P a Rks for Life

Pa r ks for Life Future Challenges and Directions for Protected Areas in South Asia

Proceedings of the Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas 42nd Wor king Session, Islamabad, Pakistan September 21-23, 1994 This workshop was funded by United States National Park Service and World Wide Fund for Nature International

The views expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of IUCN

Cover photo: Steve Edward

Editors: Naziha Ghazali, Umber Khairi and the Communications Unit, IUCN

IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Pakistan 1, Bath Island Road, Karachi 75530

ISBN 969-8141-14-6

Formatted by the Communications Unit, IUCN Printed by Rosette Contents

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms iii

Summary of Proceedings 1

Statement adopted by the 42nd Working Session of CNPPA 9

Welcome Address 13

Opening Address 15

Inaugural Speech 19

Part I. Papers 21

1. Overview of Protected Areas Coverage in South Asia – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, 23 Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka 2. Country Report, Bangladesh 33 3. Country Report, India 37 4. Country Report, Nepal 39 5. Country Report, Pakistan 45 6. Country Report, Sri Lanka 47 7. Integrating Sustainable Development and Conservation – What 53 is the Future for Protected Areas in South Asia? 8. Future Issues and Challenges for Marine Protected Areas in South Asia 57 9. Application of the World Heritage Convention and the Biosphere Reserve 65 Concept in South Asia: Future Challenges 10. Building Public Support for Protected Areas in South Asia 71 11. Biodiversity Conservation through Local Community Participation: the 75 Himalayan Jungle Project Experience 12. Towards the Next Century: Training Priorities for Protected Areas in South Asia 81 13. Future Cooperation on Protected Areas in the South Asian Region with 85 Emphasis on Information Collection 14. Capacity Building for Protected Areas in South Asia: Future Challenges 87 15. Future Priorities for Protected Areas in South Asia 95 16. Future Priorities for Investment in Protected Areas in South Asia 99 17. Towards the Next Century -- Funding Mechanisms for Protected Areas in South Asia 105

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION i Part II. Annexures 109

1. Developing a National Biodiversity Heritage Trust Park for 111 Dulahazara Reserve and Protected Forest, Bangladesh 2. Agenda 115 3. List of Participants 117

ii CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION List of Abbreviations

CNPPA Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas

ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for the Asia-Pacific

FAO UN Food and Agriculture Organisation

GEF Global Environment Facility

ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development

IUCN IUCN - The World Conservation Union

IUCN HQ IUCN Headquarters

MPA Marine Protected Area

MAB Man and the Biosphere Programme (UNESCO)

NP National Park

PA Protected Area

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Commission

WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION iii iv CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Summary of Proceedings

SEPTEMBER 21, 1994 1.2 Country Report, Bangladesh – Session 1: Setting the Scene Mr Salamat Ali

Main Points 1.1 Overview of Protected Areas ● The main environmental threat to PAs is the Coverage in South Asia – high rate of deforestation -- a result of commer- Mr. Jame R. Paine cial logging. Another problem is the demands on natural resources within many existing PAs Main points by indigenous communities. ● CNPPA plays an important role in preparing ● Many national parks are not in conformity and updating the UN List of National Parks with the IUCN definition for this category. A and Protected Areas. review of the existing PA categories using the ● Over the last five years the number of protect- new IUCN system should be given top priority. ed areas in the region has shown a very nomi- ● Increased attention should be given to wetland nal increase, with Bangladesh having the least conservation in the country, especially due to percentage of protected area coverage. its national and regional importance. Wetland ● A very small proportion of the PAs in South protection has been promoted by the establish- Asia come under IUCN Management ment of different wildlife sanctuaries, but many Category V; this point should be noted in the of these are threatened by environmental prob- preparation of the new regional action plan lems like salinization of inland waters. for PAs. ● It is imperative that increased support be given ● The World Bank project to update informa- to transboundary PAs, particularly those criti- tion on PAs in the region was elaborated cal for the survival of endangered species. For upon. The Corbett Action Plan for Protected example, tigers are a species that should be Areas of the Indomalayan Realm, as it is ensured protection all over the region. known, will be implemented through a series of workshops coordinated by Mr John Comments McKinnon and the World Conservation ● The importance of increasing efforts for the Monitoring Centre. conservation of tigers in the region was emphasized as was the need for better coop- Comments eration on transboundary PAs and wildlife ● It was proposed that an updated list of the management. world's protected areas should try and apply the new IUCN Protected Areas Management 1.3 Country Report, India - Categories to the existing network of each Mr S.C. Dey country. ● The importance of the World Bank exercise to Main Points update information on PAs in the region was ● All the biogeographical units in India are rep- recognised. At the same time, the need to resented in its PAs, but most of these are not make necessary arrangements to ensure input efficiently managed and protected. from the CNPPA regional network was also ● The main problems that beset PAs are: outlaws acknowledged. seeking shelter in the area, ancestral rights of

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 1 people within PAs, management problems Comments with the surrounding areas, insufficient institu- ● Some fraction of tourism profits should be rein- tional capacity for PAs, inadequate informa- vested in the management of PAs. Efforts must tion for PA planning and management, and be made to convince tourist agencies of this. the need to reinforce the skill and training of ● Priority should be given to the development of human resources in PAs. family planning programmes as part of the ● India has undertaken several measures to management plan for highly populated PAs. improve this situation e.g. the preparation of This will help to reduce potential pressure on national conservation and development objec- natural resources in the future. tives, improvement of policy frameworks, ● It was noted that while Nepal was receiving increased financial resources for conservation, substantial help and assistance from the donor creation of facilities and programmes for train- community and international agencies, the ing, enforcement of regulations and laws, as same was not true of other countries within the well as promotion of interaction among gov- region. This situation demands careful analysis ernmental institutions and NGOs. by IUCN in order to restore a balance.

Comments 1.5 Country Report, Pakistan - ● Given the fact that imported ideas have Mr Abeedullah Jan proved neither useful nor valid in the region, identifying the policies 'we need' is a priority. Main Points The importance of a National Environmental ● An adequate planning system for PAs as well Policy for each country, in the light of the prin- as improvement in the management of exist- ciples of Agenda 21 and the Convention on ing units is necessary. Although both have Biological Diversity, was stressed. been listed as priorities by the National ● The conservation of the tiger population needs Conservation Strategy, additional interaction more regional as well as interactional cooper- and support is required to achieve these ation and support. o b j e c t i v e s . ● New PAs in the Himalaya, especially trans- ● The main problems related to PA management boundary ones, should be established. are (a) lack of human resources; (b) a need for Cooperation on transboundary PAs could thus better integration between PAs and important be a suitable subject for CNPPA networking. development sectors such as forestry, fisheries etc.; (c) the development of alternative means 1.4 Country Report, Nepal – and sources for financing PA activities. Mr John McEachern ● Apart from interacting with other countries in the region, it is important to promote greater Main Points involvement of the local population in PA con- ● Tourism is becoming an important factor for servation and management, and to offer viable the national economy. For this reason PA man- alternatives to the use of natural resources. agement should focus not only on natural resources, but also on the cultural heritage of Comment the country and its people, who represent a ● The importance of linking PA issues with the 'living heritage'. objectives of the National Conservation ● The PA management has to consider the popu- Strategy as well as the Biodiversity lation density and social characteristics of the Convention, was stressed. country as it must contend with the use of natural resources by local communities. To resolve 1.6 Country Report, Sri Lanka - any conflict, it is important to use innovative Mr S. Medawewa approaches to PA planning and management. ● Institutional arrangements and capacity build- Main Points ing for the establishment and management of ● Increasing the number of PAs is not necessarily PAs should be increased. It is important that a means to effective conservation. Approx- the local people participate in the preparation imately 12% of Sri Lanka's land area is under and implementation of PA management plans. varying degrees of protection, and the last few

2 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION years have seen an increase in the number of 2.2 Future Issues and Challenges PAs. At the same time, forest cover has for Marine Protected Areas in decreased rapidly while population growth South Asia - continues to be high. Dr Ranjith De Silva ● There is a lack of awareness of the importance of PAs, especially among policy and decision Main Points makers. ● A better network of Marine Protected Areas ● When PA management is integrated with gov- should be developed in the region, to preserve ernment policy on land utilization, the impor- valuable resources and sustain long term pro- tance of community participation must be ductivity in important marine ecosystems, spe- strongly emphasized. cially coral reefs. A lackadaisical attitude coupled with little education and awareness of Session 2: Broadening the this issue are major obstacles that must be Traditional Focus of PAs addressed without delay. in South Asia ● Importance should be given to international and regional cooperation regarding marine PAs. There is much talk but little effective 2.1 Integrating Sustainable action in this sphere. Development and Conservation: ● The lack of integration between land use plan- What is the Future for Protected ning and coastal/marine protected areas man- Areas in South Asia? agement should be addressed through the Mr S. Medawewa objectives of the National Systems Plan for PAs. Main Points ● The role of tourism in marine PAs is increasing ● The improvement of national protected area in the region, with an adverse impact on natur- systems, particularly the reconciliation of vari- al resources. More diligence is required in the ous development and conservation sector planning and design of the tourism infrastruc- objectives, is a vital consideration for policy- ture in coastal and marine PAs. making. ● More international funds must be sought for ● Future PA projects should include a critical the development of field projects, as well as evaluation of current administrative and legal for the training of selected field managers. frameworks in order to improve the mechanisms for project implementation. 2.3 Application of the World ● The increasing demands on PA resources to Heritage Convention and the fulfill the needs of the local communities lends more importance to the development of man- Biosphere Reserve Concept in agement plans for buffer zones. These can South Asia: Future Challenges - promote the effective involvement of local com- Dr N. Ishwaran munities in conservation projects. ● Priority should be given to education and train- Main Points ing at all levels, but particularly to that of influ- ● One of the most important lessons learnt from ential groups such as village heads, decision the Biosphere Reserve Programme is the need makers and the mass media. for planning conservation activities for the people, with the people — on a daily basis. Comments ● Positive field projects must be identified to ● A specific action plan based on the evaluation demonstrate how conservation and develop- of environmental and social information, and ment can be integrated into PAs. The frame- pertaining to social development in PA buffer work of a Biosphere Reserve offers a good zones, should be prepared. opportunity for achieving this objective. ● Although buffer zone management is a key ● UNESCO's most effective means of interact- component of the Biosphere Reserve concept, ting with specialists, governments and NGOs it has not been sufficiently practised in the is through networking, something that should re g i o n . be a priority in the region.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 3 Comments ● The resource demand of local communities, ● It was noted that, despite the success of the and their possible sustainable availability with- Biosphere Reserve concept, confusion still pre- in the PAs should be evaluated. vails on the application of the concept. ● The participation of local people in the management of PAs should promote the creation of SEPTEMBER 22, 1994 local institutions to ensure the long term conti- Session 3: Building Community nuity of this process. Support for PAs in South 3.2 Building Public Support for Asia Protected Areas in South Asia - Ms Nafisa Shah 3.1 Involving Local Communities in Protected Areas in South Asia: Main Points Challenges - ● Press campaigns have often been a starting Mr Siddharta Bajracharya point to publicise the discussions between government officers and local people, especially Main Points in cases where the locals are being pres- ● In countries with a high population density, surised to move out of the PAs where they live. such as Nepal, local people are dependent ● If a 'model park' implies no human habitation, economically, socially and culturally on the it is not advisable. Such a model would also use of natural resources, especially in the PAs. be too large to control or manage effectively. ● In these conditions PAs should focus more on ● The press must ally itself with the institutions conservation for the people and by the peo- concerned with conservation in order to com- ple. This should be mainly through an active municate these issues to the general public. In process of discusson with the communities of this context, the support offered by the IUCN questions such as: What do the people need? Pakistan office was acknowledged. What do we want from the people? and What can we offer the people? Comments ● Some practical elements in the process of inte- ● Radio programmes are extremely effective grating people into conservation activities are: in conveying environmental messages to both (a) extension practices and demonstration pro- the urban and the rural population. jects; (b) education and awareness pro- ● Surveys have found that rural communities are grammes on issues specifically related to exist- more aware of local environmental problems, ing local problems; (c) imparting alternative while people in the urban centres are more skills to the women in order to involve them in concerned about global conservation issues. economic activities; (d) provision of adequate incentives to the people as well as empower- 3.3 Biodiversity Conservation ing them to interact in the preparation and through Local Community implementation of management projects. The Participation: the Himalayan only way to obtain successful results is by win- ning the local communities' trust. Jungle Project Experience - ● The involvement of young people in ecotourism, Mr Guy Duke particularly as guides for trekking activities, has been a successful exercise; it also provides Main Points them with an alternative source of income. ● The management of PAs, particularly in developing countries, is increasingly a question of Comments resolving conflicts between poverty and the ● Poor people from urban areas are increasingly environment. This is not a coincidence, for PAs migrating to natural areas where they can have are often the only sites where there still exists 'free' recourse to available resources. This cre- available natural resources. ates conflict between the traditional communi- ● The preparation and use of maps on biodiver- ties and the new arrivals which has repercus- sity, to identify the key areas for conservation sions on how natural resources are utilised. was a very useful exercise.

