchment and wildlife leading role in protein supply in the Cook Islands reserves have been identified as priority actions (SPREP, (Hambuechen, 1973a). Islanders may depend on marine 1985a). resources for 90% of their protein in the northern group and 60% in the southern group. In addition to fish, turtle Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South An meat, but not eggs, is consumed on Palmerston and in the Pacific (SPREP, 1985a) provides a work programme to Northern Cook Islands (G. McCormack, pers. comm., conservation and protected areas objectives. implement 1989). The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy development, Airport and hotel construction, port improvement, establishment of protected areas, protected area pollution and soil erosion have contributed to coastal management and regional and international cooperation. degradation in Rarotonga. The reefs are considered to be Priority recommendations for the Cook Islands are as in an advanced stage of degradation (Dahl, 1980b). follows: conduct baseline survey, prepare management Chemical run-off may be a significant problem plan and recruit and train personnel for Suwarrow Atoll (Hambuechen, 1973a; 1973b), and problems created by National Park; establish Kakerori Reserve on Rarotonga the increased use of pesticides are described by Island, including completion of baseline survey, Hambuechen (1973b). Fish jxiisoning and dynamiting preparation of management plans, and conducting a has been reported (Dahl, 1980b; Hambuechen, 1973a). public education and awareness campaign; develop and Phosphate mining, a potentially serious environmental implement a public education and awareness campaign threat, may be investigated on Rakahanga and Manihiki for the establishment of Rarotonga Water Catchment and (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Wildlife Reserve; develop a national conservation major crown-of-thoms starfish strategy; designate Takutea Island as a wildlife sanctuary A Acanthaster planci plague occurred on the north-west reefs through negotiation with customary land owners and a of Rarotonga during 1972-73; public awareness campaign followed by preparation of there was a minor infestation on Aitutaki in 1973. management plans (SPREP, 1985a). There were no known previous infestations and there have been none since Despite poor cooperation between private land owners (G. McCormack, pers. comm., 1989). Other marine and the government (G. McCormack, pers. comm., threats actually or potentially include offshore activities 1989), considerable progress was made in implementing such as aggregate extraction, eutrophication and these priorities during the period 1985-89. This included inappropriate recreational use. Fish poisoning and the establishment of the Conservation Service; dynamiting has occurred and pearl oyster stocks have development of Suwarrow National Park; control of rats been depleted. Principal threats on land include threatening Rarotongan flycatcher (kakerori) and the agricultural encroachment into remaining forest, preparation of a concept document detailing proposals indiscriminate burning, deforestation and propagation of for a kakerori reserve; preparation of proposals for exotic pests such as rhinoceros beetle, rats and feral
Takutea and Te Manga nature reserves; and preparation animals. Coastal resource management is weak due to a and implementation of species management plans and division of administrative responsibilities and a lack of public education and awareness programmes (SPREP, legislated authority (CSC, 1985a and 1985b; Dahl,
1989). 1980b; SPREP, 1985b; UNEP/IUCN, 1988). There is a risk of severe economic and social disruption in theevent Dahl (1986) recommends as priority the establishment of increased sea level rises caused by global warming of a major protected area in central Rarotonga. Further of the atmosphere (Pernetta, 1988). The agricultural recommendations include protection of endemic species belt of Rarotonga could be reduced in size and altered in natural areas in Mangaia, Mitiaro and possibly other in profile by enhanced erosion (Nunn, 1988). More islands, and the establishment of coastal and marine catastrophically, low-lying islands, such as Suwarrow reserves, contributions to enhanced environmental as or Takutea, could be inundated and completely management (Dahl, 1986). These are based largely on destroyed (Penietta, 1988). early, more extensive and specific recommendations which include proposals to protect higher areas, swamps, Protected habitats are restricted to beach and wet atoll marshes and other terrestrial vegetation, endemic bird forest (Dahl, 1980a), in addition to important seabird habitats, elevated limestone (makatea) regions, barrier breeding areas on Suwarrow (SPREP, 1985b). and fringing reefs, lagoons, motus (islets), banks of Omissions from the protected area system include major streams and historical features (Dahl, 1980a). lowland rain forest on Aitutaki and Mauke, limestone forest, the montane and ridge rain forest of central Rarotonga, as the capital and most densely populated Rarotonga, freshwater marsh, ridal salt marsh, island, exhibits the most pronounced development and permanent lake, mountain stream, closed lagoon and the severest environmental problems. The tfaditional fringing reef (Dahl, 1980a; 1986). subsistence economy has long since been replaced with
163 Protected Areas ofthe World
Addresses Johnston, W.B. (1959). The Cook Islands: land use in an island group in the south-west Pacific. Journal of The Director, Conservation Service, PO Box 371, Tropical Geography 13: 38-57. Tupapa, Rarotonga Lewis, K.B., Utanga, A.T., Hill, PJ. and Kingan, S.G. (1980). The origin of channel-filled sands and References gravels on an algal-dominated reef terrace, Rarotonga, Cook Islands. South Pacific Geology Anon. (1985). Endangered species management needs in Notes 2: 1-23 the Cook Islands. In: Thomas, P£.J. (Ed.), Report of McCormack, G. (1988). Kakerori Nature Reserve. A the Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves concept document. Cook Islands Conservation Conference. Volume II. Collectedkey issue and case Service. Unpublished. 4 study papers. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, pp. McCormack, G. (1989). Cook Islands Conservation New Caledonia. Pp. 271-275. Service: two years under the 1986/87 Act Fourth CSC (1985a). Environmental planning programme: South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation coastal zone management of tropical islands. and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 Proceedings of the workshop/planning meeting on September. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, coastal zone management of the South Pacific New Caledonia. 5 pp. region, Tahiti. Commonwealth Science Council Merlin, M.D. (1985). Woody vegetation in the upland Technical Publications Series, London. No. 180. region of Rarotonga, Cook Islands. Pacific Science CSC (1985b). Environmental planning programme: 39: 81-99. (Unseen) coastal zone management of tropical islands. Nunn, P. (1988). Potential impacts of projected sea level SOPACOAST: the South Pacific coastal zone rise on Pacific Island Fiji, management programme. CSC Technical States (Cook Islands, Kiribati, Tonga, and Western Samoa): a preliminary Publications Series, London. No. 204. report. In: MEDU joint meeting of the task team Crossland, C. (1928). Coral reefs of Tahiti, Moorea and on the implications of climatic change in the Rarotonga. Journal of the Linnean Society 36: Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October. 577-620. (Unseen) Pp. 53-81. Dahl, A.L. (1980a). Regional ecosystem survey of the Pemetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper level rise: a relative impact rating for the countries of 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New the Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the task Caledonia. 99 pp. team on the implications of climatic change in the Dahl, A.L. (1980b). Report on marine surveys of Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October. Rarotonga and Aitutaki (November 1976). South Pp. 1-11. Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Philipson, W.R. (197 1). Floristics of Rarotonga. Bu/ZeHVi Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the protected areas system of the Royal Society of New Zealand 8: 49-54. in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and (Unseen) Cambridge, UK. 328 pp. Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature Dana, J.D. (1898). Corals and Coral Islands. Dodd, conservation as part of tourism development in the Mead and Co., New York. island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Davis, S.D., Droop, S J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Development Programme. Tourism Council of the Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp. Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we SPREP (1985a). Action strategy for protected areas in knowl rUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, the South Pacific Region. South Pacific Commission, UK. 488 pp. Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp. Gauss, G.A. (1982). Sea bed studies in nearshore areas SPREP (1985b). Cook Islands. In: Thomas, P.E J. (Ed.), of the Cook Islands. South Pacific Marine Geology Report ofthe Third South Pacific National Parks and Notes. CCOP. ESCA 2: 131-154. (Unseen) Reserves Conference. Volume ID. Country reviews. Hambuechen, W.H. (1973a). Cook Islands. Proceedings South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New and Papers, Regional Symposium on Conservation Caledonia. of Nature - Reef and Lagoons, 1971. South Pacific SPREP (1989). Cook Islands. Paper presented at the Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. (Unseen) Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Hambuechen, W.H. (1973b). Pesticides in the Cook Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Islands. Proceedings and Papers, Regional Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 5 pp. Symposium on Conservation of Nature - Reef and Stoddart, D.R. (1972). Reef islands of Rarotonga, with Lagoons, 1971. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, list of vascular flora by F.R. Fosberg. Atoll Research New Caledonia. (Unseen) Bulletin 160: 1-14. lUCN (1988). From strategy to action: how to Stoddart, D.R. (1975a). Scientific studies in the Southern implement the report of the Commission on Cook Islands: background and bibliography. In: Environment and Development. lUCN, Gland, Stoddart, D.R. and Gibbs, P.E. (Eds), Ahnost-atoll of Switzerland. 116 pp. Aitutaki: reef studies in the Cook Islands, South Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin 190: 1-30.
164 Cook Islands
Sloddart, D.R. (1975b). Mainland vegetation of Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Aitutaki. In: Stoddart, D.R. and Gibbs, ?E. (Eds), lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Almost-atoU of Aitutaki: reef studies in the Cook UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. Islands, South Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin 190: Utanga, A. (1989). Customary tenure and traditional 117-122. resource management in the Cook Islands. In: Stoddart, D.R. (1975c). Vegetation and floristics of the SPREP Report ofthe workshop on customary tenure, Aitutaki motus. In: Stoddart, D.R. and Gibbs, P.E. traditional resource management and natvre (Eds), Almost-atoll of Aitutaki: reef studies in the conservation. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, Cook Islands, South Pacific. Atoll Research Bulletin New Caledonia. Pp. 101-105. 190:87-116. Venkatesh, S, Va'ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An Sykes, WJl. (1983). Conservation on South Pacific overview of environmental protection legislation in islands. In: Given, D. R. (Ed.), Conservation ofPlant the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review Species and Habitats. Nature Conservation Council, No. 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Wellington, New Zealand. Pp 37-42. (Unseen) Caledonia. 63 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Wilder, G.P. (1931). Hora of Rarotonga. Bulletin of the Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Bernice P. Bishop Museum 86. 1 13 pp. (Unseen)
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Conservation Act 1986-87 Title: The Cook Islands Act
Date: 15 April 1987 Date: 1915
Brief description: An Act to establish a Brief description: Constitutes the earliest Conservation Service as a corporation and to make conservation legislation. Numerous subsequent provision for the conservation and protection of the amendments. environment and national resources, and the Administrative authority: Island Councils establishment of national parks and reserves.
Designations: Administrative authority: Conservation Service (Director) Recreation reserve Established under Sections 356 and 357 Designations:
Native reserve Established under Section 487 for National park Any land, lagoon, reef, or island, or protection of sites of historic or scenic interest and any Cook Islands waters, or portion of the sea-bed of sources of water supply. those waters may be proclaimed as a national park subject to the Act. Title: TrochusAct National parks, as defined in Section 30, are intended for the protection, conservation and management of Date: 1975 wildlife and natural features, the encouragement and regulation of the appropriate use, appreciation and Brief description: Provides for the establishment of enjoyment of the park by the public and the fishing reserves. protection of special features, e.g. archaeological Administrative authority: No information sites, water catchments and soil resources. Designations: Reserve Any land, lagoon, reef, or island, or any
Cook Islands waters, or portion of the sea-bed of Fishing reserve Unlicensed diving and fishing for waters as a reserve subject those may be proclaimed trochus shell is prohibited. to the Act.
165 Protected Areas of the World
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map National/international designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
National Park
1 Suwarrow Atoll IV 160 1978
166 Cook Islands
o CM
Federated States ofMicronesia FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA
Area 702 sq. km was passed in 1987 which gave the state government substantial authority to protect much of the island's Population 86,094 (1988) interior and mangrove areas. However, implementation Natural increase: No information is slow and there is little awareness among the populace that the uplands are off-limits for traditional agricultural Economic Indicators use (C. Dahl, pers. comm., 1990). GNP: No information
International Activities The Federated States of Policy and Legislation The Federated States of Micronesia is not yet party to any of the international Micronesia consists of the states of Yap, Truk, Pohnpei conventions or programmes that directly promote the and Kosrae and became an independent nation in free conservation of natural areas, namely the Convention association with the USA on 3 November 1986, having concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and previously been part of the United Nations Trust Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), Unesco Territory of the Pacific Islands. Legally a sovereign Man and the Biosphere Programme and the Convention nation, the Federation is loose, with each state having an on Wetlands of International Importance especially as elected governor and a unicameral assembly (Paxton, Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention). 1989), and in general the national government is relatively weak compared to the USA (C. Dahl, pers. The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the comm., 1990). South Pacific (1976) has been neither signed nor ratified.
Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force Some United States Federal legislation and Trust during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the Territory legislation applied while this country was a part South Pacific Commission and represents the first of the Trust Territory. This included the Trust Territory attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental Environment Act enacted by the former Congress of matters. Among other measures, it encourages the Micronesia in 1972. This provided for the establishment creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora of a Trust Territory Environmental Protection Board. and fauna. However, neither the Act, nor the work of the Board related specifically to protected areas The Trust The Federated States of Micronesia is party to the South Territory Endangered Species Act (TTPI Public Law Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and 6-55 of 1975) allowed for acquisition of land or water the 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural for the purpose of conserving threatened species. Other Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region relevant Trust Territory Acts included the Fishing Law (SPREP Convention) has been signed (9 April 1987) and and the Land Use Planning Act, both 1972. US ratified (29 November 1988). The Convention entered legislation relevant to the Trust Territories included into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the various pollution laws and housing acts, as well as the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act and the National fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora Environmental Policy Act. With the termination of the and fauna through the establishment of protected areas Trust Territory, US Federal provisions only apply to the and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse now very limited actions within the Federation and US effect on the species, ecosystems and biological do not apply to private individual or national government processes being protected. However, as this provision actions. only applies to the convention areas, which by definition
is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the Neither the legislation, nor the policy on protected areas establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of was clear while the country was a part of the Trust marine species. Territory, and no protected areas were actually established. This is largely because the United States, Administration and Management Pohnpei State has while administering the Territory, did not own property a Division of Parks and Recreation within its Department and hence had no direct jurisdiction to cover designation of Lands. of protected areas. Virtually all land and reefs and coastal areas are in private or traditional ownership and this has Systems Reviews The Federated States of Micronesia continued to inhibit the establishment of protected areas includes most of the Caroline Islands, running (S.L. Anefal,pers. comm., 1990). west-north-west from Kosrae to Yap, and consists of volcanic and metamorphic islands and atolls. "Almost Legislation to support a coastal resource management atolls" are also present, making the group one of the more programme in Kosrae has been drafted and submitted to typical island chains. The development and origin of the the legislature. However, it will be some time before the Caroline Islands is described by Scott and Roiondo bill is acted upon, and even if passed, there is likely to (1983); general information is given in SPREP (1980). be a considerable delay before any protected areas are The islands' traditional economies have been established. In Pohnpei, a watershed management act undermined by a century of foreign influence, trade,
169 Protected Areas of the World
control and warfare. The Japanese in particular disrupted exists in Yap so the establishment of protected areas in land-use controls and ownership customs, permitted Yap is likely to be on a significantly different basis than greater public access to resources and undermined elsewhere (C. Dahl, pers. comm., 1990). traditional conservation (Maragos, 1986). The Pohnpei Coastal Resources Management Plan The islands support a rich flora and fauna with many (1987) recommended numerous marine areas for endemic forms. Major ecosystems include lowland, protection, although these recommendations have not montane, cloud, riverine, swamp, mangrove and atoll been acted upon. There has also been some interest at forest, savanna and grassland, seagrass beds, lagoons, community level in the establishment of a mangrove and extensive coral reefs (Dahl, 1980). Much of the reserve in Pohnpei, with the intention of generating natural vegetation has been cleared for coconut revenue from tourists. Protected status has been plantations (e.g. on Yap and Puluwat) or disturbed by conferred on inland areas of Pohnpei Island which phosphate mining (e.g. on the raised coral island of Pais). contains a range of tropical high island forest, important Few areas of native vegetation remain on the Truk both as wildlife habitat and watershed protection (Anon, Islands, except on the high volcanic islands of Moen, 1989). Surveys of Oroluk Atoll are planned for 1991. Dublon, Uman, Fefan, Udot and Tol. Although the with the intention of recommending some form of lowland forests on the Pohnpei Islands have been much protection. The traditional management of resources, disturbed, both Kusaie and the island of Pohnpei retain and the pressures placed upon on it by economic and upland forests (lUCN, 1986). A description of forests social pressures, is discussed by Yinug et al. (1989) with and conservation problems is given by Fosberg (1973). the conclusion that some form of legislated resource
An account of the reefs and reef resources is given in management is becoming necessary. A coastal resource UNEP/IUCN(1988). management plan for Kosrae is being developed (Dahl, 1989) which includes proposals for the establishment of Environmental issues, reviewed by Maragos (1986), a contiguous marine reserve and terrestrial park and a include poorly-planned coastal development leading to resource reserve on the south coast of the island in which degraded or destroyed mangoves, reefs and sea grass subsistence use would be allowed. beds and consequently reduced fisheries output, and the disposal of wastewater discharges and solid waste. Addresses Crowding and land shortages in Pohnpei has spurred immigration from the outer atolls and led to additional Department of Human Resources, PO Box 490, Kolonia, landfiUing along the shorelines and mangrove areas in Pohnpei, Eastern Caroline Islands 96941, FSM the Kolonia-Sokehs area for residences. This has not yet Yap Institute of Natural Resources, PO Box 215, Yap, had serious environmental consequences but the rapidly West Caroline Islands 96943, FSM expanding population may have escalating effects in the future. A major emerging problem is the increased References fishing pressure from rising populations and over- Anon. Progress with the action strategy for fishing of preferred species. Truk is economically (1989). severely depressed and overcrowded conditions on some protected areas in the South Pacific. Information 3. Fourth South Pacific islands in the lagoons are affecting health and welfare. Paper Conference on Nature In particular, water supply and quality are unreliable. Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, 4-12 Truk has also experienced considerable reef degradation Vanuatu, September. 19 pp. through dynamiting. Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems of the South Pacific area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper 179. South Some degree of protection has been recommended for Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Gaferut (Dahl, 1980), although this has not been 99 pp. implemented, and turtle and bird populations are still Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review of the protected areas system traditionally exploited by the owners (S.L. Anefal, pers. in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and comm., 1990). Turtle reserves have been recommended Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. for Elato, Pikelot, West Fayu, all in Yap State, and Dahl, C. (1989). Developing a coastal resource Orulok. At present no turtle sanctuaries have been management plan for Kosrae State, Federated States established in Yap State (S.L. Anefal, pers. comm., of Micronesia. Case Study No. 23. Fourth South 1990). Dahl (1980; 1986) stresses that there is an urgent Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and need to inventory the biomes of the Federated States of Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 Micronesia in view of the great richness of the area and September. 7 pp. the likelihood of increasing pressure in the near future. Fosberg, F.R. (1973). On present condition and conservation of forests in Micronesia. In: Pacific Yap State's Marine Resources Management Division is Science Association, Planned Utilisation of the working on a Marine Resources Coastal Management Lowland Tropical Forests. Proceedings of the Plan, incorporating traditional customs and laws Pacific Science Standing Committee Symposium, (S.L. Anefal, pers. comm., 1990). This is likely to August 1971, Bogor, Indonesia. Pp. 165-171. include recommendations for the protection of specific Maragos, I.E. (1986). Coastal resource development and areas. However, a strong system of reef ownership still management in the US Pacific Islands: 1.
170 Federated States ofMicronesia
Island-by-island analysis. Office of Technology UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Assessment, US Congress. Draft Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Paxton, J. (1989). The Statesman's Yearbook Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. 1989-1990. The Macmillan Press Ltd, London. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, 1691 pp. UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. Scott, G. AJ. and Rotondo, G.M. (1983). A model for the Yinug, M., Falanruw, M., Manmaw, C. (1989). development of types of atoll and volcanic islands on Traditional and current resource management in the Pacific lithospheric plate. Atoll Research Bulletin Yap. In: SPREP, Report on the workshop on 260. 33 pp. customary tenure, traditional resource management SPREP (1980). Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. and nature conservation, Noumea, 28 March - Country Report 14. South Pacific Commission, 1 April. South Pacific Commission, Noumea. Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 113-116.
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Pohnpei Watershed Forest Reserve and of wild plants, and some timber harvesting, provided Mangrove Protection Act environmental protection requirements are met. Forbidden uses include permanent occupancy, Date: 1987 pesticide use, unauthorised tree-cutting, land clearing with fire, and grazing. Brief description: Provides for the protection of
soil, water and mangrove ecosystems in Pohnpei Important watershed areas Areas which have State already been settled; restrictions include no additional building of roads or structures, no Administrative authority: information No rebuilding or improvement ofexisting structures, and
strict enforcement of other regulations. Designation:
Unauthorised cutting of trees in watershed forest Watershed forest reserve Designated in areas of reserves and in mangrove forests carry mandatory soil instability, permitted uses include limited fines of US$ 1 ,000 per tree cut. agriculture, research, dispersed recreation, gathering
171
FIJI
Area 18,330 sq. km provide the basis for a national integrated land use policy. Both the Native Land Trust Board's Forestry Population 732,000 in 1988 (World Bank, 1990) Policy and Tourism Policy lend support to protected Natural increase: 2% per annum areas establishment, and the establishment of forest parks and reserves in particular (Rabuka and Cabaniuk, Economic Indicators 1989). GNP: US$ 1,520 per capita (1988) (World Bank, 1990)
Relevant legislation, described in Annex Policy and Legislation Government policy on 1, comprises the 1923 Birds and Game Protection Act, the earliest establishment of protected areas, as expressed in nature conservation law, the Native Land Trust Act Development Plan DP8 and DP9, is to conserve and (1940), the Forest Act (1953) and the National Trust for protect important and unique aspects of the country's Fiji Act (1970). The Native Land Trust Act provides for natural heritage through the establishment of a the establishment of the Native Land Trust Board, the comprehensive system of parks and reserves. It is principal agency through which Fijian land claims are intended that a National Parks and Reserves Act will be administered. The Forest Act provides for the enacted which will "effectively provide for the constitution of nature reserves, and the protection of any preservation and protection of the natural environment unalienated Crown land, or land leased to the Crown, as including unspoilt landscape, reefs and waters, a reserved foresL Furthermore, nature reserves may be indigenous flora and fauna, habitats and ecological declared within reserved forests. Protected forests may systems, features of scenic, historic or archaeological also be established on native land, with the consent of interest or other scientific interest". In addition, the bill the Native Land Trust Board (Sloth, 1988). The Forestry would allow the use of the parks by the public for Act, however, has a number of serious weaknesses. For enjoyment, recreation and education purposes (Rabuka example, legal loopholes permit clearfelling of forests and Cabaniuk, 1989). over which the Forestry Department has no control and Legislative Council Paper No. 5 (1950) describes the all protected areas established under the provisions of the Government of Fiji's forest policy, which includes the Forestry Act are subjected to dereservation at ministerial following aims: to protect and develop natural level; reserve forests have frequently been dereserved. vegetation where its retention is necessary for climatic This indicates an inadequate level of protection for sites reasons and for the conservation of resources of soil and of national or international importance (Wading, 1988a). water for agriculture and to ensure adequate and The National Trust for Fiji Act provides for the continuous supplies of forest produce; to maintain and preservation, protection and management of natural improve the fertility of the soil by preserving and, where heritage in general. necessary, extending the forest cover; to check soil In addition, the 1953 Land Conservation and erosion and to recover areas already eroded; and to Improvement Ordinance (Cap. 120) provides for the provide and preserve amenities. The Ministry of Forestry establishment of a Land Conservation Board with has recognised the need to set aside forest from powers to issue conservation orders prohibiting or production and the currently proposed ten-year controlling land clearance for any purpose, and also development plan for the Extension Division for makes provision for the appointment of conservation Conservation, Environment and Parks Service outUnes officers. The 1946 Town Planning Ordinance (Cap. 109) plans to set aside 15% of the total natural forest for provides for the conservation of the "natural beauties of permanent protection, with a suggestion of 7,(X)0ha to be the area" in the preparation of town planning schemes. set aside annually for 20 years.
International Activities Fiji is not yet party to either Eighty-three per cent of land is under constitutionally- the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme or the inalienable native communal ownership, ten per cent is Convention on Wetlands of International Importance freehold and seven per cent is Crown (government) land. especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), Native land owned by indigenous people is reserved for international conventions that directly promote the use only by native Fijians, although areas may be leased conservation of natural areas. However, a Cabinet through the Native Land Trust Board. Much of Fiji's decision to accede to the Convention concerning the native forest is "privately" owned in communal tribal Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage tenure which severely constrains the Forestry (World Heritage Convention) has been taken. Department's ability to manage forest resources. In view of this, the Native Land Trust Board prepared and At a regional level, Fiji signed the 1976 Convention on approved a Forestry Policy in 1985. The main objectives the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific on include: ensuring that the forest is managed in 18 September 1989. Known as the Apia Convention, it accordance with sound forest management and land entered into force during 1990. The Convention is conservation practices; protecting the environment; and coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and establishing a sound forest management policy to
173 Protected Areas of the World
represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate receives long-term security over the lands in question; on environmental matters. Among other measures, it and should any dispute arise between the landowners and encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve lessee, both sides have recourse to arbitration through the indigenous flora and fauna. NLTB. It should be noted that Namenalala Island Nature Reserve (43ha, established in 1984 through lease Fiji is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment agreement between the Native Land Trust Board, the Programme (SPREP) and has ratified (18 September landowners and Namenalala Island Resort Ltd) is the 1989) the Convention for the Protection of the Natural only protected area to have been established in Fiji to Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, date through the Native Land Trust Leasing Procedure 1986 (SPREP Convention), which entered into force (Lenoae/a/., 1989). during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile There are also lease agreements between the Forestry ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and Department, the Fiji Pine Commission, and the Native fauna through the establishment of protected areas and Land Trust Board on the lease of land for 50 years for the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse afforesting grasslands and reafforesting logged areas effect on the species, ecosystems and biological with hardwoods. processes being protected. However, as this provision Fiji comprises only applies to the Convention area, which by definition System Reviews approximately 300 islands and islets scattered across an Exclusive is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of Economic Zone located between 10-25*S and islands several marine species. 173'E-176'W. The form distinct groups: Rotuma; Vanua Levu and associated islands, including Other international and regional conventions concerning Taveuni and Ringgold Isles; the Lau Group; the environmental protection to which Fiji is party are Lomaiviti Group; the Yasawas; Viti Levu and associated reviewed by Venkatesh et at. (1983). islands; and Kadavu and associated islands.
Administration and Management The National Trust Natural forest cover in 1986 was estimated at for Fiji has broad legal responsibility for nature 8,049 sq. km, 44% of total land area (S. Siwatibau, pers. conservation and comprises a council of ten members, comm., 1989). Rain forest (veikauloa) occurs in the including a chairman and vice-chairman, appointed by south and east of larger islands and on small limestone the Minister for a period not exceeding two years. The islands. There is virtually no forest cover remaining on National Trust is currently responsible for three reserves. small volcanic islands (D. WatUng, pers. comm., 1989). The Forestry Department, under the Ministry of Forests, Although the islands are not high enough to exhibit is primarily concerned with the management of altitudinally stratified forest, upland montane formations indigenous forests and plantations for commercial with depleted tree, and enhanced epiphyte, species production purposes, but is also responsible for component, are found at the highest levels. The highest administering nature reserves, as well as recreation and and wettest ridges support a distinctive moss forest, amenity areas (DunlapandSingh, 1980; SPREP, 1985b). although the total area of this habitat is very small. Dry The Department currently administers seven nature zone vegetation (talasiga), including dry forests, savanna reserves, established within forest reserves, under the woodlands and grasslands, predominates on northern 1953 Act (SPREP, 1985b), 18 forest reserves and a and western slopes of large islands, and inland up to an number of forest parks and amenity reserves. altitude of 450m. Dry forest has largely been replaced by scrub, grassland and sugar cane. A zone of intermediate Although the Native Land Trust Board (NLTB) has no vegetation, comprising a mosaic of light forest, bamboo specific nature conservation policy, its stated role in stands and grassland, Ues immediately leeward of wet protected areas establishment is to lend support to and forests. Beach forest has been almost entirely lost to facilitate the efforts of the National Trust and the agriculture throughout the country and exists only as Forestry Department in securing native lands for parks isolated pockets on some of the smaller islands. and reserves via the native lands leasing procedure Extensive mangrove forests, covering some 45,000ha, (Rabuka and Cabaniuk, 1989). Protected area occur as deltaic formations of larger rivers and on establishment on native reserves must proceed through sheltered coasts (Davis et ai, 1986; Wading, 1988b). established leasing procedures, to ensure that the Highly localised multiple landslides and cyclones are landowners are fully aware from the outset of the regularly occurring natural disasters. These have purpose of such areas and of the benefits moulded forest such that secondary associations are a (socio-economic, environmental and otherwise) which widespread and integral part of the Fijian forest will accrue to them through their lands being given ecosystem. This may have favourably selected fauna park/reserve status; the landowners are fully aware of the adapted to disturbed environments (Watling, 1988b). implications of protected area status as it affects Schmid ( 1 978) provides an account of the vegetation and customary land use rights; landowner benefits are forest distribution maps (after Parham, 1972) for Viu maximised, not only in terms of lease premiums, income, Levu and Vanua Levu. Freshwater wetland vegetation and visitor receipts, but also with regard to employment of Via Levu is described by Ash and Ash (1984). and, if appropriate, training opportunities; the lessee
174 Fiji
Coral reefs occur around all island groups in barrier, nature reserves are under the management of fringing and platform formations. Shelf atolls are departmental rather than national institutions. Coupled restricted to Wailagilala, in the Lau Group, and with inadequate legislative and institutional support, this Qelelevu, east of Vanua Levu. Barrier reefs include the suggests a likely failure to meet increasing political and Great Sea Reef which extends for 200km and is globally social pressures in the future (Watling, 1988a). significant Fringing reefs are found from the southern An Action Strategy for protected areas in the end of the Mamanuca Group almost to Beqa, south of South Pacific region (SPREP, 1985a) developed Viti Levu. Platform reefs are restricted to shelfwaters was by field managers the technical session and are common inside the Great Sea Reef, including the at and adopted by the ministerial meeting of the 1985 Third Yasawa-Mamanuca arc, and within the Mabualau- South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference. Ovalau series of barrier reefs of eastern Viti Levu The strategy provides a work to (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Detailed accounts for a number of programme implement conservation and protected areas objectives. The principal goals of the specific sites are given in UNEP/IUCN (1988). strategy cover conservation education, conservation In 1986 the Fiji Forestry Department classified policy development, establishment of protected areas, 2373 sq. km of forest as production forest, of which protected area management and regional and 1,413 sq. km (60%) was under logging concessions and international cooperation. Priority recommendations for licences. The gross area under concessions/licences, Fiji are as follows: development of a national including non-commercial forest, was 2,780 sq. km, conservation strategy; final drafting of the National which is 35% of the total forest area (S. Siwatibau, pers. Parks and Reserves Act; development of Garrick comm., 1989). However, on Vanua Levu nearly 50% of Reserve as a national park pilot project; development of forests have been selectively logged and 90% is destined Tai-Elevuka Reef environs as a marine national park to be legitimately logged by Fiji Forest Industries (CMC, pilot project; designation of Sigatoka Sand Dunes as a 1987). By December 1986, plantations covered project area; and the provision of staff training, etc. 80,000ha, comprising 45,160ha of Fiji Pine Commission of objectives have pine forests established on former grassland, and much A number been achieved, including government agreement to prepare a national of the remainder comprising exotic hardwoods in reafforestation plantations on cut-over native land environment strategy, in a joint project with lUCN and the Asian Development Bank; establishment of Sigatoka (S. Siwatibau, pers. comm., 1989). Figures from Sand Dunes National Park and Reserve; development Drysdale (1988) indicate 1986 totals of 53,449ha of pine of the concept of parks" plantation and 25,669ha of hardwood plantations; such "landowner by NLTB, matching nature conservation with local tourism ventures, plantations have a low animal diversity, especially with as expressed in the Waikakata Archaeological Park and respect to endemic fauna (CMC, 1987; Wading, 1988b). Forest Reserve Plan (1988) and the Bouma Forest Park Forest cover is being depleted at an overall rate of and Reserve Plan (1989); and an ecological survey has approximately 1% per annum. Between 1969 and 1988 been carried out, culminating in "A representative there has been a possible 30% reduction in the area of national parks and reserves system for Fiji's tropical non-commercial forest, a 5.4% loss of production forests forests" (Manila Society, 1989). The latter includes and an 8% reduction in protection forests, although these proposals for protected areas that cover 6.8% of the are intended to remain under forest cover in perpetuity. unlogged indigenous production-zoned forest resource,
There is no systematic monitoring of forest loss, which and comprises a number of national parks, nature varies greatly by district and is probably much worse on reserves, forest parks and "special feature" forest Viti Levu than elsewhere (Drysdale, 1988). The loss of reserves. Progress has also been made in the forest cover is particularly threatening to the native flora development ofa mangrove management plan, protected which, with frequently restricted disffibutions in the areas legislation, and management plans for Garrick forest, is vulnerable to extinction (Watling, 1988a). Memorial Reserve and Sigatoka Sand Dunes National Park (Anon., 1989). The existing protected areas network covers a total of 6,592.5ha, or 0.36% of Fiji's terrestrial area, a clearly Two previous reports (Dahl, 1980; Dunlap and Singh, inadequate sample to provide for long-term 1980) have abeady recommended the establishment of conservation. Habitats that are included within protected reserves and although these were not implemented they areas include montane rain forest, cloud forest, have provided valuable input to the Manila Society atoll/beach forest, limestone island scrub and mountain (1989) report. In turn, the recently initiated National stream. Habitats that at present receive no protection Environment Strategy will incorporate the include lowland forest, swamp and mangrove forests, recommendations embodied in ihe 1989 report. Dahl savanna and grasslands, sea turtle nesting areas, reefs (1980) recommends the establishment of preferably and other more restricted ecosystems (Dahl, 1980). The contiguous mountain and lowland forest reserves in east present system is inadequate for several reasons. No and west Viti Levu and Vanua Levu; forest reserves on ecological or heritage considerations were involved in a number of larger islands and mangrove reserves at the
the selection of protected areas. Protection forests have mouth of Samambula River; and, in total, 44 potential no long-term conservation value, given their present conservation sites are identified. In the lUCN/UNEP inadequate legal status and management. Forest and Review ofthe Protected Areas Systems in Oceania, Dahl
175 Protected Areas of the World
(1986) makes a number of less specific recommendations, Congress 9-10 June. Volume 2. National Trust for including increasing the number of protected areas on Fiji, Suva, Fiji. 264 pp. Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and smaller islands with sp)ecial Dunlap, R.C. and Singh, B.B. (1980). A national parks features, in addition to including representative and reserves systemsfor Fiji. A report to the National examples of each island type and a selection of marine Trust for Fiji. Three volumes. 1 17 pp. areas within the protected areas network. Forestry Department (1989). Annual reportfor the year 1989. Paper No. 21 of 1990. Ministry of Forests, series of national conservation congresses has been A Suva. 22 pp. initiated and the most recent, in June 1988, called for Juvik, J.O. and Singh, B. (1989). Conservation of the more efficient and sustainable management of forest Fijian crested iguana: a progress report Case Study resources (NTF, 1988a, 1988b).Support was given to the 22. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature National Trust to develop a plan of action to remove the Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, final impediments to the creation of Dakua bureaucratic Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Pacific Reserve at Waisali, Vanua Levu, and to foster the Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 7 pp. development and designation of other areas including Lenoa, L., Waqaisavou, T. and Lees, A. (1989). A Waikatakata and Vatura as national pilot projects and representative national parks and reserves system for Garrick Memorial Park as a functional conservation unit. Fiji. Case Study 7. Fourth South Pacific Conference National Trust is currently seeking support for a The on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port biological survey of a number of islets in the Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Pacific Yasawa-Mamanuca chain, with the aim of establishing Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 15 pp. a protected area for crested iguana, to be managed for Manila Society (1989). A representative national parks compatible nature tourism (Juvik and Singh, 1989). and reserves system for Fiji's tropical forests. Morula Society Policy Reports Series No. 9. 1 10 pp. A major review of the forestry sector has been completed National Trust for Fiji (1988a). Fiji's rainforests: our and translated into a draft Fiji Tropical Forestry Action heritage and future. Proceedings of the Second Plan which was due to be finalised during 1990 (Forestry National Conservation Congress, Suva, Fiji, Department, 1990). 9-10 June. Volume 1. National Trust for Fiji. 189 pp. National Trust for Fiji (1988b). Fiji's rainforests: our Addresses heritage and future. Proceedings of the Second Conservator of Forests, Ministry of Forests, PO Box National Conservation Congress, Suva, Fiji, 2218, Government Buildings, Suva 9- 10 June. Volume 2. National Trust for Fiji. 264 pp. National Trust for Fiji, PO Box 2089, Government Parham, J.W. (1972). Plants of the Fiji Islands. Suva, Buildings, Suva Government Press. 490 pp. (Unseen)
Native Land Trust Board, PO Box 1 16, Suva Rabuka, M. and Cabaniuk, S. (1989). The role of the Native Land Trust Board in the establishment of References parks and reserves in Fiji. In: Thomas, P.EJ. (Ed.), Report of the workshop on customary tenure, Ash, J. and Ash, W. (1984). Freshwater wetland traditional resource management and nature vegetation of Viti Levu, Fiji. New Zealand Journal conservation. SPREP, Noumea, New Caledonia. ofBotany 22: 337-391. Pp. 71-86. CMC (1987). Conservation issues in Fiji. A briefing Schmid, M. (1978). The Melanesian forest ecosystem document prepared for Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir (New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji Islands and Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH. lUCN Solomon Islands). In: Unesco/UNEP/FAO, Tropical Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. forest ecosystems. Unesco, Paris. Pp. 654-683. Unpublished report 33 pp. Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature Dahl, A.L. Regional survey of the (1980). ecosystem conservation as part of tourism development in the South Pacific Area. SPCUUCN Technical Paper island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Development Programme. Tourism Council of the Caledonia. 99 pp. South Pacific, Suva. 82 pp. Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review ofthe protected areas system SPREP (1985a). Action strategy for protected areas in in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and the South Pacific Region. South Pacific Commission, Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp. Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L.. SPREP (1985b). Fiji. In: Thomas, P.EJ. (Ed.),Report of Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and the Third South Pacific National Parks andReserves Zantovska, J. Plants in (1986). danger: what do we Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South know! lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. UK. 488 pp. SPREP (1989). Progress with the action strategy for Drysdale, P.J. (1988). Rainforest management and protected areas in the South Pacific. Information conservation in Fiji: a prescription for action. In: Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Proceedings of the Second National Conservation Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 19 pp.
176 Fiji
UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Watling, D. (1988a). The forestry sector development Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP study. FU/86/004. Report of the environmental Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. scientist Unpublished. Suva. 44 pp. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Watling, D. (1988b). The effects of logging on Fijian UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. wildlife. In: Proceedings of the Second National Venkatesh, S, Va'ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An Conservation Congress 9-10 June. Volume 2. overview of environmental protection legislation in National Trust for Fiji, Suva. 25 pp. the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review World Bank (1990). World Tables 1989-1990 Ediuon. No. 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 646 pp. Caledonia. 63 pp.
ANNEX Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Birds and Game Protection Act Description: Provides for the protection of any unalienated Crown land, or land leased to the Crown, Date: 1923 as a reserved forest, which may also be sub-classified into nature resei ve, protected forest and silvicultural Brief description: Proscribes hunting of specified area. bird species, establishes closed seasons and quotas for others, and enables the Minister to establish Designation: Reserved forest reserved areas. Original legislation is not available. Nature reserve Part of a reserved forest not being a Administrative authority: No information silvicultural area. Excludes people except between 6am and 9pm. Prohibits logging and other damage Designation: and the Conservator may approve operations only if they protect flora and fauna. The Native Land Trust Reserved areas Details not available Board's right of dereservation is not specified.
Title: Native Land Trust Act Protectedforest Established with Native Land Trust Board consent on any native land not being part of a Date: 1940/1943 reserved forest or aUenated and not being part of a silvicultural area. Once protected, the Native Land Administrative authority: Native Land Trust Trust Board may not alienate without consent of the Board Conservator. Licences may be issued but illegal Description: Establishes and requires the Native logging and grazing are prohibited. Land Trust Board to declare and administer native Silvicultural area Part of a protected forest so reserves for the use, maintenance and support of declared. Excludes people except between 6am and Fijian owners. Original legislation is not available. 9pm. Objectives are not clearly stated, but may Designation: Native reserves may be declared on suggest production forestry or conversion to any native land. plantation.
Section 12 defines offences against the Act. In Forest Forest Title: An Act Relating to and addition to the restricted times of entry, the following Produce (The Forest Act) general activities are forbidden: grazing; cutting or damaging any trees or forest produce; erecting Date: 1 October 1953, last amended 1978 buildings; setting fu^es; clearing land; constructing or
obstructing roads; setting or possessing traps etc.; Administrative authority: Conservator of Forests, entering areas closed under forest regulations; Ministry of Forests damaging forest property; hunting and fishing.
NB: All areas protected under the Ace are subject to dereservation by the Minister of Forestry.
177 Protected Areas of the World
Title: The National Trust for Fiji Act statutory body under the Ministry of Housing and Urban DevelopmenL Date 1970
Administrative authority National Trust for Fiji Brief description Makes provision for the (Chairman) establishment of the National Trust for Fiji, a
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ Fiji
Protected Areas of Fiji
179
France - French Polynesia
FRANCE - FRENCH POLYNESIA
Area 3,521 sq. km (spread over approximately the advice of the CNSM, and with the approval of the 4.198.000 sq. km of ocean) Council of Ministers, the classification of a protected area may be pronounced after consultation with the Population 188,814 (1988) Territorial Assembly in the case of public property, or Natural increase: 1.9% per annum (Dahl, 1986) after informing land owners in the case of private
property. In the latter case, a delay of three months is Economic Indicators mandatory to allow representations to be made. An GNP: Not available intermediary procedure involves inscribing proposed Policy and Legislation The status of French Polynesia, sites on a list, after which the site must be maintained a French overseas territory, under Law No. 77-772 of whilst legal formalities are prepared. However, a delay 12 July 1972 gives full power to the territory in of more than one year will render this null and void (Siu environmental matters. The Governor of French and Vemaudon, 1989). Polynesia also has authority for Clipperton Island, some The Forestry Regulations, resulting from nine legal S,000km north-west of Tahiti, although this is not part instruments dating from 1942 to 1978, contain of French Polynesian territory. provisions for the protection of soil, vegetation and There are no laws specifically providing for the creation wildlife, and the establishment of strict nature reserves and management of territorial parks and other protected (reserves integrates). However, there is no p'ovision for areas. There is a general planning code, the Deliberation supervision. Other regulations cover hunting and de I'Assemblde Territoriale No. 61-44 of 8 April 1961, fishing, but with no provision for protected areas. which was modified in 1 982 to take account of economic Recommendations and outlines of possible protected restraints. Book 1, Title 3 of this code makes provision area legislation has been put to the government as part for the creation of protected areas, by defining the of reports prepared and submitted by SPREP (Anon., procedure leading to classification of an area. A 1989). regulation specifically providing for the creation and management of protected areas is planned (Siu and International Activities At the international level, Vemaudon, 1989). Law No. 56-836 of 26 July 1956 France has entered into a number of obligations and gives the Territorial Assembly the power to regulate cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is nature protection. This is reinforced by the new statute party to the Convention concerning the I'rotection of the in Law No. 84-260 of 6 September 1984 which made World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage provision for the nomination of a Minister of Convention) which it accepted on 27 June 1975. France Environment and a Delegation k I'EnvironnemenL Legal became a contracting party to the Convention on power rests with the Territorial Assembly and executive Wetlands of International Importance especially as power with the President of the Territorial Government Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 1 October and the Council of Ministers. Book 1 , Chapter VIII, Title 1 986. At present there are no World Heritage nor Ramsar V, Articles D.151 1-14 of the 1984 Code provide for a sites within French Polynesia. France participates in the list of sites and monuments for conservation. The Article Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and one site states that a list of buildings and a list of natural sites and in French Polynesia has been inscribed as a biosphere monuments, of which the conservation or preservation reserve. is of historic, artistic, scientific, legendary or folkloric interest, are established in ihe territory and published in France signed the Convention on the Conservation of the Journal Officiel. Inscription on these lists is Nature in the South Pacific on 12 June 1976 with announced by decree of the head of the territory in subsequent ratification on 20 January 1989. Known as government council following proposal by the the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. Commission on Natural Sites and Monuments (CNSM) The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific under Article D. 100-2 of this Code. The regional Commission and represents the first attempt within the administrative authority will notify the owners of region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among properties, sites and monuments of inscription. other measures, it encourages the creation of protected Inscription obliges the owner not to modify the aspect of areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna. any nauiral property, site or monument, nor to undertake any activity other than normal exploitation, running The Convention for the Protection of the Natural repairs and maintenance without advising the interested Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP signed head of regional administration at least two months Convention) was on 25 November 1986 and ratified 17 July before the proposed date for the start of work. on 1990. The Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the The procedure for classifying natural protected areas is parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or undertaken by the CNSM, which, since 1985, has been fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora presided over by the Minister of the Environment. On and fauna through the establishment of protected areas
181 Protected Areas of the World and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse the remainder are high volcanic islands, many being very effect on the species, ecosystems and biological mountainous with inaccessible interiors. processes being protected. However, as this provision Habitats range from atoll and lowland rain forest, only applies to die Convention area, which by definition through riverine and bamboo forest to cloud and is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of montane formations. Most coastal forest has been destroyed, but that which remains is of low economic marine species. However, the Instrument of Approval is accompanied by the following reservation: "The value and relatively unthreatened. Lying at the easternmost extremity Government of the French Repubhc, in signing the on the Indo-Pacific Province, French Polynesia is at the limit of the axis of decreasing present Convention, declares that, insofar as it is species richness concerned, the prescription of the aforesaid Convention and has a comparatively poor coral fauna. reef will not cover wastes and other matter entailing a level The main formations are found around the high islands and atolls, although of pollution caused by radioactivity to a degree less than there are several that prescribed by the recommendations of the oceanic banks of variable forms (e.g. Ebrill Reef in the International Atomic Energy Agency". Gamblers and Moses Reef in the Australs). A detailed summary account of coral reefs in French Polynesia is Administration and Management The CNMS was given in UNEP/IUCN (1988). established in 1962 to propose sites for classification or islands with the protection, and to provide advice on environmental The highest conservation interest have very few protected areas. the issues. The Fisheries Department manages the marine On basis of biological environment, while the Forest Branch of the Agriculture diversity, endemism and other factors, Nuku Hiva is rated as the most important island for conservation Department is responsible for implementation of the within the country and one of the most important Forestry Act. The D616gation h. I'Environnement was volcanic created on 30 May 1985 (Deliberation 85-1040/AT), islands in the Oceanian realm. Tahiti, Rapa and are all risk from activities responsible to the Minister of the Environment, with a Moorea at human and only Tahiti, with the recently established Valine Faaiti, staff complement that has increased from two in 1985 to de includes a protected area. All have significant species twelve in 1989. Objectives are to: monitor environmental and protection and rehabilitation; monitor environmental risks endemism, the establishment of appropriate protected areas arising from development; develop or coordinate studies should be a priority. Some habitat restoration other islands. and direct research into environmental issues; develop may be needed on Moorea and In addition, protected area establishment training programmes and information services to enhance should be considered at least Raiatea possibly environmental awareness; and to identify and classify on and Huahine and Tahaa. In the Austral Islands, Rimatara and Raivavai natural and cultural sites. To achieve these objectives, the should be given priority for their endemism, Ddl6gation acts in concert with the relevant ministries and as should in the services and coordinates environmental policies (Siu and Mangareva Gambier Islands. The Tuamotu atolls are simpler island with Vemaudon, 1989). ecosystems, one reserve at Taiaro Atoll. Additional reserves are needed at least on The Deldgation has identified certain priorities in Matureivavao, Niau, Napuka and the raised coral island applying its statutory powers. It has established new of Makatea, which, despite former mining damage, regulations for environmental protection classification retains some conservation value. The Marquesas are (Deliberation 87-80/AT of 12 June 1987), modifying quite distinctive biologically and the four present island Book IV of the Code de Tam^nagement du territoire. The reserves are inadequate: protected areas should be aim is to increase the efficiency of pollution prevention established on each island. In addition to Nuku Hiva, with means better adapted to current economic priority should be given to protected areas on Hiva Oa constraints and local values, while at the same time and Ua Pou, and to the general control of the feral allowing the development of economic activity in animals which are causing great destruction. A harmony with the environment. It has also established an representative system of marine reserves across the great environmental charter, of which two sections are at an expanse of French Polynesia should also be developed advanced stage of preparation: environmental impact (Dahl, 1986). Currently proposed protected areas assessment and protection of natural areas (Anon., comprise a territorial park at Atimaono, Pari Historic and 1990). Archaeological Site, Atoll de Scilly, Atoll de Tetiaroa, and Hemeni and Keokeo Ilets in the Marquesas for the Systems Reviews French Polynesia extends from protection of sea birds, particularly Sterna fuscata. The 134*28'W (Temoe) to 145M0'W (Manuae or Scilly) establishment of marine reserves and other terrestrial and from 7"50'S (Motu One) to 27'36'W (Rapa). The protected areas is being studied (Siu and Vemaudon, emergent land area (3,521 sq. km) is augmented by about 1989). 7,000 sq. km of lagoon. The islands are situated on a general north-west to south-east orientation, their age The Deldgation ^ I'Environnement has become actively decreasing from north-west to south-east, and they form involved inter alia in the organisation of environmental five distinctive archipelagos: Society, Tuamotu, courses ranging from primary to university level, Gambier, Marquesas and Tubai or Austral Islands. There providing material for television broadcast, posters. are around 130 islands, of which 84 are atolls; most of
182 France - French Polynesia information signs and the organisation of an annual Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, environment day (SPREP, 1989). Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 19 pp. Anon. (1990). Legislation et administration du milieu No overall environmental policy has existed for many naturel. Unpublished. 6 pp. years, although protection has been applied ad hoc for a Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review ofthe protected areas system certain number of problems. Principal environmental in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and problems include introduced mammals (particularly Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. rats) and birds, and soil erosion and consequent Paxton, J. (1989). The Statesman's yearbook: 1989-90. sedimentation of lagoons caused mainly by terracing The Macmillan Press Ltd, London. 1691 pp. undertaken during urbanisation. The recent expansion of SPREP (1980). French Polynesia. Country Report 5. Miconia calvescens (Melastomataceae), introduced in South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New 1937 for its ornamental value, now threatens the Caledonia. 1 1 pp. indigenous flora of the islands of Tahita, Moorea and SPREP (1989). Polyndsie Frangaise. Paper presented at Raiatea. Arrets territorial 290 of 14 March 1990 taken the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature the Council of Ministers forbids its propagation on by Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, the other Polynesian islands and a research programme Vanuatu, 4-12 September 1989. 5 pp. by over the last two years continues to seek a ORSTOM Siu, P and Vemaudon, Y. (1989). Programme de mise method of counteracting the planL en place d'un systfeme de p6rim5tres prot6g6s en Polyn6sie Frangaise. Case study No. 18. Fourth Addresses South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 Ddl^gation h I'Environnement, Ministere de September. 6 pp. I'Environnemenl, BP 4562, Papeete, Tahiti UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. References UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Anon. (1989). Progress with the action strategy for lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, protected areas in the South Pacific. Information UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. Paper 3. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Protected Areas of the World FRANCE - NEW CALEDONIA
Area 19,000 sq. km of timber in which certain measures for the protection of wildlife may also be appUed (SPREP, 1985a). Population 164,173 (April 1989) (Institut Territorial de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques, Noumea) International Activities At the international level, Natural increase: No information France has entered into a number of obligations and
cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is Economic Indicators party to the Convention concerning the Protection of the GNP: No information World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) which it accepted on 27 June 1975. France Policy and Legislation New Caledonia was annexed by became a contracting party to the Convention on France in 1853 and became an Overseas Territory in Wetlands of International Importance especially as 1958. Following constitutional changes in 1985 and Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 1 October 1988, the Territory is divided into three autonomous 1986. provinces, administered by a High Commissioner assisted by a four-member Consultative Committee. France signed the Convention on the Conservation of 1988 gives the three Law No. 88.1028 of 9 November Nature in the South Pacific on 12 June 1976, and provinces full powers in environmental matters. subsequently ratified it on 20 January 1989. Known as
the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. Protection of natural heritage is one of the objectives of The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific the "long-term economic and social plan for New Commission and represents the first attempt within the Caledonia" adopted by the Territorial Assembly on region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among 21 February 1979. Revised legislation pertaining to other measures, it encourages the creation of protected parks and reserves came before the Territorial Assembly areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna. in 1980 (Deliberation No. 108 of 9 May 1980 enforced by Decree No. 1504 of 21 May 1980). Previously, France also signed the Convention for the Protection of existing laws covered establishment of complete the Natural Resources and Environment of the South botanical reserves, forest reserves and marine reserves, Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) on 25 November reserves. revised legislation introduced the terms The 1987, with ratification on 17 July 1990. The Convention reserve naturelle int^grale (strict nature reserve), pare entered into force during August 1989. Article 14 calls territorial (territorial parte) and reserve sp6ciale (special upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to provided definitions of reserve), and more complete protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or these terms, which in principal relate to lUCN endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of I reserve), II management categories (strict nature protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to nature reserve), (national park) and IV (managed have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and respectively (see Annex). biological processes being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by Protected areas can only be established on land defmition is open ocean, it is most lik^-ly to assist with belonging to the Territory, to the State, or on public land. the establishment of marine reserves and the The establishment of such protected areas on private conservation of marine species. It should be noted that property may be allowed on demand of private the instrument of Approval is accompanied by the individuals. Reserves are not protected against mining following reservation: "The Government of the French activity unless located within mining reserves Republic, in signing the present Convention declares established under the mining laws (Decree No. 54-1 1 10 that, insofar as it is concerned, the prescription of the of 13 November 1954). aforesaid Convention will not cover wastes and other
Protection zones can also be established under the Water matter entailing a level of pollution caused by Resources and Pollution Law (Deliberation No. 105 of radioactivity to a degree less than that prescribed by the 26 August 1968), whereby activities likely to endanger recommendations of the International Atomic Energy water quality can be prohibited or controlled. Decree Agency". No. 51-100 of 26 January 1951 lays down conditions for Administration and Management The Service de forest classification. Areas of archaeological, historic or I'Environnement et Gestion des Pares et Reserves tourist interest can also be declared as classified sites (Direction du Developpement Rural) is responsible for under Law No. 56-1106 of 3 November 1956 and the administration of parks and reserves which are Deliberation No. 225 of 17 June 1965. controlled on a day-to-day basis by individual forestry There are a few small zones where activities are districts, divided between three administrative centres. restricted for the purpose of "good management of Deliberation No. 38-90/APS of 28 March 1990 makes public land". These are afforestation zones and lands provision for the creation of a Comite pour la Protection allocated to the Forestry Department for the production de I'Environnement dans la Province Sud. This body
185 Protected Areas of the World comprises a number of members from government exploitation has been uncontrolled and has contributed departments, ORSTOM and, at present, the FYesident of to the destruction of forests, or depletion of the the Association pour la Sauvegarde de la Nature more valuable species. Today, the Direction du Nfo-Calddonienne. The Committee's role is largely to Ddveloppement Rural exercises control to prevent act in an advisory capacity to the provincial authorities. indiscriminate or excessive felling (SPREP, 1989).
Systems Reviews The natural vegetation comprises An Action Su^tegy for Protected Areas in the South tropical evergreen rain forest up to 1,000m and tropical Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b) has been prepared. The montane rain forest above l,G00m. A variant of principal goals of the strategy cover conservation evergreen rain forest, sometimes with Araucaria education, conservation policy development, columnaris, is dominant near the coast on raised coral, establishment of protected areas, protected areas especially in the Loyalty Islands and He des Pins. Dry management and regional and international cooperation. sclerophyllous forest is characteristic of drier western Priority recommendations for New Caledonia are slopes. Various types of scrub on acidic and ultrabasic intensification of education and public information rocks cover about 30% of the land area. Mangroves activities relating to nature conservation, with special occur along western coasts. According to a 1974/75 attention being paid to school text-books for use at all forest inventory, the major vegetation types are dense levels; adoption of a Territorial "charter" on the evergreen forest (22.8% of total land area), Niaouli protection of the natural and cultural heritage; savanna woodland (13.8%), low scrub in mining areas establishment of new protected areas as follows: a bird (25.1%), savanna grassland (21.7%) and scrub (8.3%) reserve on Chesterfield Islands, rotating marine reserves (SPREP, 1989). Hunter Island has some grassland with in reef areas, extension of Rivifere Bleue Territorial Park occasional trees; Walpole Island is covered by dense and preservation of the lake ecosystems of the Plaine des scrub; and Matthew Island has almost no vegetation Lacs; legislative measures to ensure permanency of (Davis et al., 1986). A more detailed vegetation account parks and reserves, redrafting of forestry legislation, and vegetation maps are given by Schmid (1978). taking into account customary ownership; protection of endemic endangered species; establishment of a central A summary account of coral reefs is given in structure for the management and planning of protected UNEP/IUCN (1988), with specific descriptions of areas; and support of SPREP's activities and promotion Chesterfield Islands, D'Entrecasteaux Reefs, Great Reef of cooperation among international scientists and Marine Reserve (Reserves Toumantes sur le Grand experts with a view to furthering knowledge in the field ReciO. Maitre and Amed^e Islets Nature Reserves of ecology. The extent to which these objectives have and Yves Merlet Marine Reserve. Grande Terre is been achieved is not known. It has also been surrounded by a barrier reef more than 1,600 km in recommended that a protected area be established on length, which borders a lagoon of clear and rather Huon Island, to the north of the Territory for the shallow water covering 16,000 sq. km, second in size protection of marine turtles (J-L. d' Auzon, pers, comm., only to the Australian Great Barrier Reef (UNEP/IUCN, 1991). 1988). Addresses The protected areas system has relatively good coverage, although most sites were established to protect areas of Service de I'Environnement et Gestion des Pares et botanical interest. However, enforcement is weak and it Reserves, Direction du Ddveloppement Rural, HP is not certain whether the existing system is adequate to 256, Noumea continue to protect such a rich and localised flora. References The two principal threats to the natural flora and fauna are mining and bushfires. Since mining is the basis of the Davis, S.D., Droop, SJ.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., country's economy, measures taken to conserve natural Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and areas do not necessarily include the exclusion of mining Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we activities. In these cases, no disturbance is permitted know! lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, without prior review and approval. Moreover, before any UK. 488 pp. mine can be developed an environmental impact Dupon, J.F. (1986). The effects of mining on the assessment is carried out by the Commission de environment of high islands: case study of nickel Prevention des D6gats miniers. The environmental mining in New Caledonia. Environmental Case impact of mining in New Caledonia is discussed by Study No. 1. SPREP, South Pacific Commission, Dupon (1986). Large areas are burnt annually, Noumea, New Caledonia. 5 pp. frequently deliberately, to attract rain, encourage fresh Paxton, J. 1989. The Statesman's yearbook 1989-90. The grass growth or to clear undergrowth. This has led to Macmillan Press Ltd, London. 1691 pp. habitat destruction, denudation of soils and progressive Schmid, M. (1978). The Melanesian forest ecosystem shrinking of forests. There is now pressure for logging (New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji Islands and in many areas and, as there is still no complete forest Solomon Islands). In: Unesco/UNEP/FAO, Tropical classification, destruction can occur without the forest ecosystems. Unesco, Paris. Pp. 654-683. Department being empowered to take action. Forest
186 France -New Caledonia
SPREP (1980). New Caledonia. Country Report 8. SPREP (1989). New Caledonia. Paper presented at the South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Caledonia. Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, SPREP (1985a). New Caledonia. In: Thomas, P.E.J. Vanuatu, 4-12 September 1989. 1 1 pp. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Country reviews. South Pacific Commission, Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 125-133. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for protected areas in UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. theSouthPacificRegion.SouthPaciricCommission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Deliberation No. 108 public education and recreation. Rora and fauna are fully protected and gathering of botanical or Date: 9 May 1980 geological samples is forbidden without express permission of the Service de I'Environnement et Brief description: Introduced and defined the terms Gestion des Pares et Reserves and only for scientific reserve naturelle integrale (strict nature reserve), purposes. There is provision for permission to be pare territorial (territorial park) and reserve sp6ciale given by the service for facilities such as roads, paths, (special reserve), and provided more complete restaurants, hotels and associated infrastructure to be deflnitions of these terms, which in principal relate built for educational and recreational purposes. NB to lUCN management categories I (strict nature Subsequent to the recently introduced constitutional reserve), II (national park) and IV (managed nature changes, pare territorial might be more properly reserve), respectively. Enforced by Decree No. 1504 termed pare provincial, although it is not known if of21 May 1980. this is the case.
Administrative authority: Service de I'Environ- Reserve speciale (Special reserve) Areas where nement et Gestion des Pares et Reserves certain activities may be prohibited or regulated for (Direction du D6veloppement Rural) specific environmental protection objectives. Designations: Reserves spdciales are divided into:
Reserve naturelle integrate (Strict nature reserve) Reserve spiciale botanique (Special botanical reserve) Created for the restoration Areas in which all hunting, fishing, forestry, and conservation of habitats, and the rare, agriculture or mining, all activities likely to modify conservation of noteworthy or threatened plant species. It is the landscape or vegetation, disturbance to flora and expressly forbidden to modify the landscape or carry fauna, all floral and faunal introductions, whether any acts detrimental the vegetation indigenous, wild, exotic or domestic, and collection out to except with authorisation given the Head the Service of botanical and geological samples are strictly by of de I'Environnement et Gestion des Pares et Reserves. forbidden. It is also forbidden to enter, move about, camp, or carry out scientific research in such reserves Riserve spiciale defaune (Specialfaunal reserve) without written permission of the Service de In which particularmeasures for the protection ofone I'Environnement et Gestion des Pares et Reserves, or more animal species may be taken. Reserves and flying over the reserves is regulated. R6serves sp&iales de faune include a number of marine areas naturelles int6grales may not be established except and islands that are totally or f)artially protected both where all prospecting, mineral research or for the purpose of species conservation and for slock exploitation have been prohibited under Article management and scientific studies. 2210-1 of the present code. Riserve spiciale marine (Special marine reserve) Pare territorial (Territorial park) Set aside for the conservation of flora and fauna but also to cater for
187 Protected Areas of the World SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ France - New Caledonia
Map^ Name or area lUCN management Area Year ref. category (ha) notifled
Unclassified 42 "Michel Corbasson" II 35 45 Branch Nord Dumbea et Couvelee VI
^Locations of some protected areas are shown on the accompanying map.
189 Protected Areas of the World
t i g
g § to a. *:I
-3 2-
.>c^'"'" k
Protected Areas of New Caledonia
190 FRANCE - WALLIS AND FUTUNA
Area 210sq. km France also signed the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Population 13,000 (SPREP, (1986) 1986) Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) on 25 November Natural increase: 4.0% per annum (Dahl, 1986) 1987, with ratification on 17 July 1990. The Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls Economic Indicators upon the parties to take all appropriate measures GNP: No information to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or
Policy and Legislation Wallis and Futuna is an endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of Overseas Territory of France but the legal status, as protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to provided for by Law No. 61-814 of 29 July 1961, gives have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and the Territory jurisdiction in environmental affairs. As all biological processes being protected. However, as this matters relating to land tenure lie exclusively within the provision only applies to the Convention area, which by jurisdiction of the traditional leaders, the administration's defmition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with
scope of action is extremely limited. Traditional law is the establishment of marine reserves and the
applied to the day-to-day settlement of local affairs. There conservation of marine species. It should be noted that
is no written protected area legislation. As a result of the instrument of Approval is accompanied by the population increases and the Territory'sexposure to outside following reservation: "The Government of the French influences, traditional laws no longer provide a sufficient Republic, in signing the present Convention, declares means of control to preserve the existing land and sea that, insofar as it is concerned, the prescription of the
resources. Supplementary legislation is desirable in respect aforesaid Convention will not cover wastes and other of town planning and the protection of wooded areas, the matter entailing a level of pollution caused by
water table, water catchments and coastal zones etc. radioactivity to a degree less than that prescribed by the (SPREP, 1982). recommendations of the International Atomic Energy Agency". The Long-term Economic and Social Development Plan, passed by the Territorial Assembly on 24 July Administration and Management No department has 1979, includes a chapter on the protection of the natural overall responsibility for coordination of activities
heritage of the islands (Chapter 9). Two of the priorities relating to national environmental poUcy. listed are protection of the coastal zone, and protection Systems Reviews Wallis and Futuna comprises three of natural sites (Alofi Forest). Restrictions and main islands: Uvea (lies Wallis), Futuna and die regulations are applied to specific areas and are decreed uninhabited Alofi (lies de Home). orally by the King and the Council of Ministers and relayed by word of mouth by the district or village chiefs Uvea (96 sq. km) is a low volcanic island, with a to their subjects. Today, radio broadcasts are also used maximum altitude of 145m, with volcanic lakes and to disseminate such instructions (SPREP, 1985). seasonal springs. It is surrounded by a barrier reef, some
3-4km offshore, with about 22 reef islets. By contrast, International Activities At the international level, Futuna (80 sq. km) and Alofi (36 sq. km), 250km to the France has entered into a number of obligations and south-west, are mountainous, with steep slopes cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is interrupted by a series of uplifted coral tiers, reaching party to the Convention concerning the Protection of the 524m and 416m, respectively. World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage
Convention) which it accepted on 27 June 1975. France When the islands were first settled the natural vegetation became a contracting party to the Convention on appears to have consisted largely of forest, today in great Wetlands of International Importance especially as jeopardy. Still used for supplying timber for building, it Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 1 October has also been cleared for agricultural land. The harmful 1986. effects of systematic and localised clearing of the vegetation have been further aggravated by bushfu-es France signed the Convention on the Conservation of occurring during the dry season. In the entire Nature in the South Pacific on 12 June 1976, and low-altitude zone that is permanently settled, the primary subsequently ratified it on 20 January 1989. Known as vegetation has been radically modified by pre- and the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. post-European plant introductions and the large-scale The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific extensions of coconut groves. Commission and represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among Evergreen closed forest covered about 15% of Uvea in other measures, it encourages the creation of protected 1983, the remainder including secondary forest and toafa areas lo preserve indigenous flora and fauna. (a poor, scrubby formation) with Pandanus, grasses and ferns (Morat et al., 1983). Much of the original vegetation has been cleared for coconut, breadfruit and
191 Protected Areas of the World bananas. The establishment of two airfields and a Despite as much as half of the population living network of roads during World War Two increased the overseas, there is a serious question over the long-term damage described by Burrows (1937). Now only patches availability of land. Consequently, there is an awareness of forest remain in the southern central and western that all land requires some form of protection. region. Everywhere else, the forest has been replaced by Customary leaders attempt to dissuade the sale of land gardens, fallow areas carrying a secondary bush, and, to foreigners, in order to better meet the future needs of especially in the northern half of the island, by very poor the indigenous population (SPREP, 1985). A discussion lands on which only toafa grows. of environmental issues is given in SPREP(I982). Major problems include damage caused by semi-feral pigs, soil In Futuna, which is believed to have been settled earlier erosion, loss of forest on Wallis and Futuna, and than Uvea, the primary forest has receded to the upper overfishing around Futuna. In general, the modest level parts of the hills and into almost inaccessible gorges. of development and inhospitable terrain, for example on About 30% of Futuna still has dense forest cover, Alofi, has led to few severe environmental problems. particularly in the montane regions above 400m However, with increasing pressure for land, resources (Davis et al., 1986), but an extensive area of the central and development, the current situation may change plateau bears only the very poor toafa vegetation. The rapidly. steep outer slopes running down to the coast are cleared and given over to dryland crops grown under often quite Addresses difficult conditions (SPREP, 1986).
Chef de la Mission des Affaires int^mationales et de la Alofi, which is uninhabited due to the lack of reliable Cooperation, Direction de I'Espace rural/Foret, water supplies, continues to support primary rain forest Ministfere de I'Agriculture, 1 ter Ave. de Lowendal, (Dahl, 1986) on as much of 70% of its surface (SPREP, 75700 Paris, France 1986). Despite this predominance, toafa vegetation exists in a few places in central areas. References
Analysis of aerial photographs suggests that the limits of Burrows, E.C. (1937). Ethnology of Uvea (Wallis toafa on Uvea and Futuna have not changed greatly Island). Bulletin of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. during the last 20-40 years, possibly due to the No. 138. 239 pp. unsuitability of soils for further agricultural expansion. Dahl, A.L. {\9%6). Review ofthe protected areas system However, aerial photography also confirms the in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and diminishing primary cover on Uvea, being replaced by Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. perennial plantations or secondary fallow cover. Davis, S.D., Droop, S J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Although shortening of the fallow period to less than ten Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and years is likely to lead to the appearance of toafa Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we vegetation, reafforestation with pines accompanied by knowl lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, the development of a thick undergrowth, coconut UK. 488 pp. plantations and trials with fodder crops have been Morat, P. Veillon, J.M. and Hoff, M. (1983). successful in the toafa areas of both Uvea and Futuna Introduction h la vdgdtation et ^ la flore du territoire (SPREP, 1986). de Wallis et Futuna. ORSTOM, Noum6a, New Caledonia. 24 pp. (Unseen) An account of the coral reefs, which occur extensively SPREP (1982). Wallis and Fortuna Islands. Country around Uvea and Futuna and the north-west of Alofi, is Report 19. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, given in UNEP/IUCN (1988). The local population New Caledonia. 14 pp. obtains the greater part of its protein from marine SPREP (1985). Wallis and Futuna. In: Thomas, P.E.J. products, particularly fish, and reefs and lagoons have (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National been heavily fished. Fishing is carried out mainly by line, Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. net, speargun or harpoon. Deep water bottom fishing is Country reviews. South Pacific Commission, increasing. Trochus spp. from Uvea lagoon are exported Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 229-231. in large numbers to New Caledonia (SPREP, 1982). SPREP (1986). Wallis and Futuna: man against the Although there are no designated protected areas, the forest. South Pacific Study No. 2. South Pacific "Vao Tapu" forests are protected by customary taboos. Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 6 pp.
In the Uvea districts, utilisation of the primary forest is UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. subject to conffol of the customary authority , but damage Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP appears to have increased since the mid-1960s, Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. particularly as a result of the extension of individual lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, houses along roads, which in turn is direcUy related to UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. the increase in motor vehicles and extension of water and electricity supplies.
192 France - Wallis andFutuna
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Nationallinternationaldesignation lUCN management Area Year Name of area category (ha) notified
Unclassified
Lalolalo Vac Tupu (Forbidden Forest) I 30
193
REPUBLIC OF KIRIBATI
Area The total land area is approximately 684 sq. km, various clans in the domain. In the late 19th century this scattered over more than 5 million sq. km of ocean. system began to break down: under British colonial rule, sea tenure per se was not recognised, although there was Population 66,250 (1987 estimate) (Paxton, 1990) an attempt to modify traditional fishing rights and the Natural increase: 2.1% per annum (Dahl, 1986) government did recognise tenure of fish weirs, reclaimed areas, fish ponds and otiier accretions (Zann, Economic Indicators 1985). However, there are still a number of laws and customs GNP: US$649 per capita (1988) regulating different aspects of fishing activities on many Policy and Legislation In 1980 the Government of of the atolls. These are frequently formulated and applied
Kiribati published a statement of its policy concerning by individual Island Councils. nature conservation in the Line and Phoenix Islands. International Activities Kiribati is not yet party to any This recognised the need to integrate conservation and of the international conventions or programmes that development with respect to the islands' natural directly promote the conservation of natural areas, resources. The role of conservation was defmed in terms namely the Convention concerning the Protection of the of providing for the present and future social and World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage economic needs of the country (Gamett, 1983). Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere
The legal basis for nature conservation is the Wildlife Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of Conservation Ordinance (1975), amended in 1979. International Importance especially as Waterfowl Under the new Ordinance, the 1938 Gilbert and EUice Habitat (Ramsar Convention). Islands Colony Wild Birds Protection Ordinance was At a regional level, Kiribati has not ratified the repealed and the status of bird sanctuaries was changed Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South to wildlife sanctuaries. The 1975 Ordinance makes, Pacific, 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered inter alia, the following provisions. First, all 3 1 regularly into force during 1990. The Convention is coordinated occurring bird species, and their nests and eggs, are fully by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first protected throughout Kiribati. All turtles are fully attempt within die region to cooperate on environmental protected on land, although it is not clear from the matters. Among other measures, it encourages the legislation whether protection extends to marine areas. creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora Secondly, under Section 8(1), wildlife sanctuaries may and fauna. be declared and closed areas may be declared within
such wildlife sanctuaries. Thirdly, Section 1 1 provides Kiribati is party to the South Pacific Regional wildlife wardens with powers of search and arrest. Environment Programme (SPREP) but has not ratified the Convention for the Protection of the Natural This current legislation is weak, because measures for Resources and Environment of the Soutii Pacific Region, the protection of vegetation, prohibiting the introduction 1 986 (SPREP Convention). The Convention entered into of plants and animals, preventing fire, removal of soil, force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the and dumping of refuse, and the control of vehicles are parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or lacking. In particular, there is a lack of effective fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora protection for wildlife sanctuaries, within which it is and fauna through the establishment of protected areas possible to clear vegetation without contravening the and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse law. It would seem that under current legislation the only effect on the species, ecosystems areas adequately protected are those additionally and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision designated as closed areas. only applies to the Convention area, which by definition It should be noted that, although Article 14(1) of the is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the Constitution guarantees freedom of movement, establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of restrictions required in the interests of environmental marine species. conservation are deemed not to be in contravention of Other international and regional the Article. conventions concerning environmental protection to which Kiribati is party are Prior to contact with Europeans, land owners in Kiribati reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983). held tenure of reefs and lagoons adjacent to their lands Administration and Management The Wildlife and had exclusive rights to fisheries and passage. Most Conservation Unit, established in 1977 under land, particularly in the South Gilberts, was owned by the Ministry of the Line and Phoenix Islands and based on groups of extended families (utu) who lived in small, Kiritimati, is the only government division scattered hamlets (kaainga), although in the northern responsible for conservation management in the Line and Phoenix atolls the ruhng king had control of a large area of land, Islands (Gamett, 1983). In 1985 the Unit reefs and lagoons, and dispensed fishing rights to the comprised one wildlife warden and two assistants. The bulk of the
195 Protected Areas of the World
Unit's work is on Kiritimati; the other sanctuaries being appear to be increasing in numbers, and bird populations protected by their remoteness (SPREP, 1985a). The Unit are also threatened by poaching, especially red-tailed has as its principal responsibilities enforcement of the tropic bird Phaethon rubricauda, red-footed booby Sula Wildlife Conservation Ordinance, education/public sula and masked booby Sula dactylatra. Many new awareness, survey and research, advice to governments, vehicles have been brought to the island, facilitating control of introduced species, and tourism, though it is much greater human access to the bird colonies not the only agency concerned in each of these activities. (E.A. Schreiber, pers. comm., 1989). Exotic plant There is no administrative body responsible for species have been extensively introduced. Although the conservation in the Gilbert Islands. majority may have no effect on sea birds, a few may be deleterious. Other natural threats include periodic Systems Reviews The Republic of Kiribati comprises droughts (Dahl, 1986) and chmatic perturbations such as all the Gilbert and Phoenix Islands, eight of the eleven the El Niflo Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The latter is Line Islands (the other three, Jarvis, Palmyra and believed responsible for the precipitous decline in sea Kingman Reef being dependencies of the USA) and bird populations on Kiritimati in 1982-83 (Schreiber and Banaba (Ocean Island), lying approximately between Schreiber, 1984). The 1986-1987 ENSO set back the longitudes 169*E and 147*W and latitudes 5"Nand 12*S. recovery of bird populations from the 1982-1983 ENSO The islands extend nearly 5,(X)0km from east to west and (E.A. Schreiber, pers. comm., 1989) straddle both the Equator and the International Date Line. All the islands are low-lying coral atolls An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South (UNEP/IUCN, 1988), rising to no more than 3-4m above Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b) has been developed. mean sea level, with the exception of Banaba which is a The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation raised reef. education, conservation policy development, establishment of protected areas, protected area Most of the natural vegetation of the larger islands management and regional and international cooperation. has been replaced by coconut plantations, breadfruit Priority recommendations for Kiribati are as follows: and Pandanus spp. (Davis et al., However, 1986). formulate a national conservation strategy; and considerable ecological diversity remains on the implement the Feral Animal Eradication Programme on different islands, largely because they fall within a zone Kiritimati. Proposals for a cat eradication programme of steep rainfall gradients. Thus, Kiritimati has tracts of were prepared by the Wildhfe Conservation Unit in 1983 open scrub and grassland, whilst Teraina, 380km to the in conjunction with the New Zealand Wildlife Service north-west, has a freshwater lake surrounded by peat (SPREP, 1985a). However, this has not yet been bogs and woodland rich in epiphytes and fern implemented (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). undergrowth (Perry, 1980). There is relatively little information on the marine environment, although reefs Dahl (1980) recommends both the upgrading of the at Tabuaeran, Teraina, Tarawa and Onotoa have been existing network and the establishment of new reserves, described (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). to include appropriate samples of atoll, forest, marine and lagoon environments. This would entail a The current protected areas network comprises wildlife communication Unk and surveillance centre on Kanton, sanctuaries covering the whole of three of the Phoenix retaining the extant reserves on Bimie, McKean and Islands and four of the Line Islands. In addition, closed Rawaki (Phoenix) and creating new sites on Enderbury, areas have been established within Kiritimati Wildlife Orona and possibly Manra. Most of the Line Islands, in Sanctuary, and covering all of Maiden and Starbuck particular Caroline and Maiden, are considered islands. There are no protected areas in the Gilbert candidates for reserve status, especially if existing Islands. predators can be controlled. Flint, Carohne, Kanton and Enderbury require protection as turtle breeding areas. Most habitats found in Kiribati are represented in the The bogs, and possibly the lake on Tabuaeran, including protected areas system, although five are omitted: adequate areas of Polynesian warbler habitat, should be Guettarda forest; Pemphis acidula scrub; freshwater protected, in addition to seabird breeding areas (Dahl, marsh; freshwater lake; and brackish lagoon. The 1980). existing network includes some of the most important sea bird colonies in the Pacific (Hay, 1986). Garnett (1983) makes a comprehensive set of recommendations, principally covering Kiritimati, The most profound threat, both to protected areas and the which addresses aspects of legislation, development and country as a whole, lies in the putative rise in sea levels, land use planning, and conservation management. caused by global climatic warming. This could lead to Specific recommendations include: amending Section 8 salinisation of freshwater aquifers, increased erosion and of the 1975 Wildlife Conservation Ordinance to give possibly inundation rendering the country uninhabitable adequate protection to important ecosystems; gazetting (Pemetta, 1988). Alien species introduced by man affect Enderbury Island as a wildlife sanctuary and closed area; all islands in the Line Group, with the exception of upgrading Bimie, McKean, Rawaki and Vostok islands Vostok Island. Feral cats, which may number up to 2,0(X) to closed area status; and designating specific areas on on Kiritimati, have driven 10 or 1 1 bird species (out of Kiritimati as wildlife sanctuaries and closed areas, as 18) to nest only on isolated islets (Perry, 1980). Cats
196 Kiribati
opposed to the whole island as is currently the case Pemetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea (Gamett, 1983). level rise: a relative impact rating for countries of the South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the Dahl notes that there are no protected areas in the (1986) task team on the implications of climatic change in Gilbert Islands that small forested islands and suggests the Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October. with seabird rookeries on Butaritari and Nonouti might Pp. 1-11. be considered for reserves under local management. Paxton, J. (Ed.). (1990). The Statesman's yearbook. for fisheries Marine reserves may be required 127th Edition. The Macmillan Press Ltd, London. management. The principal omissions from the 1690 pp. protected areas systems are bogs in the Line and Phoenix Perry, R. (1980). Wildlife Conservation in the Line Teraina (Dahl, Islands and other natural habitats on Islands, Republic of Kiribati (formerly Gilbert 1986). Islands). Environmental Conservation 7: 31 1-318. Schreiber, R.W. and Schreiber, E.A. (1984). Central Addresses Pacific seabirds and the El Niflo Southern Oscillation: 1982-1983 perspectives. Science 225: The Director, Wildlife Conservation Unit, Kiritimati 713-716. SPREP (1985a). Kiribati. In: Thomas, P.E.J. (Ed.), References Report ofthe Third South Pacific National Parks and Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems siuvey of the Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. South Pacific area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper 1 79. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 115-124. Caledonia. 99 pp. SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for protected areas in Dahl, A.L. (,\9S6). Review ofthe protected areas system theSouthPacificRegion.SoutiiPacidcCommission, in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp. Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Davis, S.D., Droop, SJ.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Volumes. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP
Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies.
Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, know! lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. Venkatesh, S., Va'ai, Pulea, UK. 488 pp. S. and M. (1983). An Douglas, G. (1969). Checklist of Pacific Oceanic overview of environmental legislation in the South Islands. Micronesica 5(2): 327-463. Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review No. 13. Fosberg, F.R. (1953). Vegetation of central Pacific South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New atoUs. Atoll Research Bulletin ly. 1-26. (Unseen) Caledonia. 63 pp. Gamett, M.C. (1983). A management plan for nature Zann, L.P. (1985). Traditional management and conservation in the Line and Phoenix Islands. Two conservation of fisheries in Kiribati and Tuvalu atolls. In: Johannes, R.E. (Eds), The volumes. Unpublished. 436 pp. Ruddle, K. and Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific Islands. traditional knowledge and management of coastal ICBP Study Report No. 7. International Council for systems in Asia and the Pacific. Unesco/ROSTEA, 53-77. Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp. Jakarta. Pp.
197 Protected Areas of the World
ANNEX Dennitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title : Wildlife Conservation Ordinance with the Council of Ministers, may declare any area
to be a wildlife sanctuary. Under Section 8(2), it is Date: 1975. amended in 1979 stipulated that "no person shall in a wildlife sanctuary hunt, kill or capture any bird or other animal (odier Brief description: Under the Ordinance the 1938 than a fish) or search for, take or wilfully destroy, Gilbert and EUice Islands Colony Wild Birds break ot damage the eggs or nest of any bird ot other Protection Ordinance was repealed and the status of animal, except under and in accordance with the bird sanctuaries was changed to wildlife sanctuaries. terms of a valid written licence granted to that person the Minister Administrative authority: The Director, Wildlife by under this section". Conservation Unit, Kiritimati Closed area The Ordinance makes further provision Designation: by allowing closed areas to be declared within wildlife sanctuaries. With the exception of Wildlife sanctuary Under Section 8(1), the Minister appropriate officials and licensed individuals, entry
of the Line and Phoenix Islands, after consultation into a closed area is prohibited under Section 8(6).
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ Kiribati
Protected Areas of Kiribati
199
REPUBLIC OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS
Area 181 sq. km provision for strong landowner involvement in protected area management. Population 40,609 (July 1988) Natural increase: No infonnation International Activities The Marshall Islands are not party to the three major international conventions Indicators EU:onoinic concerned with the protection of nature, namely the information GNP: No Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Policy and Legislation Since October 1986 the Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme Marshall Islands have been a sovereign state in free and the Convention on Wetlands of International association with the United Stales of America which Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar remains responsible for defence and provides financial Convention). support A number of Trust Territory regulations remain in force, but will be revised in due course and cover The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the supply, pesticides and sewage topics such as water South Pacific (1976) has been neither signed nor disposal. The Trust Territory Endangered Species Act ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered (TTPI Public Law No. 6.55 of 1975), which allowed for into force during 1990. The Convention is coordinated acquisition of land or water for the purpose of conserving by the South Pacific Commission and represents the threatened species, is longer applicable. no first attempt within the region to cooperate on
environmental matters. Among other measures, it US regulations still apply at the Kwajalein Missile encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve Range and other areas, and Kwajalein is likely to indigenous flora and fauna. experience considerable development pressure due to activities relating to the Strategic Defence Initiative. The Convention for the Protection of the Natural legislation relevant to the Trust Territories Other US Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region includes the National Environmental Protection Act, (SPREP Convention) has been signed and was ratified enacted the Nitijela (Parliament) on 19 December by on 4 May 1987. The Convention entered into force Tills includes Trust Territory 1984. Act many during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to regulations which are under review such that the Act will take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile Marshall Islands in specific address the needs of the a more ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and Environmental manner (SPREP, 1989). The National fauna through the establishment of protected areas and along with the Coastal Conservation Act Protection Act, the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse (1988), charges the Marshall Islands Environmental effect on the species, ecosystems and biological Protection Authority with responsibility, inter alia, to processes being protected. However, as this provision the quality of the environment". "preserve and improve only applies to the Convention area, which by defmition Amongst other measures, the Act makes provision for the is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the natural preservation of important historical, cultural and establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of aspects of the nation's heritage. marine species.
is areas legislation, There currently no protected Administration and Management Until independence, although other environmental issues are quite well most this role would have been the responsibility of the Chief existing legislation. Protected areas covered by Conservationist for the Trust Territory. The Director of are longer established prior to independence no Coast Conservation, who may be the General Manager recognised. Thus, two reserves, Bokaak (Taongi) and of the Environmental Protection Authority, is District Administrator Bikar, set up by Order of the responsible for submitting a comprehensive Coastal are not recognised the government during the 1950s, by Zone Management Plan, and permits for development the Irooj (paramount chief of the Ratak nor by Laplap activities consistent with that plan. The Environmental Chain). At present (1990) it is not clear whether Protection Authority is an autonomous body established protected areas legislation will take the form ofadditional under the provisions of the 1 984 National Environmental regulations within the National Environmental Protection Protection Act, with a broad remit in environmental entirely Conservation Act. Act, or be part of an new protection and management, including, potentially, the et al. present a suggested outline of Thomas (1989) protection of natural sites. The General Manager heads legislation enable the establishment of a which would a staff of ten, including a full-time Public Education legal and administrative framework for the coordinated Officer, two Environmental Specialists, a Consultant to and implementation of policies and development the General Manager and two US Department of the for nature conservation and protected areas programmes Interior assisted positions (Director of Water Quality in the Marshall Islands. Virtually all land is held in Monitoring and Legal Counsel) (SPREP, 1989). traditional ownership and any legislation must make Thomas e/ a/. ( 1 989) propose a three-fold administrative
201 Protected Areas of the World
structure comprising an ad hoc National Conservation The Marshall Islands were included in a review of the Service, local AtoU Conservation Authorities and a protected areas systems of Oceania (Dahl, 1986), which Conservation Service within the Ministry of Resources indicated a need to reinstate the protected status of and Development or the Environmental Protection Taongi and Bikar as well as gazetting protected areas for Authority. the conservation of birds, remaining natural vegetation and at least one major coral reef. A more recent and more Systems Reviews The Marshall Islands are the detailed review of the biological diversity of the northern easternmost island group of Micronesia, comprising two atolls and their potential as protected areas island chains, Ralik (18 atolls) and Ratak (15 atolls), (Thomas et al., 1989) also confirms the significance of between 8'-12*N and 162'-172°E. Small remnants of Taongi and Bikar and identifies sites of special atoll/beach forest (mostly comprising pan-Pacific conservation significance, especially for seabird species) occur on some of the northern atolls, for protection. The survey, a cooperative venture, indicates example Wotho, Ujae, and some of the islets of a willingness on the behalf of the government to Kwajalein. Small areas of mangrove forest are found on contemplate the establishment of protected areas. Jaluit, Ailinglaplap and Mejit (Dahl, 1980). Vegetation on almost all the Marshall Islands has been extensively Following independence there has been a strong desire modified; most atolls have coconut and breadfruit to establish the economic foundation for the future plantations. Fosberg (1973) provides an account of the prosperity of the nation, indicating a need for careful condition and status of the forests and brief summaries natural resource management Neither the legislation for each of the islands are given by Dahl (1986) and nor the policy on protected areas was clear while the
Douglas (1969). There have been few descriptions of the country was a part of the Trust Territory, and this is one coral reefs, but in general windward ocean reef slopes reason why so few protected areas were actually have submarine terraces and often descend gradually, in established. This is largely because the United States, contrast to leeward ocean reef slopes which descend while administering the Territory, did not own property, nearly vertically. Detailed accounts for Bikini, and hence had no direct jurisdiction over designation of
Kawajalein, Enewetak, Majuro and Amo are given in protected areas. However, there is a strong possibility UNEP/IUCN(1988). that a protected areas system will be implemented in the near future (L.S. Hamilton, pers. comm., 1989). The Marshall Islands have abundant marine resources and the potential for commercial fisheries and Addresses mariculture is high. Copra production could be developed further. There may be some important mineral Ministry of Resources and Development, Majuro, resources, including deep sea cobalt-rich manganese Republic of the Marshall Islands, RMI 96960 crust deposits and possibly some phosphate rock Environmental Protection Authority, PO Box 1322, deposits in the lagoon. However, the potential for Majuro, RMI 96960 developing mineral resources is either unknown or not economically feasible at present Consequently, the References major options for economic development appear to lie in increased use of living marine resources, coastal Douglas, G. (1969). Check list of Pacific Oceanic tourism, mariculture and enhanced low-input islands. Micronesica 5: 327-463. Dahl, A.L. agriculture. Most of the atolls and individual islands are (1980). Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific area. inhabited, and potable water is available on the southern SPC/IUCN Technical Paper No. 179. Pacific islands but scarce in the northern islands. Only six atolls South Commission, Noumea, New and one island are currently unoccupied, namely: Caledonia. 99 pp. Ailinginae, Bikar, Bikini, Erikub, Rongerik, Taka and Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review ofthe protected areas system Taongi Atolls, and Jemo Island (L.S. Hamilton, in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and pers. comm., 1989). Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. Fosberg, F.R. (1973) On present condition and Bikini and Enewetak were used as atomic weapon test conservation of forests in Micronesia. In: Pacific sites by the USA from 1946 to the 1960s. The full extent Science Association, Planned Utilisation of Lowland of the disruption to the atoll ecosystems has not been Tropical Forests. Proceedings of the Pacific Science fully documented or evaluated. The 1954 Bravo test, the Standing Committee Symposium, Bogor. Indonesia, first and largest thermonuclear explosion by the US, August 1971. Pp. 165-171. spread fallout to several of the northern Marshall atolls Pemetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea and caused inestimable damage and social disruption to level rise: a relative impact rating for countries of (he many reefand island communities (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the The potentially most threatening environmental hazard task team on the implications of climatic change in is that posed by increasing sea-levels due to global the Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October. warming. Threats to freshwater supplies, land loss and Pp. 1-11. episodic destruction through hurricanes may make the SPREP (1989). Republic of the Marshall Islands. country uninhabitable if worst case scenarios are realised Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific (Pemetta, 1988).
202 Marshall Islands
Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Environment Programme, Noumea, New Caledonia Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 7 pp. and East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii. 133 pp. Thomas, P.E.J., Fosberg, F.R., Hamilton, L.S., Herbst, UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. D.R., Juvik, J.O., Maragos, J.E., Naughton, J.J. and Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Strcck,C J. (19S9). Report on the Northern Marshall Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Islands natural diversity andprotected areas survey: lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, 7-24 September 1988. South Pacific Regional UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
203
REPUBLIC OF NAURU
Area 20.7 sq. km which with an inegular rainfall, restricts cultivation of the coastal belt (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Population 8,100 (1983) (Paxton, 1989) Natural increase: No information Vegetation comprises mixed plateau forest, dominated by Calophyllum, a few remaining areas of atoll forest, Economic Indicators with Pandanus and Cocos (Douglas, 1969) and just two per capita GNP: US$9,091 hectares of mangroves (Dahl, 1986). The vegetation in the interior has been greatly modified by phosphate Policy and Legislation Information on policies is not mining, although the extent to which vegetation has available. There is no protected areas legislation. re-established on the worked-out phosphate pits has been
International Activities Nauru is not yet party to any examined by Manner et al. (1984). Land with little or no of the international conventions or programmes that top soil has been denuded to allow mining, but there has directly promote the conservation of natural areas, generally been no run-off as the bedrock is very porous namely the Convention concerning the Protection of the (Manner er al., 1984). Continuing denudation may cause World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage long-term environmental micro-climate changes but Convention), Unesco Man and the Biosphere there has been no monitoring of the impact of phosphate Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of mining on the island (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). International Importance especially as Waterfowl There is no true reef and no lagoon; the island is Habitat (Ramsar Convention). surrounded by an almost consistent 150-2(X)m wide
The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the intertidal platform, cut into the original hmestone of the
South Pacific ( 1 976) has been neither signed nor ratified. island and typified by the presence of numerous
Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force emergent coral pinnacles. The platform is dominated by during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the large yellow-brown algae and little or no coral growth South Pacific Commission and represents the first occurs on the reef flat. However, a rich fauna is evident attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental in deeper water, although species diversity has not been matters. Among other measures, it encourages the documented. The benthic fauna is quite well represented creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora with many common Indo-Pacific species. Reefcrabs and and fauna. other crustaceans are found as well as molluscs, urchins, sea cucumbers and other invertebrates. There around 80 Nauru is party to the South Pacific Regional commonly caught fish species (Petit-Skinner, 1981; Enviroenment Programme (SPREP), and the 1986 UNEP/IUCN, 1989). Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Most of the population, which enjoys one of the highest Convention) has been signed (15 April 1987) but not yet (ler capita incomes in the world, lives near the main ratified. The Convention entered into force during coastal road and/or shoreline. There is no evidence of August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all over-exploitation of marine resources. Coastal waters appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile are relatively unpolluted although there may have been ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and one or two instances of silt accumulating on some parts fauna through the establishment of protected areas and of the reef flat. To date there has been no recorded the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse damage to reef flora and fauna (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). effect on the species, ecosystems and biological Phosphate is the only significant resource on Nauru, and processes being protected. However, as this provision therefore commercial development of phosphate mining only applies to the Convention area, which by definition takes priority over the conservation of the natural It is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the environment was stated at the Second South Pacific establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of Conference on National Parks and Reserves that it was marine species. not possible to consider conservation of the remaining phosphate-bearing areas on the island. About 60% of the Administration and Management Not applicable island is phosphate bearing, and of this about two-thirds has already been mined. Systems Reviews Nauru is a single raised coral island in the west-central Pacific Ocean located at 0*32'S, Restoration of mined land is a key environmental 166*56'E. The highest point is 71m, surrounded by a problem. A Commission of Inquiry into the terrace and fringing reef. The plateau is largely RehabiUtation of the Worked-Out Phosphate Lands in composed of phosphate rock and is encircled by cliffs Nauru has been established to look at the issue of which give way to a flat, fertile coastal belt, 90-270m rehabihtation of the island and its cost and feasibility wide. The soil is an a mixture of sand and fine corals. (Anon., 1987). It was charged with examining all forms of alternative land usage, including agriculture, and the
205 Protected Areas of the World
impact of phosphate mining on fisheries and marine Anon. (1989). Proceedings of the Second South Pacific resources. Financial compensation is being sought from Conference on National Parks and Reserves, Australia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand, the 24-27 April 1979. Situation Report Nauru. National main consumers of phosphate. An account of the British Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney, New South Phosphate Commissioners, responsible for phosphate Wales, Australia. extraction prior to independence, with reference to the Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the extensive mining on Nauru and other Pacific islands, is South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper given by Williams and Macdonald (1985). A study 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New should be started immediately to provide baseline data Caledonia. 99 pp. for future environmental impact monitoring. Efforts Dahl, A.L. (,19S6). Review ofthe protected areas system should be made to establish protected areas, including in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and reefs important cultural and sites (Dahl, 1980) and any Cambridge UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. forested areas should be protected from any further Davis, S.D., Droop, SJ.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., mining (Dahl, 1986). Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we Addresses know! lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp. No information Manner, H.I, Thaman, R.R and Hassall, D.C. (1984). Phosphate mining induced changes on Nauru Island. References Ecology 65(5): 1454-1465. Petit-Skinner, S. (1981). The Nauruans. Anon. (1987). Commission of Inquiry into the MacDuff Press, San Francisco. (Unseen) Rehabilitation of Worked-out Phosphate Lands in Williams, and Nauru. Republic of Nauru. M Macdonald, B. (1985). The Phosphateers. Melbourne University Press. Carlton, Australia. 586 pp. (Unseen)
206 NIUE
Area 260sq. km 1986 (SPREP Convention). The Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the Population 2,270 (1989) (G.S.T. Talagi, pers coitim., parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or 1990) fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora Natural increase: - 3.7% per annum and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities Economic Indicators likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems GNP: No information and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision
Policy and Legislation Niue is a self-governing nation only applies to the Convention area, which by defmition in free association with New Zealand. The 1980-1985 is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the Niue National Development Plan (NNDP) had a establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of number of objectives relating to the environment "as marine species. government is aware of the dangers from unwise Systems Reviews Niue is single, practices" (Sloth, 1988). The 1985-1990 NNDP a isolated island located at 169*53'W, 19'03'S, 480km north-east of emphasises socio-economic development and social Tonga and 560km south-east of Western services and does not specify protection of the biological Samoa. The island is roughly circular and comprises a raised atoll of environment, although it is recognised in one chapter. coralline limestone about 62m high with coastal terraces, The role of traditional law in the management of island the most prominent being 20-28m above sea level. A affairs is very strong. Traditional conservation measures number of submerged terraces also occur. The island has are in effect for different times of the year and for a slightly depressed upper surface representing the different species (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Customary "lagoon" of the original atoll (Yaldwyn, 1973). restrictions, or "fono", are applied from time to lime in The original tropical high rain forest which once covered certain temporary "reserves" which allow the recovery the island has now been reduced to fragments, generally of exploited resources (Yaldwyn, 1973). There is no in the east, and totalling 3,200ha (12.3% of total land protected areas legislation and no formally protected
area) in 1 98 1 . There is also a narrow (200m-800m width) areas, although there is a "tapu" forest area. Despite a strip of coastal forest encircling the island's lower lack of government legislation under which reserves terrace. This forest is still largely intact and covered may be created, the existing tapu forest is probably some 2,500ha (9.6%) in 1981. Second-growth or secure. Niueans and the Government own all the land; regenerating forest is more widespread, totalling no alienation is permitted, although the goverrunent may 12,000ha (46.2%) in 1981. lease areas for up to 60 years (Hay, 1986; SPREP, 1980; UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Unproductive "fernland", principally comprising Nephrolepsis hirsutula, covering approximately International Activities Niue is not yet party to any of 3,200ha (12.4%), is found largely in the south in the old the three major international conventions concerned lagoon basin. This is generally thougnt to have arisen as with with the conservation of nature, namely the Unesco a result of prolonged burning, overcropping and Man and the Biosphere Programme, the Convention on subsequent soil impoverishment (Wodzicki, 1971; Wetlands of International Importance especially as Yaldwyn, 1973), and early attempts at mechanised Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and the cultivation using bulldozers and discing equipment Convention concerning the Protection of the World (G.S.T. Talagi, pers. comm., Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage 1990). Convention). There is no true reef or lagoon. The island is partly surrounded by a platform reef, varying from a few metres At a regional level, Niue has neither signed nor ratified to several hundred meues in width and cut in the the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the limestone of the island. Large parts of this are subtidal, South Pacific, 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, it the remainder being interiidal. Much of the south and entered into force during 1990. The Convention is east sides of the islands are entirely devoid of reef flats; coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and some parts have lm-8m wide pools about 1.5m-2.5m represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate above sea level. The flat has a thin discontinuous veneer on environmental matters. Among other measures, it of living corals on its upper (intertidal) surface and rich encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve coral growth over the edge in sub-tidal waters. At least indigenous flora and fauna. 43 coral genera occur and there is a rich, though largely Niue is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment undocumented, invertebrate fauna (UNEP/IUCN, 1988; Programme (SPREP) but has neither signed nor ratified Yaldwyn, 1973). the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Principal environmental issues include forest Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, destruction by clearing and milling; soil loss due to inappropriate
207 Protected Areas of the World
cultivation; and decline in bird and flying fox Addresses populations through habitat loss and over-hunting. Reef blasting has been strictly limited in extent (van The Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Westendoip, 1961; Yaldwyn, 1973). PO Box 74, Alofi Secretary to Government, Administrative Department, The existing protected areas network is restricted to Alofi Huvalu Tapu Forest, and temporary "fono" marine reserves. Dahl (1986) identifies five ecosystems, viz. References limestone rain forest, coastal forest on terraces, Dahl, A.L. secondary formations, scrub and fern, and fringing reefs. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the South Pacific Area. Only the first of these ecosystems is protected within SPC/IUCN Technical Paper Huvalu Tapu Forest. Nevertheless, Huvalu probably 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New provides adequate protection for Niue's original Caledonia. 99 pp. Dahl, terrestrial habitat (Hay, 1986). Dahl (1980) recommends A.L. (1986). Review ofthe protected areas system a number of sf)ecific sites for designation as protected in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and areas. These include: caves, reefs, historic sites, coastal Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. Hay, R. features, chasms and freshwater springs. Huvalu is one (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific Islands. of the few remaining traditional taboo protected areas in Study Report No. 7. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, 102 Oceania. Dahl (1986) recommends that it should be UK. pp. Schofield, J.C. maintained, and reinforced with legislation if necessary. (1959). The geology and hydrology of Niue Island, Pacific. Other sites may also need protection if they are being South New Zealand Geological Survey degraded. Forest reserves additional to Huvalu would Bulletin 62. Sloth, B. help conserve the Polynesian triller sub-species (Hay, (1988). Nature legislation and nature 1986). conservation as part of tourism development in the island Pacific. Tourism Council of the South Pacific, Other Relevant Information Huvalu Tapu Forest Suva, Fiji. 82 pp. comprises approximately 150ha (0.6% of total land SPREP (1980). Niue. Country Report No. 4. South area) of Huvalu Forest, which covers 800-l,200ha Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 7 pp. (3.1%-4.6%), in eastern-central Niue(Wodzicki, 1973). UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. The forest was set aside as a tapu area in pre-European Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP times, and is believed to house the remains of Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. pre-Christian gods. The tapu still exists, and the area lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, represents a fragment of primeval Niuean forest which UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. has survived since before the arrival of the Polynesians van Westendorp, F.J. (1961). Agricultural development (Wodzicki, 1971). The site is maintained by the Village on Niue. South Pacific Bulletin 11; 67-69. (Unseen) Council of Hakupu which Ues some 3km to the south. Yaldwyn, J.C. (1973). The environment, natural history
Human entry and any use of the forest is forbidden, and special conservation problems of Niue Island. In: except very occasionally in the case of privileged SPC, Regional symposium on conservation of individuals who have been permitted to enter. The forest nature: reefs and lagoons. Part 2. South Pacific is pristine and contains very large trees and an abundant Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 49-55. fauna including pigeon and flying fox as well as diurnal, Wodzicki, K. (1971). The birds of Niue Island, South as opposed to the more usual nocturnal, land crabs Pacific: an annotated checklist. Notornis 18(4): (Yaldwyn, 1973). 291-304.