4 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION ● Some commercial logging practices currently in the planning and management requirements of force — such as the use of rivers for the trans- the country and integrate knowledge and man- portation of timber which results in almost 50% agement of its particular ecosystems, species, of the timber being lost — are unsustainable. landscapes and social problems. ● The management and administration of the ● It would be useful to design flexible pro- project is being carried out at the local level grammes, that offer managers as many alter- through the participation of local communities natives as possible for different problems and and their institutions. In this respect, the identi- several paths for conflict resolution. fication and involvement of the leaders of each ● The preparation of programmes for specific community during the process was commend- biomes is required in the region, and should able. The local structure and organization cre- be considered a special skill acquired through ated by this conservation project proved useful training. when relief measures were needed after a natural disaster struck the area. This illustrated the Comments multiple social possibilities of this approach. ● Tourism and visitor management training, that ● After a participatory process of negotiation grooms guides from the protected areas' local between the government and the local commu- communities, should be prepared and imple- nities, the latter, in return for the government's mented as soon as possible. pledge to reconstruct certain social facilities ● Due to the importance of wildlife projects in the (specially bridges and roads), agreed to estab- region, programmes specifically designed for lish a PA in an important site for biodiversity the population management of key species, conservation. In this case, therefore, the PA such as tigers, need to be launched in the was created 'by the people'. re g i o n . ● As part of the project some demonstration ● Besides training programmes for PA man- activities related to forestry management, agers, awareness programmes should also be agroforestry and hydroelectric generation offered for decision makers, members of have been launched. As a result, the local per national parliaments, and even foreign affairs capita income has increased more than 200% officers, in order to enlist the support of these in almost two years. sectors for PAs. ● Regional training programmes to facilitate the Session 4: Making it Work — sharing of experiences in various PAs in differ- Capacity Building for PAs in ent countries should be launched. South Asia 4.2 Future Cooperation on Protected Areas in the South 4.1 Towards the Next Century: Asian Region with Emphasis on Training Priorities for Protected Information Collection - Areas in South Asia - Mr Pei Shengei Mr Hemendra S. Panwar (presented by Mr S. C. Dey) Main Points ● In order to design and implement sustainable Main Points development models, the collection and ● The reference to western park models in train- exchange of information among Protected ing programmes in developing countries, and Area managers, particularly with reference to the employment, by and large, of a 'single' the region's mountain and other ecosystems, programme has proved to be misguided. and biodiversity should be used as a resource. Training programmes cannot be designed ● It is not only important to gather primary infor- within a single model; they should always be mation on species and ecosystems, but also to adapted to the constraints and problems of evaluate and obtain as much information as each country and attempt to provide aids for possible from the field experience culled from park managers to overcome these problems. demonstration projects. ● Training programmes should, where possible, ● The International Centre for Integrated have two approaches. They should address Mountain Development has the potential to

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 5 function as a regional unit that can promote, comprehensively addressed mainly because of coordinate and assist in the regional gathering inadequate financial resources. and sharing of information on mountain ● Results from research are sporadic and rarely ecosystems. Given this possibility, there needs incorporated as inputs into management to be increased cooperation between CNPPA strategies. Also, it is often not comprehensive and ICIMOD on the following: enough to benefit park managers. So far, little - biodiversity information; recognition has been given to social research - management of transboundary PAs, species as an important PA management issue. and ecosystems; ● Considering the social and natural problems - networking for coordination, information, that managers have to deal with, an innova- training and sharing field projects; and tive approach to PA planning and manage- - information on projects of sustainable ment is required. The new Category VI offers development in PAs. one possibility in this context, but other mechanisms have to be explored. Comments ● Among the requirements that a new Regional ● Cooperation between CNPPA and ICIMOD, Action Plan should consider are the follow- and between ICIMOD and the regional institu- ing: (a) development and encouragement of tions is a vital issue that must be highlighted professionalism in PA management; (b) in the regional action plan. But to implement improvement of financing issues, perhaps by this cooperation, it is essential to first define the creation of a regional trust fund for PA priorities, and set in motion the mechanism 'to management; (c) more emphasis on con- make things happen'. stituency building and functioning of PA task ● Some of the major priorities on information forces in the region; (d) more effective inter- exchange in the region are related to: national assistance, especially for training, (a) 'hot spots' of high biodiversity richness; monitoring and regional coordination. (b) ecotourism planning and visitor management; (c) management of transboundary PAs C o m m e n t s and species (c) networking for coordination, ● Regional cooperation plays an important role information, training and sharing of field in creating 'national focal points' and enhanc- p r o g r a m m e s . ing the interaction and information sharing among countries. CNPPA is an appropriate 4.3 Capacity Building for Protected channel that could create links in the region, Areas in South Asia: Future possibly through networking activities. Challenges – ● To facilitate CNPPA networking in the region, Mr Kishore Rao existing strong institutions, rather than newly created ones, should be made use of. Main Points ● The Corbett Action Plan was a well prepared SEPTEMBER 23, 1994 one for its time, but considering the rapid socio- Session 5: Financing PAs in economic changes in the region, allowing South Asia – Future almost 10 years to pass between the plan's Directions introduction and its review is too long. Any new action plan must recognize the need for system- 5.1 Future Priorities for Protected atic monitoring of its implementation. Areas in South Asia – ● Many issues related to the Corbett Action Plan are still valid, such as the (a) strengthening of Mr Samar Singh PAs and wildlife authorities; (b) establishment (presented by Mr John Joseph) of training facilities and programmes; (c) development of policies and management plans for Main Points PAs; (d) provision of adequate financial and ● Many of the priorities mentioned in the Corbett material support for infrastructure development; Action Plan are still valid in the region, but (e) establishment of research and monitoring need to be updated to reflect the present facilities. These issues, however, have not been socio-economic and environmental realities.

6 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION ● Future action on PAs should take into account ularly those related to agriculture, forestry, and the importance of involving local people from watersheds sustainable use and that enlist the the very outset of any planning or manage- active involvement of the local communities. ment project. The development of alternatives ● The World Bank is increasingly interested in to the use of natural resources by local commu- biodiversity conservation, which includes: (a) nities must be considered. national conservation strategies; (b) training for ● Marine/coastal PAs have been virtually management of PAs and wildlife and (c) policy neglected in the establishment of new PAs in development. It has been noted that the estab- the region. Not only are there insufficient lishment and management of marine PAs offers mechanisms to create this type of PA, but also numerous possibilities for investment. little understanding of its importance. ● South Asian countries are receiving an increas- ● Under the Biodiversity Convention and Agenda ing amount of funding for conservation. So far, 21 the role and importance of PAs in the region more than US$ 30 million have been dedicat- should be reinforced and cooperation among ed to conservation issues in the region, but PA managers, social groups, the private sector much more still needs to be done. The flow of and decision makers should be promoted. funds from international sources has, however, ● Possible means of convincing governments and resulted in a corresponding reduction in nation- decision makers of the need to change the al funds dedicated to conservation activities. mechanisms for the flow of funds from the ● In order to ensure that the funds are efficiently national budget to PA activities should be used and that positive results can be achieved explored. The process of obtaining and utilising by such assistance, monitoring of projects is those funds needs to be facilitated. However, one of the World Bank's main priorities over the benefits that accrue from PA management, the next few years. such as those from ecotourism, must be retained in order to reinforce management activities. Comments ● As far as the possibility of NGOs obtaining Comments funds for projects from the World Bank is con- ● IUCN, as well as other conservation institu- cerned, the fact is that the latter works mainly tions, should study possible means of resolving with governments. It does, however, work to problems that arise from the existence of towns promote coordination between national agen- and human settlements within PAs. This issue is cies and NGOs. particularly relevant to the South Asia region. ● The monitoring and evaluation of projects can ● Alternatives need to be devised for compensat- provide grounds for future cooperation ing local people for the damages or losses between IUCN and the World Bank, particu- that they may have been sustained from the larly in the use of IUCN's technical expertise, increase in wildlife population as a result of its network of regional and national offices, conservation activities. This compensation and its various commissions. should consider 'in cash' and 'linking' options, ● IUCN should persuade international agencies and be prompt and efficient enough to win the to monitor the continuity of projects. Quite local people's trust. often, after the funds given for preparation of strategies and action plans have been con- 5.2 Future Priorities for Investment in sumed, there is no aid forthcoming for their Protected Areas in South Asia - actual implementation. Mr Hikmat Nasr 5.3 Towards the Next Century: Main Points Funding Mechanisms for ● Natural areas of international and regional Protected Areas in South Asia - importance, particularly those with the potential Mr David Sheppard for biodiversity conservation, should be given priority for financial support and investment. Main Points ● Priority is given to those national or field pro- ● Donors have an increasing interest in PA jects that promote policy changes on conserva- issues as well as in the long term development tion issues and ecodevelopment projects, partic- of projects.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 7 ● To make efficient use of funds it is important to Following a spirited debate and discussion, first clearly define the priorities for the alloca- the gathering arrived at a consensus on the follow- tion of resources. The revenue generation coming points: ponent of any project should be closely moni- ● The need to establish a CNPPA Steering tored, so that funds can act as a 'seed' mecha- Committee for South Asia, and promote the nism to ensure long term financing. necessary support for its activities. The need ● Priorities for financing should be developed to make use of existing capacity in certain through a process of consultation, not only national institutions, and the importance of with agencies directly involved in PA issues, identifying and recruiting people who can but also with those involved in social, econom- assist the regional Vice Chair in his work was ic and development activities, including the stressed, as was using the existing capacity of private sector. national institutions. ● The possibility of creating national trust funds ● The CNPPA Steering Committee must under- to finance PAs has been examined, at a meet- take a comprehensive compilation and evalu- ing held earlier this year in Bolivia. The use of ation of comments on the Draft Regional this creative option, however, requires much Action Plan prepared by IUCN Head- coordination and interaction between different quarters. The task also implies a critical revi- government and non-governmental agencies. sion of the Corbett Action Plan, in order to identify the changes required and the objec- Comments tives to be achieved in accordance with the ● The possible creation of national trust funds for existing environmental and social conditions, PAs requires that IUCN, as soon as possible, and the requirements and constraints of each prepare and distribute a compilation of the c o u n t r y . existing information on this subject, offering ● The importance of carrying out, as part of the relevant examples and general guidelines for review of the Corbett Action Plan and the extending this experience to countries in South IUCN Draft Regional Action Plan, an evalua- Asia. tion of the existing laws and regulations per- ● IUCN should put pressure on national govern- taining to PAs and wildlife in the region, was ments to dedicate more funds and resources stressed. This is in order to identify possible for conservation. Many governments compla- elements that can be included in a new action cently expect 'external help' to assist them with plan to reinforce the legal framework for this task. regional conservation activities. ● The creation of a Central Database on Session 6: Where from Here? Protected Areas and Wildlife, which would Future Prospects for PAs and allow the identification of similar actions and priorities. For this purpose, the resources of CNPPA in South Asia institutions like the IUCN Pakistan office and Mr Adrian Phillips, CNPPA Chair, began by ICIMOD, along with available information in explaining the role and mandate of CNPPA, and WCMC, can be drawn upon. the regional structure of its Steering Committees. ● The need to involve the CNPPA Regional The development of the European Action Plan for Steering Committee in the development of the PAs was discussed and it was acknowledged that World Bank project, to review information on a broad consultation process was essential for its PAs to define priorities for regional actions successful preparation and ratification. The experi- was stressed. Coordinated by Dr John ences of the East Asia CNPPA Steering Committee McKinnon, this project will require the active were also mentioned, particularly the establishment participation of CNPPA members in South of mechanisms to finance its activities, as well as Asia as well as of other relevant individuals its method of sharing responsibilities with different and institutions involved in PA issues. The members in the region. Some of these points were World Conservation Monitoring Centre which also referred to by Professor Xianpu Wang, is also a participant in this project, will help CNPPA Vice Chair for East Asia. promote the necessary coordination.

8 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Statement Adopted by the 42nd Working Session of CNPPA

Experts and country representatives from in the region in 1985, has been valuable and influ- Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri ential in helping to promote the cause of PAs in Lanka met at the National Agricultural Research South Asia. However, the circumstances in which Centre, Chak Shezad, Islamabad, September 21- the Corbett plan was adopted have changed a 23, 1994, at the 42nd Working Session of the great deal. For example, it is now necessary to take Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas account of the Caracas Action Plan, Agenda 21, (CNPPA) of IUCN-The World Conservation Union. the Convention on Biological Diversity and the At the conclusion of their meeting they adopted the emergence of new concepts on the linkage between following statement: PAs, conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development. It is, therefore, necessary to produce Expression of Appreciation a new regional action plan for PAs, specifically The meeting extends its sincere thanks and appreci- focused on the needs of South Asia. The first draft ation to the Government of Pakistan, particularly the of such a plan, prepared by the Programme on Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives and Protected Areas of the IUCN Secretariat in also to IUCN Pakistan for the excellent work done Switzerland, was circulated with the papers for the in preparation for the meeting, and their generous Working Session. It was also noted that a GEF-fund- hospitality and support throughout. We also thank ed project was underway to update the Review of the United States National Parks Service and the the Protected Areas System of the Indo-Malayan World Wide Fund for Nature for their support Region (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986). which has enabled experts from outside Pakistan to Certain lessons can be learnt from the experi- attend the meeting. ence of implementing the Corbett Action Plan. It is for example, important to understand the obstacles Background Observations to its implementation. In preparing the new plan, The title of the meeting — Parks for Life — express- the process of preparation should be designed to es succinctly, the intimate connection between build support among a broad constituency (includ- Protected Areas and the livelihood of rural commu- ing IUCN members and donor organizations). nities particularly characteristic of South Asia Notwithstanding the need to proceed forth- (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and with with the preparation of a new action plan, it Sri Lanka). The number of PAs established in the is also necessary to initiate certain actions immedi- region has grown impressively over the past two ately, especially those relating to the central con- decades. However, since populations and the cern of the meeting: demonstrating a closer link demand from rural people for biological resources between ecologically sustainable rural develop- have grown even more rapidly, PAs have often ment and PAs. become the focus of intense struggles between bio- It is essential that the role of CNPPA be diversity conservation and development demands. strengthened in the region in order to give a higher There is an urgent need, at the local, national and profile to PAs work. A Regional Vice Chair should regional levels, to demonstrate the practical benefits be appointed as a priority, assisted by a Regional of PA management to local and rural communities, Steering Committee. There should be more mem- in ways that will ensure the long term ecological bers (present membership is 32 and several coun- integrity of PAs. tries are poorly represented), and members need to The Corbett Action Plan for the Indo-Malayan be engaged as an active network working for the Realm, adopted at the last session of CNPPA held CNPPA mission at the provincial, national and

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 9 regional level. As well as ensuring a high quality take into account the report of the 42nd product in the regional action plan, a widened Working Session, especially the conclusions of membership will be better able to promote the working groups, and seek to involve CNPPA's interests at the national level, for example appropriate institutions, especially IUCN mem- in advocacy with governments. The membership of bers, using IUCN National Committees where CNPPA in South Asia should comprise leading PA appropriate; professionals in governments, government agencies ● CNPPA should seek to collaborate closely with and NGOs. It should be expanded with a view to the project to update the 1986 systems review recruiting people who would be ready to devote funded through the GEF; in particular, the time and effort to CNPPA, especially to strengthen- Regional Vice Chair and members of the ing marine expertise and to IUCN's policy on gen- Steering Committee should endeavour to der balance. attend the review meeting for South Asia The papers presented at the meeting, a sum- planned as part of that project in Nepal in mary of the discussions and the conclusions of the November 1994; workshops will be brought together in a record of ● A meeting of the CNPPA Regional Steering the meeting. Participants hope this will be done Committee for South Asia should take place, quickly, so that the experience of the 42nd not later than mid-1995, at an appropriate Working Session can be consolidated, shared more venue in the region, to review the inputs from widely and drawn on in undertaking the recom- CNPPA members, agree upon the broad mended actions listed below. shape of the regional action plan's final version and decide what steps should be taken to Decision complete and launch it. This meeting should In light of the above, the 42nd Working Session of provide an opportunity to seek the support of CNPPA decided as follows: the major donors in the region (e.g. bilateral donors, and multilateral funding bodies) in Development of CNPPA in South Asia order to secure commitments to support the ● A CNPPA Regional Vice Chair for South Asia implementation of the plan; should be appointed as soon as possible; ● The plan should be finalized as soon as possi- ● A CNPPA Regional Steering Committee for ble thereafter; and South Asia should be established, consisting ● To help ensure implementation, the plan should: of one or two CNPPA members from each – specifically recommend the preparation c o u n t r y ; of national systems plans for protected ● In each country, there should be a national areas, focal point for CNPPA; and – contain a strategy for implementation, ● A concerted drive should be made to expand – contain targets to be achieved and the present membership of CNPPA in the against which performance can be mea- region, towards an initial target of 60-70 sured, and members, in order to provide a stronger basis – propose a monitoring programme to for the actions recommended below, bearing ensure that progress — or the lack of it in mind the criteria for CNPPA membership. — is kept under review.

Preparation of a Regional Action Resources for Regional Cooperation Plan for PAs in South Asia ● Since the work involved in coordinating the ● The central role of CNPPA in the region should regional action plan exercise is considerable, be to prepare and spearhead the implementa- it is essential that resources be sought urgently tion of a new regional action plan. The to employ an assistant to the Regional Vice Regional Vice Chair should be the focal point Chair. As soon as the Regional Vice Chair is for this exercise; appointed, s/he should collaborate with IUCN ● As a first step, the first draft of the plan pre- HQ and the CNPPA Chair in filling this post; sented at the meeting should be reviewed by ● In accordance with arrangements in place in CNPPA members within each country and other regions, it is also important that the country-specific amendments and actions iden- Regional Vice Chair receive the support of tified. In so doing, CNPPA members should his/her employer institution in carrying out

10 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION CNPPA duties, e.g. time off for meetings and ties in and around rural areas, and some help in meeting communications costs; ascertain the extent of their dependence and on the biological resources of PAs; ● A major re-orientation of donor support will be – the extent to which such dependence is needed if the new action plan is to be imple- based on cultural, religious and similar mented. A key role of CNPPA in the region considerations; should be to secure such support, along with – the attempts made to involve local com- the support of national and provincial agen- munities in PA management, and an cies and NGOs in the region. assessment of the success of these approaches, and Immediate Action – the relevance of concepts such as The following initiatives are recommended for Biosphere Reserves, the Cultural immediate action: Landscapes Classification within the con- ● Each country should review its national system text of the World Heritage Convention of Protected Areas against the recently pub- and PA management categories V and VI lished IUCN Guidelines for Protected Areas to promoting the harmonization of peo- Management Categories, and allocate PAs into ple-PA relationships; one of the six categories now recommended; ● Promote the preparation of regional training ● Identify the opportunities for transborder co- programmes, using existing institutional operation in the management of PAs in the capacity and expertise within the region, as region, develop a plan for such cooperation well as promoting and organizing training and implement decisions. The experience of institutions and programmes at the national ICIMOD should be sought in connection with level; and this initiative; ● Review and publicize the experience of differ- ● Undertake a detailed study to document the ent countries in national and site-specific current state of people/PA relationships in administrative arrangements for PAs. each country in South Asia. The study should The lead responsibility for promoting regional document: interest in the implementation of the actions points – the demographic and socio-economic should rest with the CNPPA Steering Committee for status of tribal, rural and other communi- South Asia.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 11 12 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Welcome Address

Abeedullah Jan Inspector General, Forests, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives, Pakistan

On behalf of the Government of Pakistan, the of National Parks and PAs and in managing them Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives and scientifically for the benefit of present generations myself, I would like to welcome the chief guest, and as well as for posterity. the distinguished guests attending the opening ses- Pakistan is proud to have established a large sion of the 42nd meeting of the IUCN Commission network of Protected Areas including National on National Parks and Protected Areas in the South Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Ramsar Sites and Asian Region. Game Reserves. This is where the natural heritage It is indeed an honour and a privilege for the of the country is concentrated and managed for Government of Pakistan to co-sponsor this presti- conservation consistent with the concept of sustain- gious Regional Meeting of CNPPA which has been able utilization. convened to promote regional cooperation and Because of the Indus flyway we play host to international collaboration in the field of National millions of wintering migratory waterfowl in our wet- Parks and Protected Areas. We believe it is an lands every year. We are, also, trying to enforce important event and a timely step in the right direc- protection in these areas in order to preserve their tion. ecological value. Conservation of habitats is a prerequisite to We, therefore, welcome the opportunity this conserving flora and fauna, both resident and meeting provides us to review our achievements and migratory, and the most effective way of conserving to talk about our constraints. We shall certainly ben- habitats is by creating National Parks and Protected efit from the regional and international experience, Areas. No doubt it is important to have a good net- and make suitable adjustments wherever needed. work of National Parks and Protected Areas to con- Such adjustments will be possible through serve biodiversity in all ecosystems but merely des- interaction between Pakistani professionals and the ignating some pieces of land and wetland as PAs is large number of scientists, research workers and not sufficient to achieve the objective of conserva- experts assembled here. We hope that our experi- tion. Their scientific management is equally impor- ence will also be of interest to the foreign dele- tant. Where we stand in this endeavour in Pakistan gates. This meeting is, therefore, of significant sci- and in the South Asian region is an important item entific value not only to us but also to the foreign on the agenda for this meeting. d e l e g a t e s . This meeting will, therefore, provide an oppor- In addition to the exchange of information and tunity to review the PAs network in South Asian experience and exploration of other avenues of countries and their current programmes, together cooperation between the countries represented with future plans in the light of the Corbett Action here, it is essential to realize the full potential of the Plan and the Caracas Congress Resolution, and to PAs network in the region. I am sure the partici- suggest recommendations. pants will take advantage of this opportunity and This meeting is very important for Pakistan for identify new areas for mutual cooperation. many reasons — not the least being our strong Before I conclude, let me express my gratitude desire to promote regional cooperation in this area. to the sponsors and our co-host, the IUCN To this end, we have chosen to host this event Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. which is being attended by scientists and experts I thank the chief guest, distinguished guests and del- from South Asia as well as from international orga- egates for the keen interest they have demonstrated nizations who share our concerns and are keenly in the cause of National Parks and Protected Areas interested in assisting and expanding the network by their participation in this meeting.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 13 14 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Opening Address