208 COMMONWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS
Area 477 sq. km Thus, Section 2 of Article XIV of the Commonwealdi Code, as amended in 1985, states that "the island of Population 20,350 (1985 estimate) Managaha shall be maintained as an uninhabited place Natural increase: No information and used only for cultural and recreational purposes. The islands of Maug, Uracas, Asuncion, Guguan and other Ek:onoinic Indicators islands specified by law shall be maintained as GNP: No information uninhabited places and used only for the preservation Policy and Legislation The Commonwealth of the and protection of natural resources, including but not Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) was officially granted limited to bird, wildlife and plant species". the status of a Commonwealth of the USA in October Public Law No. 1-8, Chapter 13, Sections (a), (b), (c), 1986, having previously been part of the Trust Territory (e) and (0 empowers the Department of Natural of the Pacific Islands; it had, however, been functioning Resources to protect and enhance natural resources. as a Commonwealth since 9 January 1978 (UNEP/IUCN, Public Law No. 2-5 1 establishes the Division of Fish and 1988). Wildlife within the Department of Natural Resources Prior to October 1986, the islands were formally under and mandates this Division to provide for the United States federal legislation and Trust Territory conservation of fish and wildlife and to acquire areas for legislation. This included the Trust Territory the protection of fish and wildlife resources (SPREP, Environment Enabling Act, enacted by the former 1985). Congress of Micronesia in 1972, which provided for the International Activities The Commonwealth of the establishment of a Trust Territory Environmental Northern Mariana Islands is not yet directly party to any Protection Board. However, neither the Act, nor the of the international conventions concerned with work of the Board related specifically to protected areas. protected areas, namely, the Unesco and the The Trust Territory Endangered Species Act (TTPI Man Biosphere Programme, the Convention on Wetlands of Public Law No. 6-55 of 1975) allowed for acquisition of International Importance especially as Waterfowl land or water for the purpose of conserving threatened Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and the Convention species. Other relevant Trust Territory Acts included the concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Fishing Law and the Land Use Planning Act, both 1972. Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention). US legislation relevant to the Trust Territories included various pollution laws and housing acts, as well as the The compact between the USA and CNMI leaves Fish and Wildhfe Coordination Act and the National international pacts and conventions in the control of the Environmental Policy Act. Neither the legislation nor the former which itself is a party to all three conventions. policy on protected areas was clear while the country was However, it is not clear whether the conventions are a part of the Trust Territory, and this is why so few apphcable to CNMI (J.D. Reichel, pers. comm., 1989). protected areas were actually established over ihe whole At a regional level, CNMI has neither signed nor ratified area. Furthermore, the United States, while the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the administering the Territory, did not own property, and South Pacific, 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, it hence had no direct jurisdiction over designation of entered into force during 1990. The Convention is protected areas. New national legislation is under coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and development. represents the fu^st attempt within the region to coof)erate
on environmental matters. Among other measures, it Under the original constitution, passed on 5 December encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve 1976, the islands of Managaha, Sariguan (sic) and Maug indigenous flora and fauna. were protected, with the provision that Sariguan might be substituted by another island by the legislature in due CNMI is party to the South Pacific Regional course. This substitution did not occur until the Environment Programme (SPREP) but has neither constitutional amendment of 3 November 1985 which signed nor ratified the Convention for the Protection of removed Sariguan 's protected status. The island was the Natural Resources and Environment of the South considered a poor candidate for protection due to the Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP Convention). The depredations of past human habitation, large populations Convention entered into force during August 1990. of rats and goats and the destruction of many native Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate species and habitats. In place of Sariguan, which was measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and opened for possible development, Uracas (Farallon de threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the Parajos), Asuncion and Guguan, as well as Maug, were establishment of protected areas and the regulation of given strict protection under the Constitution (Anon., activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, 1985). ecosystems and biological processes being protected.
209 Protected Areas of the World
However, as this provision only applies to the Moves to protect some of the northerly islands
Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is commenced in the 1960s, when Farallon de Medinilla, most likely to assist with the establishment of marine Guguan, Maug and Uracas were designated as "islands reserves and the conservation of marine species. for science" through the efforts of the International Biological Programme and lUCN. Subsequently, Administration and Management Administration of Farallon de Medinilla lost its conservation importance official parks and reserves lies in the QVMI Department due to military training exercises. of Natural Resources, which includes Divisions of Fish and Wildlife, Parks and Recreation and Plant Industry Addresses (Forestry). All lands not held with deeds by other agencies are controlled by the Marianas Public Land Division ofParks and Recreation, Department ofNatural Corporation (J.D. Reichel, pers. comm., 1989). Resources, Saipan, MP 96950, USA
Systems Reviews Vegetation comprises pioneer stands References of Casuarina sp., broad-leaved evergreen thickets, mixed scrub forest, with some Miscanthus sp. and Anon. (1985). CNMI northern islands win preservation. Nephrolepsis sp. herbaceous communities on the Coastal Views ^y): 1,8-9. northern islands. Broad-leaved evergreen forest on old Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems survey of the lava flows and Miscanthus sp. and tree ferns on ash South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper slopes of those northern islands with dormant volcanoes 179. South Pacific Commission. Noumea, New are found (Douglas, 1969). Tinian has mostly secondary Caledonia. 99 pp. forest while Rota has some closed evergreen and Davis, S.D., Droop, S J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., limestone forests (Fosberg, 1973). Small areas of cloud Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and forest occur on the volcanic islands of Saipan, Agrihan, Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we Alamagan and Anatahan (Dahl, 1980). The lower slopes know! lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, of many islands have been cleared for cultivation UK. 488 pp. (Davis er al., 1986) and Saipan, Rata, Tinian and Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Islands.
Aguijuan are much disturbed. Remaining areas of Micronesica 5: 327-463. natural vegetation, mostly on cliffs, contain rare native Fosberg. F.R. (1973). On present condition and and endemic species of plants and birds. The islands to conservation of forests in Micronesia. In: Pacific the north, from Farallon de Medinilla to Uracas, are less Science Association Standing Committee on Pacific disturbed and are of prime interest for the study of biotic Botany Symposium: planned utilization of the colonisation under natural conditions (Dahl, 1980). lowland tropical forests, August 1971. Bogor, Coral reefs around Rota, Tinian, Saipan and elsewhere Indonesia. are described in UNEP/IUCN (1988). Owen, R.P. (1973). Aconservation program for the Trust Territory. Country Report Regional Symposium on There are permanent human populations on only the Conservation of Nature - Reefs and Lagoons. South three largest islands to the south, namely Saipan, Tinian Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. and Rota, but two other islands (Almagan and Agrihan) SPREP (1980). Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. are regularly inhabited. Pagan was continuously Country Report 14. South Pacific Commission, inhabited the largest of the northern islands' by Noumea, New Caledonia. populations until an eruption in May 1985 forced SPREP (1985). Northern Mariana Islands. In: Thomas, evacuation of the island. Over 87% of the population P.EJ. (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific lives on Saipan, where tourism is the main source of National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume income; 163,0(X) tourists visited Saipan in 1986, the III. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission, majority being Japanese (lUCNAJNEP, 1988). There Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 159-161. has subsequently been a considerable increase, with UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. 233,291 tourists visiting during 1988 and an estimated Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP 300,000 during 1989 (L. Eldredge, pers. comm., 1989). Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp.
210 Northern Mariana Islands
ANNEX Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Commonwealth Code Asuncion, Guguan and other islands specified by law shall be maintained as uninhabited places and used Date: 5 December 1976; Amendment No. 37 passed only for the preservation and protection of natural 3 November 1985 resources, including but not limited to bird, wildlife and plant species". Brief description: Section 2 of Article XIV states that "the island of Managaha shall be maintained as Administrative authority: Not specified an uninhabited place and used only for cultural and recreational purposes. The islands of Maug, Uracas, Designation: Not specifically stated
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map Nationallinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Preserves
1 Asuncion Island 111 2 Guguan Island 3 Maug Island 4 Uracas Island (Farallon de Pajaros) Protected Areas of the World
—\— 144" 146°
19' »•-
P
T7'
40 80 120km
lata tcuree: CammitUK Codi (li)S) iriieli W (Sittim t) ^SAIPAN •15» <3 15°- mJicTioH : mscim
tail Mntii : Ihreh 13)1
/:?
(GUAM) 144° 146°
I I
Protected Areas of the Northern Mariana Islands
212 REPUBLIC OF PALAU
Area 492 sq. km e/ a/., 1989).Palau National Code, Sections3101 to3103 provide for the seasonal protection of the Ngerumekaol Population 13,873 (1986); 14,106 (1988 estimate) grouper spawning area. There are also a number of State Natural increase: - 0.3% per annum Ordinances, including Ordinance of Koror No. 150-69 (48-69) which provides for the establishment of Trochus Economic Indicators sanctuaries in Koror. Legal instruments which provide GNP: No information for the protection of cultural and sunken resources Policy and Legislation Prior to 1981, some United include, for example, the Palau Lagoon Monuments Law States federal legislation and Trust Territory legislation (Palau National Code, Section 301). A fuller listing of was applicable, including the Trust Territory environmental legislation is given in BRD (1989). Environment Enabling Act enacted by the former International Activities Palau is not yet party to the Congress of Micronesia in 1972. This provided for the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, the establishment of a Trust Territory Environmental Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Protection Board. However, neither the Act, nor the especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) work of the board related specifically to protected areas. nor the Convention concerning the Protection of the The Trust Territory Endangered Species Act (TTPl World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Public Law No. 6-55 of 1975) allowed for acquisition of Convention). It has been recommended that Palau land or water for the purpose of conserving threatened become a State Party to the World Heritage Convention species. Other relevant Trust Territory Acts included the in order that Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve can Fishing Law and the Land Use Planning Act, both 1972. be inscribed on the World Heritage List (Thomas el al., US legislation relevant to the Trust Territory included 1989). various pollution laws and housing acts, as well as the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act and the National The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the Environmental Policy AcL Prior to 1981, neither the South Pacific (1976) has been neither signed nor ratified. legislation, nor the policy on protected areas was clear, Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force with the result that few areas were actually established. during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the This is largely because the United States, while South Pacific Commission and represents the first administering the Trust Territory, did not own property, attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental and hence had no direct jurisdiction over designations of matters. Among other measures, it encourages the protected areas. creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna. The Republic of Palau was established as a constitutional democratic government on 1 January 198 1 . Article VI of Palau signed the Convention for the Protection of the the Constitution places responsibility upon the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific national government to take positive action to (SPREP Convention) on 25 November 1986, although conserve a "beautiful, healthful and resourceful natural this has not been ratified. Article 14 calls upon the parties environment". There are 16 states within the Republic, to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile each with an individual constitution; 14 states are within ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and the Palauan archipelago and two are in the South-east fauna through the establishment of protected areas and Islands group (BRD, 1989). On 21 February 1986 Palau the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse and Government representatives formally signed US a effect on the species, ecosystems and biological Compact of Free Association. To date, six plebiscites processes being protected. However, as this provision have been held on the Compact, but the constitutionally only applies to the Convention area, which by defmition mandated 75% approval vote has not been achieved. A is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the subsequent simple majority vote has been overturned in establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of the courts as unconstitutional. Consequently, has Palau marine species. continued to be a remnant of the former Trust Territory of the Pacific. Administration and Management Prior to independence a Conservation Officer for Palau, and the National protected areas legislation includes Palau rest of the Trust Territory, was hired to work under National Code, Title 24, Division 3 (Reserves and the Chief of Agriculture for the Trust Territory. Protected Areas), Chapter 30 (Ngerukewid Islands Management of parks, recreation areas and historical Wildlife Preserve), Sections 3001 to 3004, which sites fell under the Bureau of Community Services in the provides for the creation, prohibitions, penalties and Ministry of Social Services, while responsibility for regulations relating to Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife conservation areas was placed upon the Bureau of Preserve. As of 1988, Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Resources and Development in the Ministry of Natuial Preserve was the only legally established perennially Resources. Enforcement of the laws pertaining to these protected natural area in the Republic of Palau (Thomas
213 Protected Areas of the World
areas was the responsibility of the Bureau of Public Koror, the capital island where some 40% of the Safety in the Ministry of Justice (SPREP, 1985). population dwells, is a major priority. The provision of sewage and waste disposal facilities, and the disposal of Since 198 , Ngerukewid Islands and Ngerumekaol have 1 hazardous waste and unexploded munitions, such as on been administered by the Division of Marine Resources, Peleliu, constitute major environmental issues Bureau of Resources and Development, Ministry of (Maragos, 1986). The compact of Free Association National Resources. Parks and recreation areas are between Palau and the United States entitles, inter alia, administered by the Chief of the Division of Parks and the latter to use large areas of the archipelago for military Recreation in the Bureau of Community Services, purposes (Caufield, 1986) which may lead to Ministry of Social Services. The Division of environmental degradation. Smith (1977) provides an Conservation and Entomology, also within the Bureau overview of the major natural resources and some of the of Resources and Development, was created under threats to them. Executive Order No. 70, with a broad remit to prepare conservation programmes and pest control and Palau has been included in a recent review of the entomological activities (Otobed, 1989). Trochus protected areas systems in Oceania (Dahl, 1986), and the breeding sanctuaries are under the protection of the establishment of terrestrial reserves on Babeldaob and in
governors of each State (BRD, 1989). In general, the Chelbacheb Islands, including marine lakes, is surveillance and patrolling activities have been hindered recommended. The richness of the marine environment by a lack of staff and resources (D. Otobed, pers. comm., warrants protection in some significant marine reserves 1989). at sites such as Ngemlis. Helen should probably also be protected because of the problem with poaching. Systems Reviews Palau comprises an archipelago of eight large and 18 small high volcanic islands, a number Addresses of low limestone islands and about 350 islets surrounded by a complex of fringing and patch reefs. Babeldaob is Division of Conservation and Entomology, PO Box 100, the largest island, covering 397 sq. km. The climate is Biology Laboratory, Koror 96940, USA maritime, tropical and wet, with only small seasonal and diurnal temperature fluctuations. Rainfall is high References throughout the year but especially intense during the June to October monsoon (Smidi, 1977). Bureau of Resources and Development (1989). Palau. Country Review No. 10. Fourth South Pacific Undisturbed forest is predominant, varying little Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected between the high volcanic islands and low platform Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South islands. Principal formations are species-rich broad- Pacific Commission, Noumea. 12 pp. leaved lowland rain forest on weathered basalt, Caufield, C. (1986). Peace makes waves in the Pacific. limestone forest on coralline limestone with very litde New Scientist 3 April. soil, dense riverine forest along rivers on all high islands Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem survey of the and mixed broad-leaved atoll and beach forest on the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper central portion of atolls and islets and on level areas 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New behind the sand beaches of high islands (Dahl, 1980). Caledonia. 99 pp. Some 75% of Babeldaob is covered by mature forest in Dahl, A.L. (\9S6). Review ofthe protected areas system upland, mangrove and swampy areas (Merlin and Keene, in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and n.d.), and mangroves occur along as much as 80% of the Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. coast of Babeldaob although they are not prevalent Faulkner, D. (1974). This living reef. Quadrangle/New around the shorelines of the limestone islands (Smith, York Books, New York. 179 pp. 1977). Palau is considered to have the richest coral reefs Merlin, M. and Keene, T. (n.d.). Dellomel er a Belau: in the Pacific with the highest diversity (Faulkner, 1974; plants of the Belauan Islands. East-West Centre, Smith, 1977); 300 species have been recorded. A Honolulu, Hawaii and Office of the Chief summary account is given in UNEP/IUCN (1988), Conservationist and Bureau of Education, Oreor, including detailed accounts of the Chelbacheb and Helen Belau. 48 pp. Island reefs. Smith, S.V. (1977). Palau environmental study: a planning document. Contribution to the lUCN In general, Palau's natural environment remains in good Marine Project 3.7.70. 102 pp. condition, partly due to a low population density. SPREP (1980). Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Abundant and diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems Country Report 14. South Pacific Commission, occur, particularly the very widespread reefs and Noumea, New Caledonia. lagoons. This natural beauty, and the numerous islands SPREP (1985). Repubhc of Palau. In: Thomas, P.E.J. and beaches, give the country considerable tourism (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National potential. There have been a number of major capital Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. projects and there is now a risk that unplanned Country reviews. South Pacific Commission, development could have serious environmental Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 162-174. consequences. The improvement of living standards on
214 Palau
Thomas, P.EJ., Holthus, P.F. and Idechong, N. (1989). lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Preserve: proposed UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. management plan. lUCNAVorld Wide Fund for Otobed, D. (1989). Conservation in Palau - rebuilding Nature/South Pacific Regional Environment the Conservation Service. Case Study No. 34. Fourth Programme. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation New Caledonia. 43 pp. and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. 4-12 September. South Pacific Commission, Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Noumea, New Caledonia. 3 pp. Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies.
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: Palau National Code Designations: The Ngerukewid Islands Preserve is hereby established to include all land, water, reef and Date: Not known underwater areas of the island group known as Ngerukewid (Orukuisu) Islands, bounded by the grid Brief description: Division 3, Title 24, Chapter 30 coordinates 9 1 and 94 and 1 8 and 22 on sheets 1043-1 provides for the creation (S.3001) and protection SW and 1043 II NW on Army Map Series W 856. (S. 3002-3004) of Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife The preserve is henceforth to be retained in its Preserve present primitive condition where the natural plant and animal life shall be permitted to develop Administrative authority: Division of Marine undisturbed. Resources, Ministry of National Resources
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map National/international designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified
Wildlife Reserve Ngerukewid Islands III 1,200 1956
215 Protected Areas of the World
134.5°
mimm -. mmntt
Mt PrMti : Kdrck tW
-7.5° 7.5°-
30km ^-^ M
i)ala sovree: Tkanu P.I., Boll/nu P./. wnd
Mic/umg AT. ffMJj tfjirutorid Itlaidx ftldli/c /'rtstrvi Jfanojomnt Ploi. -7° Snil/i fiuijie Kijtoiul Awironnnil Prtjrmn, Hmma, Hen Caledonia.
7%i Jfimslry «/ /htural /ieiirvii, fortr.
r»tl» co»j««rirf0jr 134.5°
Protected Areas of Patau
216 PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Area 462,842 sq. km 1985; SPREP, 1985b). The procedure for establishment of protected areas under this Act involves three stages: Population 3,900,000 (Population Reference Bureau, proposal, approval and declaration (Kwapena, 1984). Washington DC, 1989) Natural increase: 2.7% per annum The Conservation Areas Act (1978) has similar objectives to the National Parks Act but is more Economic Indicators comprehensive and, to some extent, remedies GNP: US$ 790 per capita (1988) deficiencies in the other legislation. For example, provisions include the establishment of a National Policy and Legislation Conservation Council to advise on the identification and management of protected areas, and the formation of An Environment and Conservation Policy was adopted management committees for each area to be responsible by the National Parliament in 1977, in recognition that for inter alia the production of management plans. development must be ecologically, socially and Conservation areas may be established on land under culturally suitable for Papua New Guinea. The Policy public, private or customary ownership. The Act awaits was drawn up in response to the Fourth Goal of the implementation due to financial constraints (Eaton, National Constitution: 1985; SPREP, 1985b). "4. Natural Resources and Environment. We Although concerned primarily with the protection of declare our fourth goal to be for Papua New endangered species, the Fauna (Protection and Control) Guinea' s natural resources and environment to be Act (1966) provides for the establishment of wildlife conserved and used for the collective benefit of management areas (WMAs) on land held under us all, and be replenished for the benefit of future customary ownership, of which there are three generations." categories, defined in the Annex. The Act provides for of wildlife management committees to The Fourth Goal provides for: (1) wise use of natural the setting up administer them, thereby involving customary resources, (2) conservation and replenishment of the land-owners in the control of wildlife resource environment and (3) protection of flora and fauna for the provision of benefit of present and future generations (SPREP, exploitation. The committees advise on the 1985b). specific rules for each area for "the protection, propagation, encouragement, management, control, In order to implement the constitutionally-based harvesting and destruction of fauna" (Eaton, 1985; policies, various laws have been introduced. Of SPREP, 1985b). The procedure for the establishment of particular relevance to the establishment of protected WMAs is fully described by Kisokau and Lindgren areas are the National Parks Act, Conservation Areas (1984) and Asigau (1989), and also outlined by Eaton Act and the Fauna (Protection and Control) Act (1986). The WMA concept recognises customary land (Venkatesh ei al., 1983) (see Annex). ownership, and places landowners in direct control. Further, the establishment of WMAs is invariably The National Parks Act (1982) replaced the amended initiated by the local landowners. The major failings in 1 97 1 Act, which in turn superseded the original National the WMA system are the generally inadequate size of Parks and Gardens Act (1966). It provides for: each area, lack of local resource management expertise, delays in responding to requests for WMA establishment, "the preservation of the environment and of the leading to apathy and weak enforcement of regulations national cultural inheritance by - (1) the (Asigau, 1989). conservation of sites and areas having particular biological, topographical, geological, historical, The following are the principal classifications and scientific or social importance" general criteria for protected areas (SPREP, 1985b):
and thereby upholds the Fourth National Goal and National parks are extensive areas of outstanding scenic Directive Principle of the Constitution. and scientific interest which are of national significance. They should be of at least l,(X)Oha and preferably in The Act contains provisions for reserving government excess of 2,000ha. Ideally, the whole range of land and for leasing and accepting gifts of land. Powers land-forms and environments found in Papua New to make regulations to control hunting, fishing, sports, Guinea should be represented. National parks have two vehicles and domestic animals, and law enforcement main functions; fu'st for public use and education and provisions are contained in the Act. Although second, for the conservation of nature through protection comprehensive in its coverage of different types of of undisturbed habitat. protected area, the Act does not define or even list the
various categories nor is there any statutory requirement Provincial parks are less extensive natural areas than for the provision of park management plans (Eaton, national parks; frequendy less than 2,(X)0ha and often
217 Protected Areas of the World less than l.OOOha. Not necessarily of national such as mountain tops, caves, ponds and forests. Some significance, they are of scenic and recreational areas may be protected permanently, in others the importance at provincial level. Their main role is to restriction may be for a Umited period as may happen provide for outdoor recreation in a natural setting close after a death in the group (Eaton, 1985). to urban centres. While traditional beliefs and customs have helped to
Historical sites are areas of historic significance, protect the environment in the past and are often still covering prehistory and recent history. They may be of operative, the integrity of the environment is under any size and, in many cases, adjacent areas will be increasing threat from pressures associated with developed for recreational purposes. They should population growth, increased mobility and growth of the provide for the preservation of areas of historic and cash economy. The establishment of a protected areas prehistoric significance and their interpretation to the system has proved to be extremely difficult on account public. of the traditional land tenure system. New legislation and novel approaches to environmental management have Nature reserves can be areas of any size in which proved necessary. samples of ecosystems and habitats are preserved, either for their intrinsic value or for the protection of wildlife. Other environmental legislation is reviewed by Eaton
Scientific research is permitted, but access by members (1985). Some of this legislation is relevant to protected of the public is very limited. areas. The Forestry Act (Amalgamated) (1973) is the main legislation responsible for the conservation and are challenging and National walking tracks physically management of forest resources. Under this Act the scenic primitive routes through natural landscape that government purchases timber rights from customary surroundings over long provide for walking in natural landowners for a certain period and then grants a licence should a distances. Wherever possible, there be to commercial companies to extract the timber. Royalties of natural vegetation on minimum easement of 10m are paid to the government and a proportion of these is tracks. Advantage taken of existing either side of may be passed on to the provincial government and landowners. reserved natural national parks or other large areas of Environmental safeguards are provided for in the landscape. agreements between the government and logging companies. For example, logging is not allowed within Sanctuaries are areas set aside primarily for breeding 20m of jjermanent watercourses, or 50m in the case of and research on indigenous wildlife and its display to the major rivers, nor on gradients above 25-30. The interests public for education and recreation purposes. They can of customary land-owners are also protected. They retain be of any size but should contain some natural habitat in rights of access for gardening, hunting and collection of addition to the display area. wood for fuel and construction purposes. Reforestation
Wildlife management areas are areas reserved at the is not provided for in the forestry legislation but depends request of the land-owners for the conservation and on arrangements between the landowners and controlled utilisation of the wildlife and its habitat. permit-holders. The Forestry Act is seen to be inadequate Declaration of a wildlife management area does not in to cope with the modern system of provincial any way affect ownership of the land, only the way in government, and is readily circumvented by recourse to which resources are used. Thus, wildlife management the provisions of the Forestry (Private Dealings) Act areas represent an attempt to develop conservation on a which enables landowners to enter into private customary basis, using traditional methods of resource agreements with logging companies with few if any management (Eaton, 1986). statutory controls over the scale and manner of the operations (TFAP, 1989). The Act is also discussed The customary land tenure system and associated further by Sargent (1989). An important statute is the subsistence economy traditionally contains many forms Environmental Planning Act (1978) which calls for an of resource management and conservation. The shifting assessment of the impact of a development project on the cultivation system, for example, with its long periods environment Both the Environmental Planning Act and (10-35 years) of fallow helps to maintain soil fertility. permits issued under the Forestry Act may also require Customary rules may prevent the felling of trees along logging companies to leave certain areas undisturbed as
river banks. There are also prohibitions against cutting reserves for wildlife (Venkatesh et al., 1983). There is
down trees near villages, while other trees of special evidence, however, that much of this legislation is not economic value or of particular importance for certain effectively enforced, with some 70% of logging types of wildlife may be protected from indiscriminate companies continuing lo operate despite the mandatory felling. In addition to controls consciously imposed by provision of environmental impact assessments (Anon., village societies, there are a great many associated 1990). traditional beliefs and practices that have often proved extremely effective in protecting certain habitats and International Activities Papua New Guinea is not yet species. In many Papua New Guinean societies there are party to any of the international conventions or prohibitions or tambu against entering certain areas or programmes that directly promote the conservation of hunting or felling trees within them. These may be sites natural areas, namely the Convention concerning the of old settlements, burial grounds or physical features, Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
218 Papua New Guinea
(World Heritage Convention), Unesco Man and the provincial parks, historical sites, nature reserves, Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands national walking tracks and other protected areas. This of International Importance especially as Waterfowl differs from the previous Act whereby powers were Habitat (Ramsar Convention). assigned to a National Parks Board (Eaton, 1985; SPREP, 1985b). The National Parks Service internal At a regional level, Papua New Guinea signed the 1976 revenue, collected from park entrance fees, totals some Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South K 30,000 (approximately USS 35,300). Wildlife Pacific on 12June 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, management areas, which are declared by the Minister it entered into force during 1990. The Convention is for Environment and Conservation under the Fauna coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and (Protection and Control) Act, are managed by the represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate landowners themselves, who are also responsible for on environmental matters. Among other measures, it making the rules (SPREP, 1985b; Eaton, 1986). encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna. Systems Reviews Papua New Guinea lies between the
Equator and latitude 12'S and between longitudes 14 1 'E Papua New Guinea is also party to the South Pacific and 164°E. It comprises the eastern half of New Guinea Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and has and includes the Bismarck Archipelago (principally signed (3 November 1987) and ratified (15 September New Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover and Manus), 1989) the 1986 Convention for the Protection of the d'Entrecasteaux Islands, the Louisiade Archipelago and Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific the North Solomon islands of Bougainville and Buka. Region (SPREP Convention). The Convention entered The western half of New Guinea forms the Indonesian into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the province of Irian Jaya. parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora Forest of some son, including successional forest, and fauna through the establishment of protected areas covers 71% (328,617 sq. km) of mainland Papua New and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse Guinea. Undisturbed rain forest constitutes 65% effect on the species, ecosystems and biological (300,847 sq. km) of the total area and man-disturbed processes being protected. However, as this provision lands (grassland, gardens, degraded forest, plantation) only applies to the Convention area, which by definition some 20% (92,568 sq. km) (Beehler, 1985). Summary is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the estimates for 1990 indicate natural forest cover of 78% establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of (361,250 sq. km), including 420 sq. km of forest marine species. plantation (FAO, 1987). Discrepancies between the two sets of data can probably be ascribed to different Other international and regional conventions concerning definitions of forests, and different survey and analytical environmental protection to which Papua New Guinea techniques. Approximately 20% of the total land area of is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983). Papua New Guinea is currently used for agriculture and
10%, or 46,000 sq. km, is under intensive cultivation Administration and Management The Department of (Freyne and McAlpine, 1985). An account of the forests, Environment and Conservation, headed by a Secretary the threats to them and maps depicting current and with its own Ministry, was originally established in distribution is given in Collins et al. (1991). 1974 as the Office of Environment and Conservation, Department of Lands, Surveys and Mines. It The following description of the vegetation, based on successively passed through the departments of Natural Johns (1982) and an unpublished account by Resources, Lands, National Mapping & Environment, M.D.F. Udvardy reflects marked altitudinal zonation. A Lands, Surveys & Environment, and Physical Planning fringe of mangrove occurs along much of the coastline. & Environment before being upgraded to departmental Inland, swamps are extensive and covered by high forest status in 1985. The constitutional basis for the existence with screw "palm" Pandanus and sago palm Metroxylon and operations of the Department of Environment and sagu forming a lower canopy. On drier land, mixed Conservation is the Fourth Goal of the National lowland rain forest is widespread and comprises Constitution. The Department is divided into four main complex communities, with epiphytes, orchids, tree and divisions: Environment, Nature Conservation, Water ground ferns. In contrast to rain forests elsewhere in Resources and Management Services (DEC, 1988). Malesia, dipterocarp species are poorly represented. Throughout the lowlands, rain forests have been Administration of acts directly concerned with protected extensively destroyed or modified by shifting areas, i.e. Fauna (Protection and Control), Conservation agriculture. Few areas of rain forest have escaped some Areas, National Parks, is the responsibility of the Nature form of cataclysmic destruction over the past 200-300 Conservation Division, which comprises three branches: years (Johns, 1982). Areas having a markedly seasonal Conservation Surveys, National Parks, and Wildlife climate support monsoon forest which is characterised Conservation (DEC, 1988). Under the National Parks by the presence of a number of species that remain Act, 1982 the First Assistant Secretary of the National leafless for prolonged periods. Savanna vegetation, a Parks Service is responsible for the administration and degraded form of monsoon forest, occurs in areas management of national parks, marine national parks, receiving an annual rainfall of less than 1000-13(X)mm.
219 Protected Areas of the World
Dominated by Eucalyptus spp., it is quite distinct from made to identify whether the various habitat types within lowland alluvial plains vegetation elsewhere in Papua Papua New Guinea are conserved within protected areas, New Guinea and resembles that of northern Australia. but this review no longer reflects the present situation because many protected areas (notably wildlife 700m coniferous trees appear in the rain forest. Above management areas) have since been established. Various altitudinally overlapping forest types can be distinguished within the montane zone, which usually It is instructive to compare the existing network of extends from 700m to 2,700-3,000m. The upper protected areas with that proposed by Diamond (1976). montane forest, which may extend to 3,300m, is a cloud This proposed system, although more extensive, is forest, with 10-25m tall moss-covered trees and a dense largely analogous to a scheme earlier outlined by understorey. In the subalpine zone, the "high mountain Specht et al. (1974) in which areas of habitat that might forest" has a closed canopy at about 10m, with moss be expected to incorporate an almost complete range of carpeting the forest floor. Ericaceous (heather family) biogeographical and ecological patterns are defined. The shrubs supplant the forest near its upper limit at majority of existing protected areas lie outside the 22 3,800-4, 100m, and are in turn replaced by grasslands, areas of conservation importance identified by Diamond tarns and bogs (Smith, 1982). These are supplanted by (1976); moreover, most of these conservation areas are tundra, which extends from about 4,400m to 4,700m. not even represented in the protected areas network. With the possible exception of the montane grasslands The protected areas network proposed around Henganofi, all grasslands below 3,000m by Diamond probably originate from a combination of agriculture and (1976) is based largely on bird distributions because these have been studied in most detail. (Available firing. The vegetation of the various island groups is information suggests that fairly similar patterns hold for mainly lowland rain forest, and at higher elevation, other animals and for plants.) Less ambitious and montane rain forest. The enclaves of grasslands and focused principally on conserving birds of savannas are likely to be anthropogenous. paradise and their rain forest habitat throughout New Guinea is a The various types of wetlands are described by Paijmans 4,882 sq. km system of eight reserves proposed by (1976) and Scott (1989), the latter providing detailed Beehler (1985). Similarly, Parsons (1983) has proposed accounts of 33 wetland sites. Among the most extensive the establishment of a network of 20 reserves to meet the are mangrove swamps which occupy large parts of the conservation requirementsofbirdwing butterflies. Many coastal areas of Papua New Guinea, predominantly of these proposed sites coincide or overlap with those along protected bays and near the mouths of rivers. The recommended under the schemes already discussed. largest expanses are in the south, notably in the Gulf of An action strategy for protected areas in the South Papua with 1 62,000-200,000ha of mangroves. The north Pacific Region has already been launched (SPREP, coast is not as rich in mangroves as the south coast 1985a). Principal goals of the strategy cover The coral reefs of Papua New Guinea are virtually conservation education, conservation policies, pristine compared to those of many countries, although establishment of protected areas, effective protected they are coming under increasing threat from higher areas management, and regional and international siltation and effluent loads in coastal areas and from cooperation. Priority recommendations for Papua New commercial exploitation (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The total Guinea are as follows: review conservation legislation; area of reefs and associated shallow water to depths of develop public awareness programmes in environmental 30m or less is estimated to be 40,000 sq. km (Wright and education; review administrative structures to effect Kurtama, 1987; Wright and Richards, 1985), with the efficient implementation of environmental and greatest concentration (12,870 sq. km) lying off Milne conservation policies; review "protected areas register";
Bay Province (Dalzell and Wright, 1986). draw up a list of endangered species of plants and animals; review the effectiveness of the current system The present protected areas system is very inadequate, of protected areas; undertake a comprehensive survey of particularly for a country of such biological importance terrestrial and marine ecosystems and design a as Papua New Guinea. Together with the rest of New representative system of protected areas; secure Guinea, it ranks third in importance to Lord and Howe assistance and support for the preparation of New Caledonia among 226 Oceanic islands of particular management plans for Mt Wilhelm National Park, conservation interest (Dahl, 1986). The other islands McAdam National Park and Mt Gahavisuka Provincial within Papua New Guinea that fall within the top 12 most Park; and develop a national conservation strategy. The important Oceanic islands for conservation are New outline of an environmental management programme for Britain, Goodenough, and Bougainville in descending sustainable developed has been compiled (Kula, 1989), order. including a timetable for its implementation by 1992. However, the degree of progress with this programme is Although Dahl (1986) assesses the conservation not known. importance of the different islands within Papua New Guinea and the extent of protected areas coverage, gaps Of paramount importance is the need to develop a in the protected areas system are not highlighted at national conservation plan and identify priorities for the national level. Previously (Dahl, 1980), an attempt was establishment of a comprehensive protected areas
220 Papua New Guinea network. Not only are more protected areas required to and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 conserve the great diversity of life on the mainland, but September. 17 pp. attention should also be directed towards developing the Beehler, B.M. (1985). Conservation of New Guinea network on other large islands such as New Britain, forest birds. ICBP Technical Publication No. 4. New Ireland, Manus, Goodenough, Fergusson and International Council for Bird Preservation, Bougainville. Smaller islands with significant levels of Cambridge, UK. Pp. 223-246. endemism, such as Ninigo Islands and Luf (Hermit) Collins, N.M., Sayer, J.A. and Whiunore, T.C. (Eds) Islands, may require priority action, however, because (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests: they may be under greater relative human threat (Dahl, Asia and the Pacific. Prepared by the International 1986). Similarly, marine sites need to be identified and Union for Conservation of Nature, Switzerland and incorporated within the protected areas network (Dahl, the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1986; Genolagani, 1984). Preliminary recommendations Cambridge, UK. Macmillan Press Ltd, London. from the 1989 Tropical Forestry Action Plan donor 256 pp. coordination mission suggest that improvements in the Cragg, S .M. ( 1 987). Papua New Guinea. In: Umali, RJ4. existing protected areas should receive network a higher e/ a/. (Eds) , Mangroves ofAsia and the Pacific : status priority than the establishment of new areas. Twenty and management. Natural Resources Management protected areas are identified as suitable for Center and National Mangrove Committee, Ministry rehabiUtation under any TFAP operations (Srivastava of Natural Resources, Manila. Pp. 299-309. and Butzler, 1989). Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific. South Pacific Commission Technical The most significant natural resource problems facing Paper No. 179.99 pp. Papua New Guinea are forest depletion, soil loss and soil Dahl, A.L. {\9%6).Review of the protected areas system fertility in the mid-montane valley systems, degradation in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and from large-scale mining and agricultural activities, and Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. exploitation of reef fisheries which are among the richest Dalzell, P. and Wright, A. (1986). An assessment of the in the world (ADB, 1987; UNEP, 1987; Viner, 1984). exploitation of coral reef fishery resources in Papua Forests are being destroyed at an estimated rate of New Guinea. In: Maclean, J.L., Dizon, L.B. and 80,000ha per year, commercial logging accounting for Hosillos, L.V. (Eds), The first Asianfisheriesforum. some 60,000ha yearly, and shifting cultivation Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 10,000-20,000ha yearly (ADB, 1987; WEI, 1988). This DEC (1988). Department of Environment and rate is increasing: in 1981-1985, it is estimated to have Conservation Handbook. Department of Environment been 22,000ha per year (Repetto, 1988). These estimates and Conservation, Boroko. 64 pp. contrast with the more conservative FAO figure of some Diamond, J.M. (1976). A proposed natural reserve 12,000ha deforestation annually, with a further system for Papua New Guinea. Unpublished report 60,000ha disturbed in some way by logging (FAO, 16 pp. 1987). About l,000,000ha of former forest have now Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation: been converted to grassland as a result of over-intensive protected areas in the South Pacific. SPREP Topic shifting agriculture (Collins et at., 1991). Papua New Review No. 17. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, Guinea is relatively free from industrial pollution, except New Caledonia. 103 pp. in coastal areas where much of the industry is sited. Eaton, P. (1986). Grass roots conservation. Wildlife Considerable environmental damage has also been management areas in Papua New Guinea. Land caused by mining activities, notably those of New Studies Centre Report 86/1. University of Papua Guinea Goldfields near Wau, Bougainville Copper in the New Guinea. 101 pp. Jaba catchment area and Ok Tedi in the Fly River region FAO (1987). Assessment of forest resources in six (ADB, 1987; Hughes, 1989; Viner, 1984; WEI, 1988). countries. Special study on forest management, afforestation and utilization of forest resources Addresses in the developing regions. Field Document 17. GCP/RAS/106/JPN. FAO, Bangkok. 104 Department of Environment and Conservation, PO Box pp. Freyne, D.F. and McAlpine, J.R. 5749, Boroko (1985). Land clearing and development in Papua New Guinea. In: Tropical land clearing References for sustainable agriculture. IBSRAM, Jakarta. ADB (1987). Papua New Guinea. Environmental natural Genolagani, J.M.G. (1984). An assessment of the resources briefing profile. Asian Development Bank, development of marine parks and reserves in Papua Manila. 6 pp. New Guinea In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), Anon. (1990). PNG bans logging permits. Christian National parks, conservation, and development: The Science Monitor. 19. role of protected areas in sustaining society. Asigau, W. (1989). The wildlife management area Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. system in Papua New Guinea. Case Study 15. Fourth Pp. 322-329. South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation Hughes, P.J. (1989). The effects of mining on the environment of high islands: a case study of gold
221 Protected Areas of the World
mining on Misima Island, Papua New Guinea. Specht, R.L., Roe, E.M. and Boughion, V.H. (1974). Environmental Case Studies 5. South Pacific Conservation of major plant communities in Regional Environment Programme, SPC, Noumea, Australia and Papua New Guinea. Australian New Caledonia. 6 pp. yourna/o/Bo/an)' Supplementary Series 7: 591-605. Johns, R.J. (1982).Plantzonation. In: Gressilt, J.L.(Ed.), SPREP (1985a). Action strategy for protected areas in Biogeography and ecology of New Guinea. the South Pacific region. Soutii Pacific Commission, Monographiae Biologicae 42: 309-330. Noumea, New Caledonia. 21 pp. Kisokau, K. and Lindgren, E. ( 1984). Ndrolowa Wildlife SPREP (1985b). Papua New Guinea. In: Thomas, P£.J. Management Area A report on proposals to establish (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National a wildlife management area for a variety of wildlife Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. resources in Manus Province. Office of Environment Country reviews. South Pacific Commission, and Conservation, Department of Physical Planning Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 175-194. and Environment. 12 pp. SPREP (1989). Papua New Guinea. Paper presented at Kwapena, N. (1984). Wildlife management by the the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature people. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds) Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, (1984), National parks, conservation, and Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 13 pp. development. The role of protected areas in Srivastava, P. and Butzler, W. (1989). Protective sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution Press, development and conservation of the forest Washington, DC. Pp. 315-321. environment in Papua New Guinea: priority needs Kula, G.R. (1989). Environmental management for and measures proposed under the Tropical Forest sustainable development programme. Case Study Action Plan. Draft. Unpublished. 40 pp. No. 20. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature TFAP (1989). Tropical Forestry Action Plan. Papua Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, New Guinea: forestry sector review. Draft. Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 8 pp. Unpublished. 165 pp. Paijmans, K. (1975). Vegetation map of Papua New UNEP (1987). Environmental management in Papua Guinea (1: 1,000,000) and explanatory notes to the New Guinea. Volume 2. Review of background vegetation map of Papua New Guinea. CSIRO Land information. A programme document submitted by Research Series 35: 1-25. the Government of Papua New Guinea to the United Parsons, M.J. (1983). A conservation study of the Nations Environment Programme for funding bird wing butterflies Ornithoptera and Troides through the UNEP clearing house programme. (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in Papua New Guinea. 108 pp. Final Report to Department of Primary Industry, UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Papua New Guinea. 1 1 1 pp. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Repetto, R. (1988). Theforestfor the trees? Government Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. policies and the misuse afforest resources. World lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Resources Institute, Washington, DC. 105 pp. UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. Sargent, C. (1989). Papua New Guinea Tropical Forest Venkatesh, S., Va'ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An Action Plan: land use issues. Draft International overview of environmental protection legislation in Institute for Environment and Development/United the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review 13. Nations Development Programme. Unpublished. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New 78 pp. Caledonia. 63 pp. Scott, D.A. (Ed.). (1989). A directory of Asian Viner, A.B. (1984). Environmental protection in Papua wetlands. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and New Guinea. Ambio 13: 342-344. Cambridge, UK. Pp. 1111-1155. WEI (1988). Protecting the environment. A call for Seddon, G. (1984). Logging in the Gogol Valley, Papua support. Wau Ecology Institute, Wau, Papua New New Guinea. Ambio 13: 345-350. Guinea. 19 pp. Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature Wright, A. and Richards, A.H. (1985). A multispecies conservation as a part of tourism development in the fishery associated with coral reefs in the Tigak islandPacific. Tourism Council of the South Pacific, Islands, Papua New Guinea. Asian Marine Biology Suva, Fiji. 82 pp. 2: 69-84. Smith, J.M.B. (1982). Origin of the tropicoalpine flora. Wright, A. and Kurtama, Y.Y. (1987). Man in Papua In: Gressitt, J.L. (Ed.), Biogeography and ecology of New Guinea's coastal zone. Resource Management New Guinea. Monographiae Biologicae 42: 287-308. and Optimization 4: 261-296.
222 Papua New Guinea
ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration
Title: The National Parks Act Title: Fauna (Protection and Control) Act
Date: 1982 Date: 1966
Briefdescription: Replaced the amended 1971 Act, Brief description: Although concerned primarily which in turn superceded the original National Parks with the protection of endangered species, the Act and Gardens Act, 1966. provides for the establishment of wildlife management areas (WMAs) on land held under Administrative authority: Nature Conservation customary ownership, of which there are three Division, Department of Environment and categories. Conservation Administrative authority: The Act provides for the Designation: Notdefuied setting up of wildlife management committees, thereby involving customary land-owners in the Title: The Conservation Areas Act control of wildlife resource exploitation. The committees advise on the provision of specific rules Date: 12 September 1978 for each area for "the protection, propagation, encouragement, management, control, harvesting Brief description: Provides (a) for the preservation and destruction of fauna". of the environment and of the national cultural
inheritance by (i) the conservation of sites and areas Designation: having particular biological, topographical, geological, historic, scientific or social importance; Wildlife management area
and (ii) the management of those sites and areas, in — Category I WMAs are either terrestrial or marine accordance with the fourth goals of the National areas reserved at the landowner's request for the Goals and Directive Principles; and (b) to give effect conservation and controlled utilisation of all to those goals and Principles under Section 25 of the wildlife and habitat. Constitution, and (c) to establish a National — Conservation Council and (d) for other purposes. Category II WMAs (sometimes referred to as "protected areas") are areas where only specific Administrative authority: No information named species are protected.
— Category III WMAs (or "sanctuaries") are areas Designation: No information where most resources, excluding specific named NB: The Act awaits implementation due to financial animal species, are fully protected. constraints.
223 Protected Areas of the World
SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS
Map^ Papua New Guinea
Protected Areas of Papua New Guinea
225
PITCAIRN ISLANDS (UK DEPENDENT TERRITORY)
Area 43 sq. km (Pitcairn 7.5 sq. km; Henderson 4,8(X)km from the nearest continent. To the west is 37 sq. km; Oeno 5 sq. km; Ducie 2.5 sq. km) French Polynesia (the Gambier Islands being some
560km west of Pitcairn). To the east is Easter Island, Population Approximately 48 on Pitcairn Island; all 1 ,760km away. The only inhabited island is Pitcairn, the other islands uninhabited others being Oeno Atoll (some 160km north-north-east), Henderson Island (176km east-north-east) and Ducie Economic indicators Atoll (464km east). Available information is somewhat GNP: Not available sketchy, but will be vastly improved when all the GDP: Not available information collected by the Pitcairn Islands Scientific Policy and Legislation The Pitcairn Islands, being a Expedition is drawn together in 1992. UK Dependent Territory, are nationally governed by the Pitcairn is a small, high island, reaching 333m. There is Island's Governor, from the British Consulate in one settlement, Adamstown, below which is the only Auckland, New Zealand. "Local government" is via an sheltered landing on the island. Bounty Bay. There is elected Island Magistrate and Island Council. much evidence of extensive Polynesian occupation on Until recently, there was little consideration of Pitcairn, where the local pitchstone was quarried and conservation in the Pitcairn Islands. In recent years, exported throughout Polynesia. However, this large however, the Pitcaimers have become increasingly population had disappeared by the time of the Island's aware of the need for conservation on their own island, colonisation by the Bounty mutineers in 1790. Until and the publicity generated by the inclusion of relatively recently the small population of islanders lived Henderson Island in the World Heritage Convention has a subsistence existence. As a result, much of the helped bring this about. Being such a small community cultivatable land on the island has been used to grow a there is little need for legislation on conservation: it is an wide variety of crops. In addition, many non-food plants attitude brought about by caring rather than being told to have been introduced to the island (e.g. Norfolk Island care. pine and roseapple). The feral goat population, allowed to run wild, has also seriously affected the local habitat. International Activities The United Kingdom ratified Much of the local woods, used for fuel, building and the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World carving for export, have also been overexploited. As a Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage result, the island has been extensively changed by the Convention) on 29 May 1984 and Henderson Island was islander's occupation: invasive plants have overrun inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1988. The UK native ones, goats have damaged, tree-felling and the use Government is considering the possibility of listing of the bulldozer have carved up the hill sides and Ducie Atoll under the Convention Concerning the contributed to a considerable erosional damage (caused
Protection of Wetlands Especially as Waterfowl Habitat by some 16(X)mm of annual tropical rain). There is one (Ramsar Convention). strip of native vegetation left on the island, and this runs along a ridge at the Highest Point. Here there are the Between January I99I and April 1992 some 20 scientists remnants of "cloud forest" with a small number (c.30) of from universities and institutions around the world have surviving tree ferns. been spending three-month stretches on Henderson, but also visiting the other islands in the group. The Sir Peter Henderson Island is a raised coral island, uplifted by the Scott Commemorative Expedition to The Pitcairn lithospheric flexure caused by the crustal loading of the Islands, also known as the Pitcairn Islands Scientific volcanic island of Pitcairn. The old lagoon floor of
Expedition, was organised to explore thoroughly Henderson is now raised to an elevation of about 30m.