Adrian Phillips Chair, Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, IUCN

May I first say what a pleasure and privilege it is to First, IUCN has adopted a mission statement: be in Pakistan. In no other country can IUCN have "to influence, encourage and assist soci- had a larger presence and more influential pro- eties throughout the world to conserve the gramme than here. This is not only a tribute to the integrity and diversity of nature and to excellent work done by Aban Marker Kabraji and ensure that any use made of natural her colleagues in the IUCN Pakistan office — it is resources is equitable and ecologically also a measure of the sympathy the government sustainable." and the people of Pakistan have for the values In short, IUCN is about conservation and eco- which IUCN-The World Conservation Union was set logically sustainable development. So, I believe, up to promote. are Protected Areas. I also want to use this occasion to thank every- Next, IUCN is embarking on a major pro- one in the IUCN office for the effort they have put gramme of regionalization and decentralization. As into preparing for this important Commission on Aban Marker Kabraji has noted, IUCN is no longer, National Parks and Protected Areas meeting. We if it ever was, a conventionally structured conserva- are especially indebted to Abdul Latif Rao. Anyone tion body based in the North, but a unique union who has been involved in coordinating internation- with Worldwide membership. If it is to satisfactorily al meetings will know that the inevitable uncertain- deliver its services to its members, it must be nearer ties as to who will attend, and the consequent need to them, reflecting their priorities and needs. for repeated juggling of the programme, imposes a Therefore, the majority of IUCN staff no longer heavy workload. We are indebted to Rao for shoul- work from headquarters in Switzerland, and the dering it. bulk of its funding is handled in regional and coun- On behalf of IUCN, I welcome you to the try offices. Indeed the newly appointed Director 42nd session of the Commission on National Parks General, David McDowell, has made no secret of and Protected Areas of IUCN. his intention to further reduce the number of staff in CNPPA last met in South Asia nearly 10 years Headquarters. ago, in 1985, at the Corbett National Park in Third, at its most recent General Assembly in India. Since then, the Commission has held 16 ses- Buenos Aires, IUCN strongly reaffirmed its belief in sions and taken its travelling caravan to most parts its Commission structure. It is often said that the of the world. IUCN, CNPPA and indeed even our Commissions, with their networks of volunteer understanding of National Parks and Protected experts, make IUCN unique and give it unrivalled Areas have changed a great deal over the past strengths. Mr McDowell has already taken steps to decade. I would like to use this occasion to update reinforce the resources available to the you on recent developments at IUCN, and more Commissions. particularly within CNPPA — and thus set the scene Finally, there is a realization that all parts of for our three-day meeting. IUCN — the various arms of the secretariat, its gov- IUCN has just gone through the first stage of a ernmental and non-governmental membership, its six major reassessment of its role and way of working. Commissions and other networks — must work I cannot possibly, in the limited time available, do closely together and integrate their efforts. In this justice to all that has been gleaned from the way, the inherent strengths of IUCN can be maxi- process, but there seem to be several important mi z e d . strands of thinking which can act as signposts for us Each of these developments, I believe, has in our meeting. important implications for us in CNPPA. The new

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 15 mission — regionalization, greater involvement of Pakistan; one from Bangladesh; and none from the membership in IUCN's activities, a more central Bhutan. These figures suggest that there is both role for the Commission and closer integration scope for expanding the membership as a whole, between various parts of IUCN — these are all very and a need to strengthen representation where it is relevant to us. Their relevance, I think, will become weakest. I hope that this meeting and its follow-up even more apparent as we move into our review of will provide a context in which membership in the Corbett Plan and a revised action plan for South Asia can grow — not for the sake of numbers Protected Areas in South Asia. but to support an expanded programme of work. That brings me to CNPPA itself. You will know This leads me to the programmatic priorities of that it is one of six Commissions. One of the oth- CNPPA whose mission was defined by the General ers, on Environmental Law is chaired by a distin- Assembly of IUCN in January this year: guished Pakistani lawyer, Dr Parvez Hassan who "to promote the establishment and effec- is, unfortunately, unable to join this regional ses- tive management of a worldwide network sion though he will attend the Pakistan systems of Terrestrial and Marine Protected plan meeting on Sunday. Like all Commissions, Areas". CNPPA is a volunteer body. Its membership CNPPA tackles this formidable task with guid- amounts to some 750 individual experts from most ance from the World Parks Congress, organized by countries in the world. CNPPA at Caracas in Venezuela, in 1992. The CNPPA is organized primarily on regional Caracas Congress, like its decennial predecessors, lines; in that sense, we can perhaps claim to have such as that in Bali in 1982, was organized by led the way for the rest of IUCN. For each of our 14 CNPPA. Eighteen hundred experts came together on regions we have a Vice Chair (there are two in the occasion to exchange experiences, to redefine Africa) — except here in South Asia. The reason for the role of PAs and identify the priorities for conser- this deplorable lacuna is that last summer the vation of parks, reserves and protected landscapes CNPPA's governing 'cabinet' — the steering commit- in the future. Despite alarming reports of present and tee — decided that the previous region comprising impending threats to PAs the world over, the outlook South and South East Asia was too large to be man- of the Venezuelan congress was positive and ageable and should be divided into two. Our emi- enabled it to contribute significantly to the UN nent Vice Chairman, Efendy Sumardja of Indonesia, Conference on Environment and Development in now confines his attention to South East Asia. I am Rio. The conclusions of the Congress are represent- hoping that, through the contacts made here in this ed by the Caracas Action Plan, which serves as a meeting, we may be able to identify a candidate for template for CNPPA's own work programme. the post of regional Vice Chair for South Asia as we The four key messages of the Caracas Action can ill afford to be without this region's input for Plan are these: long (in the normal course of events, for example, ● PAs must be integrated into larger planning the Vice Chair would have played a principal role in frameworks (e.g. within a national conserva- shaping the programme of this meeting). We need tion strategy, and into policies for sectors like him/her to attend the next steering committee meet- agriculture, forestry and tourism); ing scheduled for November in Cambridge, UK. ● Support for PAs needs to be developed among I should add that as well as regional Vice local communities and non-traditional interest Chairs, the steering committee also comprises three groups (like industrialists, the media, even the thematic Vice Chairs (for Marine Matters, military); Mountains and World Heritage), as well as the ● The capacity for management needs further Deputy Chair (Lynn Holowesko from the Bahamas) development; including such matters as train- and the Chair. Last but not least, the Commission ing of PAs staff; and could have achieved little without the indefatigable ● International cooperation should be expand- energy and unstinting support of our programme ed, especially in financing PAs. officer at IUCN Headquarters, David Sheppard, These recommendations reflect a new and his team (including his newly arrived assistant, approach to Protected Areas which recognizes that: Pedro Rosabal). ● PAs should be managed with and through At present we have a total of 30 CNPPA mem- local populations, not against them; bers in South Asia. Sixteen of these are from India; ● PAs must be seen as being of value to society eight from Nepal; three from Sri Lanka; two from if they are to survive — they cannot any

16 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION longer be set apart from a country's main- me, will discuss this issue in the context of the South stream pursuit of sustainable development; Asia region, but I would like to place it within a ● PAs are linked to practically every aspect of a broad context. nation's concern and are affected by nearly One of the specific recommendations of the every arm of public policy; Caracas Action Plan was that each region of the ● the traditional view of PAs, as National Parks world should consider the preparation of a regional to be owned and run by the state and from action plan to translate the global priorities of the which local people should be banned, must be Caracas plan into actions which could more clearly supplemented by other models based on part- impact at the national level — in effect to use nerships with local communities, NGOs and regional action plans as a bridge between global private owners; and priorities and national action. ● Managing PAs calls for a wide range of skills: CNPPA has taken up this challenge. In several above all, a skill for dealing with people. regions action plans have already been prepared or More than simply able wildlife management, are under preparation. The European one (launched the ability to resolve conflicts as well as mar- only recently in Brussels) is particularly ambitious, keting, public relations and communication whilst that of East Asia is following hard on its heels. skills are the hallmark of the successful PAs Many aspects of the European experience manager in the 1990s. may not lend themselves easily to South Asia of The programme which CNPPA has developed course, but I believe that there are several key fea- in response to the challenge of Caracas is an ambi- tures of this very successful initiative from which we tious one. Courtesy the hard work by David in this region can learn. Sheppard and his team at IUCN Headquarters, the These include: Commission now has a very focussed agenda. It ● The involvement of CNPPA members from the aims to: outset. They, in effect, wrote a substantial por- ● Develop regional action plans to implement tion of the plan and developed a sense of pos- the Caracas Action Plan; sessiveness towards it. This approach has ● Encourage the preparation of national systems proved better than the usual method of plans for PAs, particularly relevant in the light employing a consultant to make up drafts for of the Convention on Biological Diversity comments by a panel of experts. However, the requirement that countries should develop such corollary is that the CNPPA membership in the systems for PAs to conserve biodiversity (fol- region has to do the work; it is not a task that lowing this meeting, we shall be holding a can be left to those in Switzerland; two-day meeting with colleagues in Pakistan ● The involvement of IUCN's member organiza- for precisely this purpose); tions in the region, e.g. as funders, conveners ● Communicate policy advice to PA planners of experts' meetings, contributors of technical and managers; for example through our jour- help in publishing, and as members of the nal PARKS, by publishing the many fascinating steering group; papers presented during the 50 or so techni- ● The close integration of the plan's preparation cal workshops in Caracas, or by distributing with IUCN's work in the region, so that the the recently published Guidelines for Protected action plan complements other IUCN activi- Areas Management Categories; and ties; and ● Develop guidance on such key issues as ● The employment of a dedicated project coordi- tourism and PAs, the economic benefits nator, working very closely with the regional derived from PAs and methods of financing Vice Chair for CNPPA. them — for each of which a task force has There is, of course, also a need for funds. The been set up during the past year. action plan in Europe was produced for a total bud- In this programme, we work closely with a get of just under US$ 100,000. This amount was range of partners, in particular the World derived from 10 separate sources of funding, and Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge, covered the preparation of two drafts as well as the whose Protected Area database is essential to our final version. It does, however, exclude donated work. contributions for design and printing costs. Finally, I would like to return to the regional This is a lot of money, even for a relatively action plan. David Sheppard, who is to speak after wealthy region like Europe. But there is no doubt

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 17 that such a plan could never be produced by the ahead. We now have Agenda 21, the Biodiversity usual method of employing a consultant; even if Convention and a GEF. We have a fuller apprecia- (and in the unlikely event that) the text was of the tion of the part that can be played by local commu- same quality, it would never have the sense of own- nities in PAs, and also realize that the case for con- ership that has been built up by the IUCN and servation is even more compelling than it was in CNPPA membership in Europe around this plan. I 1985. am sure that a well mounted argument for GEF Given these considerations it may now be time funding for such an initiative in South Asia would to update the Corbett plan with a new PAs Action be well received. Plan for South Asia, and formulate a new plan The central issue before our meeting in based upon the greater involvement of a revitalized Islamabad is to resolve where the new South Asia CNPPA membership in the region, which is also regional action plan should be prepared in order to backed by IUCN members. replace the Corbett Action Plan, adopted nearly 10 This, I hope, will figure prominently on our years ago. agenda over the next few days. The programme The Corbett Plan is an excellent document. It has been designed to enable participants to come clearly states what is required to place PAs on a to grips with the challenge of developing a regional more secure footing in this region and has had approach to PAs work in South Asia. much influence for the good. Perhaps, however, it is However, I hope that many other benefits will time to review it, because: accrue from our meeting. We shall learn of each ● The Corbett Plan addresses the entire Indo- country's priorities. We shall look at some of the Malayan region, from the Khyber Pass to the key issues facing PA planners and managers Wallace Line; whereas we should focus more everywhere. And last — and certainly not least — closely upon the needs of South Asia; we shall get to know each other better. One of the ● Some of the actions proposed in the plan have great assets of CNPPA is its sense of comrade- already been implemented; and ship. I look forward with enthusiasm to renewing ● Some other actions no longer seem relevant. old friendships and forging new ones here in But most importantly, the world has moved I s l a m a b a d .

18 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Inaugural Speech

Nawab Muhammad Yousuf Talpur Federal Minister for Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives, Pakistan

Mr Adrian Phillips, Chairman CNPPA; Ms Aban land use allocation for national parks and other cat- Marker Kabraji, IUCN Country Representative; del- egories is permanent. This means that the option for egates and guests; the 'de-notification' of PAs should be eliminated. I am grateful to the organizers of this impor- Loss of habitat has been the single most seri- tant South Asian Regional Meeting on National ous factor in the disappearance of many species. Parks and Protected Areas for involving me in this Greater attention is, therefore, needed for Protected event. Areas as this seems the most effective and least Because of the pressures on South Asian coun- expensive option of conserving species. tries — as on other developing countries — rapid Because of our strong interest in conserving development is often undertaken without considera- species and habitats, Pakistan is party to all impor- tions of sustainability. As a result of this, life support tant international conservation treaties, namely the systems are falling apart. This, therefore, is a timely Convention on International Trade in Endangered meeting. Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES); the The increase in per capita income resulting Convention on Wetlands of International from development has not necessarily improved the Importance, Especially as Waterfowl Habitat quality of life. Instead, the people who have been (Ramsar); the Convention on Conservation of traditionally dependent on natural resources, are Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn); and the suffering because of their destruction. The poorer World Heritage Convention. Pakistan has also communities suffer most from this kind of develop- recently ratified the Biodiversity Convention. ment. The potential of wild habitats for appropriate At the regional level, we would like to see that land use is being reduced rapidly and the land- SAARC and SACEP, the South Asian Cooperative scape is changing fast. Such unsustainable develop- Environmental Programme, actively and effectively ment is depriving developing countries of the oppor- pursue regional environmental programmes. Most tunity to realize their full potential. countries of South Asia are, fortunately, party to the I do not need to emphasize the importance of national conservation conventions which provide a ecosystems and habitats to this gathering of scien- good framework for promoting regional coopera- tists and experts — but I would like to mention that tion. no human effort, however great, can recreate We are now considering the development of a ecosystems and habitats that have been lost or biodiversity strategy and action plan within the damaged beyond the point of resilience. I suggest, framework of the National Conservation Strategy therefore, that we set out our development priorities which constitutes the environmental action plan and right now, and that we try to achieve development sustainable development policy of the Government which is long lasting, and which does not reduce or of Pakistan for the next 10 years. Our NCS has eliminate the potential or the choices for future received worldwide acclaim for its quality and com- development. prehensiveness. We take pride in having produced I make this point to emphasize that of the nat- it and are now busy implementing it. ural heritage that survives today, viable samples Pakistan has completed the exercise of the must be identified and conserved through a network Forestry Sector Master Plan which incorporates con- of National Parks and Protected Areas. If this is not servation of biodiversity and forest habitats into its done soon they will be lost as a consequence of the Action Plan. Currently, we are engaged in making exigencies of unsustainable development. this plan operational. Another important point in this context is that Ours is a representative government and we

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 19 have great concern for the welfare of the people. I support of rural communities, politicians and policy would like to highlight certain key issues related to makers. However, there is still time to change direc- this concern. These are mainly to do with differ- tion. Let us agree that parks are for people and not ences in perspective. On the one hand is the protec- exclusively for park managers. I am glad to note tionist mind-set of park managers that has antago- that this idea is the slogan for this meeting — 'Parks nised local communities and on the other, the over for Life'. exploitative, short sighted practices of the rural com- Another of my concerns about PAs, at least munities who feel that these resources do not those in Pakistan, is that their selection is haphaz- belong to them anyway. ard, ad hoc and without sufficient ecological con- In the past, communities lived in harmony with sideration. I am pleased to learn that the meeting nature. What has made them change their behav- on Pakistan's PAs on September 24—25 is to focus iour? The answer lies in complex issues like land on exactly this aspect, and intends to address this tenure, economic incentives etc. but it is also rooted through the PAs system planning approach. We will in the management style practised and promoted by be happy to benefit from the regional and global park managers. experience in this area. Indigenous communities were not involved in Finally, I would like to mention that scientific decisions, even crucial ones, concerning their sub- management of PAs is very important and can be sistence and daily life. They were not involved in ensured through management plans and their prop- the policies, planning and management of protect- er implementation. My understanding of the current ed areas. The protectionist approach denied them situation, at least in Pakistan, is that this aspect is economic benefits and eroded the concept of sus- not satisfactory. I suggest, therefore, that this inade- tainable use. Non-exploitative uses such as eco- quacy be addressed as a matter of priority. This is tourism were not promoted. Environmental educa- yet another area in which we are looking for tion was not imparted to create awareness. The PAs regional and international cooperation. have been managed as islands instead of being I thank the organizers once again for provid- integrated with land use around them. ing me this opportunity to express my views and As a result, the PAs have failed to enlist the concerns.

20 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Part I. Papers

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 21 22 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Overview of Protected Areas Coverage in South Asia — Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka

James R. Paine Protected Areas Data Unit, World Conservation Monitoring Centre

Protected Areas make a vital contribution to the years. The 1993 UN List is the fourth to be pre- conservation of the world's natural and cultural pared jointly by WCMC and CNPPA. In prepar- resources. As a result, most countries have devel- ing the 1993 UN List, staff at WCMC reviewed oped systems of PAs. Such systems vary consider- existing information, and revised and updated PAs ably from one country to another, depending on dif- lists. Draft lists for each country were sent to ferent needs and priorities. Much of the information national management agencies, with a request presented here has been drawn from the 1993 that they be checked, updated, and returned. United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Based on the information received, WCMC staff Areas (IUCN, 1994a), which provides a global revised this draft, following up queries with con- and systematic account of national PA systems. tacts in the countries concerned, or with members There are three criteria which govern whether of CNPPA. or not a PA is included in the UN List: size, man- Copies of the revised lists were then sent to the agement objectives, and the authority of the man- CNPPA Regional Vice Chairs for review, as well as agement agency. Of the 37,000 sites recorded in to the IUCN Secretariat. The responses of national the WCMC Protected Areas database, 9,832 quali- management authorities varied considerably. In fy for inclusion, and of these, 514 are found in total, some 455 requests were made and 226 South Asia. responses received (49%). At only 37%, the rate of WCMC and CNPPA have been collecting response was relatively poor in South Asia. This and managing information on PAs for a number of may well indicate a number of problems facing

Figure 1. Growth of Protected Area Network in South Asia, 1900-1993

600

Series1Ar e a 500 Series2Si t e s

400

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0 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Five-year Periods Source: 1993 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 23 management agencies, such as insufficient staff and Figure 2. Proportion of Protected Areas in an excessive workload or perhaps inefficient means IUCN Management Categories I-V of managing information. In either case there is an Number of Sites — South Asia indication of an unmet need. It should be noted that in mid-1993, a new PAs management category system was approved by the IUCN Council and introduced through the publication of the Guidelines for Protected Areas Management Categories. For practical reasons, V(1.4%) however, the 1993 UN List has been classified IV (77.2%) I(1.2%) according to the definitions provided in the original 1978 system.

II (20.2%) 1. Summary of the Protected

Areas System in South Asia III (0.0%) Figure 1 shows an apparently late start for PAs in South Asia. Conservation, however, has a long his- Number of Sites — Global tory in this region. In the year 252 BC, Emperor III (2.5%) Ashoka of India passed an edict for the protection of animals, fish, and forests, the earliest documented establishment of what we today call a Protected IV (38.7%) Area. In fact, many 'Protected Areas' were established originally as hunting and forest preserves, II (20.8%) which have subsequently been converted into today's national parks or wildlife sanctuaries. The first modern national parks in South Asia were Corbett in India (1938) and Ruhuna and Wilpattu in Sri Lanka (1938). Over the past 30 years governments have invested heavily in formal PAs and, more recently, as the impact of develop- I (14.8%) ment on natural habitats has become more appar- V (23.1%) ent, many countries have designed and established PA networks to conserve representative samples of Source: 1993 United Nations List the country's biodiversity.

Table 1. Protected Areas in South Asia by IUCN Management Categories 1-V

I II III IV V Total 1 2 Country Area Area % Area % Area % Area % Area % Area %

Bangladesh 144,000 — 0.00 — 0.00 — — 833 0.58 135 0.09 968 0.67

Bhutan 46,620 644 1.38 6,606 14.17 — — 2,411 5.17 — 0.00 9,661 20.72

India 3,166,830 1,960 0.06 36,776 1.16 — — 104,585 3.30 186 0.01 143,507 4.53

Nepal 141,415 — 0.00 10,144 7.17 — — 941 0.67 — 0.00 11,085 7.84

Pakistan 803,940 — 0.00 8,822 1.10 — — 27,167 3.38 1,221 0.15 37,209 4.63

Sri Lanka 65,610 316 0.48 4,363 6.65 — — 3,280 5.00 — 0.00 7,960 12.13

Total 4,368,415 2,920 66,711 — — 139,217 1,542 210,390 Notes: 1. Only those countries that have sites qualifying for inclusion in the 1993 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas are included. Minimum size for inclusion is 10 sq km with the exception of completely protected islands which are included down to a minimum size of 1 sq km. 2. Area is given in square kilometres.