Henderson Island in all its aspects (biology, As a result of the elevation, the island plateau is protected archaeology, geology). Results from the expedition will from the periodic inundation of the sea during cyclones be published in the scientific literature. which is so typical of lower atolls. This has allowed the continued existence on the island by colonisers, and, as Administration and Management As part of the a result, a considerable fauna and flora has built up, much Pitcairn Islands Scientific Expedition, a management of which is now endemic. plan is being compiled for Henderson Island, and the conservation for the Pitcairn requirements Islands as a The island typically has steep sides. There is a fringing whole are being investigated. The proposals will be reef around much of the island, and three beaches forwarded to the government in March 1992. UK (North-west, North, East) on all of which it is possible to get across the reef in an inflatable boat There are no Systems Reviews The Pitcairn Islands are on the edge sheltered anchorages. Henderson is characterised by of the tropical south Pacific (Pitcairn: 25°04'S, difficult terrain and very dense vegetation. As a result of 130'06'W), and are extremely isolated, being over
227 Protected Areas of the World
the porosity of the limestone, there has been little and up to 250m wide, with a maximum elevation of build-up of soil, so in the island interior the underlying about 3m. fossil coral is bare. There are gross structures, such as old reef units and erosion features (coral pinnacles, Essentially, there is only one plant species on the island: reaching up to Sm high), as well as the smaller fragments Tournefonia argentea (one specimen of one other species has been found). is, of individual coral colonies, fossil clams (often still in There therefore, a paucity of growth positions) and other gastropods. Fossil lu'chins arthropods (25 species in total) and terrestrial animals in general. However, have also been found in the interior. Growing on top of Ducie Atoll is an excellent seabird colony. It is perhaps this terrain is a vegetation made up of some 60 species the world's main breeding station of Murphey's petrel (Brooke et ai, (11 endemic taxa) (Brooke et ai, 1991; Fosberg et al., 1991), with several 1983; Paulay and Spencer, 1989). thousand breeding pairs; in addition, many other seabirds found in the locality breed here in large numbers Insect life is common, but not abundant, with (Rehder and Randall, 1975; T. Benton, pers. comm., approximately 180 species on the island (Brooke et ai, 1991). 1991). In addition to the arthropods, there is an Other Relevant abundant terrestrial snail fauna, with at least 18 species Information During 1983 issues relating to conservation the (Fosberg el al., 1983). There are four endemic land birds of uninhabited islands, and in particular Henderson, to the attention and three species of land reptiles. The only mammal is came of conservation organisations with the the introduced Polynesian rat, but seabirds are common proposal by an around and on the island. Crabs are very abundant. The American millionaire to live on Henderson. Response was quick, resulting in fringing reefs are in excellent condition. Being at the the preparation of Serpell et al. ( 1 and various other submissions. geographical Umit of reef growth, their diversity is not 983) Henderson, which is forested atoll, great; nor is that of the reef inhabitants. However, the a largely unaltered with ten endemic plant taxa, four abundance is large and fish grow to huge sizes, having endemic land birds and various other never been harvested. endemics, is in fact of great scientific and conservation
value. In December 1983 the govemment made it clear
There is considerable evidence of an extensive period of that the land would not be leased for this purpose. It has Polynesian occupation on Henderson. The population been suggested that the Pitcaim Group, or at least the may have reached as many as 100. However, with the uninhabited islands, be nominated as World Heritage exception of the Polynesian rat and some clumps of the sites now that the United Kingdom has ratified the World sterile Corclyline palm (and possibly Pandanus palm), Heritage Convention. there are few obvious changes to the native fauna and flora. The Polynesians are likely to have lived solely on Addresses the coastal fringes of the island, and the plants they cultivated became extinct after the Polynesians Office of the Governor of the Pitcaim Islands, The British Consulate-General, Private disappeared (Brooke et al., 1991). Henderson remains Bag, Auckland, perhaps the only example of a Pacific Island where the New Zealand (FAX: 64 9 3031836) The Island Magistrate, Pitcaim Island, Pacific present vegetation and fauna even approximates its South native condition. Ocean, via New Zealand Pitcaim Islands Scientific Expedition, Dr M de L Brooke Henderson is threatened from two main sources. First, (Expedition Field Leader and Ornithologist) the Pitcaimers harvest Miro (now seriously depleted) Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, and visit the island annually. It is possible that they Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK will one day introduce, as attempted in the past, a destructively invasive plant. However, with their References growing awareness of the importance of Henderson this Brooke, M. de L, Spencer, S. and Benton, is unlikely. Secondly, there is a small, but significant T. (1991). Pitcaim Scientific number of boats that anchor off Henderson and from Islands Expedition, Interim Report. which people come ashore. These are mainly yachts on Unpublished. circumnavigations of the globe, but also include Fosberg, F.R., Sachet, M.H. and Stoddart, D.R. (1983). occasional cruise liners and commercial fishing vessels. Henderson Island (Southeastern Polynesia): It is possible that invasive plants and/or animals may be Summary of current knowledge. Atoll Research Bulletin introduced. It is not possible to "police" the landings onto 272. Smithsonian Institution. HoUoway, J.D. Easter, Henderson, as Pitcaim is over 160km away, and is often (1990). The Lepidoptera of unaware of boats in the waters around Henderson. Pitcaim and Henderson Islands. Journal of Natural History 24: 719-29
Ducie Atoll is the most remote of the Pitcaim Islands. It Mathis, W.N. (1989). Diptera (Insecta) or true flies of is 469km east of Pitcaim itself, and never actually visited the Pitcairn Group. Atoll Research Bulletin, by the islanders. It is an atoll, about 1.6km in diameter, Henderson Island Issue. consisting of four islands surrounding some 60% of the Paulay, G. and Spencer T. (1989). Vegetation of lagoon. The largest is Acadia, about 2.4km miles long Henderson Island. Atoll Research Bulletin, Henderson Island Issue.
228 Pitcairn Islands
Rehder, H.A. and Randall, J.E. (1975). Ducie Atoll: Its in the Pitcairn Group. Unpublished report prepared history, physiography and biota. Atoll Research for WWF-UK, lUCN and ICBP. Bulletin 183. Smithsonian Institution. SPREP (1980). Pitcairn. Country Report 11. South Schubel, S£. and Steadman, D.W. (1989). More bird Pacific Regional Environment Programme. South bones from Polynesian archaeological sites on Pacific Commission, Noumea. Henderson Island, Pitcairn Group, South Pacific. Steadman, D.W. and Olson, S.L. (1985). Bird remains Atoll Research Bulletin, Henderson Island Issue. from an archaeological site on Henderson Island, Serpen, J., Collar, N., Davis, S. and WeUs, S. (1983). South Pacific: Man-caused extinctions on an Submission to the Foreign and Commonwealth "uninhabited" island. PNAS 82: 6191-6195 Office on the Future Convention of Henderson Island
229
SOLOMON ISLANDS
Area 28,450 sq. km of land distributed over controlled forest areas for forest water catchment 1340,000 sq. km of sea protection. The Forest Resources and Timber Utilisation (Amendment) Act 1987 was approved in March 1987, Population (World Bank, 1990) 304,000 (1988) with a retrospective commencement date of 16 June increase: per Natural 3.6% annum 1978. The North New Georgia Timber Corporation Act (1979) provides for the establishment of a corporation Economic Indicators for the promotion of timber utilisation in New Georgia. GNP: US$ 630 per capita (1988) The Corporation can impose conditions on licensed Policy and Legislation The Solomon Islands felling and is charged with the duty of encouraging Constitution protects the right of land owners to utilise replanting in felled areas (Sloth, 1988). There was a new their land and forests as they wish. Consequently, any Forestry Bill 1989 that was due to go before Parliament restriction resulting from designation of a reserve or in November 1989, which included provisions for forest park would impose upon this basic right. Given the establishment of conservation areas. The Town that some 87% of all land is held in customary or tribal and Country Planning Act (1979) provides for tree tenure (C. Tumbull, pers. comm., 1990), it is iheattitudes preservation orders for "any tree, groups of trees or and activities of local people, not government, that woodlands ... in the interests of amenity". The Lands and determine the extent and nature of land reservation for Titles Act (1968, amended 1970) makes provision for nature conservation. preservation orders to be applied to land of "historic or religious" value, and permits the estabUshment of nabire Formal protected areas legislation principally comprises reserves. two acts, both dating from the colonial era. The Wild Birds Protection Act (1914) enabled the Minister, under Regulations prescribing measures for the protection and Section 14, to declare any island or islands, or any part preservation of the marine environment can be or parts of any island or any district, as a bird sanctuary. promulgated under the Delimitation of Marine Waters The National Parks Act (1954) makes provision for the Act (1978). A new forestry bill was due to be presented establishment of strictly protected natural areas as to parliament in November 1989. This includes national parks. This legislation is considered to be provisions for environmental protection and the inconsistent with current concepts of resource use, by establishment and management of conservation areas making inadequate allowance for genuine customary (Isa, 1989). needs and by placing no obligation upon the International Activities The Solomon Islands is not administering agency to manage a national park in yet party to any of the international conventions or accordance with stated park objectives (SPREP, 1985b). programmes that directly promote the conservation of Some provincial governments have passed ordinances natural areas, namely the Convention concerning the with provisions for the establishment of protected areas, Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage including Temotu and Isabel provinces (Leary, 1990). (Worid Heritage Convention), the Unesco Man and the However, provisional legislation is equally subject to the Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands restrictions of the constitution and traditional practices. of International Importance especially as Waterfowl The forest policy of the Solomon Islands was reviewed Habitat (Ramsar Convention). in 1983, and a National Forest and Timber Policy was The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the approved by Government in 1984. The Policy called for South Pacific (1976) has been neither signed nor ratified. the maximum desirable log processing, minimum Known as the Apia Convention, it awaits sufficient wastage and increased investment in forests, aims that countries to deposit instruments of ratification, were restated in the 1985-89 National Development acceptance, approval or accession to enter force. The Plan. Failure to achieve these and more detailed aims is Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific attributed to shortcomings in the forest legislation, Commission and represents the first attempt within the institutional weakness and a lack of public participation region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among and awareness. Consequently, a revised forest policy has other measures, it encourages the creation of protected been promulgated. This identifies six imperatives, viz. areas to preserve indigenous fiora and fauna. protection, sustainable use, basic needs, development, participation and distribution. Six objectives are The Solomon Islands is party to the South Pacific established including "(VI) set aside areas for Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and has environmental, ecological, scientific and heritage ratified (10 August 1989) the 1986 Convention for the reserves taking into account landowner needs and Protec tion of the Natural Resources and Environment of customary values; protect sensitive areas". the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention). The convention entered into force during August 1990. The Forestry and Timber Act(1969, amended 1977) has Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate a narrow perspective, but makes some provision for
231 Protected Areas of the World measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and customary law, leading to serious management threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the implementation problems and a failure to protect the site. establishment of protected areas and the regulation of A number of other reserves exist on paper but none is activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, functional. Customary land owners are frequently ecosystems and biological processes being protected. willing to grant temporary access rights for timber However, as this provision only applies to the felling, but reluctant to be alienated permanently from Convention area, which by deflnition is open ocean, it is land following the establishment of a protected area (Isa, most likely to assist with the establishment of marine 1989). The best conservation practice at present is that reserves and the conservation of marine species. carried out by some of the customary land-owning groups, although these efforts have thus far escaped Other international and regional conventions concerning recognition and lack the support of formal legislation environmental protection to which the Solomon Islands (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989). However, this is is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983). likely to be rectified with formal government recognition of these community Administration and Management General based protected areas (Isa, 1988). responsibility for environmental matters is part of the As an additional hindrance to the establishment of portfolio of the Minister of Lands, Energy and Natural formal protected areas, state-owned land covers only Resources. The Environment and Conservation Division 257 sq. km (9% of total land area), of which 240 sq. km of the Ministry of Natural Resources has responsibility is committed to forestry plantations or operations for environmental protection and the conservation of (C. Tumbull, pers. comm., 1990). Therefore, at present, natural resources and in 1989 had five members of staff, there is little opfxjrtunity to develop conservation areas with the expectation that this would increase to nine on uncommitted government land (Leary, 1989). The during 1990 (Isa, 1989). existing protected areas system is thus very weak, none
of the formally gazetted protected areas is managed nor The Forestry Division comprises management, has field staff, and they have very little conservation plantation, research and development, timber control significance or official recognition. Indeed, as there are (logging and utilisation) and herbarium and extension no legally gazetted forest reserves, the Solomon Islands sections, with, in 1987, 54 professional staff and a labour effectively has no formal protected areas system. force of 595. Training of foresters takes place in Papua New Guinea, at the Solomon Islands College of Higher Systems Reviews The Solomon Islands occupies a Education, Australia and elsewhere (MNR, 1987). The central position in the Melanesian Arc that extends from Conservator ofForests is responsible for implementation Papua New Guinea in the west to Fiji in the east. They of the Forestry and Timber AcL consist of two roughly parallel island chains, forming the western continental margin of the Pacific Basin. The The Solomon Islands Development Trust is a rural central archipelago lies between latitudes 5'S and 12'S development organisation which places its operations, and longitudes 152'E and 163'E. A brief summary of with a particular focus on community education, in an the physical features and coral reefs is given in environmental context and is a significant influence in UNEP/IUCN, 1988. the rain forest logging debate (Baines, 1990). Community-based associations have been formed to Prior to recent, extensive logging, the Solomons counter the growing threat of over-exploitation, supported a rain forest mantle, unbroken except for areas including the Fauro Peoples Association and The Vella of, probably anthropogenic, grassland and heath. 2000. Their principal objectives are to: promote Grasslands are probably a fire 232 Solomon Islands production (Baines, 1985) and there is some exploitation Of the 31 terrestrial and marine habitats identified by for firewood and construction timber in rural areas Dahl (1980), only three are included within even (CoUinse/a/., 1991). nominal protected areas, namely some lowland rain forest types, mixed species montane rain forest and Some 24^00 sq. km, 80% of the total land area, were grassland. The much wider range of habitats which at forested in 1976 (Hansell and Wall. 1976), of which present receive no protection broadly include: various sq. were accounted for by various 20,000 km lowland rain forest formations; Neonauclea/Sloanea communities at low and medium altitudes, on basalts or montane rain forest; cloud, riverine, swamp, mangrove andesites. Revised data from December 1988 indicate and atoll/beach forests; Casuarina woodland and scrub; 25,500 sq. km of forest cover (C. TumbuU, pers, comm., serpentine vegetation and dwarf-shrub heath; various 1990), of which 23,000 sq. km is unproductive for freshwater habitats; sea turtle nesting areas; algal and physical reasons. This discrepancy does not reflect a seagrass beds with associated fauna; various reef substantive increase in forest cover but is most probably formations, rocky coast, lagoons, estuaries and offshore the result of different definitions of forests, and different environments (Dahl, 1980). In terms of conservation survey and analytical techniques. By way of illustration, importance, Rennell Island is ranked ninth in the entire some 95% of logging takes place on land in customary Oceanian Realm, and is the second most important raised tenure, whilst reforestation on the same class of land is coral island, after Guam (Dahl, 1986). According to restricted to just 98ha on Malaita (Wenzel, 1989), Collins et a/. (1991), critically important sites, none of indicating a serious imbalance between reforestation and which is protected at present, include Rennell, the logging operations. Amavon islands and the kauri Agathis macrophylla stands in Santa Cruz. Coastal, mangrove, lowland, Prior to the 1970s, forest cover was largely pristine, but freshwater swamp and montane forests are all critically has since been heavily exploited by foreign interests. unprotected. During the last 20 years, a timber industry has developed. Widespread logging has resulted in the loss of primary On the basis of the distribution of birds. Diamond (1976) forest on several islands, especially Ghizo and proposed a system of three large high-priority, three Kolombangara, with consequent loss of wildlife habitat smaller high-priority and eight medium-priority (Dahl, 1986), soil compaction and erosion, leading to protected areas. Mammal, insect and plant species would reef sedimentation (Anon., 1986b). Historically, forestry also benefit as their distribution patterns are probably practice has not given due consideration to the ecological similar (Diamond, 1976). Dahl (1980) reiterated these effects of logging, and small-scale operations are recommendations, but also identifies a number of and underway or planned in several small areas, rather than adds reef, lagoon, mangrove and small botanical utilising larger blocks on larger islands (Hoyle, 1978). reserves. Less specific recommendations in Dahl (1986) However, since 1986 logging companies have been include the establishment of protected areas on Rennell, required to fell only trees with a diameter in excess of San Cristobal, Guadalcanal, Malaita and Vanikolo, with 60cm, thus preventing the removal of supersmalls (trees smaller areas to protect interesting sites and species on with diameters as little as 35cm) (MNR, 1988). This other islands. Reforestation with native species might be regulation is likely to reduce damage substantially to considered alongside Kolombangara Reserve, to forests during logging and enhance natural regeneration. reinforce it and to buffer it from encroachment (Dahl, 1986). Plantations are being established at the rate of approximately l,500ha annually (Collins et ai, 1991), An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South with 24,000ha established by December 1989 Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985a) has been prepared. The (C. TumbuU, pers. comm., 1990). It is hoped that principal goals of the strategy cover conservation plantations of fast-growing and commercially-valuable education, conservation policy development, introduced species, such as teak, mahogany and gmelina, establishment of protected areas, protected area will replace the volume felled from natural forests, as a management and regional and international cooperation. source of export revenue (Anon., 1988). Extensive Priority recommendations for the Solomon Islands are plantations are also planned for Kolombangara, as follows: develop a national conservation strategy, in a joint venture between the government and and review of all environmental aspects of the Commonwealth Development Corporation development; develop, expand and implement a (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989). national environmental awareness programme, including radio broadcasts, publications and the Very little scientific work has been carried out on coral establishment of a mobile unit; review and update all reefs. The 1965 Royal Society Expedition, which existing legislation relating to protected areas and produced the only substantial account, found that in conservation, and, where necessary, draw up new general the Solomon Islands lacked the luxuriant reefs legislation; undertake staff training in the fields of of many parts of the Pacific, due to unfavourable biology , botany , ecology and park management; develop environmental conditions such as sleep and exposed the following as protected areas: Oema Atoll and the shores with little suitable substrate for coral growth. island of Oema as a wildlife sanctuary; Mount Austin, Coral reefs are further discussed in UNEP/IUCN ( 1 988), which also gives a detailed account of Marovo Lagoon. 233 Protected Areas ofthe World Mount Gallego; Island of Amavon; Lake Te Nggano and tourism", centred on Rennell's freshwater Te Nggano its flora and fauna. Lake and emphasising the natural attractions of the Solomon Islands (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989). of recommendations, constituting a putative A number Proposals for tourism expansion are being made on the aimed at removing obstacles to conservation strategy basis of assistance from the European E>evelopment development, are in conservation-based made SPREP Fund of the European Economic Community, within comprise environmental (1985b). These broadly the framework of the Pacific Regional Tourism environmental surveys, conservation-based education, Development Programme (Sloth, 1988). rural development, a zoned forest reserve system and an effective environmental law and policing system. Addresses comprehensive survey of conservation area needs and A Ministry of Natural Resources, PO Box G24, Honiara priorities is required prior to implementing any protected areas network (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989). In References response to this need, a SPREP-funded project, in cooperation with the Overseas Service Bureau, Anon. (1986b). Deforestation problems in the Solomon Australian Volunteer Abroad Programme and the Islands. /="orei/ 15: 11. National Environment and Conservation Division, has Anon. ( 1 987). SPREP makes considerable progress with examined wildlife management issues, with emphasis on implementation of action strategy for protected species trade, changes in traditional practice and habitat areas. Environment Newsletter, South Pacific destruction. The project aims to provide guidelines for Regional Environment Programme No. 10. South the sustainable use and management of Solomon Islands Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. fauna, possibly stimulating the formulation of a National Anon. (1988). Projects in the Pacific. British Overseas Policy on the Environment and Conservation (Leary, Development: Forestry Supplement. Overseas 1989) and draws the following broad conclusions. In the Development Administration, London. long term it is a priority that a comprehensive Baines, G.B.K. (1981). Environmental management for Conservation Act is developed for the Solomon Islands. sustainable development in the Solomons: a report Such an act should encompass the establishment of on environment and resources. Prepared for the conservation areas, the protection of flora and fauna, Government of the Solomon Islands. Unpublished. regulation of wildlife trade, and the conservation of 57 pp. traditional resources management knowledge. A system Baines, G.B.K. (1985). Study Area One: Marovo of natural areas protection for the Solomon Islands Lagoon, Solomon Islands. Working paper on pilot urgently needs to be developed. In addition to large scale project for Commonwealth Science Council. 15 pp. reserves, consideration needs to be given to the Baines, G.B.K. (1990). South Pacific Conservation protection, in terms of good management, of small areas. Programme. World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, One surh means is the concept of wildlife management Switzerland and Australia. 50 pp. areas which has proven successful in Papua New Guinea. Collins, N.M., Sayer, J. A. and Whitmore, T.C. (Eds) It is recommended that wildlife management areas (1991). The conservation atlas of tropical forests: legislation be enacted at the provincial or national level Asia and the Pacific. Prepared by lUCN - the World as soon as possible (Leary, 1990). This work has been Conservation Union, Switzerland and the World further augmented by Lees (1991) with the design of a Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. system of nationally representative protected forest Macmillan Press Ltd, London. 256 pp. areas. In addition to biological factors, social factors Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem survey of the were considered in an attempt to bypass some of the South Pacific Area. SPCIIUCN Technical Paper problems that have dogged previous designs, and a total 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New of 20 reserves is proposed. Caledonia. 99 pp. Dahl, A.L. (l9S6).Reviewofthe protectedareassystems Rennell has been the subject of logging proposals, which in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and once again were being actively considered in 1989 Cambridge, UK. 239 pp. (Collins et al., 1991). At one time bauxite mining posed Diamond, J.M. (1976). A proposed forest reserve system a considerable threat, particularly to Rennell. However, and conservation strategy for the Solomon Islands. these proposals have now been dropped. Conversely, Summary. Unpublished report 19 pp. there is a current nationwide threat from gold Glaser, T. (1987). Solomon Islands: paradise lost and prospecting and there has been localised environmental found. The Courier 102: 44-51. damage from prospecting activities, a notable example Hoyle, M.A. (1978). Forestry and conservation in the being Fauro Island (G.B.K. Baines, pers. comm., 1989). Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides. Tigerpaper 5(2): 21-24. Other Relevant Information Tourism is currently at a Isa, H. (1988). The current trend in protected area very low level, with some 11,000 visitors annually, development in Solomon Islands. In: Thomas, P.E.J. although proposals have been made to develop this (Ed.), Report on the workshop on customary tenure, sector (Anon., 1986a; Glaser, 1987). Attention is traditional resource management and nature currently being paid to developing "conservation 234 Solomon Islands conservation. South Pacific Regional Environment Development Programme. Tourism Council of the Programme, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 97-99. South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp. Isa, H. (1989). Solomon Islands. Country Review 6. SPREP (1985a). Action strategy for protected areas in Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature the South Pacific region. South Pacific Commission, Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp. Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Pacific SPREP (1985b). Country report: Solomon Islands In: Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 9 pp. SPC ( 1 985). Third South Pacific National Parks and Leaiy, T. (1989). Wildlife management in the Solomon Reserves Conference. Volume 3. South Pacific Islands. Case Study 10. Fourth South Pacific Commission, Noumea. Pp. 1 15-124. Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Volume 3. Central and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 6 pp. Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Leary, T. (1990). Survey of Wildlife Management in lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Solomon Islands. Final Report. SPREP project UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya 378 pp. PA 17. A joint project of Solomon Islands Venkatesh, S, Va'ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An Government, South Pacific Regional Environment overview of environmental protection legislation in Programme and Traffic (Oceania). SPREP, Noumea, the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review New Caledonia. 74 pp. No. 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Lees, A. (1991). A representative protected forests Caledonia. 63 pp. system for the Solomon Islands. Report on behalf of Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. Pacific: a survey of resource use and policy in Fiji, Maniia Society, Nelson, New Zealand. 185 pp. Tonga, W. Samoa, Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. Ministry of Natural Resources (1989). Forest policy INR Environmental Studies Report No. 43. Institute statement August 1989. Forestry Division. 23 pp. of Natural Resources, University of the South Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 95 pp. conservation as part of tourism development in the Whitmore, T.C. (1969). The vegetation of the Solomon island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Islands. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society ofLondon B 255: 259-270. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration sanctuary. The Act provides protection for bird Title : The National Parks Act species only, and makes no provision for the Date: 1954 conservation of habitat. Brief description: Makes provision for the Administrative authority: Unknown establishment of strictly protected natural areas as national parks. Designations: Administrative authority: Conservation Officer, Bird sanctuary Only interference with birds is an The Environment and Conservation Division, offence within sanctuaries. Ministry of Lands, Energy and Natural Resources Title: An Ordinance to Consolidate and Designations: Amend the Law on Forests and to Control and National park Regulate the Timber Industry and for Matters Incidental Thereto and Connected (Forests and Timber Ordinance, 1969) Title : The Wild Birds Protection Act Date: 1914 Date: 1969 (amended 1977) Brief description: Enabled the Minister, under Administrative authority: The Conservator of Section 14, to declare any island or islands, or any Forests part or parts of any island or any district, as a bird 235 Protected Areas of the World Designations: Title: The Town and Country Planning Act Stateforest Established under the provisions of S.9, Date: 1979 on any land that is public land, land in which the government holds a freehold interest in land or a Brief description: Provides for tree preservation leasehold interest in land by or on behalf of the orders for "any tree, groups of trees or woodlands ... Government The Commissioner shall not grant any in the interests of amenity" interest in a state forest without the Conservator's Administrative authority: Unknown consent (S.IO). Prohibited activities (S.ll) include felling, cutting etc trees; damaging vegetation; Designation: Unknown clearing land; residing or erecting buildings; grazing livestock; possessing any equipment for cutting or Title: The Lands and Titles Act working forest produce; constructing roads, saw pits or workplaces. Date: 1968 (amended 1970) Controlled forest Established, in either forests or Briefdescription: Makes provision for preservation other vegetation types, for water catchment orders to be applied to land of "historic ex religious" protection. Rights which may be exercised in a value, and permits the establishment of nature controlled forest are specified in the notification of reserves. establishment. Activities specifically prohibited under S.16 comprise felling, cutting etc. forest Administrative authority: Unknown produce except for personal or domestic use; clearing or breaking land for cultivation or any other Designation: Unknown purposes; residing, or erecting any building etc.; grazing hvestock. NB: Repealed Forests Ordinance (Cap. 71). 236 TOKELAU (NEW ZEALAND OVERSEAS TERRITORY) Area 12.25 sq. km 1990) by New Zealand, although again it is not clear if this places any obligation upon Tokelau itself. The Population 3,000 1,700 (1982); (1988) Convention entered into force during August 1990. Natural increase: No information Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and Ek:onomic Indicators threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the GNP: No information establishment of protected areas and the regulation of Policy and Legislation Tokelau is a non-self-goveming activities likely to have an adverse effect on the sjjecies, territory of New Zealand. There is no protected areas ecosystems and biological processes being protected. legislation, and apparently no government conservation However, as this provision only applies to the policy relating to native species and habitats. Instead, Convention areas, which by definition is open ocean, it there is a long-standing system of resource management is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine based on traditional custom, although this is now starting reserves and the conservation of marine species. to lose its effectiveness (Toloa and Gillett, 1989). Administration and Management Responsibility for Traditional marine conservation measures can be conservation of natural resources rests with the Council considered in two categories: those that are specifically of Elders, a body comprising most males over 60 years designed for conservation and those aspects of the of age and totalling some 25 individuals from each traditional system which indirecdy result in a reduced island. All land is under customary ownership. The amount of fishing effort on particular species. The most Department of Agriculture and Fisheries has facilitated important explicit conservation measure is the "lafu" resource surveys and provided scientific information to system, whereby all types of fishing are banned in support conservation and resource management (Anon., specific areas of the main reef. The decision to establish 1989). a "lafu" is made by the Council of Elders. Another Systems Reviews Tokelau consists of three small specific conservation measure is the rejection of islands set on a north-west to south-east axis from 8'S to undersized fish and the prohibition of fish poisoning. In lO'S and Hl'W to 173*W. Nukunonu is the biggest atoll addition to these specific measures, there is a wide at 4.7 sq. km, Fakaofo is 4.0 sq. km and Afafii is 3.5 sq. km. variety of traditional practices which effectively reduce Each atoll consists of a number of reef-bound islets fishing effort. For example, only certain individuals may encircling lagoons. These islets vary in length from 90m capture sea turtles, and the elevated community status of to 6km and up to 200m in width. At no point do they rise pelagic fishing relieves pressure from inshore fisheries more 5m above sea level. The atolls comprise coral (Toloa and GiUeU, 1989). rubble and sand mixed with a thin layer of humus and International Activities Tokelau is not yet party to the are of generally low fertility. Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, the In general the vegetation has not been greatly modified. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Nukunonu includes areas of Cordia, Pisonia and especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) Guerttarda woodland which is dense and may reach nor the Convention concerning the Protection of the heights of 10m to 20m. Fakaofo supports a beach scrub World Cultural and Natural Heritage (Worid Heritage of Scaevola and Tourneforiia (Davis et al., 1986). An Convention). It is not known if New Zealand's active account of the extent and composition of the vegetation participation in die latter two conventions has any is given in Parham (1971). signifcance for Tokelau. There have been few studies of the coral reefs At a regional level, Tokelau has neither signed nor (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Hinds (1969/1971) carried out a ratified the Convention on the Conservation of Nature in brief survey and repotted that coral growth was limited the South Pacific, 1976. Known as the Apia Convention, to the upper portions of old coral growth massifs rising it entered into force during 1990. The Convention is from the floor, the main portions of which were barren. coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and Laboute (in press) briefly surveyed reefs on all three represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate atolls in 1987 to assess damage caused by Hurricane on environmental matters. Among other measures, it Tusi. The degree of destruction was variable, reaching encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve 90% in some places. A significant area of Nukunonu indigenous flora and fauna. Tokelau has not signed the lagoon reef was damaged by a pesticide spill in 1969: all Convention for the Protection of Uie Natural Resources corals in a 2km section of the lagoon along Motu Te and Environment of the South Pacific Region, 1986 Kakai died with the exception oi Pontes. There was litde (SPREP Convention). However, the Convention has recovery by 1976 (Marshall, 1976). Rhinoceros beetle been signed (25 November 1986) and ratified (3 May Oryctes rhinoceros was accidentally introduced from 237 Protected Areas of the World Western Samoa to Nukunonu where it spread to all islets, Hooper, A. (1985). Tokelau fishing in traditional and creating a serious risk to coconuts (Wodzicki, 1971). modem contexts. In: Ruddle, K. and Johannes, R.E. Control measures have been taken (SPREP, 1980). (Eds), The traditional knowledge and management Turtles are now rare and there has been serious depletion of coastal systems in Asia and the Pacific. of giant clam Tridacna spp. (Wodzicki, 1973), but there Unesco/ROSTEA, Jakarta, Indonesia. Pp. 7-38. is no evidence of depletion of other marine resources Laboute, P. (in press). Mission to the Tokelau Islands to (Hooper, 1985). The potentially most threatening evaluate cyclone damage to coral reefs. SPREP environmental hazard is that posed by increasing Topic Review 31. South Pacific Commission, sea-levels due to global warming. Threats to freshwater Noumea, New Caledonia. supplies, land loss and episodic destruction through Marshall, KJ. (1976). Critical marine habitats and insect hurricanes may make the country uninhabitable, if the control in the South Pacific. Proceedings ofthe SPC worst case scenarios are realised (Pemetta, 1988). and lUCN Second Regional Symposium on Conservation ofNature, Apia, Western Samoa, June. Because of the small size of the island, and the number (Unseen) of people it supports, most conservation measures reflect Parham, B.E.V. (1971). The vegetation of the Tokelau the need to protect the "human" environment. For Islands with special reference to plants of Nukunonu example, tree planting is one of the principal aims of an Atoll. New Zealand Journal ofBotany 9: 576-609. annual conservation week. It has recently been reported Pemetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea that some 47ha of land on Nukunonu has been designated level rise: a relative impact rating for countries of the a protected area by the local Council of Elders, with South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the adjoining reef areas to be added at a later date (B. Lear, task team on the implications of climatic change in pers. comm., 1990). More detailed information is not the Mediterranean. Split, Yuogslavia, 3-7 October. available. However, this development is in line with Pp. l-Il. previous recommendations (Dahl, 1986) that remaining SPREP (1980). Tokelau. Country Report 12. South forest on Nukunonu should be protected. Dahl (1986) Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 4 pp. also suggests that the establishment marine reserves SPREP (1989). Tokelau. Paper presented at the might become necessary if traditional conservation Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature measures cease to be effectively applied. Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 2 pp. Addresses Toloa, F. and Gilleu, R. (1989). Aspects of traditional marine conservation on Tokelau. Case Study 31. Director of Agriculture and Fisheries, Office of Tokelau Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Affairs, Apia, Western Samoa Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. References 5 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review ofthe protected areas system Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Davis, S.D., Droop, S J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Wodzicki, K. (1973) The Tokelau Islands - environment, Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we natural history and special conservation problems. know"} lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Paper 10, Section 3. Proceedings and Papers, UK. 488 pp. Regional Symposium on Conservation of Nature - Hinds, VJ. (1969/71). A rapid fisheries reconnaissance Reefs and Lagoons. South Pacific Commission, in the Tokelau Islands, August 18-25, 1971. South Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 63-68. Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. (Unseen) 238 KINGDOM OF TONGA Area Total land area of 747 sq. km, spread over The 1961 Forest Act provides for the establishment of 347,282 sq. km of sea (IDEC, 1990) forest reserves, the conservation of important "culUire trees" used in traditional crafts, and the protection of PopulaUon Approximately 101,000 (IDEC, 1990) (1990) water catchments (Eaton, 1985). Natural increase: 0.84% per annum The 1915/1974 Birds and Fish Preservation Act limits or Economic Indicators prohibits the catching or injuring of certain species of GNP: US$ 800 per capita fish, birds and turtles and establishes the legal authority to fine and imprison offenders, and confiscate equipment Policy and Legislation The role of parks, reserves and used to catch protected animals. Under the provisions of protected areas, according to IDEC (1990), is to prevent the Act, the two major lagoons of Tongatapu, Fanga'uta depletion or extinction of valuable wildlife communities and Fanga Kakau, are protected as areas of and to enrich and improve production of land and marine environmental importance. The trapping of fish without resources; and to protect areas or items of importance for permit, damaging mangroves, drilling, dredging, or Tongan cultural heritage and provide the people of discharging any effluent is prohibited (SPREP, 1985a), Tonga and visitors with places of recreational, although some of these activities continue (P. Thomas, educational and scientific importance. pers. comm., 1989). The Birds and Fish Preservation Act The legal and land tenure system gives the government is weak and it is acknowledged that it requires updating considerable powers to acquire and reserve land for (SPREP, 1980). public purposes. All land is ultimately owned by the The Preservation of Objects of Archaeological Interest Crown, but is divided into four categories: the King's Act (1969) provides for the protection of a number of hereditary estates. Royal family hereditary estates, historical, cultural and archaeological sites, many of hereditary estates for the nobles and matapule, and which are also protected by traditional law. government. The latter two are subdivided by law to provide town and tax (garden) alloUnents which can only Other legislation with provision for environmental be held by Tongans. The 19th century land reforms have protection is reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983). An meant that there is no customary tenure of the found type Environmental Protection Act and a Fisheries Act wers in many other coundies of the South Pacific and thus the under consideration in 1987 (U.F. Samani, pers. comm., establishment of protected areas is generally easier than 1987). in many Pacific nations because much of the land is owned by the state. The foreshore is the property of the International Activities Tonga is not yet party to any Crown and is defined in the Land Act as "land adjacent of the international conventions or programmes that to the sea, alternately covered and left dry by the ordinary directly promote die conservation of natural areas, ebb and flow of the tides and all land adjoining thereunto namely the Convention concerning the Protection of the lying within fifty feet of the high water mark." All World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage teiritorial seas and internal waters are the property of the Convention), the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Crown and may be subject to government restrictions Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of and regulations. Every Tongan has the right to fish in International Importance especially as Waterfowl these waters. There are no traditional fishing rights Habitat (Ramsar Convention). giving villages or individuals exclusive rights to fish or The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the gather shells in certain areas and such rights may have South Pacific 1 has been neither signed nor ratified. never existed in the past (Eaton, 1985). ( 976) Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force The 1976 Parks and Reserves Act provides for "the during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the establishment of a Parks and Reserves Authority and for South Pacific Commission and represents the first the establishment, preservation and administration of attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental parks and reserves". It slates that every park "shall be matters. Among other measures, it encourages the administered for the benefit and enjoyment of the people creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora of Tonga and there shall be freedom of entry and and fauna. recreation therein by all persons. Every reserve, subject Although Tonga is party to the South Pacific Regional to any conditions and resttictions which the Authority Environment Programme the may impose, shall be administered for the protection, (SPREP), 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural preservation and maintenance of any valuable feature of Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region such reserve and activities therein and entry thereto shall (SPREP Convention) has not yet been signed or ratified. be strictly in accordance with any such conditions and The convention entered into restrictions" (SPREP, 1985a). force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and 239 Protected Areas of the World threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the Systems Reviews Tonga, the last remaining Kingdom establishment of protected areas and the regulation of in the South Pacific, lies between 15*30'-22*20'S and activities likely to have an adverse effect on the sf)ecies, 173'00'-176M5'W. There are 17 main islands forming ecosystems and biological processes being protected. three major groups, namely the Vava'u Group However, as this provision only applies to the (143 sq. km) to the north, the central Ha'apai Group convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is (119 sq. km) and the southerly Tongatapu Group most likely to assist with the establishment of marine (256 sq. km). The islands are mainly flat, elevated coral reserves and the conservation of marine species. reefs which cap the peaks of two parallel submarine ridges, although some are high and volcanic in origin. Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which Tonga is party are Brief summaries of the vegetation and coral reefs of most reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983). islands are given in Douglas (1969) and UNEP/IUCN (1988), respectively. The original vegetation on the Administration and Management Under limestone islands comprised lowland rain forest. Reserves Acts, Parks provisions of the 1976 Parks and a However, on the larger islands this has been entirely in within and Reserves Authority was established 1989 cleared (A.L. Dahl, pers. comm., 1989) for settlements and Natural Resources to the Ministry of Lands, Survey and cultivation. According to a 1989 report (Wenzel, in the protect, manage and develop natural areas 1989), Tonga's exploitable indigenous forest was is headed an ecologist and Kingdom. The authority by expected to be exhausted within 3-5 years, although is directly responsible to the environmentalist who whether this has occurred is not known. The best Natural Secretary of Lands, Survey and Resources. examples of volcanic island lowland rain forest are directly responsible to the There are two park rangers found on 'Eua in the Tongatapu Group (Dahl, 1980). In general head of the Authority. In addition to the 1982 some 3,779ha of forest reserve existed on 'Eau authority is also administration of parks and reserves, the (Larsen and Upcott, 1982) along the eastern ridge of the impact assessment of all responsible for environmental island. Subdivision of the area into tax 'apis (leases for physical developments, physical planning and agriculture), and deforestation by government and environmental education. private logging have reduced the indigenous forest of these reserves (IDEC, 1990). Park management is hampered by shortages of funds and limited development personnel, and there has been only Moss forest occurs on the summit of Kao, and on Tafahi, protected areas. Signposts advertising rules of to the north of the Vava'u Group. Coastal scrub is found prohibiting the destruction or removal of marine life on most islands, and recent lava flows support of have been erected. However, there are no means Casuarina. The islands of Tongatapu, 'Eua and Uta these rules and people are not always aware of enforcing Vava'u in the Vava'u Group all have extensive areas of them; shellfish are still collected from the reef in secondary vegetation, including scrub and grasslands. Ha'atafu Reserve. No biological surveys or inventories Mangroves and Cyperus reed swamp are present, the reserves have been carried out Samani, pers. of GJF- latter especially around the crater lake on Ninafo'ou, an (pers. comm., 1987). R.H. Chesher comm., 1987) isolated volcanic island to the north-west of the Vava'u neglect of park boundaries. reported virtually complete Group. The crater zones of most volcanic islands have parks on the small islands adjacent to The marine distinct, but sparse herbaceous flora (Dahl, 1980; lUCN, are regularly destructively fished. Tongatapu and The 1986). advent of new fishing technology and increasing depletion of fisheries resources indicate that these parks The existing protected areas network covers 4.5% of the are hkely to come under greater threat in the future terrestrial area of Tonga, but nearly 90% of the network (IDEC, 1990). There is an urgent need for improved is accounted for by just one site, namely Fanga'uta and management of existing protected areas. Fanga Kakau Lagoons Marine Reserve. Thus, protected habitats are largely marine or littoral and, according to No baseline information or inventory has been Dahl (1980), include mangrove forest, possibly non-tidal conducted at any of the marine park sites other than a salt marshes in Fanga'uta Lagoon, sea turtle nesting brief overview in 1984 (Chesher, which revealed 1985), areas, sea grass beds, animals in sediments, algal, barrier, extensive damage due to destructive fishing methods in fringing and lagoon reef formations, beach, and open the Pangaimotu reef area, long-term coral damage in the lagoon. Monuafe area and extensive coral damage of unknown cause in the Malinoa Island area. A recent review Habitats that are omiued from the protected area system (Pemetta, 1988) suggests that the potential impact of are largely terrestrial and include lowland rain forest, climate change and sea-level rise could have severe savanna, grasslands, freshwater marsh, rock desert, reed impacts with economic and social disruption, with swamp, permanent lake, seabird rookeries, as well as inter-island movement of populations, and emigration. marine lake, offshore environments and submarine Clearly marine and coastal protected are also under trenches (Dahl, 1980). Efforts to incorporate remaining considerable threat fragments of lowland tropical rain forest in the protected areas system included an attempt to establish Vaomapa Park on Tongatapu, although the lease securing the site 240 Tonga has lapsed and the site is no longer protected (SPREP, Tonga and summarise the relevant existing information 1989). A long-standing proposal to gazette a l,400ha in a single document; determine the environmental protected area on 'Eua has not yet been implemented, participants in the Kingdom and their resources needs; although funding for preliminary surveys and facilities discover environmental resource needs that are not being has been sought from the New Zealand govemmenL The met and identify these as problems; and recommend a proposed park area includes fringing reefs, coastal plan of action to deal with existing and projected regions, eastern ridge and terrace, and ridge summit, environmental problems. The plan includes coverage on with rain forest and important bird habitats (Dahl, 1980). demography and economics, geomorphology, mineral The park would also contain some of the last stands of resources and coastal processes, fisheries, tourism, sandalwood remaining in the Pacific, a number of wildlife conservation and management, the institutional plant species with restricted distributions and and legal framework, and a strategy for implementing Matalanga-'a'Maui natural limestone bridge (SPREP, the recommendations in the plan. 1985a). A number of recommendations concerning the An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South development of protected areas are made in the plan. Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b) has been prepared. Community participation in the site selection, research, The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation monitoring and protection of parks and reserves will education, conservation policy development, assist in long-term park management, including establishment of protected areas, effective protected establishment of local park or reserve committees to area management and regional and international maintain or assist in the management of local resources. cooperation. Priority recommendations for Tonga are as Within the framework of community parks, new marine follows: develop and implement intensive public and land parks should be gazetted, including Vava'u education and training programmes, including radio Coral Gardens, Neiafu Harbour Wreck and Swallows broadcasts on environmental conservation, and grants cave, all on Vava'u. The plan identifies a number of for overseas study on environment-related disciplines; opportunities for further protected areas, namely survey all potential protected areas, followed by microparks, resource parks, mangrove parks, botanical preparation of management plans and provision of funds gardens, steep-slope forest, turtle and wildlife resources for management; develop a national environmental islands, coastal littoral forest and water reserves parks. strategy; prepare resource inventories to help identify At present there are no officially designated forest areas of critical importance for resource conservation; sanctuaries, although some forests on steep coastal and exchange between countries in the region of slopes and on some volcanic islands with difficult or environmental expert staff for short periods, to cooperate dangerous access are unofficially protected. The in addressing specific problems and in exchanging ideas remaining indigenous forests should be divided into (SPREP, 1985b). parks, reserves and sanctuaries depending on their present condition and status. The proposed national park number of these recommendations have been acted A on 'Eua, designed to protect forest on the steep slopes of upon. A government department of public information south-east 'Eua and to prevent erosion, should be set up has been set up in the Prime Minister's Office to in accordance with the recommendations of the Ministry coordinate public education and the spread of of Lands, Survey and Natural Resources. The proposed environmental information from government ministries. 'Ohonua water supply reserve on 'Eua should be Radio broadcasting, however, is seen as less effective than implemented by insisting on the maintenance of a 50m video, itself a very popular medium, for disseminating border of forest adjacent to all streams and tributaries in environmental information. An aerial photography survey the area. Compliance by landowners should be enforced has been completed which may provide the basis for a and seedling trees made available to replant areas which nationwide review of potential protected areas have already been cleared. Mount Talau National Park (R.H. Chesher, pers. comm., 1990). in Vava'u should be established. The plan also makes a series of recommendations aimed at increasing public As one response to the Action S trategy , a comprehensive involvement, monitoring and research. A series ofpolicy Environmental Management Plan (IDEC, 1990) was recommendations covers institutional, legal and published in 1990, in a cooperative effort between the regulatory issues, monitoring and assessment, and United Nations Economic and Social Commission research. (UN/ESCAP) and the Government of Tonga. The plan was formally introduced during a three-day symposium Dahl (1980) recommends gazetting the following in August 1990 in Nuku'alofa. Responsibility for the reserve types: forest reserves on Tafahi or Niuatoputapu, compilation of the plan was undertaken by the for endemic birds, and perhaps other volcanic islands, Interdepartmental Environment Committee (IDEC), viz. Tofua, Kao, Lalo, ' Ata or Toku; other areas of 'Eua comprising Lands, Survey and Natural Resources of botanical interest; samples of other terrestrial biomes (Chairman); Health; Foreign Affairs; Agriculture, not yet protected; marsh, lake and lagoon habitats, Fisheries and Forestry; Works; Labour, Commerce and namely Niuafo'ou, Kao and 'Uta Vava'u; and further Industries, Central Planning; and Tonga Visitors Bureau. marine areas to include a full range of marine biomes, The objectives of the environmental management plan especially outside Tongatapu. Much of this is reiterated are to: examine the existing state of the environment in 241 Protected Areas of the World by Dahl (1986) with the recommendation to gazette 'Eua Larsen, A. and Upcott, A. (1982). A study of the forest National Park, a protected area on 'Ata and some resources of 'Eua Island and their potential for protected areas on Niuafo'ou and Kao. Other small future management. Chandler, Eraser And Larsen, reserves should be considered for particular features, and Rotonia, New Zealand. 125 pp. (Unseen) there should be an extended role for coral reef reserves Pemetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea in managing coastal fisheries with the support of the level rise: a relative impact rating for countries of the local population. It is intended that the Parks and South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the Reserves Authority will review proposals for terrestrial task team on the implications of climatic change in and marine parks, with a view to implementation. the Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 OctobCT. Pp. 1-11. Addresses SPREP (1980). Tonga. CountryReport 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 60 pp. Parks and Reserves Authority, Ministry of Lands, Survey SPREP (1985a). Tonga. In: Thomas. P.EJ. (Ed.), Report and Natural Resources, PO Box 5, Nuku'alofa of the Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Country reviews. References South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 211-216. Chesher, R. H. (1985). Practical problems in coral reef SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for protected areas in utilization and management: A Tongan study. In: theSouihPacificRegion.SoufhPaciricCommission, Proceedings ofthe FtfthCoralReefCongress,T3t\iU. Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 Pp. 213-217. pp. SPREP (1989). Tonga. Paper presented at the Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 3 pp. Caledonia. 99 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Dahl, A.L. {\9?i6). Review of the protected areas system Volume 3: Central and Eastern Pacific. in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Cambridge UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Davis, S.D., Droop, S J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Venkatesh, S., Va'ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we overview of environmental protection legislation in knowl lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, the South Pacific Countries. SPREP Topic Review UK. 488 pp. 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Oceanic Caledonia. 63 pp. Islands. Micronesica 5(2): 327-463. Wenzel, L. (1989). Environment and change in the Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation in the Pacific: a survey of resource use in Fiji, Solomon South Pacific. SPREP Topic Review 17. South Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu and Western Samoa. INR Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. Environmental Studies Report No. 43. Institute of 103 pp. Natural Resources, The University of the South Interdepartmental Environment Committee. (1990). Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 95 pp. Environmental Management Plan for the Kingdom of Tonga. Economic and Social Committee for Asia and Pacific. Bangkok, Thailand. 