24 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Figure 3. Percentage of Land Area in Protected Areas qualifying for inclusion in the IUCN Management Categories I-V UN List now cover more than 200,000 sq km (Table 1). Most of these are classified in IUCN Bangladesh Bhutan Management Category II (National Park) and IV (Managed Nature Reserve), both relatively strictly protected. Contrary to the global picture, Category V (Protected Landscape/Seascape) is comparatively 0.7% 20.7% rare (Figure 2). The percentage of PAs within each country varies widely, from more than 20% in Bhutan, to less than 1% in Bangladesh (Figure 3). On the average, however, the percentage protected (5.96%) is very close to the global mean of 6.3%. In India Nepal terms of absolute area protected, the region is domi- nated by India, with some 143,000 sq km protected, equivalent to 4.5% of the country's land area. The mean size of PAs in South Asia is roughly 4.5% 7.8% 400 sq km, less than half that of the global average of 940 sq km. This almost certainly reflects high population pressure and intensive land use. It is likely that this mean size will shrink further in the future, Pakistan Sri Lanka particularly in the case of strictly Protected Areas. Figure 4, however, shows that within the region, PAs tend to be larger rather than smaller, with the largest number falling in the size range of 100 sq 4.6% 12.1% km to 1,000 sq km. Interestingly, both Nepal and Bhutan have a limited number of very large areas and no smaller areas, contrasting with the global pattern of small sites in large numbers. Source: 1993 United Nations List Figure 5 examines the growth of the PAs network in some detail. This reveals a dramatic slow- Figure 4. Size Distribution of Protected Areas in South Asia

1000

100

1 0-1 1-10 10-100 100-1000 >1000 Size classes (sq km)

Pa k i s t a n In d i a Ne p a l

Bh u t a n Ba n g l a d e s h Sri Lanka

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 25 Figure 5. Growth of the Protected Areas Network in South Asia (1985-1993)

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Area 500 Series2

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0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Year Source: 1993 United Nations List ing down in terms of area captured. Although this Commission of the European Communities, and in may be a reflection on the inefficiency of the infor- collaboration with IUCN, WCMC examines the lev- mation-gathering process, or an institutional els of financial investments in the conservation of bio- retrenchment, it is a worrying trend in the light of logical diversity, with particular emphasis on PAs. the diminishing opportunities discussed below. It is important to bear in mind that IUCN man- Table 2. Investment in Protected Areas: agement categories are not a commentary on man- Human and Financial Resources agement effectiveness. Each category reflects the US$/sq km Sq km/staff underlying management objectives, and is applied Pacific 63 625 regardless of management effectiveness or threats to sites. What is not apparent from these quantita- Tropical Africa 64 64 tive statistics is the practical effectiveness of PAs, Australia 170 476 whether in terms of the conservation of habitat and India 347 38 biodiversity, or the quantity and quality of environmental services delivered to local communities. South and South East Asia 459 24 IUCN is proposing to develop indicators and North Africa & means of tracking this important qualitative informa- the Middle East 502 222 tion, and it is hoped that it will be possible to record this information in future on the WCMC South America 541 13 Protected Areas database. North America 1,398 39 Europe 3,399 24 2. Investment in Protected Areas and International Caribbean 4,020 27 Assistance: a WCMC/IUCN Incomplete country data Project Pakistan n/a n/a One measure of management effectiveness, and a Sri Lanka n/a 9 means to gauge unmet needs, is to evaluate the Bhutan n/a 333 investment made by governments in the staffing and budgets of PAs. In a project funded by the Bangladesh n/a n/a

26 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Although the data is far from complete, some prelimi- tification of the biological diversity component of nary results are given in Table 2. Figures for the two overseas development assistance budgets (Table 3). South Asian countries for which both budgetary and Information gathered to date by the project, indi- staffing data are available, indicate financial invest- cates some US$ 36 million provided from interna- ment ranging between US$ 80 to US$ 350 per sq tional funds to biodiversity conservation projects. km, and one member of staff for every 10 to 300 sq Almost exactly one-half of these funds have been km. This compares with global mean figures of US$ assigned to projects in Nepal, and US$ 10 million 1,213/sq km, and 98 sq km/staff. to Bhutan. Conversely, funding for projects in India The variation in this data reflects both the avail- (US$ 714,000) and Pakistan (US$ 122,000) ability of resources, and the requirements of local appears to be unusually low, although this may conditions. Australia, for example, has a relatively reflect incomplete data collection. low level of financial investment (US$ 170/sq km), and a low number of staff (476 sq km/staff), perhaps 3. International Conventions reflecting the sparse population, relatively localized During the past 10 years many countries have level of threats, and generally extensive recreational acceded to the various international conventions use. In contrast, the mean figures for Europe indicate and programmes associated with PAs, including a much higher level of financial investment (US$ the Convention Concerning the Protection of World 3,399/sq km) and staffing (24 sq km/staff), indicat- Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage ing intensive management and use. Convention), the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Given the already high and increasing programme (MAB), and the Convention on demand for land and development in South Asia, Wetlands of International Importance, Especially the staffing and budgets available for PAs may well as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar). A number of areas be inadequate. Comparing regions in this manner are now internationally recognized under these is, however, fraught with difficulty, as unit costs for conventions and a list of the properties that have staff time will be much lower in South Asia com- been internationally recognized is given in Table pared to Europe. Levels of staffing, and the degree 4. Compared to the global environmental picture of threat facing PAs may be the most useful mea- in other respects, there is a high level of participa- sures to consider. However, as a general statement, tion in these international activities, and all coun- levels of investment more akin to those found in tries in the region with the exception of Bhutan are Europe or the Caribbean may be appropriate to active in one or more convention or programme. provide for a sustainable PAs system. Having established that investment in PAs is 4. Regional Initiatives relatively low, the project then moves on to review The 1986 IUCN Review of the Protected Area how much international funding is being provided System in the Indo-Malayan Realm (MacKinnon and to augment subventions from national or state trea- Mackinnon, 1986) stemmed directly from recom- suries. Therefore, a second, complementary element mendations made in the 1985 Corbett Action Plan of the above project is the identification and quan- for PA coverage according to habitat types, centres

Table 3. Funding of Conservation Projects by External Sources Commitment Number of (US$ 000s) Projects Country 1991 1992 1993 1994 Total Bangladesh 616 587 450 429 3 2,083 Bhutan 3,520 3,876 1,527 1,275 12 10,199 India 150 188 202 173 7 714 Nepal 6,413 5,503 5,672 1,087 12 18,676 Pakistan 0 42 40 38 2 122 Sri Lanka 1,115 1,502 1,228 503 10 4,350 Total 11,817 11,701 9,121 3,508 46 36,148 Source: WCMC Biodiversity Conservation Projects Database

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 27 Table 4. Adherence to International Conservation Conventions and Programmes

Area Latitude/Longitude Area (ha) Year Bangladesh Ramsar Convention The Sundarbans 22°03'N/89°25'E 59,600 1992 India Ramsar Convention Chilka Lake 19°42'N/85°21'E 116,500 1981 Haroike Lake 31°13'N/75°12'E 4,100 1990 Keoladeo National Park 27°13'N/77°32'E 2,873 1981 Loktak Lake 24°26'N/93°49'E 26,600 1990 Sambhar Lake 27°00'N/75°00'E 24,000 1990 Wular Lake 34°16'N/74°33'E 18,900 1990 World Heritage Convention Kazirangi National Park 26°38'N/93°23'E 42.996 1985 Keoladeo National Park 27°10'N/77°31'E 2,873 1985 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary 26°44'N/90°45'E 39,100 1985 Nanda Devi National Park 30°24'N/88°53'E 63,033 1987 Sundarban National Park 21°42'N/88°53'E 133,010 1987 Nepal Ramsar Convention Koshi Tappu 26°37'N/87°00'E 17,500 1987 World Heritage Convention Royal Chitwan National Park 27°28'N/84°20'E 93,200 1984 Sagarmatha National Park 27°56'N/86°48'E 114,800 1979 Pakistan Ramsar Convention Drigh Lake 27°34'N/68°06'E 164 1976 Haleji Lake 24°47'N/67°46'E 1,704 1976 Kandar Dam 33°36'N/71°29'E 251 1976 Khabbaki Lake 32°37'N/72°00'E 283 1976 Kheshki Reservoir 34°02'N/72°01'E 263 1976 Kinjhar (Kalri) Lake 24°56'N/68°03'E 13,468 1976 Malugul Dhand 33°00'N/70°36'E 405 1976 Tanda Dam 33°35'N/71°22'E 405 1976 Thanedar Wala 32°37'N/71°05'E 4,047 1976 UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve Lal Suhanra National Park 29°30'N/71°50'E 31,355 1977 Sri Lanka Ramsar Convention Bundala 6°10'N/81°12'E 6,216 1990 UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve Hurulu Forest Reserve 8°13'N/80°51'E 512 1977 Sinharaja Forest Reserve 6°23'N/80°28'E 8,864 1978 World Heritage Convention Sinharaja National Heritage Wilderness Area 6°23'N/80°28'E 8,864 1988

28 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION of biodiversity, and endemism within each biogeo- The advance draft report of July 1994 identi- graphic unit of the realm (MacKinnon and fies national priorities for establishing and manag- MacKinnon, 1986). It identified gaps in the PAs ing MPAs, based on the Corbett Action Plan (IUCN, network and listed actions for each country within 1985). These recommendations should be given the realm, including establishment of reserves, train- due weight during the preparation of the Regional ing, investment and education. Action Plan for Protected Areas in South Asia. During 1994-95, a comparable study will be carried out with funding from the Global 5. Status of National Protected Environment Facility. Areas' Planning and The project has two closely related objectives: ● To update the database on PAs of the Indo- Development Malayan realm as a basis for re-evaluating and Although, historically, PAs have been established revising regional conservation priorities; and on an ad hoc basis, there has been considerable ● to enhance existing information management progress in the last decade towards establishing in support of conservation activities. 'rationally' planned PA networks. The project is a timely one in the light of India has been comprehensively and systemat- numerous initiatives which have recently been ically surveyed (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988), with undertaken in the region such as national environ- individual state summaries. Since this report a num- mental action plans, numerous global environment ber of recommendations have been implemented. facility projects and the Biodiversity Convention India has also carried out considerable work in which calls for each country to develop a biodiver- assessing the status of PAs (Kothari, et al, 1989), sity strategy or action plan. Successful completion and compiling the number of state level PAs (e.g. of this project will ensure that the designers and Singh, 1990). This level of work, unparalleled else- implementors of conservation programmes will con- where in South Asia, has involved close collabora- tinue to have access to timely information on the tion and information exchange with WCMC. condition, coverage, location and importance of A systematic approach to establishing PAs has PAs in the region. The project will entail sub-region- been in place in Nepal since the 1970s and the al workshops during late 1994 and early 1995, in great majority of, for example, forest types, are rep- order to review and improve the baseline databas- resented. Recent studies have identified gaps in the es on habitats and PAs, which are held by WCMC. representation of the Middle Hills with respect to for- The improved data will be used during 1995 to est birds (Inskipp, 1989) and steps have been taken underpin the regional review process. to rectify this. The Langtang National The Review will assess the progress towards Park/Qomolangma Nature Reserve in Nepal/Tibet, achieving the strategic recommendations made in and the Sagarmatha/Barun-Makalu PAs represent the 1986 Review, and help to establish standard one of the largest conservation complexes in the procedures for data collection, storage and evalua- world, as well as an important border park initiative. tion. This new Review is, therefore, a key compo- Protected Areas establishment in Bhutan was ini- nent of the review and update of the South Asia tially on an ad hoc basis, centred largely on former Protected Areas Action Plan. hunting reserves. A new, revised network notified in Additionally, the CNPPA Marine Protected 1993 was based on a rationalized biogeographical Areas Programme has prepared a series of reports approach. An internationally funded project is further for the World Bank on priorities for the establish- refining this system following a national biodiversity ment and management of MPAs (IUCN, in prep.). survey. International assistance (WWF) has been Available information suggests that the Central made available to improve management planning, Indian Ocean (being the marine region most closely for example in Royal Manas and Jigme Dorji. New identified with South Asia) has 15 PAs which projects will be focusing on the Black Mountains include sub-tidal elements and a further three which Management Plan, and on institutional strengthening. include terrestrial coastal and inter-tidal features. Sri Lanka has a well established and extensive Many of the numerous PAs in the Andaman and PAs network, although it is biased toward protec- Nicobar Islands comprise part or all of small tion of the dry zone. Recent initiatives have been islands and have inter-tidal coastal areas and man- implemented by the Forest Department to conserve groves. A number have sub-tidal habitats although much of the remaining wet zone forest, by identify- these are not specifically identified in the review. ing gaps. Some 13 forests have already been

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 29 selected for management planning and more will 6. Prospects for the Future be included at a later date. Much of the increased The data discussed above suggests that progress in network has come about as mitigative measures in the establishment of PAs is stalling, and that the lev- response to the damming of the Mahaweli. Sri els of investment may be inadequate. Figure 6 sum- Lanka is a unique example of a Forest Department marizes projected data for natural forest cover and using special legislation to strengthen measures for population growth in the six countries of South Asia. forest conservation as part of the national natural Neither indicates any room for complacency from heritage, under the provisions of the National PA agencies and other conservation professionals. Heritage Wilderness Areas Act (1988). Using data from the FAO Forest Resources In terms of relative extent, the PAs system in Assessment 1990, it appears that natural forest Bangladesh continues to lag behind other countries cover is being lost across South Asia at an annual in South Asia. A review (Green, 1989) showed that rate of 0.8% (compared to 1.6% per annum in the system is not comprehensive, having been Continental South East Asia and 1.3% per annum in established with little regard for ecological or other insular South East Asia). If this rate of loss is sus- criteria. Efforts have been made to include repre- tained across the whole region, forest cover will be sentative examples of major habitats, but marine reduced from roughly 640,000 sq km, to just and freshwater areas, for example, have largely 52,000 sq km by the year 2025; less than one-tenth been neglected. There is an outstanding need to of that remaining today. The same source gives prepare a plan for the development of a PAs net- much higher loss rates for Bangladesh (—3.9% per work (IUCN, 1990). annum) and Pakistan (—3.4% per annum), suggest- Pakistan is characterized by a large number of ing that the situation in these countries may be even relatively small PAs, about which a great deal is not more urgent. Data from the World Resources Institute known. Although Pakistan was included in a region- also shows that during the same period the regional al review (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986), human population may increase from 1.1 billion to there has never been an internal, national systems 1.8 billion. review, although that is due to be rectified. The A causal link between population growth and expansion of the PAs system to include representa- forest loss is not argued here, nor is it argued that tive samples of all national ecosystems, and the population growth is the sole agent of environmental compilation of management plans for priority PAs is degradation, yet there are strong grounds for believ- highlighted in the National Conservation Strategy ing that opportunities for establishing new, strictly (EUAD/IUCN). Protected Areas are diminishing. Furthermore, there

Figure 6. Projection of Population Growth and Change in Forest Cover in South Asia, from 1990 – 2025

Series1Forest Cover Population Series2 15

0 1990 2000 2025 Year

Sources: FAO, 1990, Forest Resources Assessment; World Resources Institute, 1992.

30 are likely to be increasing conflicts between local Tropical Countries. FAO Forestry Paper 112. people and PAs when there is a clear conflict FAO, Rome, Italy. between conservation and development. The key Inskipp, C. 1989. Nepal's Forest Birds: Their Status point here is that the strictly Protected Areas may and Conservation. ICBP Monograph No. 4. become less appropriate in the future and that man- International Council for Bird Preservation, agement agencies should look at other types of PAs Cambridge, UK. 187pp. that make wider provision for local people and their IUCN (in prep). Marine Protected Areas Review: livelihood. Category V protected landscapes, for Central Indian Ocean. Draft. 29pp. example, are intended to 'bring benefits to, and con- IUCN. 1985. The Corbett Action Plan for Protected tribute to the welfare of the local community'. Areas of the Indo-Malayan Realm. I U C N , Category VI managed resource areas are set aside Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. primarily for the sustainable use of natural ecosys- 23 pp. tems, providing for the protection of biodiversity, IUCN. 1990. IUCN Directory of South Asian and a sustainable flow of natural products and ser- Protected Areas. Compiled by WCMC. IUCN, vices to meet local community needs. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 294pp. 7. Recommendations IUCN. 1993. Nature Reserves of the Himalayas ● The incorporation of multiple-use areas in and the Mountains of Central Asia. Prepared South Asia may be part of a strategy which by WCMC. Oxford University Press, New would permit further development of PAs and Delhi. 471pp. should be given due consideration during this IUCN. 1994a. 1993 United Nations List of important meeting. National Parks and Protected Areas. ● The apparent deceleration in the growth of Compiled by WCMC in collaboration with PAs may be due to poor data collection; CNPPA. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and CNPPA and WCMC should redouble their Cambridge, UK. 315pp. efforts to work together to ensure that data as IUCN. 1994b. Guidelines for Protected Areas comprehensive as possible is available for Management Categories. CNPPA with the p l a n n i n g . assistance of WCMC. IUCN, Gland, ● Efforts should be made to develop and apply Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 261pp. criteria for measuring management effective- MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. 1986. R e v i e w ness and threats to PAs. This will provide a of the Protected Areas System in the Indo- qualitative dimension to what, at present, is a Malayan Realm. Prepared for CNPPA/IUCN largely quantitative database. in collaboration with UNEP. 284pp. Rogers, W.A. and Panwar, H.S. 1988. Planning a References Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. EUAD and IUCN. 1992. The Pakistan National Wildlife Institute of India and FAO. Two vol- Conservation Strategy. Where We Are, umes. 341pp + 267pp. Where We Should Be, and How to Get There. Kothari, A., Pande, P., Singh, S. and Variava, D. Environment and Urban Affairs Division, 1988. Management of National Parks Government of Pakistan and IUCN, and Sanctuaries in India. Indian Institute of Islamabad. 378pp. Public Administration, New Delhi. 298pp. Green, M.J.B. 1989. Bangladesh: An Overview of Singh, S., Kothari, A. and Pande, P. 1990. its Protected Areas System. W o r l d Directory of National Parks and Sanctuaries in Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), Himachal Pradesh; Management Status and Cambridge, UK. 63pp. P r o f i l e s . Indian Institute of Public FAO. 1990. Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Administration, New Delhi. 164pp.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 31 32 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Country Report, Bangladesh

Salamat Ali Forest Department, Bangladesh

Bangladesh lies between 20°14' and 26°38' north tern, and consequently reduced the wetland and latitude and 88°0', and 92°41' east longitude. It is wildlife habitats. The trend can be noticed in the bound in the north-east by India, in the south-east older areas of the south where agricultural lands are by Myanmar and in the south by the Bay of Bengal. being employed for shrimp culture, and forest lands Covering an area of 144,000 sq km, close to habitations are subject to encroachment and Bangladesh largely comprises the flood plain and being taken out of forestry activities for other uses. delta of two major South Asian river systems: the Almost half of the 3000 hectares mangrove forest in Brahmaputra and the Ganges. In a typical year, the Chakaria Sundarbans has been allotted to a about one-tenth of the land is subjected to severe large number of shrimp farmers. The area has been flooding and at least one-half to some inundation. cleared of trees to construct embankments and inter- One-third of the land area is less than 20 feet above nal canals for shrimp farming. sea level. In addition to seasonal flooding in the The percentage of forest land in Bangladesh wake of the monsoon rains, much of Bangladesh is has declined over the past few decades and present- affected by constantly shifting river channels and ly stands at about 14%. The natural tree cover, how- courses; such shifting can wipe out entire settle- ever, is much less at approximately 9%. Government ments. Cyclones and tidal surges wash away settle- owned forest land totals 2.121 million hectares, the ments and crops, causing significant damage to life remainder being homestead wood lots. Of the gov- and property. The dry season is distinct, and period- ernment owned land 1.462 million hectares com- ic drought is a problem in the north-western part of prises the national forest while the rest, 0.66 million the country. There are only a few small tracts of hectares is Unclassified State Forests (USF). higher land in the north and south-eastern part of the Managed by the Forest Department, the national for- country: the Sylhet, Mymensingh and Chittagong est is concentrated in 13 districts in the east and Hill Tracts region. The south-western region consists south-eastern regions of the country. of an older delta with numerous dead or cut-off The coastal mangrove forests, which cover rivers. Its coastal area harbours the single largest 0.58 million hectares, constitute about 60% of the stand of mangrove forest in the world, called the commercial production forest including plantations. Sundarbans. The upper portion of the Meghana They extend along the coast in isolated groups, with River includes many wetlands. the exception of the Sundarbans, which account for Of the total land surface of 14.4 million 74% of the reserve forests. hectares, 9.1 million hectares are used for agricul- Tropical evergreen or semi-evergreen forests ture, 2.85 million hectares are under tree cover (for- cover 0.62 million hectares and comprise the hill est), 2.31 million hectares are settlements and the forests. These reserve forests are mainly the water- remaining area is regarded as wetland and miscel- shed areas of the Karnaphuli, Snagu, and laneous land. Land use is a dynamic process and Matamuhuri rivers. Over the years hill forest areas changes in Bangladesh's land use pattern have have shrunk and deteriorated due to human interfer- been affected by (1) expansion in agricultural land ence in the form of shifting cultivation, encroach- including high yield varieties (HYV) agricultural ment, erosion, fire and logging. areas; (2) water management intervention; (3) devel- The moist deciduous forests are located in the opment of rural infrastructure; (4) urbanization and central Madhupur tract (114,000 hectares) and the (5) industrialization. north western Barind tract (14,000 hectares). The introduction of HYV in agriculture has Originally owned by landlords but acquired after changed the traditional land use and cropping pat- 1960 under the State Acquisition and Tenancy Act

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 33 after much litigation, these forests are heavily and Game Reserves. There are three national parks, degraded and poorly stocked. nine wildlife sanctuaries and a game reserve. The The country is rich in biological resources but present network of PAs in Bangladesh covers an the intense pressure of a large population coupled area of 110,171 hectares which constitutes 0.76% with the frequent and devastating impact of natural of the total land area against a generally accepted events such as floods and cyclones as well as the minimum of 10% considered realistic to arrest the construction of hydrological structures in the region, trend towards species depletion. Lack of public inter- have placed severe stress upon biological systems. est and leadership in the area of wildlife conserva- Given its limited area, Bangladesh is unique in tion has led to neglect of the PAs system. The reserve its diversity of genetic resources, both wild and system that has been created was not planned with domestic. The genetic resources of Bangladesh com- clear priorities defined by an overseeing body. Nor prise forest resources, agricultural crops, wildlife have sufficient funds been provided for the protec- resources and wetland resources. The wild plant tion and management of parks and reserves. genetic resources of Bangladesh's forests, although There are three acts relating to the conserva- not adequately known, are unique in species diversi- tion of genetic resources, namely, the Forest Act ty. An estimated 5,000 species of angiosperm are 1927 which was amended in 1989 by the Forest available, of which 2,259 species were reported (Amendment) Act 1989, the Bangladesh Wildlife from the Chittagong region (Chittagong, Cox's (Preservation) Amendment Act 1974 (a recent gov- Bazaar, Bandarban, Rangamati and Khagrachari ernment order places a total ban on hunting effec- districts) where most of the hill forests are situated. tive from December 11, 1989), and the East There are also numerous economically important Bengal Protection and Conservation of Fish Act plant resources (other than trees) both domestic and 1950, amended in 1984. wild, which include bamboos, rattan palms, orchids The Sundarbans region in south-western and medicinal plants. In a revised list by the National Bangladesh and eastern India is home to the world's Herbarium, the number of medicinal plants exceeds only genetically viable tiger population; no other 500. There are 18 bamboo species and 8 rattan habitat is sufficient to sustain a large enough breed- species to be found in Bangladesh. Numerous ing population. The Sundarbans is also considered species of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals to be one of the best remaining habitats for the glob- are part of Bangladesh's magnificent heritage in bio- ally endangered estuarine crocodile (Crocodiles logical diversity. Bangladesh has, at present, 19 poruses). However, increasing demands on the species of amphibians, 124 species of reptiles, 119 Sundarbans ecosystem are threatening to undermine species of mammals, and 578 species of birds which the long term sustainability of habitat protection and include 199 migratory species. Wetland resources of continued forest products extraction. Biological comprise 1,454,204 hectares of inland water bodies diversity is threatened by deforestation, forest con- rich in fish fauna including many commercially impor- version, use of agro-chemicals, industrial pollution, tant species representing 145 genera. There is also land use changes and over exploitation of biological an abundance of prawn and shrimp, turtles, tortoise resources. Large scale development projects (for irri- and more than 150 species of waterfowl. Large pop- gation and flood control), clear felling and burning, ulations of water fowl are migratory and pass the all contribute to the destruction of native and sec- winter season in the Haors and seasonal water bod- ondary forest diversity, including indigenous species ies of north-east Bangladesh. Twenty nine important that could be profitably managed for timber and plant species, with their locality and distribution, fuelwood production. have been recorded in inland water logged bodies. The coral reef situated on the northern tip of St. 1. Brief Description of Martin's island in the bay between the latter and Bangladesh's Protected Teknaf is important for the protection as well as the Areas expansion of the island, because of the calcium car- bonate deposits produced by the coral colonies. The 1.1 National Parks reef also provides a habitat for marine algae as well as for a variety of fish, mollusc and other coelenter- Bhowal National Park ates on which the coastal communities depend. Situated in the sal forest ecosystem and located There are three categories of Protected Areas about 40 km north of Dhaka, the Bhowal National in Bangladesh: National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries Park has already become a popular recreation