197 pp. 242 Tonga ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Parks and Reserves Act Designation: Not applicable Date: 21 September 1976 (Royal Assent: 22 January NB: See The Birds and Fish Preservation (Amendment) Act, 1974 1977) Brief description: Provides for the establishment of Title: The Birds and Fish Preservation a Parks and Reserves Authority and for the (Amendment) Act, 1974) establishment, preservation and administration of parks and reserves. The Authority may, with consent Date: 17 September 1974 (Royal Assent 26 June of the Privy Council, declare any area of land or sea 1975) to be a park or reserve and in the same manner declare any park or reserve to cease to be such. Administrative authority: Enforcement officers include police, fisheries and agricultural officers Administrative authority: Parks and Reserves Authority, established in 1989 within the Ministry of Description: Amends the Birds and Fish Lands, Survey and Natural Resources. Preservation AcL The Act is to be read and construed as one with The Birds and Fish Preservation Act ("the Designation: Principle Act"). Park Subject to any conditions and restrictions Section 2 of the Principle Act is amended by defming which the Authority may impose, shall be "protected area". administered for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of Tonga and there shall be freedom of entry Designation: and recreation therein by all persons (s.7). Protected area Any area comprising land, ot water, Reserve Subject to any conditions and restrictions as specified in the Third Schedule of the Act. which the Authority may impose, shall be Section 7 prohibits discharge of effluent etc.; administered for the protection, preservation and erecting buildings etc.; cutting, damaging, removing maintenance of any valuable feature of such reserve, or destroying any mangrove; erecting fish fences or and activities therein and entry thereto shall be fish traps, fish trawling or commercial fishing; or strictly in accordance with any such conditions and carrying out any boring, drilling or dredging restrictions (s.8). operations within a protected area. Marine reserve Administered for the protection, The two major lagoons of Tongatapu, Fanga'uta and preservation and control of any aquatic form of life Fanga Kakau, are declared protected in the Third and any organic or inorganic matter therein (s.lO). Schedule. (Defined as an area of sea). Title: Forests Act All parks and reserves shall be registered and recorded in accordance with the provisions of the Date: 2 November 1961 Land Act (s.4.3). Prohibited activities include: alteration, disturbance, destruction or removal etc. of Administrative authority: Ministry of Agriculture, any feature whether organic or inorganic in any park Fisheries and Forestry or reserve; damage etc. to any notice, fence or Description: Provides for the setting aside of areas building; depositing rubbish in any park or reserve; as forest areas or reserved areas and for the control obstructing, disobeying etc. any instruction issued by and regulation of such areas and of forest produce the Authority (s. 11). and related matters (the King in Council may declare any unal ienated land to be a forest reserve or reserved Title: The Birds and Fish Preservation Act area (s.3) or may revoke such declarations (s.5)). Date: 1915 (amended in 1916, 1934 and 17 September Designation: 1974, gaining Royal Assent on 26 June 1975) Forest reserve Any demarcated forest or proclaimed officers Administrative authority: Enforcement forest reserve but shall not include a village forest include police, fisheries and agricultural officers reserve. Description: Makes provision for the preservation Reserved area Any demarcated area of land or of wild birds and fish proclaimed area of land which may be under grass or 243 Protected Areas of the World scrub which may be needed for afforestation in the on Crown land, no timber can be cut within SO feet future. (c.l5m) of the high-water mark. Village forests Governed by such regulations Designation: No information concerning the protection, control and management of forest produce as the Minister may prescribe. Title: The Preservation of Objects of Archaeological Interest Act Section 4 deflnes activities prohibited within forest reserves and reserved areas, including damage to Date: 1969 forest produce, grazing, clearing land, killing, taking or injuring animals, setting Hres etc. Administrative authority: Committee on Tongan Traditions Title: Land (Timlwr Cutting) Act Brief description: Provides for the preservation of Date: No information objects of archaeological interest. Administrative authority: No information Designation: Conditions can be specified to protect an object of archaeological interest from injury or Brief description: Regulates cutting and taking of removal. trees. Land (Timber Cutting) Regulations (G33/43) state that, where permission is granted to cut timber Miscellany: An Environmental Protection Act and a Fisheries Act were under consideration in 1987. SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map Tonga Protected Areas of Tonga 245 TUVALU Area 26 sq. km land area in approximately Although Tonga is party to the South Pacific Regional 1.3 million sq. km of territorial waters Environment Programme (SPREP), the 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources 8,229 Population (1985) and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Natural increase: No information Convention) has not yet been signed or ratified. The convention entered into force during August 1990. Economic Indicators Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate GNP: No information measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and Policy and Legislation Prior to independence on threatened ot endangered flora and fauna through the 1 October 1978,Tuvalu waspartof theGilbertandEllice establishment of protected areas and the regulation of Islands, and therefore subject to the 1938 Gilbert and activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, Ellice Islands Colony Wild Birds Protection Ordinance ecosystems and biological processes being protected. and the 1975 Wildlife Protection Ordinance; the latter However, as this provision only applies to the was not enforced. Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine The Fourth Development Plan 1987-1991 contains a reserves and the conservation of marine species. chapter entitled Land Management, Environment and Conservation. This states that the government's general Other international and regional conventions concerning aim is to bring about improved "environmental control environmental protection to which Tuvalu is party are through better utilisation of the country's very meagre reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983). land and environmental resources". Administration and Management No information The Prohibited Areas Ordinance and Wildlife Ordinance Systems Reviews Tuvalu comprises nine islands of (1975) provides for the establishment of wildlife fossil coral and other calcareous marine materials, rarely reserves, although none has yet been gazetted, and the exceeding 4m in elevation, with a total land area of protection of seabirds (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). 2,511ha. The islands form a 570km chain which The Ordinance to Provide for the Conservation of describes an arc between 176*E and 180'E. Funafuti, Wildlife (1975, revised 1978) lists 32 fuUy protected bird Nanumea, Nui, Nukufetau and Nukulaelae are atoUs, species and a number with partial protection. P*rovision generally with narrow strips of land on the east and reefs is also made for the declaration of wildlife sanctuaries with scattered islets on the west Nanumanga, Niulakita (Sloth, 1988). There is, however, no legislation for the and Niutao are reef islands consisting of single islets with protection of vegetation (Hay, 1986). brackish internal lakes. Vaitupu is intermediate in type, with a large, but virtually land-locked central lagoon The enactment of legislation to better integrate existing (Douglas, 1969; UNEP/IUCN, 1988; Zann, 1980). Most laws and to provide for Environmental Impact of the natural vegetation has been cleared for cultivation, Assessments has been recommended (ESCAP, 1988). especially for copra production. RhiTophora mucronata mangrove is found in the central swamp on Funafuti. International Activities Tuvalu is not yet party to any Niulao is densely covered by coconut, and Nukunono of the international conventions or programmes that supports small areas of atoll/beach forest (Buckley, directly promote the conservation of natural areas, 1985; Davis et a/., 1986; Douglas, 1969). namely the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Tuvalu's extreme remoteness, small land area and lack Convention), the Unesco Man and the Biosphere of industrial and natural resources pose special problems Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of for development (Zann, 1980). In common with other International Importance especially as Waterfowl Pacific states, budget deficits recur. The country is thus Habitat (Ramsar Convention). dependent upon foreign aid and remittances from expatriates (Paxton, 1985; SPREP, 1981). The major The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the export is postage stamps, earning four times as much as South Pacific (1976) has been neither signed nor ratified. copra, which is the only natural resource exported at Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force present. during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first Major environmental problems are both anthropogenic attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental and natural. The only urban area is on Funafuti and at matters. Among other measures, it encourages the present this is the only area where human activity is creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora having a noticeable impact (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Water and fauna. may be contaminated by both saltwater and sewage, and in short supply during dry spells. Soils are extfemely poor and difficult to manage and improve (SPREP, 247 Protected Areas of the World 1981). The impact of new fishing technology, for Soysa, C, Chia, L.S. and Coulter, W. L. (Eds). Man, example outboard motors, is not yet noticeable, but new land and sea: coastal resource use and management in management controls and fisheries extension work may Asia and the Pacfic. The Agricultural Devekjpment be needed (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). There is great concern Council, Bangkok, Thailand. Pp. 189-198. about the erosion of land areas, but these changes may Buckley, R. (1985). Environmental survey of Funafuti be natural events and beyond the control of any Atoll. Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral reasonable coastal engineering projects. Efforts are Reef Congress, Tahiti 6: 305-310 being made to control coastal erosion with gabion sea Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem survey of the wall construction on almost all islands, but there is little South Pacific Area. SPCIIUCN Technical Paper understanding of the currents and coastal processes 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New involved (Baines, 1982). Caledonia. 99 pp. Dahl, A.L. (1986). y?mew ofthe protected areas system Some of these concerns are reflected in a recent in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and SPREP/ESCAP review of environmental legislation Cambridge, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. and issues in Tuvalu (ESCAP, 1988). The major Davis, S.D., Droop, SJ.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., environmental issues were identified as coastal erosion; Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and detrimental impacts of land reclamation activities; Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we degradation of fisheries resources; inefficient land use knowl lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, practices; pollution, mainly caused by the absence of a UK. 488 pp. sewerage system and lack of proper garbage disposal Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Oceanic sites; and uncontrolled exploitation of flora and fauna, Islands. Micronesica 5(2): 327^463. particularly of turtles and coconut crabs. Increased mean ESCAP (1988). ESCAP environment mission to Tuvalu, sea level, due to global climatic wanning, may pose the 1988. (Unseen) most serious threat In the event of severe sea level rises, Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific. ICBP the loss of freshwater resources, erosion and increased Study Report No. 7. International Council for Bird episodic destruction through hurricanes may force the Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp. evacuation of the country (Pemetla, 1988). Paxton, J. (Ed.). (1989). The Statesman's yearbook 1989-90. The Macmillan Press Ltd, London. Dahl (1980) recommends the establishment of reserves 1691 pp. for small areas of native vegetation, appropriate series of Pemetta, J.C. (1988). Projected climate change and sea reef and lagoon environments, perhaps including level rise: a relative impact rating for countries of the Kosciusko Bank, and seabird and turtle breeding areas, South Pacific Basin. In: MEDU joint meeting of the if any. Dahl (1986) recommends marine protected areas task team on the implications of climatic change in to help control overfishing around Funafuti and Vaitupu. (he Mediterranean. Split, Yugoslavia, 3-7 October. A joint Tourism Council of the South Pacific/Pacific Pp. 1-11. Regional Tourism Development Programme attempted Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature to identify sites of potential tourist interest; suggest conservation as part tourism development in development strategies for nature management/ of the Island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism conservation programmes; advise on information for Development Programme. Tourism Council of the visits to nature sites; and carry out background studies South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 for the establishment of training programmes under pp. SPREP (1981). Tuvalu. Country Report No. 18. South nature conservation legislation (Sloth, 1988). Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. The recent ESCAP (1988) review recommends the 13 pp. establishment of coordinating mechanisms between UNEPAUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. those government departments principally charged with Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP responsibility for environmental issues to ensure more Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. effective resource management. The extent to which lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, these recommendations have been implemented is not UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. known. Venkatesh, S., Va'ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An overview of environmental protection legislation in Addresses the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Ministry of Commerce and Natural Resources, Vaiku, Caledonia. 63 pp. Funafuti Zann, L.P. (1980). Tuvalu's subsistence fisheries. Effects of energy crisis on small craft and References fisheries in the South Pacific. Report 4. Institute of Marine Resources, University of the South Baines, G.B.K. (1982). Pacific islands: development of Pacific, Suva, Fiji. coastal marine resources of selected islands. In: 248 Tuvalu ANNEX Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: The Prohibited Areas Ordinance and Title: Ordinance to Provide for the Wildlife Ordinance Conservation of Wildlife Date: 1975 Date: 1975, revised 1978 Brief description: Provides for the establishment of Brief description: Lists 32 fully protected bird wildlife reserves, although none has yet been species and a number with partial protection. gazetted, and the protection of seabirds. Provision is also made for the declaration of wildlife sanctuaries Administrative authority: No information Administrative authority: No information Designation: No information Designation: No information 249 USA - AMERICAN SAMOA Area 202sq. km Rose Atoll is established under provisions of the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act Population 36,000 (NPS and ASG, 1988) 1966. The basic statutory protection for wildlife refuges Natural increase: No information prohibits entry, disturbance or exploitation of the site, although there are provisions for exceptions Economic Indicators to be made. GNP: No information A number of national natural landmarks have been designated. The objective of the National Natural Policy and Legislation American Samoa is a semi- Landmark Program, administratively created and not autonomous, unincorporated Territory of the United defined in any legislation, is to assist in the preservation States in which most, but not all, of the Articles of the of sites illustrating the geological and ecological US Constitution apply. A constitution was adopted in character of the United States, to enhance the educational 1960 under which the legislature, executive and judicial and scientific value of sites thus preserved, to strengthen branches of government are created. The traditional form cultural appreciation of natural history, and to foster of government, the matai system, primarily comprises a wider interest and concern in the nation's natural the high chiefs. In matters concerning the use of land the heritage (NPS, 1977). traditional system plays a pivotal role and decisions regarding land are still controlled by the matai (NPS and American Samoa National Park has been authorised as ASG, 1988). a national park by the US Congress, under the provisions of federal legislation. Communal tenure exists in American Samoa, with rights to use resources being held in common. The land tenure There is an American Samoa Parks and Recreation Act system is derived from the structure of the family (1980), with provision for the establishment of natural organisation, usually referred to as the matai system. The preserves, conservation preserves and territorial parks, most important social unit is the "aiga", a large extended although none has been established. family headed by a matai, or chief, who holds the traditional title of that family. Each vUlage has matai International Activities American Samoa is not yet titles and land rights belong to the aiga in perpetuity. directly party to any of the international conventions or Land may be passed from one member of the aiga to programmes that promote the conservation of natural another, or to another family when a new matai is areas, namely the Convention concerning the Protection created. Under American Samoa law, a matai is of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World prohibited from selling, giving, exchanging or in any Heritage Convention), the Unesco Man and the way disposing of communal lands to a non-Samoan Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands without the written permission of the Governor. While of International Importance especially as Waterfowl the American Samoan constitution protects Samoans Habitat (Ramsar Convention). The United States is an against alienation of their land, communal land may be active participant in all three conventions, although it is conveyed or transferred for public purposes to the US not known if this involves American Samoa in any way. government or the government of American Samoa, the although this has never been done on a sufficient scale The Convention on Conservation of Nature in the to establish a protected area. South Pacific (1976) has been neither signed nor ratified by either the United States or American Samoa. Known The various protected areas in the country have been as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during established under a diversity of legal acts. Some United 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South States Federal legislation applies, including the 1972 Pacific Commission and represents the ftfst attempt Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. (PL. 92-532; 16 USC 1431-1434), which authorises the Among other measures, it encourages the creation of Secretary of Commerce, with Presidential approval, to protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna. designate ocean water as marine sanctuaries for the purpose of preserving or restoring conservation, The United States is party to the South Pacific Regional recreational, ecological or aesthetic values. Such marine Environment Programme (SPREP), and the 1986 sanctuaries are built around existing, distinctive Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources resources where protection and beneficial use require and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has been signed (25 comprehensive planning and management. A site can be November 1986) but not ratified. The Convention entered nominated by a private party, a state or a state agency. into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls the Once a site has been nominated a public hearing must be upon parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare held in the area most directly affected (Weiting et al., or fragile 1975). Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary was ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment established under the provisions of this Act of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse 251 Protected Areas of the World effect on the species, ecosystems and biological proportion of marginal areas is being cleared. processes being protected. However, as this provision Furthermore, an estimated 1 % of rain forest cover is lost only applies to the Convention area, which by definition annually to plantation cover. One of the consequences of is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the this vegetation clearance has been the increase in establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of erosion, flooding and silting of coastal areas. marine species. Coral reefs, which occur extensively throughout the Administration and Management Administration of country, are described in UNEP/IUCN (1988). Tutuila protected areas falls into two categories: those that are and Manu'a both have fringing reefs rarely more than the responsibility of the territorial government and those 50- 100m in width which are particularly vulnerable to that are mandated under federal legislation. The sedimentation and the effect of run-off carrying American Samoa Department of Parks and Recreation is agricultural fertiliser, herbicides and pesticides, and principally concerned with development of recreation, animal wastes particularly from piggeries. and to date most of the areas designated under the Paiks and Recreation Act are for recreational purposes. An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b) has been prepared. The Fagatele Bay is administered and funded by the National principal goals of the strategy cover conservation Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); it is education, conservation policy locally administered by the Economic and Development development, establishment of protected areas, effective protected area Planning Office. Rose Atoll is administered by the US and regional and international Fish and Wildlife Service and the American Samoa management cooperation. Department of Marine Resources. American Samoa Priority recommendations for American Samoa are as follows: implement recommendations regarding new National Park is the responsibility of the National Park areas for reservation and taking fish; Service. The national natural landmarks are part of a possible reservation of reef area of Ofa; possible reservation programme within the National Park Service, although of forest on Mount Lata; and implementation of a management the precise stams of each site is not known. programme at the Fagatele Bay National Marine In 1975 an American Samoa Recreation Area Sanctuary. In response to both the general and specific Development Plan was issued which provided for recommendations of the Action Plan, fruit bat surveys recreation facilities and also identified national historic have been undertaken by the US-Fish and Wildlife landmarks and national natural landmarks. Service. A recent feasibility study (NPS and ASG, 1988) identified remaining areas critical for protection, leading Le Vaomatua ("tropical rain forest" in the Samoan to the establishment of American Samoa National Park. language) is an active non-governmental organisation Management activities have been initiated in Fagatele established in 1985 local residents concerned with by Bay National Marine Sanctuary. protecting forests, reefs and marshes. Recent successful activities have included advocacy for the establishment Dahl (1980) identifies a number of habitat types that of American Samoa National Park and cancellation of were excluded from the protected areas system prior to the dredging and construction ofa harbour in Leone Bay. the establishment of American Samoa National Park, and provides a list of potential reserves to remedy these Systems Reviews American Samoa comprises five omissions. In a 1986 review, Dahl ( 1 986) states that there volcanic islands and two coral atolls, and is the only is an urgent need for protected areas on Tau, Tutuila and United States territory south of the Equator. Principal Ofu. However, the new national park has included coral vegetation types include lowland tropical evergreen rain reefs, beaches, coastal, lowland, montane and cloud forest up to 300m altitude and montane forest at forest and so probably includes most ecosystems in the 300-700m. Cloud forest is only found on Tau and country. Olosega at 500-930m and small areas of montane scrub occur on Tutuila. Mangroves, and coastal swamps, The Territorial Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan largely consisting of sedges and ferns, are found near the 1980-85, and the American Samoa Coastal Management coast, but have been drastically reduced in coverage, Plan (ASCMP) set out a comprehensive system of parks, being felled for housing and other uses. About two- thirds forest and nature reserves (SPREP, 1980). The ASCMP, of the native vegetation has been disturbed or cleared for which is funded under the National and Oceanic and settlements or agriculture and, for example, littoral forest Atmospheric Administration and op)erates out of the has been almost entirely eliminated from sandy coastal Economic Development Planning Office, has areas. Most of the interior of Tutuila, the main island, is undertaken some conservation activities. The covered by a patchwork of secondary forest mixed with programme has jurisdiction over all land areas and to primary or primary-like forest on the steeper, more the limit of territorial seas. The ASCMP has also inaccessible slopes. Most of the remaining primary initiated a land use permitting system, known as forest on Tutuila is on the central portion of the north the Project Notification and Review System (PNRS). coast (Amerson et al., 1982). The PNRS provides for land-use reviews for any planned construction, which include environmental Although much of the forested interior remains considerations. The ASCMP annually sponsors a inaccessible due to the steep terrain, an increasing 252 USA -American Samoa three-week coastal awareness programme, highlighting Fai'ai, P and Daschbach, N. (1989). American Samoa. coastal and marine conservation issues. Country Review 3. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Addresses Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 10 pp. Government of American Samoa (1975). American Department of Parks and Recreation, US Department of Samoa recreation area development plan: the Interior, PO Box 3809, Pago Pago 96799 1975-1980. American Samoa Park and Recreation National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration, 3300 Board, Pago Pago. 52 Whitehaven NW, Washington DC 20235 pp. National Park Service and American National Park Service, Pacific Area Office, 300 Ala Samoa Government (1988). National Park feasibility Moana Blvd., Box 50165, Room 6305, Honolulu, study. Draft 01/88. National Park Service and HI 96850 American Samoa Government 139 pp. SPREP (1980). American Samoa. Country Report \. References South Pacific Commission, Noumea. Amerson, A.B., Whistler, W.A. and Schwaner, T.D. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. (1982). Wildlife and midlife habitat of American Volume 3. Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Samoa: Environment and ecology. US Fish and Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 1 19 pp. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. South Pacific Area. SPCIIUCN Technical Paper US Department of Commerce (1984). Final 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New environmental impact statement and management Caledonia. 99 pp. plan for the proposed Fagatele Bay National Marine Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review ofthe protected areas system Sanctuary. Sanctuary Programme Division of the in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, Cambridge UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. National Oceanic and Aunospheric Administration, Davis, S.D., Droop, SJ.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., US Department of Commerce, Washington DC. Leon, C J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Weiting, H., Lukowski, S., Buckingham, N., Schamis, M Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we and Humke, J. (1975). Preserving our natural know! rUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, heritage. Volume 1. Federal activities. The Nature UK. 488 pp. Conservancy and US Man and the Biosphere Eaton, P. (1985). Land Tenure and Conservation: Program. 323 pp. Protected Areas in the South Pacific. Report to the South Pacific Commission. 253 Protected Areas of the World ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Parks and Recreation Act in a manner consistent with the preservation of their natural features; Date: 1980 Territorial park or community parks which may be Brief description: There is created the American improved for the purpose of providing public Samoa parks system . The department shall inventory recreational facilities in a manner consistent with the all properties belonging to the government and with preservation and enhancement of the natural the Governor's approval determine which properties features; are included in the park system. The department keeps a list of all areas in the park system according Territorial recreation facilities or community to the classification (see "designations"), with correct recreationfacilities which may be improved for the and accurate descriptions, and provide the purpose of providing public recreation faciUties; Legislature with a current copy of the list (18.0204). Historical and prehistoric objects and sites which Administrative authority: Department of Parks are administered in accordance with federal and Recreation guidelines as set by the Department of the Interior; Designation: Seashore reserves which include underwater land and water areas of the Territory of American Samoa Naturalpreserves which are to remain unimproved; extending from the mean high water line seaward to 10 fathoms is included within the park system and Conservationpreserves which may be improved for administered by the Director in accordance with the purpose of making them accessible to the public 18.0204. SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map USA -American Samoa o CM in -od od- to U5- m to o r>. in -d USA - GUAM Area 541 sq. km (marine area 218,000 sq. km) party to the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (Wwld Heritage Population 120,000 (1990 estimate) Convention) which itaccepted on 7 December 1973. The increase: information Natural No United States became a contracting party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Economic Indicators especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) GNP: US$ 19,197 per capita (USA) on 18 December 1986, although no sites in Guam are Policy and Legislation Guam's constitutional status is included in the List of Wetlands of International that of an unincorporated territory of the United States Importance established under the terms of the of America; military authorities control about one-third Convention. The United States participates in the of the island. Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. To date, 46 biosphere reserves have been declared as part of the The policy on natural resources is that areas important international biosphere reserve network, but none is for recreation, and critical marine and wildlife habitats, located in Guam. "shall be protected through policies and programmes affecting such resources" (Anon., 1985). Areas managed The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the by the government of Guam are protected by the South Pacific (1976) has been neither signed nor ratified. provisions of Public Law No. 12-209 as either natural Known as die Apia Convention, it entered into force preserves or as conservation reserves. Natural preserves during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the are intended to remain unimproved, while conservation South Pacific Commission and represents the first reserves may be managed for the purpose of making attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental diem accessible to the public "in a manner consistent matters. Among other measures, it encourages the with the perpetuation of their natural features". creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora Multiple-use management or recreation areas (national and fauna. historic parks and seashore parks) are created to protect The United States is party to the South Pacific Regional outstanding marine life, terrestrial wildlife, oceanic Environment Programme (SPREP) and the 1986 resources, scenery and cultural heritage, including Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources landscapes resulting from World War II (Anon., 1985). and Environment of die SouUi Pacific Region (SPREP New protected areas of government of Guam ownership Convention) has been signed (25 November 1986) but are added by legislative or administrative action of the not ratified. The convention entered into force during Department of Parks and Recreation. August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all The federal government also administers a number of appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecological reserve areas (research natural areas), which ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and were established on 13 March 1984 by the Chief of fauna through the establishment of protected areas and Naval Operations, United States Navy as physical or the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse biological units in which current natural conditions are effect on the species, ecosystems and biological maintained. There is no direct legislative protection processes being protected. However, as this provision afforded to such areas, which are established and only applies to the Convention area, which by definition managed by virtue of administrative procedures of the is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the appropriate land-holding agency. The US Air Force has establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of also established a natural area, in 1973, and is marine species. responsible for its management. In addition. Federal Administration and Management The Department of Public Law No. 95-348 (1978) created War in the Pacific Parks and Recreation is responsible for the Guam National Historical Park. Territorial Park System, which includes three protected Other relevant legislation specific to conservation in areas (Guam Territorial Seashore Park, Masso River Guam includes the Forestry and Conservation Laws, Reservoir Area and Anao Conservation Area). Territorial Seashore Act, as well as a number of US The development and management of Guam Territorial federal legislative acts. There are several relevant Seashore Park is divided among several agencies: the Executive Orders signed by the Governor of Guam, Department of Parks and Recreation is responsible for including one on the Protection of Wetlands (Anon., coordination, planning, facility maintenance, outdoor 1985) and Executive Order No. 87-36, which established recreation, historic preservation and scenic resources; Anao Conservation Area. the Department of Agriculture is responsible for wildlife, International Activities At the international level, the marine resources, forestry, fire prevention and soil United States has entered into a number of obligations resources; the Department of Land Management is and cooperative agreements related to conservation. It is responsible for leases and land registration and the Guam 257 Protected Areas of the World Environmental Protection Agency (GEPA) is which is funded by capital originating from outside the responsible for water, air pollution and solid waste territory. There is some concern amongst those public disposal (Anon., 1985). The Division of Forestry and agencies with responsibilities for environmental issues Soil Resources has responsibility for development, that this expansion is damaging natural resources. management and protection of forests and watershed Permits are required for earthmoving and tree felling and resource lands, whilst the US National Park Service is mandatory mitigative measures may be imposed by the responsible for the management and development of government, but rarely enforced (SPREP, 1989). National Park Service areas which are federal protected Furthermore, various "development", "master" and lands. Federal protected areas are also administered by "management" plans have been developed for all or part the US Navy and US Air Force (Anon., 1985). of Guam, and several of these have included provision for nature conservation (SPREP, 1985a). However, none is the westernmost territory of Systems Reviews Guam of these is followed and most are an exercise in has the finest water harbour the United States and deep paperwork (J.E. Miculka, pers. comm., 1990). between Hawaii and the Philippines. With its strategic location and harbour, it can be expected to assume a An action strategy for the development of protected growing importance for American military and trade areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985b), activities in the western Pacific (Anon., 1986). developed by field managers in the region at the technical session of the Third South Pacific National Guam is also the largest and southernmost island of the Parks and Reserves Conference, provides a work in the Pacific Ocean, and has been Marianas Archipelago programme to implement conservation and protected islands for ranked as one of the most important areas objectives. Priority recommendations for Guam in South Pacific (Dahl, Rain conservation the 1986). are: to establish the Hilaan area as a protected area; to forest originally covered most of the island but much has conduct a multimedia public education programme on for mixed been logged and cleared development. The the need for further protected areas; to develop tourism forests on old volcanic soils have been completely programmes to give emphasis to parks and protected forests survive along river destroyed, whilst ravine areas; to complete a survey of proposed protected areas; volcanic and limestone hillslopes. valleys and on some and to facilitate the exchange of management and There are also still some small areas of mangrove resources information, particularly with the Northern (Davis e/ at., 1986). Extensive urban development Marianas. All these measures have been initiated to some island, clearance of land for tourism-related around the degree, although very little progress has been achieved centuries slash agriculture have facilities and of and bum (D. Lolz, pers. comm., 1990). also been responsible for the destruction of natural vegetation cover (Dahl, 1986; Maragos, 1985). Burning Addresses of vegetation is also a major issue, particularly in the south where ensuing erosion exacerbates the problem. Department of Parks and Recreation, 490 Chalan Guam has the highest incidence of wildfire arson in the Palasyo Road, Agana Heights, Guam 96919 US. Other fires are deliberately set for refuse disposal, US National Park Service, War in the Pacific NHP, game fiushing and to stimulate grass regrowth to attract Marine Drive, Asan, PO Box FA, Agana, Guam game. Public laws Nos. 18-29 and 19-34 Section 28 96910 specifically address the problem of fires and their Guam Aquatic and Resource Wildlife Division, Fish and prevention (Anon., 1989) but enforcement is weak. Wildlife Service, PO Box 23367, GAME, Guam MI 96921 fringing, although there are Most coral reefs are two Department of the Navy, US Naval Station, FPO San barrier reef lagoons, namely Apra Harbour, which is now Francisco 96630-100 in the extensively modified, and Cocos Lagoon Department of the Air Force, Headquarters 633D, Air south-west. These, and other reefs, are discussed in more Base Wing (PACAF), APO San Francisco detail in UNEP/IUCN (1988). The principal threats to 96334-5000 coral reefs are dredging and sedimentation, fertiliser run-off, thermal and other types of water pollution. References introduced tree snake irregularis has The brown Boiga Anon. (1986). Guam Annual Economic Review, Guam been implicated in the widespread and severe decline of Department of Commerce. (Unseen) native bird species, of which are restricted a number now Ameit, G.R. (1983). Proposed endangered status for the northern part of (Amett, Carey, to Guam 1983; seven birds and two mammals from the Mariana 1988). Consequently, of the most important areas some Ishnds. Federal Register 4S (230): 53729-53733. for conservation are the northern cliffs and Carey, J. (1988). Massacre on Guam. National Wildlife north-western plateau habitats. 26(5): 13-15. Dahl, A.L. (1986). Review ofthe protected areas system The biggest threat to the environment is unregulated in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and development, most of which is geared towards tourism Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. and its related infrastructure. Guam is presently Davis, S.D., Droop, S J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., undergoing a heavy construction phase, almost all of Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and 258 USA - Guam Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New know! lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Caledonia. Pp. 93-114. protected areas in UK. 488 pp. SPREP (1985b). Action strategy for Maragos, J.E. (1985). Coastal resources development t/icSouz/iFaciyicVfeg/on. South Pacific Commission, and management in the US Pacific Islands. Report to Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp. US Congress Office of Technology Assessment. SPREP (1989). Guam. Paper presented at the Fourth Unpublished. 130 pp. South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation Randall, R.H. and HoUoman, J. (1974). Coastal Survey and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 of Guam. University of Guam Marine Technical September. 5 pp. Report 14. 404 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. SPREP (1980). Country Report 6: Guam. South Pacific Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Commission, Noumea. Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. SPREP (1985a). Guam. In: Thomas, P.EJ. (Ed.),/?eport lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, of the Third South Pacific National Parks and UKAJNEP, Nairobi. Kenya. 378 pp. Reserves Conference. Volume in. Country reviews. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Public Law No. 12-209 Title: Public Law No. 16-62 Date: No information Date: 9 February 1982 Brief description: Provides for the establishment of Brief description: An act to amend sections protected areas by the Government of Guam 26003(g), 26007, 26009(b), to add Articles VI, VII, VIII and IX of Chapter IV, Title XIII all of Administrative authority: Department of Parks Government Code, relative to forestry and and Recreation conservation programs of the Department of Agriculture. Designations: Administrative authority: Department of Parks Natural preserve and Recreation Conservation reserve Territorial park Designations: Community park Conservation reserve The Department, in Recreational facilities (= national historic park, cooperation with the Department of Parks and seashore park) Recreation, shall control and manage lands and water areas that have been set aside by the government of Title: Public Law No. 95-348 Guam as conservation reserves. Such control and management shall have as its objectives, the wise use Date: 18 August 1978 of the soil, water, plants and animals of the reserves. Consistent with this objective, the Director, with the Briefdescription: Provided for the establishment of concurrence of the Director of the Department of the War in the Pacific National Historical Park Parks and Recreation, may establish and enforce rules for economic use. Administrative authority: US National Park Service Designations: War in the Pacific National Historical Park 259 1 Protected Areas of the World SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map^ Nationdllinternadonaldesigntttion lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Ecological Reserve Areas 1 Maputo IV 2 Orote Peninsula Natural Reserve 3 Masso River Reservoir Area Natural Area 4 Pali Point Conservation Reserves 5 Anao 6 Bolanos (Chalan Palii) Cotal 8 Schroeder 9 Y-Piga Territorial Seashore Park 10 Guam Territorial S eashore Park National Historic Park 1 War in the Pacific USA - Guam licit lourci : DepsrbKnl «/ Parti and Ktertation, tii Chslin Palatyo tMi, Jfou fliijfil*, i;ou, am 9(9(0 MftoMl firt Arvtci ffSiS). rcr in llu ftct/u: Sfilaml -US' fvr HoHfncnl. SWP T'W} Own. In: Thamt, P.I.J. (U.), Rnorl 0/ tht Tkiri South Puifie Ailionil Farti and Jleicrvci fon/croui. rolim ///.Country /JtvioM. South Patifie Cnmiiton, Xoima, Km Calidonia. Pf. SS-II4. -a.v ^ IVoitetcd irtoi pmjtam .- mam tati Prinltd ; kfni 1331 K»0iro»i0C emrti t44j6* I Protected Areas of Guam 261 USA -HAWAII Area 16,760 sq. km (land area) The fu"st modem conservation measures in Hawaii were taken in 1903 when the US Forestry Service established Population 1,062,000(1986) a professional forestry programme. The early focus was Natural increase: information No on soil and water conservation rather than natural habitats and included removal of feral cattle from forest Ek:onoinic Indicators areas and the establishment of fenced forest reserves. GNP: No information Nevertheless, these measures are believed to have been Policy and Legislation Legislation exists at both the critical in helping to preserves much of the biological state and federal levels. The major texts covering diversity found today (Holt, 1989). protected areas include the Federal Land Policy and The establishment of national parks in Hawaii was the Management Act of 1976 (which requires the inventory, earliest major project expressly for habitat assessment and planning of all federal lands); the Fish conservation (Holt, 1989). Hawaii National Park was and Wildlife Act of 1956; the Coastal Zone Management created on 1 August 1916 by Act of the US Congress Act of 1972; the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (39 Stat. 432) and consisted of two units each on (streamlined in 1982 and supplemented in 1983 by the different islands; one on Hawaii Island and the other on International Environment Protection Act); the Maui Island. The area of the park was more than doubled National Policy Act of 1969; and the Fish and Wildlife as a result of Congressional authorisation in 1922 Improvement Act of 1978. More specific acts of the US (45 Stat 503), in 1928 (45 Stat. 424) and in 1938 Congress which affect the conservation of areas include (52 Stat. 781). The 'Ola'a Forest Tract was donated in the Wilderness Act (16 USC 1131), Water Resources 1951 and 1953 (Executive Order #1640). The park was Planning Act of 1965 (42 USC 1962), Concessions split into Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (on Hawaii Policy Act of 1965 (16 USC 20), and the Solid Waste Island) and Haleakala National Park (on Maui Island) in Disposal Act of 20 October 1965 (PL 89-272). Other acts 1961 (75 StaL 577). Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is include the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries protected under 16 USC 1 (National Park Service Act which authorises the Secretary of Commerce to Organic Act) and under the terms establishing the park designate ocean waters as marine sanctuaries. In the case as set out in 16 USC 395b, and under several sections of of wetland protection, the main legislative provisions are 16 USC 391-396a, which specifically pertain to the Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929, the Haleakala. Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act of 1934, the Pittman-Robertson Act of 1937 and the Land The Hawaii Natural Area Reserves System was Conservation of 1965. Regulations and Water Fund Act established under the provisions of Hawaii Revised published by the Department of Agriculture in 1983 Statutes. 195-1 etseq. in 1970, to "preserve in perpetuity called for the maintenance of habitats in order to sustain specific land and water areas which support viable populations of flora and fauna. controlling The communities, as relatively unmodified as possible, of the legislation for the activities of the Fish and Wildlife natural flora and fauna, as well as geological sites of Service is the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of Hawaii". 1958 (16 USC 1531) (a supplement to the 1956 Act) and a number of international treaties. Marine life conservation districts are created by administrative authority of the Division of Fish and The State of Hawaii controls land three principal by Game of the Department of Land and Natural Resources, means: the Land Use Law, the Hawaii Environmental and are established under the provisions of Hawaii Impact Statement Law and the Coastal Zone Revised Statute s. 190-1. The same Division takes Act. The Land Law provides for the Management Use responsibility for state wildlife sanctuaries, also creation of a Land Use Commission which has classified established by administrative action. some 46% of land area as conservation area, the use of which is controlled by the governing Board of the International Activities The US ratified the Department of Land and Natural Resources (the Land Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Board). Land with a Conservation Disuict classification especially as Waterfowl Habitats (Ramsar Convention) includes national and state parks, lands with a slope of on 18 December 1986, although no sites have yet been more than 20* or more, land in existing forestry or water listed in Hawaii. The Convention concerning the reserves, and marine waters and offshore islands. In Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage reality, only lands widiin the Protective "P" Subzone (World Heritage Convention) was ratified on of the Conservation District are protected for 7 December 1973 and Hawaii Volcanoes National Parks "conservation" reasons, for example all north-western was inscribed on the Worid Heritage List in 1987. The Hawaiian islands with the exception of Midway Atoll US is also party to the Unesco Man and the Biosphere (CaUies, 1989). Programme, and Hawaii Islands Biosphere Reserve, comprising Haleakala and Hawaii Volcanoes national 263 Protected Areas of the World parks, has been accepted as pan of the international responsibilities, manages marine life conservation biosphere network. districts, wildlife refuges and bird sanctuaries under authority granted by law through regulations of the Conservation of Nature in the The Convention on the Board of Land and Natural Resources. The Division also Pacific has been neither signed nor ratiHed. South acts in advisory capacity to the State Natural Area Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force Reserves Systems Commission. The Division of during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the Forestry manages the state's forest resources in a series Pacific Commission and represents the first South of forest reserves, under the principle of multiple use, environmental attempt within the region to coojjerate on namely: protection and management of water resources; it encourages the matters, among other measures, forest recreation; forest management, including areas to preserve indigenous flora creation of protected timbering, fire and pest control and reforestation; and fauna. grazing; and protection and conservation of wildlife habitat and natural forest ecosystems. In the area of flora The United States is party to the South Pacific Regional and fauna preservation, the goal of the Forestry Division Environment Programme, and the 1986 Convention for is to "protect and preserves unique native plant and the Protection of the Natural Resources and animal species, and examples of relatively unmodified Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP native forest ecosystems for their productive value to Convention) has been signed (25 November 1986) but science, education and the cultural or scientific not yet ratified. The Convention entered into force enrichment or satisfaction of future generations". during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile The Natural Area Reserves System Commission, threatened or flora and ecosystems and endangered appointed by the Governor of Hawaii, and part of the establishment protected areas and fauna through the of Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse the major state land management agency, recommends, to biological effect on the species, ecosystems and the Department and the Governor, areas for inclusion; this provision processes being protected. However, as recommends policies on controls and uses of areas applies to the Convention area, which by definition only within the system; advises on preservation of natural is it is likely to assist with the open ocean, most areas; and develops ways to extend and strengthen establishment reserves and the conservation of of marine established natural areas. The Governor must approve marine resources. the nominations by Executive Order. Once an area is included in the system, removal, except through trade for Administration and Management The National Park another area, is also through Executive Order. Natural Service (NPS) was established by the Act of 25 August area reserves are selected on the basis of diversity, rarity 1916 (39 Stat 535) under the Federal Department of the and viability (TNCH and DFW, 1989). Interior. National parks and other categories of lands within the national park system are established by The Fish and Wildlife Service administers the National individual acts of Congress, except national monuments Wildlife Refuge System, including Hawaiian Islands which can created the President on Federal lands, be by NWR, which, according to statute, aims to preserve and by proclamation under the authority of the Antiquities manage the habitats of waterfowl, threatened species, Act of June 1906. The Service manages Hawaii 8 big game and other fauna and flora. Volcanoes National Park and Haleakala National Park to preserve outstanding scenic, geological, and The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii (TNCH) was biological values, and to ensure their availability for founded in 1980 as an affiliate of a nation-wide, public use and enjoyment to the extent compatible with non-profit conservation organisation which had its resource preservation. NPS historic areas have different beginnings in 1917 and is the leading non-governmental primary management goals, although natural resource organisation in the field of nature conservation in conservation is required. Hawaii. The mission of both the national and Hawaii groups is "to find, protect, and maintain the best The responsibility for management and administration examples of communities and ecosystems, and of the public lands of the state of Hawaii rests with the endangered species in the natural world". Through Board of Land and Natural Resources, appointed by the conventional real estate negotiations and innovative Governor. Actions the are carried out the of Board by practices such as "conservation easements" (paying of Natural Resources' Department Land and six landowners for allowing use of their land for divisions: Land Management, Conveyances, Forestry, conservation), TNCH has acquired, and is continuing to Fish and Game, State Parks, Outdoor Recreation and acquire, key natural areas. TNCH makes extensive use Historic Sites, and Water and Development Land (HRS of volunteer workers, and includes a Board of Trustees s. 171-3). The Division of State Parks, Outdoor (largely comprising influential business people) and a Recreation and Historic Sites carries the responsibilities Scientific Advisory Committee, comprising University, for preserving state parks "in their natural condition so State, private and Federal scientists. TNCH has far as may be consistent with their use and safety", while developed the Hawaii Heritage Program (HHP), a making improvements for the use and enjoyment of the sophisticated inventory and database to optimise the public. The Division of Fish and Game, amongst other 264 USA - Hawaii selection of further acquisitions (Newman, 1989; Stone sedge-dominated associations), herblands, and pioneer and Holt, 1987). associations on lava and cinder substrates (lUCN, 1991). Systems Reviews The Hawaiian Archipelago is the Forest formations include subalpine, montane and longest and most isolated chain of tropical islands in the lowland, extending firom sea level to above 3,000m on world, stretching about 2,300km from Hawaii in the the slopes of the region's highest mountain. Coastal south-east to Kure Atoll in the north-west. Considerable forests are found on one of the north-western Hawaiian geophysical evidence suggests that the entire chain Islands, an offshore islet near Molokai, and other main formed as a result of tectonic motion of the Pacific plate islands of Kaua'i.O'hau, Moloka'i, Maui and Hawaii. over a relatively stationary hotspot in the mande of the Lowland forest occurs below 1 ,000m on Kaua'i, O'hau. earth. Hawaii, the youngest island at about 0.8 million Moloka'i, Maui, Lana'i and Hawaii. Historically such years old, is situated over the hotspot and contains the forests were present on the islands of Ni'ihau and most active volcano in the world, Kilauea, included Kaho'olawe, but these were lost to development or within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Steady crustal displaced by alien species. Montane forests are found movement is transporting each island land mass between 1,000 and 2,000m and are dry to mesic on north-westwards, eventually breaking connection with leeward slopes and mesic to wet on windward slopes. the hotspot. As a result, the islands to the north-west of Montane forests are well developed on Kaua'i, Hawaii become progressively older and more effected Moloka'i, Maui and Hawaii. On the islands of Lana'i and by subsidence and erosion. All of the islands north-west O'hau, the highest forests are similar to montane wet of Gardner Pinnacles, the last island in the chain with forests on higher islands, but these forests occupy limited subaerial basalts, are either atolls, coral islands or reefs area and include lowland elements. Subalpine forests are and shoals of limestone construction. Midway Atoll, the known only from the two largest and geologically second to last island in the chain, has been dated at youngest islands: Maui and Hawaii. Shrubland 27+/-0.6 million years old. Beyond Kure Atoll the chain formations are also found, ranging in altitude from sea continues as a series of drowned atolls or seamounts level to sub-alpine. Most types are in dry and mesic which extend all the way to Kamchatka (UNEP/IUCN, settings that limit forest formations, or on cUffs or slopes 1988). too steep to support trees. Eleven native Hawaiian grassland types, including sedge-dominated associations The geography of the Hawaiian Islands is complex. are found in coastal, lowland, montane and subalpine Those islands to the south-east are the summits of some regions. Hawaiian herblands are also found across the of the largest mountains in the world, measured from full altitudinal range. Pioneer vegetation is well their bases, Mauna Loa extending some 9,756m. Some developed in the active and recent volcanic settings of of the older high islands are deeply eroded with the islands of Maui and Hawaii. spectacular river valleys such as Waipio Valley in Hawaii, lao Valley on Maui and Halawa Valley on In spite of their low diversity, coral reefs are well Molokai. All of these are heavily vegetated with many developed. Their community structure, succession and endemic species of flora and fauna. A rise in sea level of development throughout the archipelago has been approximately 130m during the Holocene has created reviewed by Grigg (1983). Reefs are best developed on many bays and estuaries in the drowned heads of river leeward (south and south-western) coasts or in bays valley systems, particularly on the older islands. The sheltered from wave action. These include many sites islands to the north-west are much simpler because they along the Kona Coast and Kealakekua Bay on Hawaii, are low rocky islets or coral islands at sea level. The Molokini "lagoon", the south-east coast of Molokai, climate is mainly tropical but approaches sub-tropical in Hanauma Bay and some reefs near Barbers Point on the extreme north-west. Mild temperatures, moderate Ohau, and the lagoons of the north-western Hawaiian humidity and persistent north-easterly tradewinds are Islands, including Midway and Kure (UNEP/IUCN, typical, whilst rainfall patterns that can vary from very 1988). Other important coastal ecosystems include heavy to very light, mainly influenced by altitude, have marshes, streams and stream-mouth estuaries, lagoons encouraged the development of a wide variety of and beaches. terrestrial ecosystems (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The Hawaiian biota is characterised by both a high The native vegetation of Hawaii varies greatly according diversity and endemism, caused by 40 million years of to altitude, prevailing moisture and substrate. The most isolation and adaptive radiation. The native flora is recent classification of Hawaiian natural communities estimated at some 1,000-1,500 species, whilst recognises nearly 100 native vegetation types arthropods number 6,500- 1 0,000 and native bird species categorised in a hierarchy of elevation, moisture and about 100. However, extinction, or the threat of physiognomy. Within these types are numerous extinction, is also characteristic, and although Hawaii island-specific or region-specific associations: an possesses only some 0.2% of the land mass and 14.3% extremely rich array of vegetation types occurs within a of the native birds and plants of the United States, it very limited geographic area. Major vegetation contains 27.8% of the threatened birds and plants and formations include forests and woodlands, shrublands, 72.1% of extinct birds and plants (DLNR, n.d.). Nine grasslands (including savannas, tussock grasslands, and endemic bird species have populations of less than 50 individuals and at least 57 bird species have become 265 Protected Areas of the World extinct, most in the last 200 years. Ayensu and E>eFilipps State Natural Areas Reserve System, forest reserves and (1978) list 646 candidate "endangered" species, 197 the national wildlife refuge are key elements in the candidate "threatened" and 270 presumed extinct plant conservation of biological diversity. The Natural Areas species, subspecies and varieties in the Hawaiian islands, Reserves System currendy covers 20 sites which were which together comprise some 50% of the total selected on the basis of biological diversity and indigenous flora. This is largely due to the impact of relatively undamaged natural conditions. Holt (1989) introduced flora and fauna and introductions can be discusses the effectiveness with which both State and traced back to the arrival of Polynesians around AD400, Federal protected areas achieve conservation goals, and who were accompanied by domestic pigs, jungle fowl, also provides a definition of protected natural area which dogs, Polynesian rats and various stowaway geckoes, demands lasting legal protection firom destructive uses skinks and snails. The Polynesians also actively and an active management programme. State forest cultivated the land and as much as 80% of the lowland reserves and conservation districts arejudged not to meet forest was drastically effected. European visitors, from the definition; State natural area reserves, sanctuaries 1778 onwards, introduced goats (1778), cattle and sheep and Alaka'i Wilderness Preserve meet the definition in (1793), horses (1803), axis deer (1867), European pigs general as do the preserves of The Nature Conservancy; and more recenUy pronghom antelope, mouflon sheep, National parks, and the national wildlife refuges are brush-tailed rock wallaby. Rocky Mountain mule deer deemed to have effective legal protection and the most and Columbian black-tailed deer (Degener and Degener, comprehensive management programmes ofany class of 1961) as well as numerous plants. At least 1 1 1 new plant protected area in the State. The existing network, which arrivals are recorded between 1778 and 1839 and in total includes Federal, State and private protected areas, is there are some 4,500 exotic plants throughout the considered to protect 46 of the 1 80 natural communities islands (Berger, 1975), although only some 2% of these recognised by The Nature Conservancy. Some 88 are serious invaders of native ecosystems (Stone and community types which lie outside the current network Loope, 1987). As many as 16 insects are accidentally are regarded as being in critical need of protection. Holt introduced annually (Beardsley, 1962). The most severe (1989) makes three recommendations for the further documented impacts have been caused by feral goats, development of the protected areas network: the through grazing on species that have evolved in the protection of critically imperilled natural communities absence of such pressure, and pigs, by encouraging the must be ensured; active management must be established dispersal of exotic plant species and the direct effect of in existing areas; and conservation techniques for island their digging activities (Atkinson, 1977; Stone and ecosystems must be developed. Loope, 1987). One specific example of the impact of Demand on land around protected areas is increasing, introduced species is the severe damage to the fragile removing buffering areas reducing still further ecosystem of Laysan Island by rabbits; as a direct result and the extent of near-native ecosystems. Other threats of this, several endemic terrestrial birds became extinct, include other namely Laysan millerbird Acrocephalus familiaris geolhermal and energy developments, hunting and recreational ranching, familiaris, Laysan honeycreeper Himatione sanguinea uses, agriculture and timber management, housing heavy industry (Stone freethi, and Laysan ml Porzanapalmeri (Anon., 1985) and and Loope, 1987). Terrestrial protected areas management priorities almost invariably include programmes to control non-native Addresses species, and activities including fencing, live- and National Park Service, Pacific Office, kill-trapping, baiting and snaring. Programmes to Area 300 Ala eliminate exotic flora have been developed, including Moana Boulevard, Box 50165, Room 6305, Honolulu, the use of selective herbicides. The prospects for HI 96850 long-term survival of native species within protected Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wildlife Refuge areas depends on the intensity of long-term management. Complex, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, PO Box 50167, Room Honolulu, HI There is evidence that native flora will survive if pigs 5302, 96850 The Nature Conservancy of 1 1 Street, and goats are held in check, and that native birds in turn Hawaii, 16 Smith Suite (Tel: will survive if sufficient habitat remains, as will native 201, Honolulu, HI 96817 808 537 4508; 545 invertebrates, although exotic ants, rats and mongooses FAX: 808 2019) Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1151 will have to be controlled (Stone and Loope, 1987). It is Punchbowl Street, also common practice to allow hunting by members of Honolulu the public, and hunting is frequently carried out by managers of protected areas. References Anon. Both national parks were established principally on the (1985). Plan approved for three songbirds of the basis of their geological interest and while they also northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Endangered Species contain significant biological resources they do not Technical Bulletin 10 (2): 8-10 protect the entire range of habitat for native taxa Atkinson, I.A.E. (1977). A reassessment of factors, (R. Kam, pers. comm., 1991). Thus the acquisitions and particularly Rattus rattus L., influencing the decline easements of The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, the of endemic forest birds in the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Science 2\Ciy. 109-113. 266 USA - Hawaii Ayensu, E.S. and De Filipps, R.A. (1978). Endangered Hawaii. University of Hawaii Cooperative National and threatened plants of the United States. Park Resources Study Unit, Honolula Pp. 168-174. Smithsonian Institution and World Wildlife The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii and Division of Fund-US, Washington. 403 pp. Forestry and Wildlife (1989). State of Hawaii. Berger, AJ. (1975). Hawaii: a dubious distinction. Natural Areas Reserves Systems: Biological Defenders 50(6): 49 1 -496. Resources and Management Priorities. Summary Callies, D.L. (1989). Land use planning and priorities in Report. 26 pp. Hawaii. In: Stone, C.P. and Stone, D.B. (Eds.), Newman, A. (1989). Biological databases for preserve Conservation biology in Hawaii. University of selection. In: Stone, CP. and Stone, D.B. (Eds.), Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Conservation biology in Hawaii. University of Unit, Honolulu. Pp. 163-167. Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Degener, O. and Degener, I. (1961). Green Hawaii: past, Unit, Honolulu. Pp. 154-157. present and future of an island flora. Pacific Stone. C.P. and Holt, R.A. (1987). Managing the Discovery 14(5): 14-17. invasions of alien ungulates and plants in Hawaii's DLNR (n.d.). Preserving Hawaii's natural treasures: natural areas. Unpublished report. 23 pp. Hawaii's natural area reserves system. Department Stone, C.P. and Loope, L.L. (1987). Reducing negative of Land and Natural Resources, Honolulu. Brochure. effects of introduced animals on native biotas in Davis, S.D., Droop, S J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson. L., Hawaii: what is being done, what needs doing, and Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. the role of the national parks. Environmental (1986). Plants in danger: what do we know? lUCN, Conservation 14(3): 245-258. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Grigg, R.W. (1983). Community structure, succession Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP and development of coral reefs in Hawaii. Marine Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Ecology Programme Series 11:1-14 lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Holt, A. (1989). Protection of natural habitats. In: Stone, UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. C.P. and Stone, D.B. (Eds), Conservation biology in ANNEX 1 Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Rules regulating Wildlife Sanctuaries, Trespassing Area"; to remove, damage, or disturb Department of Land and Natural Resources, any notice, sign, marker, fence, or structure; to dump, Title 13, Subtitle 15 Forestry and Wildlife, drain, or leave any litter, toxic material, or other waste material except in trash Part 2 Wildlife, Chapter 125 receptacles or areas designated for the deposit of refuse; to enter or Date: No information remain upon any surface water area; to park, land, or operate any air, water, or land vehicle except on roads Brief description: To conserve, manage and protect and in areas designated for such use. indigenous wildlife in sanctuaries Administrative authority: Board of Land and Title: Rules regulating activities within Natural Resources Natural Area Reserves, Department of Land and Natural Resources, Title 13, Subtitle 9, Designations: Chapter 209, Natural Area Reserves System Wildlife sanctuaries The following activities are Date: No information prohibited except for agents of the Board and except as authorised by the Board or its authorised Brief description: Regulates and prohibits activities representative: to remove, disturb, injure, kill, or within natural area reserves, including provisions for possess any form of plant or wildlife; to possess or excepled-use activities by permit and penalties for use any firearm, bow and arrow, or any other weapon, violation of the regulation. trap, snare, poison, or any device designed to take, capture or kill wildlife; to discharge any weapon on Administrative authority: Board of Land and or into a wildlife sanctuary; to possess any explosives Natural Resources or fu-eworks; to introduce any form of plant or animal life; to start or maintain a fire; to camp or erect any structure; to enter into any area posted "No 267 Protected Areas of the World Designations: historic or prehistoric remains; to remove, damage, or disturb any notice, marker, or area reserve State lands that have Natural Those structure; to engage in any construction or designated as part of the Hawaii natural area been improvement; to engage in any camping activity system the Department pursuant to reserves by that involves the erecting of a tent or other Section 195-4, Hawaii Revised Statutes. temporary structure; to start or maintain a fire; to litter, or to deposit refuse or any other substance; - Permitted activities include hiking, nature study to operate any motorised or unmotorised land and bedroll camping without a tent or other vehicle at air conveyance of any shape or form in temporary structure. Hunting is a permitted any area, including roads or trails, not designated activity pursuant to hunting rules of the for its use; to operate any motorised water vehicle department. of any shape or form in freshwater environments, — kill It is prohibited: to remove, injure, or any form including bogs, ponds and streams, or marine ofplant or animal life, except game mammals and waters, except as otherwise provided in the boating birds hunted according to Department rules; to rules of the Department of Transportation , S tate of introduce any form of plant or animal life, except Hawaii; to enter into, place any vessel or material dogs when permitted by hunting rules of the in or on, or otherwise disturb a lake or pond. Department; to remove, damage, or disturb any SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map^ USA - Hawaii Map National/international designation lUCN management Area Year ret. Name of area category (ha) notifled 26 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of Hawaii 270 VANUATU Area 12,189 sq. km lacking (Nalo et al., 1987). Laws on Vanuatu which were enacted prior to independence were made by the Population 151.000 (1988) (World Bank, 1990) Resident Commissioners under the provisions of the Natural increase: 4.2% (urban) and 3.1% (rural) per annum Anglo-French Protocol of 1914. Some of these are still (Dahl, 1986 and lUCN. 1988) in force and several include conservation measures. The Forestry Economic Indicators Joint Regulation (No. 30 of 1964) provides for the establishment of forest areas, forest lands, and forest GNP: US$ 820 per capita (1988) (World Bank, 1990) reserves (although none have been established), and is Policy and Legislation The post-independence incidentally also used for the protection of wrecks. The Constitution devotes a chapter to land issues, and intention of this legislation is to ensure that forest provides the basis upon which all legislation and policy resources are protected and developed in accordance concerning land tenure in Vanuatu rests. The salient with good forestry principles. points are that: all land in the Republic belongs to the Under Forestry Act No. 14 (1982), the Director indigenous custom owners and their descendants; the of Forests is authorised to enter into forest plantation rules of custom form the basis of ownership and use of agreements with owners to assist reafforestation or land; only indigenous citizens who have acquired land to protect threatened forests. Such areas are subject to in accordance widi a recognised system of land tenure state control, and clearance without a permit is may have perpetual land ownership; and government prohibited. Agreements may be formulated in order to prevent soil may own land in the public interest (Nalo et a/., 1987). erosion, preserve the ecology of an area, conserve land Most land is thus in customary ownership and there is of particular scenic, cultural, historic or national interest, little likelihood of Government acquiring land for or for recreational use by the public (Sloth, 1988). protected areas. Such areas would have to be leased or managed jointly by the government and custom owners Other environmental legislation includes the Fisheries (M.R. Chambers, pers. comm., 1989). Declaration of a Act No. 37 (1982) which provides for the declaration of site as public land could well meet with opposition from marine reserves (Section 20) within which no living custom owners, and could involve expensive organism, sand, coral or part of a wreck may be taken or compensation (Nalo al., et 1987). removed. The issue of land tenure must be seen in the light of Improved legislation for national parks and reserves was customary practice, or strong traditions concerning land. under consideration in 1989 (Leaver and Spriggs, 1989) Although there are certain nationwide principles, such and a number of potential protected areas have been as the important distinction between use rights and identified. The National Conservation Strategy ownership rights, the system is highly fragmented prospectus (lUCN, 1988) states that a project to review and different practices apply amongst the may the legislation concerning conservation and approximately 40 different language groups in the environment has been implemented, with the object of country. Land tenure, customary tenure, protected areas making recommendations for modifications or additions and conservation are discussed further by Nalo et al. to existing laws. One major piece of legislation needed (1987) and with particular reference to the establishment is a heritage conservation act that would provide for both of Erromango Kauri Reserve (Barrance, 1989). cultural and natural conservation. The Act should provide mechanisms whereby custom leaders and land Environmental conservation is embodied in the owners could have sites and objects of special Constitution, which states in Article 7(d) that every importance registered for protection under the act. person is obliged "to protect Vanuatu and to safeguard Ownership and management would rest with the custom the national wealth, resources and environment in the owners, but with the additional support of the law for interests of the present generation and of future their protection and specified penalties for the violation generations". Two of the six objectives of the Second of that protection. National Development Plan (1987-1991) specifically address the attainment of sustainable development. The contribution made by traditional custom and Thus, the third objective is "increase to productive practice towards protected areas and resource utilization of the country's natural resource base as a conservation is significant. For example, seasonal means of generating viable and sustained economic custom taboos are applied in certain coastal waters for growth", and the sixth is to "ensure that Vanuatu's the conservation of dugong, fish and turtle (SPREP, unique environmental and cultural heritage is not 1989). During colonial times land in Vanuatu was damaged in the process of economic development and registered under freehold titles and were mainly held by change". non-indigenous interests. Land held by the French, British and Condominium governments prior to Legislation for the establishment of national parks and independence was vested in the Vanuatu government for reserves and the protection of land and water is generally 271 Protected Areas of the World the benefit of the Republic, under Land Reform charged with generally overseeing issues concerned with Regulation No. 31 of 1980. A significant number of environment and conservation. The administrative status these land parcels comprised long distances of coastal of currently gazetted recreational reserves rests with a land about 100m wide. Much of this land has been local government council, although the legal basis for returned to customary owners, but some has been this is not clear. retained for the establishment of protected areas. The In September 1986 an Environment Unit was established Land Reform Regulation also empowers the Minister in the Ministry of Lands, Geology and Rural Water responsible for lands to declare any land to be public. Supply, with responsibility for coordinating environmental This is only done on the advice of the Council of and conservation issues. The Environment Unit Ministers and after consultation with customary owners. essentially has a single objective: to develop policies and Following requests by the Local Government Council, programmes such that natural resources are managed so proposals to declare parts of Espiritu Santo as public land that they are not severely degraded by development for recreational purposes have been made. activities. Major projects include preparation of a International Activities Vanuatu is not yet party to any national conservation strategy and comprehensive of the international conventions or programmes that environmental legislation; resource surveys of fringing directly promote the conservation of natural areas, reefs, freshwaters, Espiritu Santo Island and biological, namely the Convention concerning the Protection of the geological, scenic and cultural heritage sites; dugong World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage surveys; and surveys of estuarine crocodiles of Vanua Convention), the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Lava (Chambers and Bani, 1987, 1989). The Programme and the Convention on Wetlands of Environment Unit will also be made responsible for the International Importance especially as Waterfowl management of any parks and reserves gazetted in the Habitat (Ramsar Convention). future (SPREP, 1989). The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the The protected areas system is too small and fails to South Pacific (1976) has been neither signed nor ratified. protect most ecosystems. Existing protected areas are Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force threatened by inadequate management, whilst the during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the options for selecting new protected areas must be South Pacific Commission and represents the first declining with time. There is an increasingly urgent need attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental to gazette a protected area on Erromango as there have matters. Among other measures, it encourages the been recent (1988/1989) proposals to log parts of the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora remaining kauri stands. Approval has been given for and fauna. major logging schemes for parts of Malekula despite opposition from Government advisors and technical Regional Although Vanuatu is party to the South Pacific staff from the Environment, Forestry, Finance, Culnire Environment Programme (SPREP), the 1986 and Labour departments (M.R. Chambers, pers. comm., Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources 1989). and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has not yet been signed or ratified. The Systems Reviews The Republic of Vanuatu, formerly Convention entered into force during August 1990. the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides, Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate consists of the central and southern part of an archipelago measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and which forms one of the numerous seismic arcs found in threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the the Western Pacific. The Santa Cruz Islands, politically establishment of protected areas and the regulation of part of the Solomon Islands, constitute the northern part activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, of the archipelago (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). ecosystems and biological processes being protected. The archipelago of about 80 islands forms a bifurcating However, as this provision only applies to the chain; the larger islands are found in the west and are Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is made up of extinct volcanoes covered with fossil or most likely to assist with the establishment of marine modern coral reefs. The island arc is young and reserves and the conservation of marine species. associated with considerable volcanic and seismic Other international and regional conventions concerning activity (Cheney, 1987). The islands are mountainous by environmental protection to which Vanuatu is party are Pacific standards, many island interiors being reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983). uninhabited (Anon., 1989a), and Tabwemasana Peak on Espiritu Santo attains 1,879m. Brief summaries of the Administration and Management The Deparunent of physical characteristics are given by Douglas (1969) and Forestry of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and UNEP/IUCN (1988) for most of the islands. Fisheries is responsible for the implementation of the Forestry Act No. 14 of 1982. The Department of Some 9,000 sq. km, 74% of total land area, is under Fisheries of the same Ministry is responsible for the natural vegetation (Neill, 1987). Principal formations are Fisheries Act No. 37 of 1982, and is consequenUy tropical lowland evergreen rain forest, small areas of responsible for marine reserves, whilst the Ministry is broad-leaved deciduous forest, closed conifer forest. 272 Vanuatu montane rain forest between 1 ,000m and 1 ,500m; cloud resources and development is given by Baines (1981), forest above 1,500m, extensive coastal forest, swamp covering topics such as tenure, population, forest on Efate; and scattered mangrove forests covering administration, financial costs and aspects of natural between 2,500 and 3,500ha, of which 2,000ha occur on resources including forests, mangroves, reefs, minerals, Malakula (Beveridge, 1975; David, 1985; Davis et al., wildlife etc. Large-scale agricultural developments are 1986). leading to environmental problems, principally accelerated by forest clearance, soil erosion through poor Although lowland formations have largely been cleared pasture management and increasingly heavy use of and replaced anthropogenic vegetation, forest by pesticides and herbicides (lUCN, 1988). remains the dominant landscape element on most islands. Surveys conducted in the mid-1960s indicate Protected areas are currently restricted to President that some 180 sq. km of Erromango were occupied by Coolidge and Million Dollar Point Reserve, which only closed climax forest, including 50 sq. km of kauri pine includes marine components, and four recreational stands (Johnson, 1981). According to Quantin's (1976) reserves. The area within the system amounts to less than maps, high forests are restricted on most of the islands, 0.1% of the total national area, and much of that is especially those that are densely populated (Pentecost, accounted for by President Coolidge Reserve. Aoba, Tanna and Shepherd) or have active volcanoes (Ambrym). However, the low montane forests are Dahl (1980) lists 37 habitats, including several forest types, scrub, grassland, generally well preserved, and occupy large areas; dense, marsh, volcanic desert, secondary woody formations, often with a thicket freshwater and littoral features and various reef Hibiscus community, are extensive. fonnations. With the exception of fringing reefs, none of these is effectively protected. Forest resources are poor compared with neighbouring Strategy for Protected in countries, due to geological activity, geographic An Action Areas the South Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985) has been prepared. isolation, hurricanes and shifting agriculture. It is The principal estimated that current exploitable, natural forest goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation resources will supply domestic needs for at least 20 policy development, establishment ofprotected years. Logging of indigenous forest has been sporadic, areas, effective protected area management regional international wasteful, largely unprofitable and concentrated on Efate, and and cooperation. Priority for Espiritu Santo, Erromango, Aneityum and, to a lesser recommendations Vanuatu are as follows: develop national extent, Malekula and Hui. On Erromango, intensive a conservation strategy; establish a kauri reserve on exploitation of kauri pine commenced in 1967. Here, the Erromango Island; establish recreational reserves on Espiritu Sanio. risk of wind damage to residual vegetation, invasion by weed species and land slips has subsequendy increased The development of a national conservation strategy was (Beveridge, 1975), and major stands have been reduced delayed by a lack of funds, but has since been financed to a single tract. However, a ban on the export of whole with funds from Australia, channelled through SPREP. logs was due to be in place by 1990. Similarly, a An outline draft National Parks Act has been compiled sandalwood export moratorium is to be imposed by (Leaver and Spriggs, 1989), although it is not known if 1992. this will be integrated into the national conservation strategy Coral reefs occur throughout the archipelago, encircling or implemented in any other way. Negotiations some islands, but discontinuous around active or are underway with landowners on the island of recently active land masses such as Espiritu Santo, Erromango to secure a long-term lease for the proposed Malakula and Ambrym. Summaries of vegetation and 500ha Kauri Reserve (L. Bule, pers. comm., 1990). has funded coral reefs on most islands are given by Douglas (1969) SPREP an inter-departmental team to carry out a survey of three potential and UNEP/rUCN (1988), respectively. Details given in protected areas on Efate and it UNEP/IUCN (1988) include particular reference to the Ambrym, Malakula and is hoped that these, along site reefs of President Coolidge and Million Dollar Point with the proposed on Erromango, will form Reserve and Reef Island. the nucleus of a protected areas system (Anon., 1989). Dahl has that In general, Vanuatu's environment is relatively (1980) recommended the protected areas network be consolidated through the undisturbed (Chambers and Bani, 1987), due to low establishment of reserves to protect examples population densities (about 10 per sq. km in rural areas), of major forest types, and the limited degree of development (M.R. Chambers, grasslands, swamps, lakes and marine habitats; forest reserves each of pers. comm., 1989). Nevertheless, this could change due on the main islands for vegetation and to the high rate of human population increase and the birds, such as 2,(XX)ha of forest in southern Erromango and 2,(XX)-3 ,000ha in central Efate; high proportion (85%) of the population engaged in a cloud forest reserve Espiritu slash-and-bum agriculture and subsistence reef fishing. on Santo, which would be of value for the Further, the concentration of the population in coastal conservation of Sanio mountain starling (Hay, 1986); reserves along districts, coupled with a reduced fallow period in the and the north-west coast of Malekula or Santo, reefs slash-and-bum cycle, has led to soil erosion (Anon., where were elevated over 6m in 1965. Less 1989). A broad-ranging discussion of environment, specific recommendations are made by Dahl (1986) and 273 Protected Areas of the World include establishing a major protected area on Espiritu David, G. (1985). Les mangroves de Vanuatu: 2feme Santo, smaller reserves at least on Tanna, Aneityum and partie, presentation gdndrale. Naika 19: 13-16. Erromango, a recreation and tourism reserve on Efate, Davis, S.D., Droop, S J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., and protection of saltwater crocodiles on Vanua Lava Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and (Dahl, 1986). Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we knowl lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Addresses UK. 488 pp. Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Oceanic Recreational Reserves Islands. Micronesica 5: 327-463. Department of Lands, Ministry of Lands, Geology and Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific. ICBP Rural Water Supply, Private Mail Bag 007, Port Vila Study Report No. 7. International Council for Bird Environmental Unit, Ministry of Lands, Geology and Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp. Rural Water Supply, Private Mail Bag Port Vila 007, IUCN(1988). National ConservationStrategy:Vanuam. Department of Local Government, Ministry of Home Phase I: Prospecttis. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 39 pp. Affairs, Private Mail Bag 036, Port Vila Johnson, M.S. (1971). New Hebrides Condominium, Erromango forest Marine Parks inventory. Land Resources Study No. 10. Overseas Development Administration, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Land Resources Division, Surbiton, UK. 91 Forestry and Fisheries, Private Mail Bag 064, Port Vila pp. Leaver, B. and Spriggs, M. Erromango kauri reserve. Forestry Reserves Working Paper No. 1. TCPA'AN/6755. FAO. Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Rome. 28 pp. Forestry and Fisheries, Private Mail Bag 064, Port Vila Nalo, C, Hunt, L. and Boote, D. (1977). Land tenure in Vanuatu today. In: Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E., References Resources development and environment., ESCAP, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Pp. 78-92. Anon. (1989). Progress with the action strategy for Neill, P. (1987). Forestry resources and policies in protected areas in the South Pacific. Information Vanuatu. In: Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E., Paper 3. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Resources development and environment. ESCAP, Conservarion and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Pp. 59-62. 4- Vanuatu, 12 September. 19 pp. Quantin, P. (1976). Archipel des Nouvelles Hebrides: Baines, G.B.K. (1981). Environmental resources and sols et quelques donnies du milieu naturel, Santo. development in Vanuatu. Report to the Government Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique de of Vanuatu with support of (United Nations UNDAT Outre-Mer, Paris. 37 pp. Development Advisory Team for the Pacific). Schmid, M. (1978). The Melanesian forest ecosystem Unpublished. 26 pp. (New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji Islands and - Barrance, AJ. (1989). Erromango kauri reserve a case Solomon Islands). In: Unesco/UNEP/FAO, Tropical study in environmental protection on customary forest ecosystems. Unesco, Paris. Pp. 654-683. land. Case Study No. 7. Fourth South Pacific Sloth, B. (1988). Nature legislation and nature Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected conservation as part of tourism development in the Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 6 pp. island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Beveridge, A.E. (1975). Kauri forests in the New Development Programme. Tourism Council of the Hebrides. Philosophical Transactions the of Royal South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp. Society ofLondon B 272: 369-383. SPKEP(l9S5).Actionstrategyforprolectedareasinthe Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E. (1987). Wildhfe and South Pac^ic Region. South Pacific Commission, heritage conservation in Vanuatu. Resources Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp. development and environment. ESCAP, Port Vila, SPREP (1989). Vanuatu. Paper presented at the Fourth Vanuatu. Pp. 124-133. South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E. (1989). Vanuatu - safe and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, haven for the dugong. Pilot. 1 3- The September. Pp. 14. 4-12 September. 6 pp. Cheney, C. (1987). Geology and the environment In: UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E., Resources Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP development and environment. ESCAP, Port Vila, Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. Vanuatu. Pp. 1-16. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Dahl, A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem survey of the UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 378 pp. South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper Venkatesh, S, Va'ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New overview of environmental protection legislation in Caledonia. 99 pp. the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review Dahl, A.L. Review (1986). ofthe protected areas system No. 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New in Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Caledonia. 63 pp. Cambridge, Nairobi, UKAJNEP, Kenya. 328 pp. World Bank (1990). WorldTables. 1989-90 Edition. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 646 pp. 274 Vanuatu ANNEX Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: The Forestry Joint Regulation (No. 30) control and clearance without a permit is prohibited. Agreements may be formulated in order to prevent Date: 1964 soil erosion, preserve the ecology of an area, conserve land of particular scenic, cultural, historic Brief description: Enacted prior to independence or national interest, or for recreational use by the under the provisions of the Anglo-French Protocol of public. 1914. Administrative authority: Director of Fwests Administrative authority: Director of Forests Designation: No information Designation: Forest areas Title: Fisheries Act No. 37 Forest lands Forest reserves Date: 1982 Brief description: Provides, inter alia, for the Title: Forestry Act No. 14 declaration of marine reserves (Section 20). Date: 1982 Administrative authority: Department of Fisheries Brief description: The Director of Forests is Designation: authorised to enter into forest plantation agreements with owners to assist reafforestation or to protect Marine reserves No living organism, sand, coral or threatened forests. Such areas are subject to state part of a wreck may be taken or removed. 275 WESTERN SAMOA Area 2,830 sq. km land area in an Exclusive Economic customary fishing rights remain unaffected. Sections 7, Zone of 680,000 sq. km 8 and 9, respectively, make provision for the establishment of recreation reserves, historic reserves, Population 168.000 (1988) (World Bank, 1990) and reserves fw other purposes. A site fully gazetted Natural increase: 0.7% per annum (SPREP, 1989a) under the Act can only be degazetted by Parliament. The principal weakness of the 1974 Act is that it only enables Economic Indicators national parks and reserves to be established on public GNP: US$ 610 per capita (1988) (World Bank. 1990) land. There is no legal mechanism for establishing areas Policy and Legislation The Fifth Development Plan on customary land. For example, a recently established (1985-87) stated, inter alia, that the protection of the reserve in Falealupo District, comprising 1.2(X)ha of environment and conservation of natural resources was pristine lowland rain forest, has no legal basis (E. Bishop, a principal national goal, although overriding priority pers. comm.. 1988). Environmental and conservation was to be given to an increase in production, particularly legislation is currently being reviewed, and the for export (Firth and Darby, 1988). The Constitution amendment of the National Parks and Reserves Act has (1960) stipulates that "all land in Western Samoa is again been recommended with an expectation that it may either customary land, private freehold, or public land". be completed by the end of 1991 (L Reti, pers. comm.. The relative proportions of these different types of tenure 1991). are customary land (80.5 % of land area), private freehold Habitat protection is also provided for under the 1959 (3.7%), Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation Agriculuiral. Forests and Fisheries Ordinance and the (4.5%) and public government land (11.3%) (Eaton, 1967 Forests Act These enable the Forestry Division 1985). All land below the high water marie is defined as within the Department of Agriculture, Forests and public land (Pearsall, 1988). The Constitution also states Fisheries to "conserve, protect, and develop the that customary land may only be acquired compulsorily resources of the country especially soil, water and forest" for public purposes. Customary land may be leased for and to establish forest reserves for water, soil and climate an authorised purpose if the lease is in accordance with protection and a sustained timber harvest The Forests Samoan custom and usage, the desires and interests of Act allows for protection of forest and water catchment the owners, or the public interest (Eaton, 1985). areas as "protected land". Large areas of indigenous Legislation which enables government to acquire forest have been designated as protection forests, customary land includes the Taking of Lands Act (1964) although in practice logging has continued (Firth and and Article 102 of the Constitution. The first gives the Darby, 1988). government the power to obtain land for public purposes Other legislation which incorporates measures relating by negotiation or compulsory processes, although the to protected areas includes the 1965 Water Act, under latter is rarely used. The 1964 Act could be used as a which watersheds and riparian vegetation may be legal instrument for obtaining land for parks and reserves protected. (Tiavolo. 1985) and has provision for land to be taken to protect catchment areas, especially where agricultural A summary review of legislation covering aspects of development is a threat (Venkatesh et al., 1983). environmental protection, planning and tourism is given in Firth and Darby (1988). The principal current legislation for the establishment of protected areas is the 1974 National Parks and Reserves At the present time, no protected area in Western Samoa Act. Section 4 enables the Head of State, acting on the receives full legal protection. It is a legal requirement advice of the Cabinet, to declare any public land to be a that all proposed protected areas are surveyed and that national park, provided it is not set aside for any other the proposed boundary, with a wriaen submission, be public purpose and is not less than 607.5ha ,500 acres), (1 presented to the Land Board in the Ministry of Lands. except in the case of an island. As defined in Section 5. Public comment is duly invited, and. if this is positive, every national park shall be preserved in perpetuity for the proposal is submitted to the Head of State for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of Western signature. SubsequenUy, the Ministry of Lands will Samoa and shall be administered so that: it is preserved amend its land use maps to indicate a protected area. This as far as practical in its natural state; flora and fauna are process has not yet been completed in any instance. The preserved as far as possible; its value as a soil, water and lack of due process fails to invoke the full legal forest conservation area is maintained; and, subject to a protection of the available legislation, and other number of provisos, the public has freedom of access. Government departments are technically at liberty to Section 6 provides for the establishment of nature propose and implement changes in land use within reserves within which either named species are nominal protected areas (E. Bishop, pers. comm., 1989). protected, or all taxa within a specified area are protected. Access may be restricted, except where a International Activities Western Samoa is not yet nature reserve is declared in a marine area, in which case party to any of the international conventions or 277 Protected Areas of the World programmes that directly promote the conservation of The National Parks and Reserves section operating natural areas, namely the Convention concerning the budget was reduced in real terms by 93% between 1979 Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage and 1987, while staff numbers were reduced by 42% in (World Heritage Convention), the Unesco Man and the the same period. This trend is now being reversed and Biosphere Programme and the Convention on Wetlands the 1988 budget was 28,000 WS Tala (US$ 14,000), of International Importance especially as Waterfowl twice that of 1987. The 1989 budget was 56,000 WS Habitat (Ramsar Convention). Tala, the proposed 1990 budget was WS Tala 104,000. Similarly, staff numbers have increased and were regional level. Western Samoa has signed (12 June At a proposed to increase from 19 in 1988 to 27 in 1990. Most 1976) and ratified (20 July 1990) the Convention on the of these funds were to pay for additional labourers at O' Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific, 1976. Le Pupu Pu'e National Park, installation of a water pipe as the Apia Convention, it entered into force Known in Vailima Botanical Garden and the preparation of a 1990. Convention is coordinated the during The by poster depicting Samoan birds (E. Bishop, pers. comm., Pacific and represents the first South Commission 1988). Staff levels and annual budgets previously reached attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental a peak of 30 staff in 198 1 and a budget of 66300 WS Tala matters. other measures, it encourages the Among in 1979, a period during which substantial external financial preserve indigenous flora creation of protected areas to and management assistance was available (SPREP, and fauna. 1985b). The Department of Lands and Environment has four staff (1991) and a current six-month budget of WS Western Samoa is also party to the South Pacific Tala 87,610. Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) and has signed (25 November 1986) and ratified (19 July 1990) A Division of Environment and Conservation has been Natural the Convention for the Protection of the established within the Department of Lands and Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, Environment. Its principal function is the provision of Convention). entered into 1986 (SPREP The Convention advice on: policies influencing the management of 1990. Article 14 calls upon the force during August natural and physical resources; impact of private or parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or public development; means of ensuring public fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora participation in environmental planning and policy establishment of protected areas and fauna through the formulation; the control and management of hazardous have an adverse and the regulation of activities likely to substances; establishment and naming of national parks; effect on the species, ecosystems and biological control of pollution of air, water and land and the control processes being protected. However, as this provision of litter; and research and training relevant to these only applies to the Convention area, which by definition functions (I. Reti, pers. comm., 1991). is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and die conservation of Systems Reviews Western Samoa, lying between marine species. 13"-15'S and 171'-173'W, is situated approximately 1,000km north-east of Fiji and a similar distance Other international regional conventions concerning and north-north-east of Tonga, and includes nine islands, the environmental protection to which Western Samoa is largest being Savai'i (1,709 sq. km) and Upolu party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983). (1,118 sq. km). The biologically related, but politically distinct, American Samoa hes some 100km to the east. Administration and Management The National Parks and Reserves Act is currently administered by the (1974) Most of the original lowland tropical forest on Savai'i Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries, Department of and Upolu has been cleared or highly modified. Only two although the Department of Lands and Environment major forested areas, on customary land, persist, namely undertakes all responsibilities (I. Reti, pers. comm., Tafua and Mt Silisili on Savai'i (E. Bishop, pers. comm. 1991). The Assistant Director for Forests and 1988). Figures given by Firth and Darby (1988) indicate Conservation has the overall responsibility for forestry that approximately 1,500 sq. km remain forested, and national parks (I. Reti, pers. comm., 1989). comprising 550 sq. km of protection forest or proposed Management aims are to: establish examples of each national parks and reserves, and 950 sq. km of type of reserve, ensuring that as many of the different commercial forest. However, no firm commitment has types of vegetation and wildlife as possible are been made to the environmental protection role of conserved; improve and develop appropriate facilities, protection forests and there is virtually no primary forest to enable the full enjoyment and appreciation of the remaining (Firth and Darby, 1988). Montane forests are reserves; and promote public awareness, understanding less damaged and still contain a rich endemic flora. and appreciation of these areas. Government Cloud forests, montane lava flow scrub and montane departments were being resuuctured during 1989 and it meadows are found in the upland regions. The Aleipata was intended that the National Parks and Reserves Islands include a number of littoral communities, as well Section would be transferred from its current ministry to as Diospyros coastal forests and Dysoxylum lowland the Ministry of Lands on 1 January 1990 (E. Bishop, forests, which are otherwise rare in Western Samoa pers. comm., 1990). (Davis et al., 1986; Whistler, 1983). Mangroves cover less than l.OOOha (BeU, 1985). 278 Western Samoa Forest resources, particularly lowland and sub-montane Pandanus sp. littoral scrub, crater meadow, crater marsh, formations, are threatened by both agricultural caves and rocky coast (Dahl, 1980). It also protects encroachment and commercial logging (Pearsall, 1988). populations of all the major forest bird species of Upolu, In 1977 responsibility for parks and reserves was including tooth-billed pigeon Didunculus strigirostris transferred to a department which included indigenous and ma'o Gymnomyza samoensis (Hay, 1986). forest logging amongst its primary responsibilities and Nevertheless, a similar reserve is required on Savai'i, in the momentum of an initially dynamic protected areas view of deforestation at the western end of the island programme was lost. Within a few years, most of the (Hay, 1986). Two sites, one incorporating coastal forest remaining lowland and foothill forest in Savai'i and at Tafua, south-east Savai'i, and another on the slopes of Upolu had been destroyed (Firth and Darby, 1988). A Mt Silisili up to the summit, have been proposed as recent development has been the risk of timber protected areas (Holloway and Floyd, 1975) and would concessions being sold for cash remuneration, preserve the greatest range of habitats (Hay, 1986). particularly on Savai'i. The destruction of lowland rain These two sites still support lowland rain forest, but are forest is largely complete, and regions of higher in the process of being cleared and are on customary elevations are threatened by governmental road land, thus precluding their designation as national parks construction, followed by clearing of large areas in order or reserves under current legislation (E. Bishop, pers. to expand plantations or to facilitate cattle farming; comm., 1988). A coastal reserve is particularly commercial logging activities by Australian and important, as are examples of the high altitude habitats Japanese concerns, formerly engaged in selective felling of the island. Such reserves would assist in and may but currently clear felling; and unconu-olled clear felling ensure the protection of species such as Samoan by local families on village-owned land (Beichle and white-eye, tooth-billed pigeon and ma'o, possibly Maelzer, 1985). The cutting and in-filling of mangroves Samoan wood-rail if its existence is re-confirmed, and has been largely uncontrolled (Bell, 1985). Although the other endemic Samoan species (Hay, 1986). A recent 1 976 Forestry Act provides for the exploitation of forests development has been the agreement between a private on a sustained yield basis, the criteria for this to be j udged group from the USA and villagers in the Falealupo by, for example, annual allowable cut, have never been District in Savai'i, whereby some l,200ha of lowland established and there is a risk that the bulk of indigenous rain forest is protected in retiun for financial assistance timber resources may be exhausted by as soon as 1995 and restricted exploitation rights (SPREP, 1989). (Firth and Darby, 1988). However, as the site is on customary land it will not be possible to gazette the site under the provisions of Coastal and peripheral woodlands have been heavily existing legislation. It is not known if this arrangement disturbed cultivation and lower slopes around main by has any basis in protected areas legislation. setdements are cultivated. Approximately 20% of Savai'i is cultivated, whilst the largest cultivated areas An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South on Upolu are along the north coast around Apia and Pacific Region (SPREP, 1985a) has been prepared. The Satapuala (Douglas, 1969). The coastal district has long principal goals of the strategy cover conservation been settled and soils around villages have been education, conservation policy development, exhausted (Firth and Darby, 1988). A process of land establishment of protected areas, protected area tenure conversion is underway, from the traditional (and management and regional and international cooperation. legally constituted) system to a defacto system of private Priority recommendations for Western Samoa are as control and virtual ownership by converting land to follows: develop a national conservation strategy; agriculture. investigate the remaining traditional marine fishing rights; train researchers and managers in the marine Western Samoa's current park and reserve system field; assess conservation status and availability of reef consists of one national park and five reserves. litde A and lagoon areas; include environmental concerns in over 1 % of the land area is protected, but O Le Pupu Pu'e education systems; establish an Environmental of the protected National Park alone accounts for 95% Management Unit responsible for environmental area. years 1978-79, The system's growth were when assessment, liaison, environmental education, one national park and three reserves were established. legislation and environmental reporting; map all national Pu'e National Park is a key area within the O Le Pupu ecosystems; make an inventory of flora and fauna, Wallis and Futuna biogeographic province Samoa, particularly threatened species; prepare management identified by Dahl (1980). Dahl (1980) identifies a plans for all protected areas; develop a national number of habitats as occurring in Western Samoa, environmental public awareness campaign to be including varieties of lowland rain forest, montane rain implemented through schools, mass media and forest, cloud, riverine, swamp, mangrove and atoll/beach Pulenu'us; set aside areas which include ecosystems not forest, scrub, grassland, freshwater marsh, rock desert, covered by existing parks and reserves; complete a lakes and streams, and variety of littoral, coastal and a review of marine resources; and send the Superintendent marine habitats, including reefs and lagoons. A of Parks and Reserves to the 1987 Parks Management significant number are protected within Le Pupu Pu'e, O Training Course in New Zealand. namely four lowland rain forest formations, three montane rain forest formations, cloud and swamp forest. 279 Protected Areas of the World Regional progress on the iinplementation of the action Despite repeated recommendations for the establishment strategy has been reviewed (SPREP, 1987, 1989b). of protected areas, especially Mount Silisili and the Western Samoa has participated in a sub-regional course Aleipata Islands, there has been no progress in gazetting in coastal resource management and planning, either site. Nevertheless, the establishment of the emphasising the role of protected areas. A SPREP Division of Environment and Conservation, increased project to assess the potential environmental impact of funding and the adoption of the Lands and tourism, with emphasis on the protection of critical Environment Act 1989 indicate a greater willingness habitats, species and potential protected areas, has been on the behalf of government to give the environment completed (Firth and Darby, 1988). An ecosystem equal priority with other pressing issues Q. Reti, survey was scheduled to commence in 1989, using aerial pers. comm., 1991). photographs taken during 1987 (Pearsall, 1989). This is intended to identify a representative system of natural Addresses areas. In conjunction with the Land Use Resource National Parks and Reserves, Programme of the Ministry of Lands, it will provide a Department of powerful resource planning and management tool Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries, PO Box L1874, (Anon., 1989). The compilation of management plans Apia Division of Environment for each of the five reserves and updating that for O Le and Conservation, Department Pupu Pu'e was planned 1988-90 (E. Bishop, pers. of Lands and Environment, PO Private Bag, Apia comm., 1988). An Asian Development Bank funded project on land use planning commenced in 1989 References (I. Reti, pers. comm., 1989). Andrews, G.J. and Holthus, P.F. (1989). Marine A major UNDAT survey in the mid-1970s (HoUoway environment survey: proposed Aleipata Islands and Hoyd, 1975) identified 6 potential national parks, 24 National Park, Western Samoa. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. nature reserves, 1 1 historical sites and 7 archaeological 67 pp. Beichle, Maelzer, sites. Of these, O Le Pupu Pu'e, Palolo Deep Marine U. and M. (1985). A conservation Reserve and Mount Vaea have been gazetted. programme for Western Samoa. ICBP Technical Publication 4. Recommended sites considered to be of particular value No. International Council for Bird 1-3. include Mt Silisili and Tafua (Hay, 1986). However, the Preservation, Cambridge, UK. Pp. proposed areas occur on customary land and gazettement Bell, L.A.J. (1985). Coastal zone management in Western Samoa. In: P.E.J. under the current 1974 legislation is precluded. Three Thomas, (Ed.), Report of methods of protecting the areas were mooted: the Third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves government purchase of the land, which would only be Conference. Volu.me II. South Pacific Commission, possible with outside financial assistance; leasing, which Noumea, New Caldenonia. Pp. 57-73. Dahl, might not provide the necessary security of tenure; and A.L. (1980). Regional ecosystem surveys of the the dedication of customary land (Holloway and Floyd, South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper 179. South 1975). Dahl's (1980) proposed reserves reiterate those Pacific Commission, Noumea, New of Holloway and Floyd (1975), with the addition of a Caledonia. 99 pp. Dahl, recommended reserve type aimed at protection of Palolo A.L. (1986). Review ofthe protected areas system in worm Eunice viridis (K). Dahl (1986) identifies as Oceania. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, highest priority the protection of a major park in central UKAJNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp. Savai'i, possibly also including a sample of lowland Davis, S.D., Droop, S J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., forest Protection of both land and marine areas in the Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Zantovska, Aleipata Islands should also be considered and a survey J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we of the latter site has been completed (Andrews and knowl lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, Holthus, 1989). UK. 488 pp. Douglas, G. (1969). Draft checklist of Pacific Oceanic The preparation and adoption of a national conservation Islands. Micronesica 5: 327-463. strategy is recommended by Firth and Darby (1988) to Eaton, P. (1985). Land tenure and conservation: ensure the sustainable exploitation of natural resources, protected areas in the South Pacific. SPREP Topic a call reiterated in SPREP (1989a). Strengthening the Review No. 17. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, national parks and reserves systems is perhaps more New Caledonia. 103 pp. urgent, and should be addressed as a high priority. This Firth, N. and Darby, d'E.C. (1988). Environmental would principally entail; amending the 1974 National planning for tourism in Western Samoa. A report to Parks and Reserves Act, such that reserves may be the Government of Western Samoa and the South established on customary land (not necessarily with Pacific Regional Environment Programme. KRTA government ownership), provision of adequate funding, Limited, Auckland, New Zealand. 124 pp. the establishment of some 30 protected areas, the Hay, R. (1986). Bird conservation in the Pacific. ICBP principal one being Mount Silisili National Park on Study Report No. 7. International Council for Bird Savai'i, the and imposition of a moratorium on any Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp. further logging in Tafua Forest (Firth and Darby, 1988). 280 Western Samoa HoUoway, C.W. and Floyd, C.H. (1975). A national SPREP (1989a). Western Samoa. Paper presented at the parks system for Western Samoa. United Nations Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Development Advisory Team for the South Pacific Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, (UNDAT), Suva, Fiji. 71 pp. Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 13 pp. Pearsall, S.H. (1988). Western Samoa. Country Report SPREP (1989b). Progress with the Action Strategy for The Nature Conservancy, Honolulu, Hawaii. protected areas in the South Pacific Region. Unpublished. 75 pp. Information Paper 3. Fourth South Pacific Pearsall, S.H. (1989). A system of representative natural Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected areas for Western Samoa. Case Study 29. Fourth Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 19 pp. South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation Tiavolo, A. (1985). Land tenure system in Western and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, Samoa. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New 4-12 September. 12 pp. Caledonia. Unpublished report. 3 pp. SPREP (1985a). Action strategy for protected areas in Trotman, I.G. (1979). Western Samoa launches a the SouthPacific Region. South Pacific Commission, national park program. Parks 3(4): 5-8. Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp. Venkatesh, S., Va'ai, S. and Pulea, M. (1983). An SPREP (1985b). Western Samoa. In: Thomas, P.E.J. overview of environmental protection legislation in (Ed.), Report of the Third South Pacific National the South Pacific countries. South Pacific Parks and Reserves Conference. Volume III. Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 63 pp. Country reviews. South Pacific Commission, Whistler, W.A. (1983). Vegetation and flora of the Noumea, New Caledonia. Pp. 232-269. Aleipata Islands, Western Samoa. Pacific Science SPREP (1987). SPREP makes considerable progress 37(3): 227-249. (Unseen) with implementation of action strategy for protected World Bank (1990). WorldTables. 1989-90 Edition. The areas. Environment Newsletter. South Pacific Regional John Hopkins University, Baltimore. 646 pp. Environment Programme. July-September. Pp. 15-22. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: National Parks and Reserves Act in a marine area, in which case customary fishing rights remain unaffected. Date: 30 December 1974 Recreation reserves (S.7) Brief description: Provides for the establishment, Historic reserves (S.8) preservation and administration of national parks and Reservesfor other purposes (S.9) reserves for the benefit of the people ofWestern Samoa. NB: AsitefiiUy gazetted under the Act can only be degazetted by Administrative authority: As stated in the Act: ParliamenL The principal weakness of the 1974 Act is that it only Department of Lands and Survey, Minister of Lands enables national parks and reserves to be established on public land. (National Parks and Reserves, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries) Title: Forests Act Designation: Date: 1967 National park As defined in Section 5, every Brief description: Consolidates the law relating to national park shall be preserved in perpetuity for the conservation, protection and development of natural benefit and enjoyment of the people of Western resources, especially soil, water and forests. Samoa and shall be administered so that: it is preserved as far as practical in its natural stale; flora Administrative authority: Department of and fauna are preserved as far as possible; its value Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries as a soil, water and forest conservation area is Designation: maintained; and, subject to a number of provisos, the public has freedom of access. Stateforests on customary or freehold land Nature reserves Within which either specified Protectedforestry species of flora and fauna are protected, or all taxa Historic, cultural and archaeological sites within a specified area are protected. Access may be restricted, except where a nature reserve is declared NB Source: Firth and Daiby (1988); original act not seen 281 Protected Areas of the World SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map^ ref. Western Samoa £ 3.1 in 1^1 ll^l in CN Australasia AUSTRALIA Area 7,682,427.85 sq. km (Terrestrial area excluding such as: management of national parks, staff training and External Territories) development, community education and interpretation, endangered fauna, endangered flora, international Population 16,873,000 (1990) agreements and fire management. Natural increase: 1.18% per annum Under the jurisdiction of the Commonwealth, the Economic Indicators Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service GNP: 1,203 US$1 (1989) administers the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1980. The Commonwealth and the Policy and Legislation eight states and territories all have legislation to achieve their aims in nature conservation. The major laws Politically, Australia is a federation. There are six states administered by the respective nature conservation (New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, agencies are shown in the Annex. In most cases the basic Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia) and two legislation was put in place during the early 1970s. In self-governing territories (Australian Capital Territory recent years there have been some significant new and Northern Territory). The eight states and territories developments in legislation. have jurisdiction over the management of their own land and territorial including nature conservation sea, Commonwealth The Australian National Parks and management. The Australian federal government is Wildlife Service has responsibility for administering the referred to as the Commonwealth of Australia. It does National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1980, the not have direct jurisdiction over area management or Whale Protection Act 1980 and the Wildlife Protection nature conservation in the eight states and territories, but (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982. is responsible for these matters in six external territories (Australian Antarctic Territory, Ashmore and Cartier Australian Capital Territory Under the Nature Islands, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Conservation Ordinance 1980, the Minister responsible Coral Sea Islands, and Heard Island and the McDonald for the ACT may declare unleased Commonwealth Islands), and also in the Territory of Jervis Bay, an (federal government) land in Australian Capital enclave on the coast of New South Wales. In addition, it Territory and Jervis Bay Territory to be a reserved area. has some specific responsibilities in these matters in the Similar powers under the Public Parks Ordinance External Territory of NorfoUc Island, the Australian 1928-66 provide for the declaration of public parks or Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. recreation reserves and some of these jffe managed as natural areas. Commonwealth government responsibilities for nature conservation in AustraUa as a whole stem from its Under the Fishing Ordinance 1967, 800ha of the waters constitutional powers in relation to international treaties of Jervis Bay Territory are "managed in sympathy'' with and foreign affairs generally, Aboriginal affairs, exports Jervis Bay Nature Reserve. Certain activities including and imports, and corporations. In addition, the dredging, trawling, seaweed harvesting and commercial Commonwealth fosters cooperation and liaison among fishing without a licence are prohibited. the states and territories in relation to nature External Territories conservation. The governments of the Commonwealth and Commonwealth Waters The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and the eight states and territories each has an agency Act 1975 provides for the establishment which has primary responsibility for nature of parks and reserves over land or sea areas where constitutionally there is conservation. Development of common policies on a basis for Commonwealth interest. These areas nature conservation among the Commonwealth, state may be designated national park or some other designation and territory governments occurs mainly through the and only revoked Council of Nature Conservation Ministers (CONCOM), may be by a resolution of both Houses of Federal Parliament. Plans of are its Standing Committee and working groups. management required to be prepared and, after being subject to public Membership of CONCOM consists of the government comment and amendment, are considered the ministers responsible for nature conservation in the by responsible Minister and laid before both houses of federal various jurisdictions. From July 1989 it also includes the corresponding Minister from New Zealand. The parliament. ministers meet annually. The CONCOM Standing Norfolk Island National Park has been proclaimed under Committee comprises the heads of the government the Norfolk Island National Park and Norfolk Island nature conservation agencies, who meet twice a year. Botanic Garden Act 1984 and also under the National Working groups are established, as the need arises, to Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act. address specific issues. Officers of the various nature conservation agencies with specialist knowledge Several historic shipwrecks in waters along the coast of participate in the working groups, which cover topics Australia have had "protected zones" designated around 287 Protected Areas of the World them under the Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976. While specifies that aquatic reserves may only be declared over these areas are declared primarily to protect the enclosed Crown lands and that the regulations may prohibit or shipwrecks, the legislation prohibits ships entering and regulate the taking of fish and other marine fauna as mooring, trawling, and diving or any other underwater specified in the Act. The regulations also provide for the activity, effectively protecting all marine life in the management, protection and development of any aquatic designated area. A permit is required to enter the area for reserve. any purpose. Northern Territory The Conservation Commission Act New South Wales The Wilderness Act was passed in 1 980 established the Conservation Commission (CCNT) 1987 and provides for: the permanent protection and of the Northern Territory to promote the conservation proper management of wilderness areas in New South and protection of the natural environment and establish Wales; and promoting the education of the public and and manage parks, reserves and sanctuaries and the appreciation, protection and management of undertake other functions relating to soil and wilderness. Under the Act, the Director of the New South environmental conservation. The Commission is a Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service is required to corporation of nine members, two of whom are the report on the status of areas identified as wilderness and Director of Conservation and his or her Deputy, and to investigate proposals for additional wilderness areas. another two members nominated by the Aboriginal Land Councils. The National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 provides for parks and nature reserves to be created by proclamation. Land is reserved under the provisions of the Territory Plans of management are prepared with regard to the Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1980 by the objectives of conservation, study and appreciation of Administrator of the Northern Territory, following wildlife and natural features, and to promote receipt of a repxDrt from the Conservation Commission. appreciation and enjoyment of the natural values of these This Act refers only to the creation of "parks and areas. They are subject to public comment before reserves", allowing considerable flexibility in the adoption by the Minister for the Environment. interpretation of these terms. Accordingly, areas declared may range from small sites of specific interest, Act establishes a National Parks and Wildlife The to major national parks. Land is held by the Conservation Advisory Council to advise the Minister on the control Land Corporation as constituted under the Conservation and management of national parks and nature reserves. Commission Act Revocation of reserved land is by one or Advisory committees may also be established for declaration by the Administrator following a resolution national parks, nature reserves historic sites or more and by the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly. An any combination thereof, to recommendations to make amendment to this Act provides for the establishment of Council, the Director or of the the above Superintendent local management committees for any park, reserve, park. recent the respective national A change to Act sanctuary or protected area. This facilitates the for assistance private property holders to provides to participation of local people in the park planning and conserve sites of natural or cultural importance on their management process. land through a voluntary conservation agreement. Conditions to be negotiated in a conservation agreement Management plans are prepared by the Conservation may include restrictions on use of the land, such as Commission of the Northern Territory for areas under its limitations to grazing, clearing and the use of pesticides. control in accordance with the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act. The Forestry Act 1916 provides that land within state forest and on certain other Crown lands may be The Cobourg Peninsula Aboriginal Land Sanctuary Act dedicated, by notice in the Gazette, as a flora reserve for 1981 established a major national park on Cobourg the preservation of native flora. To date all such reserves Peninsula, owned and controlled by Aborigines but have been located within state forest, and while the managed by the CCNT on their behalf. It is anticipated preservation of native flora remains a keystone in all that Katherine Gorge (Nitmiluk) National Park, recently flora reserves, the establishment and management of the awarded to the Jawoyn Aboriginal people under the reserves has always been based on a broader objective Land Claims Act, will be managed by the CCNT on of preserving samples of the natural environment. A behalf of the traditional owners under mutually agreed flora reserve can only be revoked by Act of Parliament, guidelines. and for each reserve the Forestry Commission is required Kakadu National Park and Uluru (Ayers Rock-Mount to prepare a working plan for approval by the Minister National for Natural Resources. Advisory Committees have been Olga) National Park are proclaimed under the Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975. Much of set up under the working plans to assist in the care of National all of Uluru (Ayers those flora reserves which receive appreciable public Kakadu Park, and use. Rock-Mount Olga) National Park, is Aboriginal land leased to the Director, Australian National Parks and The Fisheries and Oyster Farms (Amendment) Act 1979 Wildlife Service (ANPWS). Management plans are provides for the creation and management of aquatic prepared by the ANPWS in consultation with the reserves in New South Wales. At present, the legislation traditional Aboriginal owners. Within Kakadu National 288 Australia Park is a conservation zone, a temporary reservation to having due regard to: protect the area until a decision is made whether to declare all or part of the zone as an addition to the park. — benefits of permitting grazing; — desirability of conservation of soil and environment The Fisheries Act 1988 allows the Minister to declare an and protection of water quality; and area, place or any waters to be a fishery management area — the possibility of applying the area to recreational and requires that the management of each management purposes. area be subject to general regulations to the Act and to of plan prepared for the the provisions a management The Conservator of Forests may recommend to the life reserves were created under purpose. Two aquatic Governor in Council that the whole or part of a state the now repealed Fish and Fisheries Act 1980. forest be declared a scientific area or feature protection area so as to preserve it as a sample of the natural Queensland National parks are established under the environment of the state forest concerned. National Parks and Wildlife Act 1975-84 to conserve areas of scenic, scientific or historic interest Vacant Crown Reserves for Fisheries Purposes are declared under the lands unencumbered in any way are permanently reserved Fisheries Act 1976-1989 as part of the management of and can be revoked only with the authority of Parliament, fisheries resources within Queensland. The lands of certain though under circumstances land can be excluded these reserves and sanctuaries are important fish nursery by Order in Council for tourist purposes or for roads. or feeding areas and in the case of reserves, often contain important commercial and recreational fishing grounds Oil exploration activities may be carried out on national and act as protection measures to assist the ongoing parks under conditions set by the Director of National viability of fisheries of a region. Parks and Wildlife. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) was The National Parks and Wildlife Act prescribes that "the established under the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park cardinal principle to be observed in the management of Act 1975 (Cwlth). The Act provides for the conservation national parks shall be the permanent preservation to the of the Great Barrier Reef by the establishment, control, greatest possible extent, of their natural condition". care and development of the marine park in the Great Provision is made for declaration within national parks Barrier Reef Region - an area of approximately 345,000 of special management zones, including primitive areas, sq. km off the northern coast of Queensland. It is a primitive and recreation areas, recreation areas, multiple-use region which allows for reasonable human scientific areas and historic areas. use whilst still ensuring the protection of the reef. The Director is empowered to carry out whatever works GBRMP extends from low water, outwards to beyond or make provisions as he considers necessary or the outer reefs, and from Cape York in the north to desirable for the preservation, proper management, or approximately Bundaberg in the south. public enjoyment of national parks. Human use is controlled mainly by regulations, public The Fauna Conservation Act 1974-85, provides for education and by the development of zoning plans. fauna reserves and fauna refuges - the latter may be Zones separate conflicting activities and allow for uses declared over land of any tenure with the agreement of such as diving, reef-walking, recreational and the landholder. Fauna sanctuaries are also established commercial fishing, and for general tourist activities. In other zones, use is restricted to permitted scientific under tiiis Act to protect fauna but not habitat, though in general, a sanctuary is declared only if habitat protection research whilst still other zones are preservation zones left undisturbed is otherwise assured in the state of Queensland. All to be always by people. The plans is national parks and all islands off the coast are fauna development of zoning accomplished, in part, by sanctuaries. extensive public participation. Certain activities such as mining or oU exploration, littering, spearfishing with Provision for the establishment of environmental parks scuba, and the taking of certain protected animal species and scientific purpose reserves (deparunent and official are prohibited in all of Uie Great Barrier Reef Region. purposes reserves) is contained in the Land Act 1962-86 and in particular in the Land Amendment Act 1973. South Australia The National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 provides for the establishment and management of The Department of Forestry is responsible for the reserves for public benefit and for the conservation of management of State Forests under the Forestry Act wildlife in a natural environment. Recent changes to the 1959-1987. Section 33 of the Forestry Act sets out the Act have created a new category of multiple-use reserve cardinal principles of management of state forests as being: where conservation of wildlife and use of natural resources can occur alongside one another in areas set — permanent reservation; aside as regional reserves. — production of timber and associated products in perpetuity; The reserves comprise national parks, conservation parks, game reserves, recreation parks and regional — protection of watersheds therein; reserves. They may be abolished or their boundaries 289 Protected Areas of the World altered by a proclamation of the Governor, subject to a Parliament. This proclamation may give a name to the resolution passed by both Houses of Parliament state reserve including that of state reserve, national park, nature reserve, historic site or Aboriginal site. Management plans for each reserve are prepared by the Other statutory powers for example, to grant mining Minister, in conjunction with comments and suggestions leases or forestry rights, do not apply in state reserves of the National Parks and Wildlife Reserves Advisory unless a management plan approved by both Houses of Committee and representations from the public. Parliament so provides. The sub-Antarctic Macquarie Objectives in the management of reserves include, the Island has been declared a nature reserve under this Act preservation and management of wildlife, the (Clark and Dingwall, 1985). preservation of features of geographical, natural or scenic interest, and the encouragement of public use and In conservation areas (some of which are named wildlife enjoyment of reserves. The management plan may also sanctuaries) wildlife and habitat are protected by provide for the division of a reserve into zones which regulations, but other activities such as mining and shall be kept and maintained under the conditions forestry are permitted. Management plans can provide declared by the plan. additional protection. Section 22 A-G of the Forestry Act 1920 authorises preparation and approval of Forest The National Parks and Wildlife Reserves Advisory Management Plans in respect of Crown land that is both Committee, at the request of the Minister, can investigate reserve land within the meaning of the National Parks and advise the Minister upon any matter referred to the and Wildlife Act 1970, i.e. set aside for a conservation Committee for advice. The Committee may also refer purpose, and land in a state forest or timber reserve. any matter affecting the administration of the Act, to the Forestry operations may proceed in such areas with Minister for consideration. Five members are appointed concurrence of both the Department of Lands, Parks and to the Committee by the Governor. Wildlife, and Forestry Commission, subject to those operations not jeopardising the conservation values for The Fisheries Act 1982 provides, inter alia, for the which the area was declared. protection of the aquatic habitat. Thirteen aquatic reserves have been proclaimed in South Australia National parks are generally outstanding natural areas pursuant to the Act. In addition, the Fisheries Act greater than 4,0(X)ha. Nature reserves comprise areas of (Aquatic Reserves) Regulations 1 984 provide for limited significant natural features reserved for nature access and/or Umited fishing activities within the waters conservation and scientific study. Crown land of most of the reserves. Other reserves are designated as conservation areas may also be declared game reserves non-entry, thereby affording complete protection to where management is aimed at producing native or marine life within the reserve. introduced game species which may be hunted in season. The Forestry Act 1950-81 dedicates specific areas of Management plans are required to be prepared in respect Crown land exclusively for the purpose of forestry. of all areas proclaimed under the National Parks and These areas are called forest reserves. Under the same Wildlife Act These are required to be publicly displayed Act, areas of forest within forest reserves can be and comment sought before being approved by the proclaimed and dedicated as native forest reserves Governor. Where provision is made for use of a state specifically for the conservation of flora and fauna. reserve other than as provided for in the Act, relevant parts of the management plan require the approval of Native forest reserves are required to have a "statement both Houses of Parliament. of purpose" for which they are established and are then protected under the Forestry Act from "operations Under the Forestry Act, the Forestry Commission may, inconsistent with this purpose". Proclamation occurs by notification in the Gazette, set aside land within a state after approval from state Parliament. forest as a forest reserve. The Historic Shipwrecks Act 1981 (SA) provides for the Under the Sea Fisheries Act 1959, the Crayfish Point declaration of marine waters to protect historic Marine Reserve has been established to provide an shipwrecks. The legislation effectively gives protection undisturbed area for rock lobster research. to marine life in the designated area by prohibiting shipping, and by prohibiting diving or other underwater Victoria Under the National Parks Act 1975, provision activities except in accordance with a permit issued by is made for the establishment of national parks and other the Department of Environment and Planning. parks for the preservation and protection of the natural environment including wilderness areas, indigenous Tasmania The National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970 flora and fauna, and features of scenic, archaeological, provides for the establishment of conservation areas by geological, historical or other scientific interest. the Governor's proclamation. Conservation areas may National parks and other parks may be zoned by include privately owned lands subject to the consent of publication of the Governor in Council proclamation to the owners. Conservation areas that are Crown land may that effect. New national parks and other parks are be declared state reserves by Governor's proclamation established by parliamentary amendment of the but may not be revoked unless the Governor's draft appropriate schedules to the National Parks Act to proclamation is first approved by each House of include the name and description of the lands included 290 Australia in the park. Provision is also made in the Act for the reserves for purposes such as conservation of flora and National Parks Service to manage land not reserved in fauna, or national park. Reserves vested in the Authority the Schedules to the Act. National parks comprise for a purpose that includes flora and fauna are termed predominantly unspoilt landscapes and are of extensive nature reserves. size whereas other parks are usually of relatively less size Under the Conservation and Land Management Act or significance. The Act makes statutory provision for 1984, the Governor may also reserve marine or inland special works to be conducted in certain parks and waters as a marine nature reserve or marine park. Such provides the Director with authority to manage parks areas are also vested in the National Parks and Nature generally. Conservation Authority, and may be of Class A. Under the Crown Land (Reserves) Act 1978, state Under the Fisheries Act 1905, the Governor may reserve wildlife reserves may be established for the preservation any part of Western Australian waters vested in the or management of wildlife or wildlife habitat. Flora and and the land at any time covered those waters fauna reserves and flora reserves are also reserved under Crown by as aquatic reserves. the Crown Land (Reserves) Act. International Activities The Unesco Convention Under the Wildlife Act 1975, the Director is required to concerning the Protection of the World Cultural prepare as soon as practical a plan of management for and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) was each wildlife reserve. The Minister may adopt or vary ratified by Australia in 1974. Eight properties have been such plans. inscribed on the World Heritage List as of July 1 99 1 . To The Reference Areas Act 1978 provides for reference date, twelve sites have been nominated as biosphere areas to be proclaimed by the Governor in Council, and reserves under the Unesco Man and the Biosphere for the Minister to issue directives for their protection, (MAB) Convention. Australia signed the Convention on control and management. Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) in May 1974 historic shipwrecks have been declared under the Two and forty wetlands are included currently on the list. Historic Shipwrecks Act 1981 (Vic). The legislation prohibits interference of the shipwrecks by boating, At a regional level, Australia ratified the 1976 fishing, diving or other underwater activities, effectively Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South protecting all marine life in the designated area. Pacific on 28 March 1990. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The The Rora and Fauna Guarantee Act was passed by Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Parliament in May 1988. The Act provides for the Commission and represents the first attempt within the protection of the habitat of endangered plant and animal region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among species and includes measures to prevent further other measures, it encourages the creation of protected deterioration in the conservation status of all native areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna. species. It also establishes a system for effective consultation with landholders and the community and Australia is also party to the South Pacific Regional places great importance on preventive action so that Environment Programme (SPREP) and the Convention species which currently appear secure do not become for the Protection of the Natural Resources and endangered. Under the Act, a Scientific Advisory Environment of the South Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP Committee is established to advise the Minister on Convention) was signed on 25 November 1986 and technical matters. ratified on 9 September 1987. The Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the Western Australia Under the Land Act 1933, the parties to lake all appropriate measures to protect rare or reserve land for public purposes. Notice Governor may fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora reservations is in the Gazette. of such published The and fauna through the establishment of protected areas also proclaim reserved areas Class A, Governor may as and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse B or C. Class A reserves remain dedicated for the effect on the species, ecosystems and biological purpose declared in the proclamation until revoked by processes being protected. However, as this provision Act of Parliament. Class B reserves may be revoked by only applies to the convention areas, which by definition the Governor by notice in the Gazette subject to the is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the Minister report both of for Lands presenting a to Houses establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of Parliament explaining the reasons for revocation or any marine species. alteration. Class C reserves may be revoked or altered by Gazettal or a Ministerial Notice to that effect. Austraha recognises also the importance of protecting migratory spec ies. A bilateral agreement has been signed Land Act that the Governor vest The provides may with Japan under which both countries agree to protect reserves in private, or government a semi-government the birds that migrate between Australia and Japan and authority for specific purposes. In Western AusU'alia, also the endangered birds in each country. Recently, a most conservation vested in National Parks areas are the similar agreement between Austfalia and the People's and Nature Conservation Authority as Class A, or B C Republic of China came into force. 291 Protected Areas of the World Administration and Management Kakadu National Park and Uluru (Ayers Rock-Mount Olga) National Park are managed by the Australian Australian Capital Territory All unleased open space National Parks and Wildlife Service. throughout the ACT, including Namadgi National Park and several nature reserves, are managed by the ACT The Territory's aquatic life reserves are managed by the Parks and Conservation Service, ACT Administration. Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries under the The ACT Parks and Conservation Consultative Fisheries Act 1988. It is intended that in 1989 the two Committee advises the Minister and the Department on existing reserves will be declared as fishery management management areas and management plans for each will be prepared. Overall management objectives are: Queensland The National Parks and Wildlife Act provides for the appointment of a Director of National — maintain to natural ecosystems and landscapes and Parks and Wildlife to administer the Act and to protect sites ofprehistoric and historic significance Regulations, the environmental park provisions of the for present and future generations of Australians; Land Act, the Fauna Conservation Act and Regulations, - to provide opportunities for recreational, scientific The Native Plants Protection Act 1930, and the and educational use and enjoyment of these Queensland Marine Parks Act 1982. resources consistent with their protection. The Forestry Act provides for the appointment of a The Minister may make regulations to protect reserves, Conservator of Forests to administer the Act and govern their use and the conduct of the public in them, Regulations. define the powers of rangers and impose penalties. The Fisheries Act 1976-1989 is administered by the External Territories The Director of the Australian Queensland Department of Primary Industries with National Park and Wildlife Service (ANPWS) is day-to-day management by the Fisheries Branch of that responsible for the areas proclaimed under the National Department Parks and WildUfe Conservation Act The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Norfolk Island National Park and Norfolk Island Botanic (GBRMPA) is responsible for the management of the Garden are managed by the ANPWS. Advice is provided marine park. To accomplish this, the Authority delegates by the Norfolk Island National Park Advisory some responsibilities for day-to-day management to Committee. other Commonwealth and Queensland agencies, in particular the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife The management of the Historic Shipwrecks Act has Service (QNPWS). Most of the day-to-day management been delegated to the State or Territory museums in some of the GBRMP is carried out by the QNPWS under instances. special agreement with the Commonwealth. New South Wales National parks, nature reserves, state The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, recreation areas, historic sites and Aboriginal areas are established under the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park managed by the New South Wales National Parks and Act, has three members who reflect the cooperative Wildlife Service established under the Act and arrangements between the Commonwealth and responsible to the Minister for the Environment. Queensland. The Chairman is a Commonwealth nominee, one member is nominated by the Queensland Flora reserves are managed by the Forestry Commission Government and the third represents non-government of New South Wales under the Forestry Act 1916. interests. The administration of most islands in the Aquatic reserves are managed by New South Wales region is the responsibility of the Queensland Agriculture and Fisheries on behif of the Minister for Government Agriculture and Rural Affairs, under the Fisheries and South Australia The Director of the National Parks and Oyster Farms (Amendment) Act 1979. As at 31 Wildlife Service is responsible to the Director-General December 1988 there were seven aquatic reserves of the Department of Environment and gazetted and managed within New South Wales. These Planning. Both are responsible to the Minister for the management of are additional to numerous closures throughout all reserves. The National Parks and Wildlife Service waters as protective measures for fish habitats and their constitutes division fauna. a of the Department of Environment and Planning. All staff, including the Director, are public Northern Territory The Director of Conservation, a servants employed to carry out the functions of the Deputy Director and staff are public servants employed National Parks and Wildlife Act. for the purpose of carrying out the functions of the The Department of Fisheries actively fosters public Commission. The Commission administers the Territory awareness of the existence of the aquatic reserves. This Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act as well as is being achieved by publication of relevant information, legislation relating to forestry, bushfires, soil signposting of reserves. conservation and environmental assessment Fisheries Officers (enforcement staff) passing on information to people who may be 292 Australia fishing or intending to fish in or near the reserves, and Conservation and Land Management may classify land by the Publicity Officer who spends part of his or her vested in the Authority for such purposes as prohibited time conducting discussions with schools and interested or restricted access or, in the case of a national park, for groups. The Department of Fisheries works closely with the purpose of a wilderness area. the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) when establishing management arrangements for aquatic The Department of Conservation and Land Management reserves. Some aquatic reserves abut terrestrial manages areas vested in the Authority, provides and conservation reserves managed by the NPWS. maintains facilities for the enjoyment of natural areas by the public, and undertakes other necessary functions for The Director of the Woods and Forests Department is the management of national parks, nature reserves, responsible to the Minister of Forests for the marine parks and marine nature reserves. The management of all forest reserves. Softwood plantation Department administers the Conservation and Land forestry is the major activity conducted on land managed Management Act, which covers the management of land by the Woods and Forests Department. Forest reserves with which the Department is involved, and the Wildlife are under the direct control of district managers and Conservation Act 1950-80, which covers the protection occur in four major geographical regions of the State: of fiora and fauna. South East, Central, Murraylands and Northern. The regions are under the control of two regional managers. The Department of Fisheries manages areas of water for the Flora and fauna on all forest reserves in currently conservation and protection of marine flora and protected under the National Parks and Wildlife Act. fauna through declaration of aquatic reserves and Permits must be obtained from the South Australian proclamation of fishing zones and closed waters. National Parks and Wildlife Service then from the Systems Reviews The main land masses of Australia Woods and Forests Department before other than are situated between latitudes ITS and 44*S and observational activities involving flora and fauna can be longitudes 1 13°E and 154°E, and separate the Indian and undertaken on forest reserves. Pacific oceans. In addition, there are scattered islands in The Department of Environment and Planning the surrounding seas and oceans, extending from the administers the Historic Shipwrecks Act. tropics to the subantarctic. The land area of Australia is almost 770 million hectares and the coastline is Tasmania Slate reserves, game reserves and approximately 40,000km long. There is an extensive conservation areas are administered by the Department Continental Shelf and a 200 nautical mile Australian of Lands, Parks and Wildlife under the National Parks Fishing Zone has been declared. While a large and Wildlife Act Whereas some conservation areas are proportion of interior Australia has an arid or semi-arid administered directly by the Department, there are, in climate, the coastal fringes are generally well-watered, addition, approximately 35 conservation areas where except along parts of the west and south coasts. The other government authorities or the owners are the major mountain ranges along the east coast of the managing authorities. The Department also administers country attract high rainfall and, at the highest altitudes protected areas, state recreation areas, coastal reserves in the south-eastern comer (up to 2, 1 60m), snow. etc., reserved under the Crown Lands AcL Because Australia covers a large area and encompasses The Forestry Commission manages forest reserves under a wide range of ecosystems, the task of identifying, the Forestry Act classifying and naming all species of its biota is a major undertaking. The Commonwealth Government has The Tasmanian Sea Fisheries Development Authority is established the Australian Biological Resources Study responsible for the management of Crayfish Point with the objective of documenting the totality of the Marine Reserve. Australian flora and fauna. The Study funds grants for research into taxonomy and distribution. As research on Victoria Under administrative arrangements ordered by major taxonomic groups is completed, volumes of the the Governor in Council in 1987, a Director of National Flora of Australia and the Fauna Australia are Parks and Wildlife administers the National Parks Act of published. The latter includes a general discussion of the and the Wildlife Act. Detailed management in the field Australian environment (Dyne and Walton, 1987). of parks and wildlife is by regional managers of the Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands. Forests cover a very small part of Australia, about 5% of total land mass, restricted to coastal and near coastal The Victorian Archaeological Survey administers the areas with high rainfall and suitable soils. Of the forests Historic Shipwrecks Act. that existed at the time of the arrival of the first white Western Australia Under the Conservation and Land settlers, only one-third remains, and most of this loss has Management Act 1984, the National Parks and Nature occurred since 1900. Rain forests are scattered unevenly Conservation Authority is established to develop along the eastern fringe of the continent and some policies in preserving the natural environment and in pockets exist in Northern Territory. Tropical rain forests, encouraging public appreciation of nature. On the however, are only found in Queensland. In New South Authority's recommendation, the Minister for Wales the rain forests range from subtropical, such as the 293 Protected Areas of the World Border Ranges, to warm temperate rain forests such as Addresses are found on the Dorrigo Plateau, and cool temperate rain forests further south at Mount Boss and Barrington Tops. Australian Capital Territory Director, There are also some 4,000 sq. km of temf)erate rain forest ACT Parks and Conservation Service, ACT Administration, in Tasmania, much of it in the nonh-wesiem part of the GPO Box 158, CANBERRA ACT (Tel: state (AHC, 1985). 2601 6 246 2308) National In New South Wales the main wetland areas are in the coastal zone and the drainage basins of the Director, Australian National Parks and Wildlife Murray-Darling and their tributaries; alpine bogs and Service, GPO Box 636, CANBERRA ACT 2601 fresh water lakes are a feature of the ranges and (Tel: 6 246 6211; FAX: 6 250 0339/0228; Tlx: tablelands. In Victoria, the main wetland areas are the 62971) billabongs, anabranch systems and flood plain swamps New South Wales of the River Murray, and the Gippsland Lakes and Director, National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box adjoining estuaries and coastal lagoons. South Australia, 1967, HURSTVILLE NSW 2220(Tel: 2 585 6300; the driest state, has relatively few wetlands but those of FAX: 2 585 6555; Tk: 26034) the Murray River, the coastal saline lagoons, swamps in Commissioner, Forestry Commission of New South the south-eastern region of the state and those along Wales, GPO Box 2667, SYDNEY NSW 2001 (Tel: Cooper Creek and Diamantina River are the most 2 234 1567) important Most of South Australia's wetlands have Director, New South Wales Agriculture and Fisheries, either been drained years ago, or are within protected PO Box K220, HAYMARKET NSW 2000 (Tel: areas. In Western Australia, the main wetland areas are 2 217 6666) the seasonally flooded plains in the Kimberleys. In Queensland the greatest concentration of wetlands is in Northern Territory the Gulf Country, Cape York Peninsula and along the Director, National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box lower regions of the inland-draining western rivers. Loss 1260, DARWIN NT 0800 (Tel: 89 508211; Tlx: of wetlands through draining is relatively small except 85130) in coastal areas and in the flood plains of the eastward Director, Conservation Commission of the Northern draining rivers. Tasmania has a high percentage of Territory, PO Box 496, PALMERSTON NT 0831 wetland, alpine in particular, however, large areas have (Tel: 89 895511) been modified. In Northern Territory vast areas of Secretary, Department of Primary Industry and coastal plain are seasonally wet (Paijams, 1978). The Fisheries, GPO Box 990, DARWIN NT 0801 arid lands of Australia occupy some three-quarters of the (Tel: 89 894211) land surface of the continent, an area exceeded only by the North African and Middle-East region. Although Queensland they are often perceived as being of low biological value, Director, National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box they contain highly specialised and adapted organisms 190, NORTH QUAY, Queensland 4002 (Tel: 7 227 (AHC, 1985). 4850; FAX: 7 221 5718) Under Secretary, Department of Environment and Australian alpine areas include unique elements, with Conservation, PO Box 155, NORTH QUAY QLD two main regions occurring: the Great Dividing Range 4002 (Tel: 7 227 41 11) and the Central Highlands of Tasmania, and both areas Conservator of Forests, Department of Forestry, GPO are well represented in protected areas. Four principal Box 944, BRISBANE QLD 4001 (Tel: 7 234 01 1 1) environments are found in alpine areas, viz., lowland, Director, Fisheries Branch, Department of P*rimary below 1,000m; montane, up to 1,370m; sub-alpine, from Industries, GPO Box 46, BRISBANE QLD 4001 1,370m to 1,800m; and alpine, over 1,800m. This wide (Tel: 7 2274111) range supports a rich flora and fauna (AHC, 1985). Chairman, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, PO Box 1379, TOWNSVILLE QLD 4810 (Tel: The first national park in Australia, Royal National Park, 77 818811) south of Sydney, was established in 1879. The century that followed saw the progressive development of a South Australia comprehensive system of national parks and reserves. As Director, National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box at 31 December 1988 approximately 40,780,930ha, or 1782, ADELAIDE S A 5001 (Tel: 8 216 7777) about 5.3% of the total land surface, had been reserved Director, Woods and Forests Department, GPO Box under different categories. In addition, an area of 1604, ADELAIDE SA 5001 (Tel: 8 226 9900) 38,354,763ha was reserved as marine and estuarine Director, Department of Fisheries, GPO Box 1625, protected areas (MEPAs), which is some of reserved as ADELAIDE SA 5001 (Tel: 8 226 0600) a part of, or contiguous with terrestrial reserves. Tasmania Director, Department of Parks, Heritage and Wildlife, GPO Box 44A, HOBARTTAS 7001 (Tel: 2 302336; FAX: 2 238765) 294 Australia The Secretary, Department of Lands, Parks and Wildlife, References GPO Box 44A,HOBARTTAS 7001 (Tel:2308033) Chief Commissioner, Forestry Commission of AHC (1985). Australia's National Estate. Special Tasmania, GPO Box 207B, HOBART TAS 7000 Australian Heritage Publication Series No. 1. Australian Heritage Commission. Australian Victoria Govemmant Publishing Service, Canberra. 225 pp. Director, National Parks & Wildlife Division, PO Box ANPWS (1989). Nature Conservation Reserves in 41, EAST MELBOURNE, VIC 3002 (Tel: 3 412 Australia (1988). Occasional Paper No. 19. 4011) Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Director-General, Department of Conservation, Forests Canberra. 69 pp. and Lands, PO Box 41, EAST MELBOURNE VIC Dyne, G.R. and Walton, D.W. (Eds) (1987). Fauna of 3002 (Tel: 3 651 4011) Australia General Articles. Volume lA. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. 339 pp. Western Australia Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of Director, Parks, Recreation and Planning, Department of islands in the Southern Ocean. A discussion Conservation and Land Management, PO Box 104, document prepard for lUCN's Commission on COMOWA6152(Tel: 9 3868811; FAX 9 386 1578; National Parks and Protected Areas. lUCN, Gland, Tlx: 94585) Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188 pp. Director, Fisheries Department of Western Australia, Paijams, K.I. (1978). Feasibility Report on a National 108 Adelaide Terrace, PERTH 6000 (Tel: 9 325 WA Wetland Inventory. CSIRO Division of Land Use 5988) Research, Canberra. Pp. 2-3. (Unseen) SPREP (1989). Australia. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 12 pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected areas designations, as legislated Australian Capital Territory Marine parks Nationally significant areas set aside primarily for protection of the marine environment National parks Extensive areas for the conservation and its biota. The area is zoned to allow for various of natural ecosystems, enjoyment and study of the activities. natural environment and public recreation. Nature reserves Land set aside primarily for New South Wales conservation and also for compatible recreational National parks Relatively large areas set aside for use. their features of predominantly unspoiled natural Reserves Land set aside for both conservation and landscape, flora and fauna, permanently dedicated compatible recreational use. for public enjoyment, education and inspiration, and protected from all interference other than essential Waters managed in sympathy An area of water in management practices, so that their natural attributes Jervis Bay Territory managed for conservation, are preserved. recreation and education. Nature reserves Areas of special scientific interest containing wildlife or natural phenomena where External Territories management practices aim at maximising the value the area for scientific Nationalparks Relatively large areas which contain of investigation and education representative samples of major natural regions, purposes. features or scenery of national or international State recreation areas Permanent reservations in the significance where plant and animal species, form of large regional parks established to provide geomorphological sites, and habitats are of special recreational opportunities in an outdoor environment scientific, education, and recreational interest. Historic sites Areas preserved as the sites of National nature reserves Nationally significant building, objects, monuments or landscapes of areas set aside primarily for nature conservation. national importance. 295 Protected Areas of the World Aboriginal areas Places of significance to historic interest. They are permanendy dedicated for Aborigines or sites containing relics of Aboriginal public enjoyment and education and protected from culture. all interference other than essential management practices to ensure that the natural attributes are reserves aside for the preservation of Flora Land set preserved. native flora and the natural environment Environmental parks Natural ornearnatural areas, Aquatic reserves Aquatic environments requiring less outstanding in size or natural attributes than protection and management to ensure future fisheries national parks, totally protected for public are maintained for all users. They can vary from very enjoyment small units of two to three hectares, representing a particularly sensitive area, through to more extensive Fauna reserves Areas of land held permanendy in areas of significant habitats and faunal assemblages, their natural state. They are undisturbed, other than covering 200-400ha. The larger units are generally by naturally occurring processes, and are closed to declared such that the area covered provides a the public. comprehensive management unit within which there Fauna refuges Land declared to is a zoning scheme to provide degrees of protection preserve habitat and reasonable levels of use which are consistent and protect fauna. with the conservation values. Scientific purpose reserves Land declared for specific scientific studies relating to flora and fauna Northern territory conservation. National parks Large areas of unspoiled landscape Scientific areas Areas of native forest selected and reserved for conservation, public enjoyment, managed to preserve significant natural ecosystems education and inspiration. and to provide for their scientific investigation. Conservation reserves Areas set aside primarily for Feature protection areas Areas that may possess conservation of anthropological, natural or scientific one or more of the following qualities: values. — outstanding natural beauty; Nature parks Land reserved primarily for public — spectacular biological or geological features; recreation and enjoyment in a fairly natural — unique or unusual qualities; environment. — representative examples of landscape of high Hunting reserves Areas set aside primarily for scenic quality in readily accessible or visually maintenance of game which can be harvested under sensitive locations; permit — significant stimulating or aesthetic sensory qualities, other than visual. Historical reserves Areas set aside primarily for their historical significance even though they may be Marine parks (Queensland State) Tidal lands and used for other purposes such as recreation. tidal waters declared for conservation, research, and public use and enjoyment. Other areas managed by the Conservation Commission Areas which have been purchased by Marine park (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park) the Northern Territory Government for conservation Multiple-use marine area extending from low water and recreation related purposes but which have not mark declared for the protection of plant and animal yet been declared parks. Areas declared as reserves life while allowing for reasonable use compatible under Section 103 of the Crown Lands Act and with the conservation needs of the Reef. The subject to Aboriginal land claim. Areas designated as GBRMP includes over 2,900 individual reefs, every protected areas under Section 22 of the Territory one is included in zoning plans which permit Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act but which are particular activities. Regulations also cover the air not the owned by Northern Territory Govemmenu space above the ocean and affords protection to bird species as well as marine organisms. For details, refer Aquatic life reserves Areas established to conserve, to zoning plans obtainable from GBRMPA or enhance and protect the marine environment. These QNPWS offices. areas may be used for compatible purposes such as education or recreation. Reserves for fisheries purposes: Queensland Fish habitat reserves Are declared over tidal lands of significant importance to fisheries. This type of National parks Relatively large areas of natural reserve is specifically designed to protect and landscape above high water mark with a high level preserve the lands of the reserve for a public benefit of diversity of flora and fauna and which may be of and to not allow private development. Normal 296 Australia access, boating and most forms of commercial and Recreation parks Lands that should "be conserved recreational fishing are not restricted. Revocation of and managed for public recreation and enjoyment". a fish habitat reserve in whole or part is by an These areas protect natural values, landscape, and Order-in-Council following parliamentary historic sites but may also provide facilities for public assessment. recreation in a natural setting. Wetland reserves Are declared over tidal habitat Regional reserves Lands that should be preserved lands of importance to fisheries but which do not for the purpose of conserving any wildlife or natural meet the criteria for declaration as fish habitat or historic features of the area while at the same time reserves. The reserves may also be declared as a permitting the utilisation of the natural resources of buffer between a fish habitat reserve and some form the land. of disturbance. This type of reserve is designed to Native forests reserves Areas of native preserve the area for a public enjoyment but to also vegetation that are significant accommodate under permit and guidelines private a size and/or have important disturbances of minimal impact on the existing ecological features. habitat features. Normal access, boating and fishing Aquatic reserves Any waters, including the bed of activities are not restricted. Revocation of a wetland such waters, or land and waters proclaimed pursuant reserve in whole or in part is by Order-in-Council. to the Fisheries Act 1982 to be an aquatic reserve. The objectives of the aquatic reserves are Fish sanctuaries Are declared over tidal lands of to: significant importance to fish and crustaceans within — preserve examples of different marine habitats; certain phases of their life cycles or where these are — particularly vulnerable to disturbance. A fish protect endangered species; sanctuary is designed to protect the fish and marine — conserve nursery areas for economically products only in a given area, does not protect the important species; habitat and does not allow any form of fishing. — serve as sites to learn about marine ecosystems. Normal access is not restricted. Revocation of a fish sanctuary in whole or part is by Order-in-Council. Tasmania Where habitat and fish and marine products are both National parks Extensive areas for the conservation to be protected, a fish habitat reserve or wetland of natural ecosystems, enjoyment and study of the reserve may be declared simultaneously with a fish natural environment and public recreation/tourism. sanctuary over the one area of tidal lands. State reserves Generally small reserves set aside for South Australia scenic and recreational reasons and/or to protect geological sites. National parks Protected areas "of national significance by reason of the wildlife or natural Nature reserves Areas set aside because of the features of those lands". Generally they are significance for nature conservation. Public use is not contiguous areas of substantial size, preferably tens encouraged where this might be detrimental, of thousands of hectares, with controlled provision although provision may be made for appropriate for public visitation and enjoyment. They are tourism and recreational activities. reserves encompassing many natural values Aboriginal sites Areas containing relics of including scenic beauty, wildlife, history and Aboriginal people or known to be of significance to inspiration to visitors. them. Degree of public use will depend on needs of Conservation parks Lands that should "be protected site for protection. or preserved for the purpose of conserving any Historic sites Areas of significance in terms of wildlife or the natural or historic features of those European exploration, settlement or use, with lands". Although these areas may contain all or some encouragement of tourism and recreational use. of the features represented in national parks, they tend to be subject to less visitation by the public, and Game reserves Essentially the same as nature subsequently are developed to a minimal extent. reserves except that specific provisions are made for hunting and the maintenance of game populations. Game reserves Lands which should "be preserved for the conservation of wildlife and management of Conservation areas Large multiple use reserves set game". Game reserves may be "set aside for the aside primarily to protect animals and their habitats purpose of fishing or hunting". These areas have an and to provide for recreation and controlled use of imf)ortant conservation role and may be declared resources. open at prescribed times for strictly controlled hunting. 297 Protected Areas of the World reserves Muttonbird Reserves where special — provide for the conservation of species, such as provision is made for private and commercial wild ducks, which may be harvested by the muttonbirding. community. Forest reserves Land set aside within a stale forest Reference areas Areas of public land containing recreational preservation for pi^poses; or protection viable samples of one or more land types that are features land aesthetic, scientific, or ofany of of other relatively undisturbed and that are reserved in value; or for the preservation of the fauna or flora. perpetuity. These areas must not be tampered with, and natural processes should be allowed to continue Marine reserve Area set aside for scientific research undisturbed. on commercially important species. Flora and fauna reserves Areas set aside for the Victoria protection of particular groups of flora and fauna. Nationalparks Certain Crown land characterised by Marine parks Areas set aside for the purposes of its predominantly unspoilt landscape, and its flora, conservation, recreation and scientific research. fauna or other features, should be reserved and Marine reserves Areas set aside for the purpose of protected permanendy for the benefit of the public. conservation, and various exploitive and Other parks Certain areas of Crown land with non -exploitive activities. landscape or other features of particular interest or suitability for the enjoyment, recreation and Western Australia education of the public, of or in matters appertaining to the countryside, should be reserved permanently National parks Established to preserve for all times and made available for the benefit of the public. scenic beauty, wilderness, native wildlife, Other parks are generally classified into coastal indigenous plant life and areas of scientific parks, historic parks, state parks and parks. Other importance and to provide for the appreciation and areas include some flora and fauna reserves, and enjoyment of those things by the public in such a reserves. manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the future. Wildlife reserves Areas of land that may: Marine parks Established to preserve a selection of — have ecological significance for a particular marine and estuarine habitats for recreation and species or faunal association; nature conservation purposes. — contain the habitat of endangered species; Conservation/recreation reserves Land reserved for — contain favoured breeding grounds; recreation and conservation purposes. — have a high species diversity; — be of educational, recreational or scientific Nature reserves Land reserved for the conservation interest; of flora and fauna. A quatic reserves Set aside for preservation, culture or propagation of marine or freshwater fauna and flora. 298 Australia SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map^ Protected Areas of the World Map^ Australia Map^ Protected Areas of the World Map^ Australia Map^ Protected Areas of the World Map^ Australia Map National/internationaldesignation lUCN management Area Year ret. Name of area category (ha) notined Marine Parks 113 Great Barrier Reef vn 34,500,000 1979 1 14 Green Island Reef II 3,000 1974 115 National Park sections within GBRMP II 4.700.314 1979 1 16 Pumicestone Passage II 8.000 Environmental Parks 1 17 Goneaway V 24,800 1974 1 18 Lake Broadwater V 1,220 119 Mount Archer V 1,990 120 Mount Zamia V 1,140 121 Townsville Town Common (1) V 2,920 122 Wilandspey V 5,200 1977 SOUTH AUSTRALIA National Parks 1 Canunda II 2 Coffin Bay 3 Coorong 4 Flinders Chase 5 Flinders Ranges 6 Gammon Ranges 7 Innes 8 Lake Eyre 9 Lincoln 10 Mount Remarkable 11 Nullarbor 12 Witjira Game Reserves 13 Bool Lagoon 14 Coorong 15 Katarapko 16 Loch Luna 17 Moorook Aquatic Reserves 18 American River 19 Barker Inlet-StKilda 20 Blanche Harbour-Douglas Bank 21 Seal Beach-Bales Bay 22 Whyalla-Cowleds Landing 23 Yatala Harbour Native Forest Reserves 24 Headquarters (Penola Forest Reserve) 25 Mount Gawler North (Mt Crawford Forest Reserve) 26 Murtho Forest Reserve 27 The Bluff Range (Wirrabara Forest Reserve) Conservation Parks 28 Bakara 29 Barwell 30 BascombeWell 31 Big Heath 32 Billiatt 33 Brookfield 34 Calpatanna Waterhole 35 Cape Gantheaume Protected Areas of the World Map Nationallinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 36 Australia Map' Nationallinternationaldesignation lUCN management Area Year ret. Name of area category (ha) notified 3 Protected Areas of the World Map^ Protected Areas of the World Map Nationallinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 109 110 Australia Map^ National/international designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 48 Protected Areas of the World Map^ NatiQnallinternadonal designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 104 Australia Map' Nationallinternationaldesignation lUCN management ref. Name of area Protected Areas of the World Map National/internationaldesignation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 218 Australia Map National/international designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notifled Bool and Hacks Lagoons Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of Australia - New South Wales 316 Australia 1 128" Protected Areas of the World — — Australia —\ 1 ~\ 1 130' 132° 134* MS' US' 26°- """t 82 N. "K : 1 43- 74 30"- i*-- ii'- ttO' I Protected Areas of Australia - South Australia 319 Protected Areas ofthe World Protected Areas of Australia - Tasmania 320 Australia o * in ^o * CM oo Protected Areas of Australia - Victoria 321 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of Australia - Western Australia (North) 322 Australia to 00 o O CSI K5 to Protected Areas of Australia - Western Australia (South) 323 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of Australia - Australian Islands 324 NEW ZEALAND Area 268.684 sq. km Heritage (World Heritage Convention) came into force on 22 November 1984, and two sites have been inscribed Population 3,392,000 on the World Heritage List: Tongariro National Park, per Natural increase: 0.82% annum and South-West New Zealand, the laaer encompassing 10% of the country. The Convention on Wetlands of Ek:onomic Indicators International Importance Especially as Waterfowl GNP: US$ 9,860 per capita (1988) Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was signed without Policy and Legislation Following the 1987 reservation as to ratification on 13 August 1976, and five reorganisation of government environmental sites are included in the List of Wetlands of International administration, the protected area system comprised 20 Importance. New Zealand participates in the Unesco principal categories established under six separate Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB), but has not statutes, viz. Conservation Act 1987; Reserves Act 1977; designated any Biosphere Reserves. National Parks Act 1980; WUdlife Act 1953; Queen New Zealand is party to the South Pacific Regional Elizabeth II National Trust Act 1977; and Marine Environment Programme (SPREP) and the Convention Reserves Act 1971. It became necessary to rationalise for the Protection of the Natural Resources and the structure of quasi-autonomous government Environment of the South Pacific Region, 1986 (SPREP organisations (quangos) which play an important role in Convention) was signed on 25 November 1986 and conservation administration. A major review initiated in ratified on 3 May 1990. The Convention entered into October 1987, including widespread public consultation, force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the culminated in the Conservation Law Reform Act 1989, parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or which rationalised the structure and responsibilities of fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered fiora quangos and reformed the law relating to freshwater fish and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and game management, marginal strips, and and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse conservation management planning. At that stage, the effect on the species, ecosystems and biological existing National Parks and Reserves Authority and the processes being protected. However, as this provision twelve Regional National Parks and Reserves Boards only applies to the convention areas, which by definition that covered the country remained operative under the is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the National Parks Act, and the Reserves Act, in order to establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of provide a "bridge" during the first years of the new marine species. Department of Conservation. Early in 1990, under the Conservation Law Reform Act, the national parks and Administration And Management Recent years have replaced the Zealand reserves bodies were by New witnessed revolutionary change in environmental Conservation Authority and seventeen district administration in New Zealand. On 1 April 1987, the conservation boards. Department of Lands and Survey, New Zealand Forest Service, Wildlife Service and Commission for the These assume the responsibilities previously exercised Environment were disestablished ani replaced by the by the National Parks and Reserves Boards, Nature Department of Conservation and a number of smaller Conservation Council, Forest Park Advisory policy agencies to continue with specific functions. Committees, Walkways Commission and Committees, Establishment of the Department created for the first Marine Reserves Management Committees, National time in New Zealand a single agency of central Recreational Hunting Advisory Committee, and Hauraki government with a statutory conservation mandate - Gulf Maritime Park Board. The Act also gives the with conservation defined as the protection and Guardians of lakes Manapouri and Te Anau statutory preservation of natural and historic resources, held in recognition. In order to carry out these functions, the new stewardship for present and future generations. bodies have the status of local government, the right to before tribunals, substantial independence appear and a The new organisation comprises a Head Office in (for example, the right to advocate and publish). They Wellington and 14 regional conservancies, with able are, in effect, citizen partners of the department, to boundaries established according to geographical, reach out into the whole community. ecological, local government and management considerations. The conservancies are designed to Further consolidation of the law relating to protected conduct all management operations through a regional areas is considered desirable, to simplify the approach office and network of field stations. Head Office handles and reduce the number of categories involved. These policy, planning, audit, resource allocation, and reforms will be achieved by amendments to the principal ministerial servicing functions at a national level. It is acts. made up of five policy divisions (protected species, International Activities The Convention concerning estate protection, resource use and recreation, advocacy the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural and information, historic resources); four servicing 325 Protected Areas of the World divisions (personnel and administration, finance, science of marine protected areas. In 1990, proposals and/or and research and information systems); a Maori investigations for additional marine reserves weie under perspectives and Iwi liaison unit; a ministerial servicing/ action at 33 sites, including extensions to two national corporate planning/revenue generation unit; and a legal parks. services unit The Reserves Act 1977 includes a commitment to work Systems Reviews New Zealand is a mountainous toward establishment of a protected area system which archipelago set in the temperate latitudes of the is representative of the full range of ecological diversity south-west Pacific region. The total land area is in the country. The bias in ecological representation at 268,684 sq. km, made up of the main North and South present toward higher altitude and forested landscapes, islands, the smaller Stewart Island, and more than 600 and the ongoing widespread loss of indigenous offshore islands extending from the sub-tropical ecosystems make this task imperative. To meet this Kermadec Group to sub-antarctic Campbell Island in the commitment, the Protected Natural Areas Programme Southern Ocean, and including the Chatham Group was developed to undertake a rapid survey of remaining some 800km to the east of the mainland. natural areas, identify those meriting protection and protect the most important The country was sub-divided Mountains dominate the landscape. About 60% of the into 268 ecological districts as a framewoik for the country is more than 300m above sea level, and the survey, and 133 of these were singled out for urgent Southern Alps contain 29 peaks rising to above 3,000m. attention. As of 1989, 46 ecological districts had been New Zealand straddles the "hotrim" of the Pacific Basin, surveyed in the period since 1983 when field work began. so has a long volcanic history. Ruapehu and Ngaruhoe Priority is being given to protection of areas on pastoral volcanoes, which dominate Tongariro National Park, are leasehold land in the South Island high country, where the most spectacular andesitic volcanoes in the protection will be effected primarily by conservation south-west Pacific and both are highly active, the former covenant. So far, 26 areas have been accorded having erupted 45 times in the past 1 25 years. Associated protection, by purchase as reserve, transfer to the with the North Island volcanoes is an extensive complex Department, or inter-agency agreement. A further 35 of hot springs and geysers, constituting one of the five areas are under negotiation; those in Central Otago and major hydroihermal regions in the world. northern Southland covering some 40,000ha. In North Island five protected private land agreements have been Human occupation over the past millennium has completed in the Taranati region, and one area purchased produced massive and widespread ecological change. for reserve in eastern Coromandel. Survey and This has been particularly so in the period of planned protection of lowland and coastal forest in the East Cape European settlement beginning 150 years ago. Some region, much of it on Maori land, have been given 60% of the original vegetation cover has been destroyed, priority for future work. However, despite support from especially the forests which are now reduced to only 23% the Department of Conservation, other government of the total land area, mainly in the mountains. The agencies, and public and local authorities, there is introduction of plants and animals has been likened to a mounting concern that progress with the survey and biological invasion, and the number of introduced plant protection of remaining natural areas is insufficient to species (c. 2,000) now rivals that of the higher native combat losses of habitat throughout the country. plants, while among the successfully introduced animals are at least 30 species of birds and 20 species of The Government took important initiatives, starting in mammals. 1990, to protect forests on private land. A Forest Heritage Fund was established with an annual vote of The New Zealand protected area system is among the $5 million to protect forests either by legal covenant most comprehensive in the world and was one of the agreements or purchase. To protect forests on private earliest to develop, having its origins in the days of land owned by Maori another fund with $2.5 million has European settlement in the latter half of the last century. been created. In 1989 the system contained more than 2,000 individual areas, covering approximately 5 million hectares, or A number of issues are seen as threatening the protected almost 20% of the total land area. This represents a areas system. These are the spread of possum throughout considerable increase in the network since 1983 when Northland with threats to coastal forests of outstanding there were 1,660 areas covering 4.5 million hectares or importance, in one of the few remaining areas of the 17% of the country. However, protection of the marine country free from possum; increased damage from goat environment has lagged well behind that on land. browsing, especially following accidental releases from Seaward of the coast there is less than 1% of the growing numbers of commercial herds; increases in country's 11,000km of coastline within protected number of red deer as a consequence of reductions in areas. The protected areas system also includes the live recovery operations by commercial hunters; sub-Antarctic Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands and proliferation of exotic plants, for example Clematis Bounty Islands which were established as nature vitalba, which is steadily invading reserves in the lower reserves under the 1977 Reserves Act (Clark and and western parts of North Island and in Nelson and Dingwall, 1985).The Department of Conservation is Marlborough; and the inexorable spread of wild conifers committed to the establishment of an extensive network which is a long-standing problem in areas of natural 326 1 New Zealand grassland and shnibland, particularly in Central Otago, References and in Tongariro National Park. Clark, MJ?. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of Addresses islands in the Southern Ocean. A discussion document prepared for lUCN's Commission on Department ofConservation (Director General), PO Box National Parks and Protected Areas. lUCN, Gland, 1 0420, WELLINGTON (Tel: 4 47 1 0726; Fax : 4 47 Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188 pp. 1082) Dingwall, P.R. (1989). New Zealand. Country Review 8. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 15 pp. ANNEX Deflnitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Conservation Law Reform Act Brief description: Text not available Date: 1989 SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designation I UCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Protected Areas of the World Map Nationallinternationaldesignation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 22 New Zealand Map Nationallinternational designation lUCN management Area Year ret. Name of area category (ha) notified 67 Protected Areas of the World Map^ New Zealand 174° 176° 178° Protected Areas of the World KB' 172° 174° KB' 170» The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Islands , ANTARCTIC TREATY TERRITORY Area 14,245,000 sq. km approximately Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) VII and VIII the Treaty Parties incorpxDrated recommendations to review permanently resident population Population No SPAs, to include the following categories: representative population in winter and (transient of about 2,500 4,500 examples of the major Antarctic land and freshwater in summer) systems; areas with unique complexes of species; areas which are the type locality or only known breeding area Economic Indicators of any plant or invertebrate species; areas which contain GNP: Not applicable especially interesting breeding colonies of birds or GDP: Not applicable mammals; and areas which should be kept inviolate so Policy and Legislation A series of international that they may be used for comparison with disturbed agreements, with measures adopted pursuant to them as localities. The sevendi meeting also made provision for guidelines for national legislation, as well as national the establishment of sites of special scientific interest instruments themselves, comprise the existing system of (SSSIs), for specified periods of time, to cover areas governance for the Antarctic and the activities conducted where scientific investigation was being carried out, or in the territory. where there were sites of exceptional scientific interest that required long-term protection (Bonner and Lewis The 1959 Antarctic Treaty was negotiated in order to Smith, 1985). The legal regime of the Antarctic Treaty ensure that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only System does not apply to territory and territorial waters and to further international cooperation and scientific of many of the Subantarctic islands, most of which are research. This treaty entered into force in June 1961, and under undisputed national jurisdiction and all of which is subject to review, if requested by one of its States have some form of related conservation legislation Parties with decision-making status (the Antarctic applying to them. South Orkney and South Shetland Consultative Parties) after June that is, Treaty 1991; Islands, Peter 1 0y, Scott Island and Balleny Islands are thirty years after entry into force. exceptional, lying within the 60°S latitude, and are covered by the Agreed Measures of the Antarctic Treaty. The Treaty would not have achieved its objectives without Article IV which preserves all previously SSSIs differ from SPAs in a number of respects. It was asserted rights or claims to territorial sovereignty in recognised at an early stage that the designation of an Antarctica and the position of those who recognise no area as an SPA virtually isolated it from active scientific claim or basis of claim in Antarctica, and nullifies any research programmes. However, there was a good case basis of claim during its operation. This balance between for providing sites with a measure of protection while the claimant and non-claimant states is reflected in other research was in progress, or was likely to be continued. components of the Treaty System. Article IX of the Furthermore, the Agreed Measures did not allow sites of Treaty requires that the Consultative Parties meet non-biological interest to be designated as SPAs. It was periodically and upon consultation recommend to their to rectify this that the concept of SSSIs was formulated governments measures in furtherance of the principles at the Seventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. It and objectives of the Treaty. These "recommendations" has been stipulated that SSSIs should only be proposed which come into effect when approved by all the when either scientific research was being, or was likely Consultative Parties, operate as with the principles of to be, carried out and that there was a demonstrable risk international law, do not constitute laws enforceable in that interference would jeopardise such investigations, any court but are guidelines, viewed as moral obligations or that they were of exceptional scientific interest and by the Parties which could, if breached, do no more dian therefore required long-term protection (Bonner and render a state liable to pressure and political sanctions. Lewis Smith, 1985). In furtherance of the requirement in Article IX (f) that An attempt to enhance the limited range ofprotected area the Parties formulate measures on the conservation of designations was made at the XIV and XV ATCMs, in living resources, the Agreed Measures for Conservation which two new protected area categories were of Antarctic Fauna and Flora were negotiated in 1964 established. Specially reserved areas are intended for the and several other measures followed. Although as an protection of representative examples of major annex to Recommendations III-VIII, they are actually geological, glaciological and geomorphological features voluntary guidelines. By virtue of Articles III and XIII, and representative examples of outstanding aesthetic, the Consultative Parties have since 1982 been legally scenic and wilderness values. Multiple-use planning required to implement the provisions of the Agreed areas are designed to promote cooperative planning to Measures. The conservation provisions prohibit the minimise environmental impacts (lUCN, 1990). taking of native species, except in accordance with a permit, and establish criteria for the issuance of permits The 1972 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic with regard to specially protected species, as well as for Seals entered into force in 1978. The Convention the specially protected areas (SPAs). At the Antarctic contains comprehensive measures to regulate the taking 335 Protected Areas of the World of seals, including specifying permissible catch levels, Signatories comprise Argentina, Australia, Belgium, protected species, and the opening and closure of sealing Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South seasons and zones, and it establishes three Seal Reserves. Africa, Soviet Union, United Kingdom and United The Convention is subject to regular review. The latest Slates of America, all of which are also Consultative review was conducted in September 1988. Parlies. The following are Acceding States only: Austria, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, The 1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Denmark, Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), which provides Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Papua New Guinea, objectives and means for such conservation, entered into Romania and Switzerland. States that are both Acceding force in 1982. It established an Executive Commission Slates and Consultative Parties, but are not amongst the and an Advisory Scientific Committee which meet Original Signatories, are Brasil, Ecuador, Finland, annually at their headquarters in Hobart, Tasmania, Germany, India, Italy, Netherlands, People's Republic Australia. of China, Peru, Poland, Republic of Korea, Spain, and Uruguay. The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA) was completed on Administration and Management The CCAMLR 2 June 1988 and opened for signature on 25 November provides for a Commission and Secretariat with an 1988. It establishes objectives and institutions for the associated Scientific Advisory committee and regulation of possible minerals development activities. CRAMRA makes provision for regulatory and The Convention requires ratification by the Parties administrative bodies. However, there is no overall before it can come into force and has largely been administrative framework for conducting Antarctic superceded by the environmental profile of 1991. activities. Unlike most international conventions, there is no Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, responsibility being In addition to the legal instruments and measures of the taken by the Parties that host Consultative Meetings. Antarctic Treaty System, activities in Antarctica are also Some non-governmental groups have called for the subject to a variety of legal obligations that stem from establishment ofan Environmental Protection Agency to treaties that are more broadly applicable, such as the rectify this situation. The Scientific Committee International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling on Antarctic Research (SCAR), the and several International Maritime Organisation a body of International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), was established in sponsored treaties on vessel safety and pollution control. 1958 with a brief to initiate, coordinate and promote The scope of these measures notwithstanding, it is Antarctic Science. The Group of Specialists on becoming increasingly apparent that there are Environmental Affairs and Conservation has been deficiencies that require remedying, notable among established to allow SCAR to advise on protective which are the following (lUCN, 1990): measures. (i) The intermittent development of measures over a Most of the principles promoted by SCAR for the period of almost 30 years has introduced differing protection of the Antarctic environment have been standards and procedures, reflecting the situation adopted under the Agreed Measures for the existing at the time they were written. Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora, including the establishment of protected areas and many other (ii) There are gaps in the series of measures which recommendations of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative require filling, especially to deal with activities Meetings. such as tourism that have recently increased. Systems Reviews There are several terms used to (iii) The implementation of of the some instruments has refer to the South Polar regions; the generally accepted not always been consistent or to up desired nomenclature of the SCAR is as follows. "Antarctica" is standards. used to refer to the Antarctic Continent, including the offshore islands of the continental shelf. "The Antarctic" (iv) The various disparate elements of the system for includes all the region, sea, ice shelves and land to the environmental protection require better south of the Antarctic convergence (the Antarctic coordination. Convergence zone). The oceanic part of the Antarctic is (v) While there are principles which span the various called the Southern Ocean. Because the Antarctic legal and management frameworks (e.g. peaceful convergence is not a fixed feature, the CCAMLR used a use, freedom of scientific information, series of coordinates to define a geographical boundary international cooperation), it is also clear that the which more or less follows the position of the Antarctic aspirations and goals of individual governments Convergence (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985). This and institutions involved in Antarctica vary boundary is wider than the Antarctic Treaty, which is considerably. limited by latitude 60'S. International Activities The Antarctic Treaty was Antarctica forms a hub about the South Pole, with its coasts mostly signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by 12 slates lying south of latitude 70'S. Two deep and entered into force on 23 June 1961. These Original indentations - the Weddell Sea south of the Atlantic 336 1, Antarctic Treaty Territory and the Ross Sea south of the Pacific break into the pKDpulations have also been recorded recently in streams, near-circular mass, with open water in summer to over freshwater seeps and wetland habitats outside lakes. 77*S and floating ice shelves at the heads of these seas A review by the Sub-Committee on Conservation, extending far south of 80'S. The Antarctic Peninsula SCAR published in 1985, and considering the 17 SPAs and 1 projects far to the north towards South America, its tip SSSIs existing at that time, concluded that most types of reaching 63'S and its flanking islands almost to 60'S. maritime Antarctic vegetation were included within the Antarctica, geologically, is two continents. The larger. system, but that there was inadequate representation of Greater (or East) Antarctica, is an almost circular block freshwater bodies. No sites had been defined to of land with most of its rock surface near sea level, but safeguard the inshore marine ecosystem, although some with fringing mountains around the greater part of its such sites have since been included. The protected areas margin, including the Transantarctic Mountains, rising system, as of 1990, comprised 32 SSSIs totalling to some 4,500m, which traverse the modem continent 93,000ha, and 16 SPAs covering 12,000ha, in addition and form the western margin of the Ross and the eastern to 55 historic sites and monuments and three seal margin of the Weddell Sea. Lesser (or West) Antarctica reserves (Dingwall, 1990). is smaller, and consists essentially of a high inland Until the formulation of the specially reserved area mountain massif, the Ellsworth Mountains, which designation, no provision had been for protection contain the highest summit in Antarctica at 4,897m, made of extensive landscapes. In particular, are extended northwards by the Antarctic Peninsula and SPAs by definition established the smallest possible size westward by the Crary and Executive Committee ranges. at to fulfil their function, thus failing include extensive Between Greater and Lesser Antarctica there are some to regions of high scenic value (lUCN, deep sub-ice channels which would sub-divide the 1990). continent in the event of complete melting of the ice cap. A series of recommendations to strengthen the protected areas system is made, in lUCN (1990), focusing on the The shores of Antarctica are fringed by seas that are protection of ecological interest and biological diversity uniformly ice-covered in winter and even in summer protection of scientific research sites, compilation of bear immense expanses of pack ice. At summer protection management plans, recognition and minimum sea ice covers some 3 million sq. km: at winter protection of outstanding Antarctic landscapes, maximum the cover expands to some 20 million sq. km. integration of protection and other activities, protection This fluctuating ice fringe expands the effective of historic and cultural sites, and further protection of boundary of the Antarctic, but the cooling of the sea Subantarctic islands. surface by the melting of this ice and of the immense icebergs that break from the ice shelves of the Ross and Interest remains high, especially amongst some Weddell seas and some other coastal margins has an even non-governmental organisations, in assigning world wider influence. park (or an equivalent) status on the Antarctic region, and there is some support for this amongst the Treaty Ice and snow support some life: snow algae which stain Parties. The governments of Australia and France, in the surfaces yellow, green or reddish colours. Certain refusing sign the Minerals Convention, advanced in crystalline rocks contain remarkable miniature to 1989 a proposal for negotiation of a new convention on "endolithic" ecosystems of bacteria, algae and fungi. environmental protection, which would establish Ice-free land supports a considerable diversity of lichens, Antarctica as a "nature reserve - land of science". with a total of some 150 Antarctic species, and in the Widespread support exists amongst the Antarctic Treaty more mild coastal habitats there are numerous different Contracting Parties for a comprehensive and integrated vegetation types dominated by mosses (with around 100 environmental protection regime, and interest has Antarctic species) and liverworts (with perhaps 25 emerged in negotiating a protocol to the Antarctic Treaty species). In such places, varied mats and carpets of moss on environmental protection (Dingwall, 1990). These inject a range of green and yellow tints into the landscape proposals were discussed at a special ATCM in Chile in and greatly increase its beauty as well as its scientific 1990 during which the continuation of a temporary ban interest. Only two species of vascular plant, a grass and on mineral exploration was agreed. a low-growing cushion plant, grow in Antarctica and they are confined to the maritime region of the northern Other Relevant Information Five island groups he Antarctic Peninsula and its fringing islands. The within the Antarctic Treaty Area, and are covered by the Subantarctic islands are much more richly vegetated, Agreed Measures of the Convention, namely South with flowering plant assemblages dominant near the Orkney and South Shetland Islands, Peter I 0y, Scott coasts, and areas of wetland and feldmark. The Island and Balleny Islands. The British include South subantarctic islands are relatively rich in both terrestrial Orkney and South Shetland island groups in the British and freshwater fauna. Antarctic Territory, designated in 1962, which is administered by a High Commissioner in Council, Freshwater lakes of Antarctica have dense mats of resident in London. Peter I is a Norwegian aquatic moss and blue-green algae on their beds, 0y dependency. Scott Island and Balleny Islands are part of planktonic algae in their surface waters, and fauna of the Ross Dependency, New Zealand territory. There is small crustaceans, worms, and rotifers. Some algal 337 Protected Areas of the World no formal administration ofprotected areas, although the Dingwall, P. (1990). Recent progress in developing the British Antarctic Survey station leaders are responsible protected areas network in the Antarctic Realm. for local permits. Report to the 34th Working Session of the lUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, References Perth, Australia, 26-27 November. lUCN (1990). A strategy for Antarctic conservation. Bonner. W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985). General Assembly PaperGA/19/90/19. 18th Session Conservation areas in the Antarctic. A review of the lUCN General Assembly, Perth, Australia, prepared by the Sub-Committee of Conservation 28 November-5 December. 11 1 pp. Working Group on Biology. Scientific Committee on Antarctic/International Council of Scientific Unions. 299 pp. SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map^ Antarctic Treaty Territory Map National/international designation lUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 38 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of the Antarctic TVeaty Territory 340 SOUTHERN OCEAN ISLANDS FRANCE - ILES CROZET Area 500sq. km Administration and Management The TAAF is divided into four districts, administered from Paris by the Population No permanent inhabitants Head of Territory assisted by an Adviswy Council. Local responsibiUty fw the District of Crozet is Ekronomic Indicators assumed by a District Head, based at Port Alfred-Faure. GDP: No information. The Comit6 de I'Environnement (Committee for GNP: No information the Environment), established in 1982, advises the Head of Policy and Legislation The islands are a part of the the Territory on matters relating to environmental and Territoire des Terres Australes et Antarctiques wildlife protection, protected areas, and management Frangaises (TAAF). problems. The administration of TAAF has prepared guidelines for protecting the fauna of the islands. Killing of the islands (a total area of 22,500ha), the Most with or removal of animals is forbidden unless specifically exception of He de la Possession and He de I'Est, form a permitted. part of the "Pare National Antarctique Fran^ais". This is thought to approximate lUCN category II (National Research in TAAF is conducted under the auspices of a Park). It was first established under an individual decree scientific council in Paris, chaired by the Head of the of 30 December 1924 which was replaced by a more Territory. The council is assisted by the Direction comprehensive decree in 1938. Numbers of seals and Generale de la Recnerche Scientifique et Technique elephant seals which may be killed, and time of year (General Directorate for Scientific and Technical when this is permissible, can be regulated. Birds are also Research) and the Comit6 National Frangais des protected in some areas. Recherches Antarctiques (French National Committee on Antarctic Research). In recent years, the level of The Nature Conservation Act (No. 76 629) of 10 July research carried out in the Crozet group has increased, 1976, which, among other things, provides the with emphasis on biology and ecology of avifauna, and legislative framework for defining, designating and the effects of alien animals on the native biota. establishing nature reserves in France, was extended to include the TAAF in 1982. Systems Reviews lies Crozet comprise an archipelago in the southern Indian Ocean, 2,400km south-east of Antarctic and Subantarctic (D6cret Lands Act 1966) South Africa. It consists of five main volcanic islands, in regulates activities near breeding colonies of birds, to two groups: a western group of He aux Cochons, He des minimise human disturbance. There is strict control on Pingouins, and Hots des Apotres; and an eastern group fishing within 200-mile Exclusive a Economic Zone comprising He de la Possession, and He de I'Est. around the islands, while the exploitation of whales in the 200-mile zone is prohibited (Arrets, 1981). Vegetation of the three main islands is relatively uniform. Herbs are common on the coasts. Tussock Most of the Crozet Islands have been proposed (under grassland dominates to about 50m. Grass is important five separate proposals) as specially protected areas, to from 50-lOOm, with Kerguelen cabbage, dwarf shrub, be awarded similar status to those areas covered under and fern. Above 100m, feldmark vegetation pjredominates, the Antarctic Treaty (see Antarctic Treaty Territory comprising cushion herbs and grass. Above 200-300m, information sheet) (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985). only sparse mosses and lichens are found. International Activities lies Crozet are considered to The islands have a very rich and relatively diverse be a part of the Antarctic for the purposes of the avifauna, with the total number of birds estimated at 25 Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). million. The invertebrate fauna is extensive, with members are national SCAR academies of sciences, and numerous endemic insect species. A number of seal SCAR has been closely involved with conservation species breed and notoUienid fishes and lithodid crabs issues in the region. The islands do not, however, fall are common in coastal waters. within the limits of the Antarctic Treaty and hence do not fall under the obligations associated with it, The islands were discovered in 1772 by Marion including those related to protected areas. Dufresne, and were visited sporadically by sealers in the 19th century. A meteorological station. Port lies Crozet lie within the area covered the Convention by Alfred-Faure, was established by the French on He de la for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Possession in 1962. It is manned continually, by 20 men Resources (CCAMLR) which regulates exploitation of on average, and relieved annually. marine animals, but local French management of fisheries occurs. 341 Protected Areas of the World Alien mammals have been introduced to several islands patagonicus rookery. The current status of this proposal and He aux Cochons is particularly badly affected. Rats is unknown. and mice are the only mammals currendy on He de la Present fishing operations in the area of lies Crozet are Possession and there are no mammals on He de I'Est at light, following over-fishing in the early present. Salmonid fishes have also been introduced into 1970s. However, recent surveys have indicated that several the group, but are not well established; the fishes may economically important species are abundant around the have a localised impact on the native invertebrate fauna. islands. The possibility of Alien plants are widespread on some of the islands, renewed development of a major fishery raises questions concerning the effects of especially He de la Possession where about 50 alien fisheries on the bird life of the islands. vascular species are established, at least 12 being naturalised with widespread distributions. Other Relevant Information Further information concerning protected areas in a wider French context lies Crozet are considered to be of high biological value, may be obtained from the main body of information with a very rich avifauna. The impact of man in the past on France (see Volume has been variable rather than heavy. Several islands in 2). the group are largely unmodified with intact native fauna Addresses and flora; islands such as Hots des Apotres, He des Pingouins, and to a lesser extent He de I'Est. The former Terres Australes et Antarctiques Frangaises (Director), two islands are covered under the national park 27 rue Oudinot, 75700 Paris, France classification, but He de I'Est is not. Clark and Dingwall (1985) consider that protection equivalent to lUCN References Calegcxy I (Scientific/Strict Nature Reserve) is warranted. Bonner, W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985). He de la Possession is the most modified island in the Conservation areas in the Antarctic. Scientific group, and is the only one with human occupation, but Committee on Antarctic Research, International still retains some notable fauna and flora. In 1982 it was Council of Scientific Unions. 299 pp. proposed to construct a major road between the coastal Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of landing area and the meteorological base, which would islands in the Southern Ocean: a review of the seriously disturb a major king penguin Aptenodytes protected areas of Insulantarctica. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188 pp. 342 Southern Ocean Islands FRANCE - ILES AMSTERDAM AND ST PAUL Area 55 sq. km (lie Amsterdam); 7 sq. km (He St Paul) The Comit6 de TEnvironnement (Committee for the Environment), established in 1982, advises the Head of Population No permanent inhabitants the Territory on matters relating to environmental and wildlife protection, protected areas, and management Ek:onomic Indicators problems. GDP: No information. GNP: No information. Specific details of policy are not known. Guidelines for conduct of personnel on the island, and visitors, have Policy and Legislation The islands are a part of the been prepared by TAAF. Personnel are periodically Territoire des Terres Australes et Antarctiques informed of environmental issues and conservation Fran9aises (TAAF). regulations. The entire area of both islands forms a part of the "Pare Systems Reviews Both islands (which are some 100km National Antarctique Fran^ais", which is thought to apart) lie on the same raised plateau in the southern approximate lUCN Category U (National Park). It was Indian Ocean, 1,300km north-east of lies Kerguelen. lie first established under an individual decree of Amsterdam has steep coastal cliffs, especially on the 30 December 1924 which was replaced by a more western side, rising to a central plateau at around 600m comprehensive decree in 1938. Numbers of seals and which forms the floor of a crater. Highest points on the elephant seals which may be killed, and time of year island are the remnants of the crater wall, with Mont de when this is permissible, can be regulated. Birds are also la Dives reaching 881m. Numerous craters and vents protected in some areas. occur on the plateau and flanks of the central cone. There The Nature Conservation Act (No. 76 629) of 10 July is no present volcanic activity. 1976, which, among other things, provides the lie St Paul is the summit of another volcano, with steep legislative framework for deflning, designating and cliffs along its eastern coast the crater associated with establishing nature reserves in France, was extended to the volcano forms a deep bay along this coasL It has only include the Territory of TAAF in 1982. a very narrow entrance to the sea and this is protected by sill. lies craterrim and The Antarctic and Subantarctic Lands Act (D&ret, a shallow The highestpoint on the the southern and eastern flanks of the 1966) covers and restricts the activities of French is some 268m; personnel. Exploitation of whales in the 200-mile island are more gently sloping. The islands lie to the Convergence. Lowland slopes Exclusive Economic Zone around the island is north of the Subtropical of tussock grass. prohibited. to 250m are dominated by meadows Dense grasslands of sedges, and to a lesser extent Roche Quille, a small island off the coast of lie St Paul, Spartina arundinacea, occur to about 600m. Above this, and a 20 sq. km area of the central plateau and vegetation comprises feldmark of dwarf shrub, south-western cliffs of lie Amsterdam, have been sphagnum bogs, and mosses. Phylica arborea trees, up proposed as specially protected areas (under two to 7m high, and ferns were formerly widespread on He separate proposals), to be awarded similar status to those Amsterdam, but now occur only in sheltered areas free areas covered under the Antarctic Treaty (see Antarctic from grazing. They are not found on lie St Paul. Treaty Territory information sheet) (Bonner and Lewis species are known to breed on lie Smith, 1985). Only seven bird Amsterdam and only five on He St Paul. The breeding International Activities lies Amsterdam and St Paul population of yellow-nosed albatross (37,000 pairs) on are considered to be a part of the Antarctic for the lie Amsterdam comprises more than one-half of the purposes of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic world population. Amsterdam Island fur seal Research (SCAR). SCAR members are national Arctocephalus tropicalis breeds on both islands, and academies of sciences, and SCAR has been closely southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina occurs. involved with conservation issues in the region. The Amsterdam was discovered by Sebastian del Cano islands do not however fall within the limits of the He of Magellan ' s ships) in 1 522, but was not landed Antarctic Treaty and hence they do not fall under the (on one on until 1696. It was visited sporadically by explorers, obligations associated with it, including those related to sealers, scientists and crayfishermen in the 1800s, protected areas. Furthermore, they lie outside the in 1843. Cattle farming was boundaries of the Convention for the Conservation of and claimed by France attempted in 1871. French meteorological station was Antarctic Marine Living Resources. A established in 1949-50 and is manned by 35 men on Administration and Management The TAAF is average, relieved annually. administered from Paris, as four districts. The District of Research in TAAF is centred on lies Kerguelen and lies Amsterdam and Saint-Paul is the responsibility of the limited studies are Ik- District Head, based at La Roche Godon. Crozet, but conducted on Amsterdam; very little research is conducted on He St 343 Protected Areas of the World Paul. On both islands, fur seals were heavily exploited pairs), and the presence of an undescribed species of in the 1800s, but populations are now recovering. procellariid highlights the need for a comprehensive However, southern elephant seal no longer breeds on the biological survey of lie Amsterdam. Preparation of island. detailed inventories of fauna and flora is an essential prerequisite for any conservation planning. Introduced mammals are widespread and cause considerable problems; Norwegian rats, mice and cats Other Relevant Information Further information are found on both islands, while rabbits are found on He concerning protected areas in a wider French context St Paul. Vegetation on He Amsterdam has been modified may be obtained from the main body of information on considerably by grazing of introduced mammals, in France (see Volume 2). particular cattle, which are still present, but also sheep, goats and pigs which were formerly present Cattle are Addresses widely distributed, and their grazing has destroyed large Terres areas of tree Phylica arborea and ferns. General Australes et Antarctiques Franfaises (Director), rue Oudinot, reduction of vegetation cover has contributed to spread 27 75700 Paris, France of alien vegetation, caused soil erosion, and reduced References suitable habitat for some bird species. Vegetation has also been frequently destroyed by fire, the last one in Bonner, W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985). 1 973 burning for many months and affecting colonies of Conservation areas in the Antarctic. Scientific birds. Alien plants are widespread on both islands. Committee on Antarctic Research, International Council of Scientific Control measures to Umit number and distribution of Unions. 299 pp. introduced mammals should be considered: control Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of islands programmes of cats and rats would need to be introduced in the Southern Ocean: a review of the together and be long-term. Discovery of Amsterdam protected areas of Insulantarctica. lUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Island albatross in 1982 (numbering only 25-30 breeding Cambridge, UK. 188 pp. 344 Southern Ocean Islands FRANCE - ILES KERGUELEN Area 7,000 sq. km Administration and Management TAAF is administered in Paris, as four districts. The district of Population No permanent inhabitants Kerguelen has its own district head based at Port-aux-Fran?ais, assisted by an advisory council. Ek;onoiiiic Indicators GDP: No information The Comit6 de I'Environnement (Committee for the GNP: No information Environment), established in 1982, advises the Head of the Territory on matters relating to environmental and Policy and Legislation The islands were a dependency wildlife protection, protected areas, and management of Madagascar from 1924 to 1955 (then a French problems. The administration of TAAF has prohibited Colony), and then became part of Territoire des Terres the taking of birds, with the exception of Kerguelen Australes et Antarctiques Fran^aises (TAAF). pintail. Personnel in TAAF are periodically informed of conservation regulations and requirements. Areas of lies Kerguelen are part of the "Pare National Antarctique Frangais" which is thought to approximate A local scientific council, chaired by the head of the lUCN Category II (National Park). It was first Territory, in conjunction with the Direction G6n6rale de established under an individual decree of 30 December la Recherche Scientifique et Technique (General 1924 which was replaced by a more comprehensive Directorate for Scientific and Technical Research), decree in 1938. The latter provides protection for seals coordinates research programmes. Research is on the west coast of He Kerguelen. Numbers of seals and conducted in association with the Comitd National elephants seals which may be killed, and time of year Frangais des Recherches Antarctiques (French National when this is permissible, can be regulated. Birds are also Committee on Antarctic Research), a member of the protected in some areas. international Scientific Committee on Antarctic The Nature Conservation Act (No. 76 629) of 10 July Research (SCAR). 1976, which, among other things, provides the Systems Reviews lies Kerguelen is an archipelago legislative framework for defining, designating and comprising one large island. He Kerguelen (Grande establishing nature reserves in France, was extended to Terre) of 660,000ha, with about 300 off-lying islands, include the TAAF in 1982. islets and rocks lying in the southern Indian Ocean, of Australia. The islands lie just The Antarctic and Subantarctic Lands Act (D6cret 1966) 1,800km south-west south of the Antarctic Convergence. lie Kerguelen limits human activities near breeding colonies of birds. (Grande Terre) itself is 120km by 140km, its rocky There is a ban on exploitation of whales within the inlets into a number of 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone around the islands shoreline deeply dissected by islands are of volcanic origin, and rocks (ArrSt6, 1981). Other restrictions in this zone include a peninsulas. The are mainly of basaltic composition. High mountains ban on fishing in inshore waters, closed seasons and with the highest peak, Mont Ross, areas where appropriate, minimum size of fish, need to occur in the west, reaching 1,850m. There are extensive plateaux in the hold a fishing licence, return of detailed catch records, valleys, and numerous rivers and lakes. and presence of observers at times. east, deep glacial In the west there is a large ice cap. Calotte Glaciaire The lies Nuageuses, some 14km to the north of the main Cook, some 50km by 20km, the remains of an ice sheet island, have been proposed as a specially protected area, which formeriy covered the entire island. Numerous to be awarded similar status to those areas covered under other glaciers occur. the Antarctic Treaty (see Antarctic Treaty Territory dominated by bryophytes, information sheet) (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985). Mires are widespread, low-lying shrubs, cushion- forming flowering plants, International Activities lies Kerguelen are considered and tussock-forming grasses. Vegetation varies to be a part of the Antarctic for the purposes of the considerably to 500m. Above the plateaux grasses, ferns, Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). mosses, and lichens can occur, but many high areas are SCAR members are national academies of sciences, and devoid of vegetation. The islands host 30 breeding SCAR has been closely involved with conservation species of bird, including penguins, albatrosses, petrels, issues in the region. The islands do not, however, fall gulls and terns. Southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina within the Umits of the Antarctic Treaty and hence do and Antarctic fur seal Arclocephalus gazella breed on not fall under the obligations associated with it, the islands. In nearshore coastal waters, several fish including those related to protected areas. species are abundant, in particular notothenid cods. The area around lies Kerguelen is within the boundaries The islands were discovered by Captain Yves Joseph de of the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Kerguelen-Tremarec in 1772. Sealing, whaling, and Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), although local several scientific expeditions visited the islands in the French management of fisheries occurs. 19th century. In 1908 a sheep station and whaling station 345 Protected Areas of the World were established by Bossiere at Port Jeanne d'Arc are also widespread over He Kerguelen. Despite the continuing until 1932. A meteorological station was impact on the indigenous biota, plant and animal established at Port-aux-Fran^ais, in the Golfe du introductions have continued until recently (for Morbihan, in 1949. There is now a permanent research example, the introduction of conifer trees in 1976). station at this site. Research undertaken is mostly There is need full atmospheric and geophysical, although some biological a for a biological survey of lies Kerguelen, in particular of the off-lying islands which research is also carried out Research on introduced are thought to be largely free of introduced mammals has increased under the sponsorship of TAAF, mammals and to have intact native biota. Species which are rare with the objective of conducting control programmes. on the main island are known to be abundant on some offshore Staff number 90 on average (1980), and are relieved islands. Identification of priority areas for annually. conservation is of immediate concern. To this end, an increase in Exploitation of marine mammals and seabirds occurred permanent scientific staff attached to TAAF would be throughout much of the 19th century, and elephant seals beneficial, enabling more long-term investigations to be were killed up until the 1960s. Stocks of Antarctic fur undertaken. An increase in logistical support for seal and elephant seal have only recently begun to biological research is also possibly necessary. A greater recover. level of legal protection is needed for areas of the main island, and total protection of off-lying island considerable Introduced mammals have had impact on environments and biota would help ensure conservation the islands* native biota. Rabbits were introduced in of the diverse fauna of lies Kerguelen. 1874, and grazing has decimated certain important plant species, while less palatable species have become Other Relevant Information Further information dominant over large areas, in contrast to off-lying islands concerning protected areas in a wider French context without alien mammals. Grazing has also caused the loss may be obtained from the main body of information on of much invertebrate fauna closely associated with die France (see Volume 2). original flora. Feral populations of sheep, mouflon and Addresses reindeer have added to the effect of rabbits, causing considerable erosion, and reducing nesting habitat for Terres Australes et Antarctiques Franfaises (Director), seabirds. It has been estimated that there are 3,500 cats 27 rue Oudinot, 75700 Paris, France onIleKerguelen(1977)killingmorethan 1 million birds annually. Cat control was attempted in 1972-75, with References some success, but the programme was discontinued. The salmonid species, intentionally introduced as game fish, Bonner, W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985). have reportedly had a marked effect on the invertebrate Conservation areas in the Antarctic. Scientific fauna which previously was not subject to predation by Committee on Antarctic Research, International fishes. Over much of He Kerguelen modification ofbiota Council of Scientific Unions. 299 pp. is too advanced, and populations of mammals too Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of well-established for any possibility of restoration to its islands in the Southern Ocean: a review of the original state; a systematic programme of control would protected areas of Insulantarctica. lUCN, Gland, reduce pressures on vegetation and seabirds. Alien plants Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188 pp. 346 Southern Ocean Islands NORWAY - BOUVET0YA (BOUVET ISLAND) Area 50sq. km permission to construct a meteorological station on the island, but no building has yet been undertaken. Population No permanent inhabitants Systems Reviews Bouvet0ya lies in the South Atlantic Economic Indicators Ocean, 3,330km south of South Africa. It is roughly oval GDP: No information. in outline, 9.5km by 7km, and is a domed plateau GNP: No information reaching a maximum altitude of 800m, with steep cliffs except on the eastern side. A low lava platform Policy and Legislation The entire island is owned by (Nyroysa) on the west coast resulted fi-om a landslide in the Crown. It is a strict nature reserve and was 1957/58. A single rocky islet, Larsoya, occurs to the established under an Order of Council in December south-west. The island is probably a complex of volcanic 1971, which gives protection to the flora and fauna; cones, and is of basaltic composition. It is heavily prohibits alien introductions, the construction of glaciated, being 95% ice-covered. It lies about 500km buildings, roads etc, vehicular transport, and the disposal south of the Antarctic Convergence, and pack ice from of waste which could harm flora and fauna; and governs the Weddell Sea is occasionally present. scientific activities by permit. The conditions include territorial waters. Seals are additionally protected by The flora is regarded as impoverished, showing affinities Norwegian Ordinance. with island groups to the west such as the South Sandwich Islands and South Shetland Islands. Antarctic The government's main goals concerning polar regions fur seal Arctocephatus gazella is numerous, and southern include "the improvement of the knowledge on which elephant seal Mirounga leonina probably also breeds. the management of the polar regions is based and taking Three species of penguins and several other species of of the necessary steps for their protection, ensiuing the seabird are found on the island. There are no introduced sound management of resources in the Antarctic and the animals. protection of the natural environment and the strengthening of international cooperation under the Bouvet0ya was discovered in 1739 by the Frenchman Antarctic Treaty". One specific aim for the furtherance Jean-Baptisle Lozier de Bouvet. Sporadic sealing of research put forward by the government is that regular occurred in the 1800s. The island was claimed by Antarctic expeditions should be organised every third Norway in 1928, with formal annexation in 1930. year, with emphasis on Norway's management Several scientific expeditions have visited the island this responsibilities and environmental issues (Ministry of century. the Environment, 1989). Other Relevant Information Further information International Activities Bouvet0ya does not fall concerning protected areas in a wider Norwegian context within the limits of the Antarctic Treaty and hence may be obtained from the main body of information on does not fall under its obligations, including those Norway. related to protected areas. The island is within the boundaries defined by the Convention for the Addresses Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) which regulates exploitation of marine Ministry of Environment, PO Box 8013 Dep, Oslo 1, animals. Norway Justis-og politidepartementet, Polaravdelingen, Administration And Management The island is PO Box 8005 Dep, Oslo 1, Norway administered by the Norwegian Ministry of Environment (Miljoverndepartementet) which was References created in 1972 in conjunction with the Department of Justice (Polar Division). These bodies are advised by the Bonner, W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985). Norsk Polarinstitutt (Norwegian Polar Research Conservation areas in the Antarctic. Scientific Institute), which is one of five directorates/institutions Committee on Antarctic Research, International under the Ministry of Environment Activities on the Council of Scientific Unions. 299 pp. island are governed by permit. Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of islands in the Southern Ocean: a review of the There have been occasional visits by scientific protected areas of Insulanlarclica. lUCN, Gland, expeditions since the first landing of scientists from the Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188 pp. "Norvegia" in 1927. The level of scientific research Ministry of Environment (1989). Report to the Storting increased has recently with several Norwegian Antarctic No. 46 (1988-89). Environment and Development, Research Expeditions (NARE) expeditions, but further programme for Norway's follow-up of the report of detailed biological surveys appear to be needed. the World Commission on Environment and Short-term weather stations have been established on the Development. Ministry of Environment. 74 pp. island since 1977. South Africa has been granted 347 Protected Areas of the World SOUTH AFRICA - PRINCE EDWARD ISLANDS Area 300 sq. km (Marion Island); 44 sq. km (Prince International Activities Prince Edward Islands are Edward Island) considered to be a part of the Antarctic for the purposes of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research Population No permanent inhabitants (SCAR). SCAR members are national academies of sciences, and SCAR has been closely involved with Economic Indicators conservation issues in the region. The islands do not, GDP: No information however, fall within the limits of the Antarctic Treaty GNP: No information and hence do not fall under the obligations associated Policy and Legislation The islands are not legally with it, including those relating to protected areas. protected, although the Sea Birds and Seals Protection The Islands lie within the area covered by the Act (Act 46) of 1973 gives some specific legal protection Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine to fauna. This Act was expected to be incorporated into Living Resources (CCAMLR) which regulates the 1989 Environmental Conservation Act (Cooper and exploitation of marine animals. Condy, 1988). Despite this hmited statutory protection, both islands are effectively managed as a nature reserve. Administration and Management Activities on the islands are administered jointly by the South African Like the rest of South Africa the islands have a territorial Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research sea of 12 nautical miles and an exclusive fishing zone of (S ASCAR), a body within the Council for Scientific and 2(X) nautical miles. Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Antarctic section of A conservation policy, including "operational the Department of Transport. Annual scientific guidelines" for visiting scientists, has been prepared expeditions to the island are sponsored by the transport, food which is equivalent to a management plan. This "Code DepanmentofTransport,whichprovides the In the of Conduct for the Environmental Protection of the and clothing, but are managed by CSIR. 1983 Prince Edward Islands" was developed by the South research budget for the islands was approximately African Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research in R300,000. 1982 and was being revised by the Department of Systems Reviews The islands he some 22km apart in Environment Affairs in 1988 prior to its formal adoption. the South Indian Ocean, some 925km west of lies Crozet It regulates construction and maintenance activities, sets and 2,300km south-east of South Africa. Marion Island out procedures for the disposal of waste materials and is roughly oval, with a central mountainous area rising the prevention of pollution, restricts tourism, limits the from a coastal plain: the highest mountain. State taking of flora and fauna, and deals with certain aspects President Swart Peak, rises to 1,230m. The island is the of aircraft and ship operation to minimise disturbance to summit of a basaltic volcano and there has been some animals. Nine areas on Marion Island, and the entire area recent activity, with a small fissure eruption on the west of Prince Edward Island have been designated coast in 1980. Prince Edward island is also oval in shape, "wilderness areas", while sealers' and shipwreck with a coastal plain in the east, but with precipitous cliffs remains are totally protected. In wilderness areas greater in the north and south and only a narrow coastal plain in restrictions are placed on access and activities: only the wesL There are a several volcanic cones in the high essential research may be conducted, while rigid central area. precautions must be taken to prevent the accidental on introduction of alien species. Research carried out On the salt-sprayed coastline herbs dominate, inland Prince Edward Island is very limited: it is only permitted tussock grass dominates, with ferns in more protected for projects specifically requiring information from that areas and mires and bogs over a fairly wide area. island, and the island is only visited once or twice a year Feldmark communities occur above 3(X)m. A number of 5- provides for the for 10 days. The Code of Conduct also seal species are found, and the islands have a very rich proclamation and deproclamation of permanent and avifauna. seasonal specially protected areas and sites of special scientific interest, to be equivalent to those declared The islands were probably both discovered by the within the Antarctic Treaty areas, although to date none Dutchman Barent Ham in 1663, but the first confirmed has been proclaimed on Prince Edward Islands. sighting was in 1772 by Marion Dufresne, while Captain Environmental impact assessments prior to the James Cook visited and named the islands in 1775. By implementation of major projects is recommended. 1802 sealers had set up temporary bases on the islands. The islands were annexed by South Africa in 1948 and Further recommendations have been made, including the 1949 (Prince Edward Islands Act No. 43 of 1948). A drafting and implementation of a formal and effective meteorological base, established on Marion Island in management plan and the formal, statutory protection of 1949, is now a scientific base with up to 22 staff and is the islands as or nature reserve (Cooper a wilderness area visited by a research and supply vessel twice annually, and Condy, 1988). when staff may be relieved. 348 Southern Ocean Islands There are a number of introduced alien species on Program for the Environment, PO Box 395, Pretoria Marion Island, including the grass Poa annua which has 0001, South Africa (Tel: 12 8412911) become well established, mice, which are not regarded Antarctic Section, Department of Transport, Private Bag as a serious problem, and cats. Cats were increasing X 193, Pretoria 0001 , South Africa dramatically in numbers until a control programme, started in 1977, resulted in an immediate population References reduction and is continuing to prove effective: since Bonner, W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985). 1986 a major programme of night hunting has been Conservation areas in the Antarctic. Scientific underway and it is thought that this will continue until Committee on Antarctic Research, International cats have been completely eradicated. The only major Council of Scientific Unions. 299 alien species on Prince Edward Island is the grass pp. Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. Conservation Poa annua. (1985). of islands in the Southern Ocean: a review of the Other Relevant Information Further information protected areas of Insulantarctica. lUCN, Gland, concerning protected areas in a wider South African Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188 pp. context may be obtained from the main body of Cooper, J. and Condy, P.R. (1988). Environmental information on South Africa (see Volume 2). conservation at the sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands: a review and recommendations. Addresses Environmental Conservation 15(4): 317-326. SASCAR, c/o Foundation for Research and Development, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 349 Protected Areas of the World UNITED KINGDOM - FALKLAND ISLANDS Area 13,000 sq. km established in the garrison, an officer has been nominated responsible for conservation matters, and Population l,916permanent (1986), 2,000 (temporary) independent consultants have been employed as Natural increase: no information advisors. All visiting members of the services are briefed on the importance of the islands, and strict controls have Economic Indicators been placed on protected sites near the military base GDP: No information (Oldfield, 1987; Oldfield, j>i litt., 1991). GNP; No information The Falklands Islands Foundation was a charity Policy and Legislation The present constitution dates registered in the UK which promoted and supported both from 1985. Sovereignty over the Islands is claimed by nauiral and cultural conservation in the Islands. It was Argentina, which calls them the Islas Malvinas. associated with the Falklands Islands Trust, based in the Administration is exercised by the Governor, appointed Falklands. The two groups were combined in 1991 and by the UK government, a Legislative Council and an are now known as Falkland Conservation. Among the Executive Council. activities now being undertaken by the new group is the The major protected areas legislation in the Falklands is acquisition of land, notably small offshore islands, the Nature Reserves Ordinance of 1964, which provides scientific research and education (Oldfield, 1987). A for the designation of nature reserves (Annex). fully-paid member of Falkland Conservation is based in Sanctuaries may be declared under the Wild Animals Stanley (Thompson, pers. comm., 1991). The NGO and Birds Protection Ordinance 1964, which also Forum for Nature Conservation in the UK Dependent provides for more general protection of animals. Private Territories is another non-governmental organisation land may, widi the consent of the owner, be made a wild which aims to promote and coordinate conservation in animal and bird sanctuary (Annex). Other conservation UK Dependent Territories. It liaises with the UK legislation includes the Seal Fishery Ordinance of 1953; government and acts as a link for voluntary organisations the Whale Fishery Ordinance of 1964 and the Control of and individuals concerned with conservation issues in Kelp Ordinance of 1970. The conservation legislation these areas. has been recommended for revision for a number of Systems Reviews The Falklands consist of two main years, and in 1991 a preliminary review of this, as well islands. East Falkland and West Falkland, together with as the protected areas themselves, was in progress over 700 associated islands and islets. They are (S. Oldfield, pers. comm., 1991). composed of sedimentary rocks: the landscape is In 1987, a 150-mile fishing zone was declared although generally rugged and hilly, with the highest peaks being a number of countries are permitted to fish within the Mount Adam (700m) on West Falkland and Mount zone (mils, 1991). Usbome (705m) on East Falkland. East Falkland is divided into two large land blocks, connected by a International Activities Falkland The Islands are narrow land bridge the southern block is dominated by included in the ratification the UK of Convention for the the plain of Lafonia, an area of gentle relief. The Protection of Wetlands Especially as Habitat Waterfowl coastline is deeply indented. Virtually the whole area is (Ramsar Convention) the and Convention Concerning covered by blanket peat which is eroded and associated the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World with scree and stone runs at high altitude (Clark and Heritage Convention). However, the application of these Dingwall, 1985). conventions remains problematic due to the disputed claim over sovereignty: no sites have been declared. On the main islands the vegetation has been severely degraded by burning and overgrazing. Most of the main Administration and Management At present there is islands are dominated by oceanic heath, with grass and no government agency specifically responsible for small shrubs; bush and scrub associations are found conservation in the Falklands. Conservation advice is inland on well-drained slopes; bog communities are provided to the Falkland Islands government by local found on poorly drained areas; while feldmark scientists and naturalists on a voluntary basis. The vegetation occurs above 600m, with cushion-forming Falkland Islands Economic Study of 1982 (which vascular plants and associated mosses and lichens. updated an earlier smdy by Lord Shackleton in 1975) Vegetation of the ungrazed areas and the offshore islands recognised die international conservation importance of is dominated by dense stands of tussock grass. There are the Falklands and recommended the employment of a no trees. Kelp beds are common around the coasts (Clark permanent scientific officer for conservation matters and Dingwall, 1985; Oldfield, 1987). (Oldfield, 1987). The avifauna includes 63 breeding bird species of which The UK Ministry of Defence has an important role in the 1 6 are endemic. Southern elephant seal, southern sea lion conservation of the Falklands and takes an active interest and South American fur sea are common, while leopard in conservation issues. A conservation group has been seal is occasionally present (Clark and Dingwall, 1985). 350 Southern Ocean Islands The Falklands are thought to have been discovered in the basis for future conservation planning (S. Oldfield, 1592 by the English Captain, John Davis; the first in litt., 1991). recorded landing was in 1690 by Captain John Strong who named the islands after Viscount Falkland, then Addresses Treasurer of the British navy. Various settlements were The Executive Council, Government House, Stanley, established on the islands by the British, French and Falkland Islands Spanish during the 17(X)s. Current British settlement dates from 1833 (Clark and DingwaU, 1985). Falkland Conservation, Stanley, Falkland Islands Nature reserves, on Crown land, cover about 6,0(X)ha. Falkland Conservation (Secretary), 13 Well Court, Dean Privately-owned reserves and sanctuaries, which may be Village, Edinburgh EH4 3BE, Scotland, UK owned by individuals ot organisations, cover a further (Tel: 03 1556 6226) 4,000ha (Oldfield, 1987). NGO Forum for Nature Conservation in the UK Dependent Territories, 22 Mandene Gardens, Great Introduced mammals are an environmental problem. Gransden, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 SAP, UK rabbits, cattle introduced Domesticated pigs, goats and (Tel: 07677 558) onto several of the larger islands have, together with the burning of the tussock grass, led to the destruction of References much of the native vegetation. The introduction of sheep farming to the Islands in the 1860s compounded this Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of effect Rats, cats and mice found on the main islands are islands in the Southern Ocean: a review of the also likely to have gready affected the bird populations. protected areas of Insulantarciica. lUCN, Gland, Dogs, foxes and horses are also present (Clark and Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188 pp. Dingwall, 1985). Uncontrolled burning on the main Hills, A. (1991). Keeping a stiff upper lip. Geographical islands continues to threaten the natural vegetation and Magazine June. Pp. 22-24. has led to erosion, while there is some concern over the Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments ofparadise: a guide for sustainability of fishing levels in die surrounding waters. conservation in the UK dependent territories. British It has been recommended that a detailed biological and Association ofNature Conservationists, Oxford, UK. ecological survey of the Islands be undertaken to provide 192 pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Nature Reserves Ordinance Title: Wild Animals and Birds Protection Ordinance Date: 1964 Date: 1964 Brief description: Provides for the designation of nature reserves Brief description: Provides for the designation of animal and bird sanctuaries as well as providing for Administrative authorities: Govemor-in-Council, the more general protection of animals and birds Falkland Islands Administrative authority: Govemor-in-Council, Designations Falkland Islands reserved for the purposes of Nature reserve Land Designations: protecting flora and fauna, and for providing opportunities for research on the biota. They may Animal and bird sanctuary Established for the only be designated on Crown land. Entry into, and protection of animals and birds, with specified activities within, reserves are restricted, including exceptions. The introduction of animals is the burning and cutting of vegetation and the hunting prohibited. There is provision for scientific research. of animals. Private sanctuary Protected with the consent of the Source: Clark and Dingwall, 1985 landowner: provisions are as above, although subject to the landowner's stipulations. Limited farming, tourism and research can occur. Source: Clark and Dingwall, 1985 351 The lUCN Conservation Library Other volumes In the set: Available from: Volume 2: Palaearctic lUCN Publications Services Unit, ISBN: 2-8317-0091-4 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CBS ODL, UK Volume 3: Afrotropical or ISBN: 2-8317-0092-2 lUCN Communications Division, Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH-1 196 Gland, Switzerland ISBN: 2-8317-0093-0 Published with the financial support of The British Petroleum Company p.l.c. r^Afm» W tA\ 1 MW 1 .11. A B&'WaB