34 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION area for the city's residents. Its dominant plant Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary species is the coppice origin sal (Shorea robusta) Situated in the south-eastern part of the Kassalong which constitutes about 90% of the forest cover. Reserve Forests of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the This National Park was established in order to pre- area covered by the Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary serve the flora and fauna of moist deciduous consists of hills running north-south and spurs which f o r e s t s . branch off the ridges to form masses of hills and valleys. The altitude ranges from 100-300 metres. Madhupur National Park The vegetation composition (canopy) includes vari- The Madhupur National Park is located about 160 ous species such as tropical evergreen, semi-ever- km north of Dhaka and 32 km south-west of green, and moist deciduous plant species. Bamboo Mymensingh, within the moist deciduous ecosystem. and tropical herbs are present as undergrowth. It covers an area of 47 sq km in which the ratio of The sanctuary's wildlife includes the elephant, sal to other plants is 4:1. The dominant wildlife tiger, leopard, sambar, barking deer, gibbon, species include the rhesus macaque, capped langur capped langur, wild boar, otter, python, etc. The and wild boar. There are over 140 bird species. park boasts over 200 species of birds including the The main objective in the creation of this park was white winged wood duck (Carieva seutulata), for to preserve its beleaguered ecosystem which is which this is the only sanctuary in Bangladesh. under immense pressure from the local population. Though not quite as popular as Bhowal National Char Kukri-Mukri Wildlife Sanctuary Park it attracts a large number of tourists, particular- This sanctuary, situated on an old stable island in ly in the winter season. the Bay of Bengal, has very thick vegetation cover. The predominant plant species are hogla (Typha Himchari National Park elephantina), hargoja (Acanthus illicifolies), keora Adjacent to Cox's Bazaar, the Himchari National (Sonneretia apetala). The area contains a large Park is in a wet evergreen ecosystem. There are breeding colony of herons and egrets while a num- numerous plants and animals in this park. The ter- ber of migratory birds pass the winter on the water rain is composed of irregular hills running north- surrounding the islands. The mammals found on the south and bound in the west by the Bay of Bengal. island include the fishing cat and the clawless otter. The major wildlife consists of elephant, leopard, The sanctuary's main objective is to preserve barking deer, sloth, wild dog, leopard, fishing the habitat of herons and egrets. cat, gibbon and rhesus monkey. The dominant plant is Dipterocarpus and its related species. The Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary main reason for the establishment of the park was Situated 65 km south of Chittagong, the terrain of the to preserve the beauty of the Cox's Bazaar area, Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary is composed of broken given the high number of tourists who visit this sea hills running north-south, the highest of which is r e s o r t . around 100 metres. The forest cover in the area provides suitable habitats for wildlife, especially mam- 1.2 Wildlife Sanctuaries mals and birds such as the elephant, serow, barking deer, gibbon, rhesus macaque, capped langur, pied Sundarbans Wildlife Sanctuaries hornbill, and red jungle fowl. The dominant plants There are three wildlife sanctuaries in the species of the sanctuary are Dipterocarpus spp., Sundarbans, all of which overlook the Bay of Artocarpus chaplasha, Salmalia insigne, S. malabari- Bengal. Apart from variations in salinity and com- ca, Ficus spp., Albizzia, etc. Common undergrowth position of forest vegetation, similar ecological is of bamboo and Eupatorium odorotum. factors prevail in all three. In the east sanctuary the salinity level is low and this increases gradual- 1.3 Game Reserves ly as one proceeds west. The major wildlife fauna of the sanctuaries is tiger, spotted deer (Axis axis), Teknaf Game Reserve wild boar, rhesus macaque and crocodiles. The This game reserve is at an average of 100 metres main objective, as the name implies, is to protect above sea level in the south-east corner of the country the wildlife and the fragile mangrove ecosystem, in the Teknaf Reserve Forests. Its west slope faces the which is important for both macro and micro flora Bay of Bengal and this reserve is marked by a range and fauna. of broken hills running north-south. Its flora and fauna

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 35 are similar to those of Mimchari National Park. The National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries located with- main objective of the game reserve is to preserve the in reserve forests but where areas beyond the reserve unique flora and fauna of the evergreen forests, par- forest are declared PAs, it will be necessary to either ticularly the wild elephants. modify the existing Act or enact a separate one A country's PAs are, in effect, a gene pool that 2. Management of the will one day be the last vestige of its natural forests Protected Areas and wetlands. To preserve these, as part of Bangladesh's heritage, is a sacred task for the pre- The Forest Department in the Ministry of Environment sent generation — and something we owe posterity. and Forests has recently created an independent circle to oversee the PAs and wildlife of Bangladesh. Table 1. List of Notified and Proposed This circle is headed by a conservator of forests, Protected Areas in Bangladesh who is responsible for the management of PAs and wildlife. Meanwhile, field offices of various national Protected Area Area (ha) Year parks and game sanctuaries are in the process of National Park being established. A list of national parks and 1. Ramsagar NP 52 1974 wildlife sanctuaries indicates that, so far, PAs have 2. Madhupur NP 8,436 1987 only been demarcated within the reserve forests. 3. Bhowal NP 5,022 1987 The wetland ecosystem of the country has yet 4. Himchari NP 1,729 1980 to be declared a Protected Area. A recently con- Wildlife Sanctuary ducted survey has identified Hail Haor, Hakaloki 5. Sundarbans West WS 9,069 1977 Haor, Tanguar Haor as areas with the potential to 6. Sundarbans South WS 17,878 1977 be protected. Steps are underway for bringing them 7. Sundarbans East WS 5,439 1977 under management. See Table 1 for complete list of 8. Char Kukri-Mukri WS 40 1981 Notified and Proposed PAs. 9. Rema Kalenga WS 1,095 1981 2.1 Review of the Protected Areas 10. Pablakhali WS 42,087 1981 11. Chunati WS 7,761 1986 Given the heavy demographic pressure exerted on resource sectors in Bangladesh, taking inter-sector Game Reserve impact into account is crucial. Thus integrated 12. Teknaf GR 11,615 1981 resource management based on an understanding Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary of linkages between sectors is essential to achieving 13. Ata Danga Baoi effective and sustainable development. 14. Bil Bhatia After population, the other most important 15. Chalan Beel ecological variable affecting the environment and 16. Meda beel sustainable development in Bangladesh is water. 17. Tanguar Haor The hydrological system is the central ecological 18. Aila Beel relay mechanism through which all sectors are 19. Dakhar Haor inextricably linked. This includes the water system, 20. Kuri Beel deforestation, fisheries production, agricultural 21. Erali Beel production and industrial development, as well as 22. Dubriar Haor domestic and industrial pollution. In Bangladesh 23. Hakaloki Haor PA management for sustainable development must 24. Kawadighi Haor stress particularly on water, watersheds and frugal 25. Hail Haor WS (1,427) e c o s y s t e m s . 26. Hazarikhil WS (2,903) The government is actively considering the des- 27. Rampahar-Sitaphar WS (3,206) ignation of some of the country's wetlands as PAs. 28. Bogakine Lake Wetlands are currently being used by the local popu- (Rinkheong) lation, so when the wetlands are placed in a protect- 29. Chimbuk ed category, it is key that local residents be persuad- 30. Sangu-Matamuhari ed to design and implement the management plan. 31. Naaf River The legal status of PAs under the Bangladesh 32. Jinjiradwip (St. Martin's Wildlife Act is appropriate for the management of Island) and Jinjira Reefs

36 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Country Report, India

Dr S. C. Dey Inspector General of Forests, Government of India

India's geographical area covers 3,287,263 tion density, as per the 1991 census, of 267 peo- sq km, of which recorded forest area comprises ple per sq km. The cattle population meanwhile, is 770,078 sq km or 23.4% of the land area. The over 400 million. The country's PAs are thus subject actual forest cover is, however, 6,740,107 sq km to various pressures. There is very good coverage or 19.5% of the geographical area. The percent- of the PAs in the Himalaya, the Western Ghats and age of actual forest cover to recorded forest area is on the islands and reasonable coverage in the 83.12%. desert area and the Deccan peninsula; but the cov- Distributed over the country's 10 biogeographic erage in the trans-Himalaya, the coastal areas, the zones, the Protected Areas network of the country Gangetic plains, the semi-arid areas and the north- includes 75 National Parks and 428 Wildlife east is inadequate. In a densely populated country Sanctuaries covering nearly 140,000 sq km — like India it is difficult to increase PAs but we do, approximately 4.2% of the India's land area. These nonetheless, aim to bring about 5% of the land PAs fall under IUCN's categories I to V. In addition, area under prime protection, and we are also work- there are 23 project tiger areas, partly covered by ing to increase the managed resource area. the PA network, which contain 9,375 sq km of addi- The organizational structure of wildlife conser- tional forest area managed mainly for sustainable vation in the country is headed by the Director of use of natural resources. The country also boasts Wildlife Preservation, Government of India. This is eight biosphere reserves spread over 32,413 sq km the policy making body for wildlife in the country of which 6,575 sq km constitute PAs, 9,064 sq km and it coordinates and monitors the functioning of come under general forest area and the rest under wildlife schemes. The central government also lends other categories. The managed resources PA in India financial support to the state governments for vari- thus constitutes approximately 18,439 sq km which ous wildlife schemes. There is also an apex wildlife should qualify for IUCN's revised category VI of PAs. institute that imparts training to India's wildlife man- As per the existing law, no forest work can be agers, conducts research on specific topics in identi- undertaken in a PA unless it contributes towards the fied areas and offers consultancy services to various conservation and management of wildlife. All states and other organizations. species of wild animals listed in the schedules of the At the state level, the Wildlife Wing is headed Wildlife Protection Act are protected by law. No for- by a Chief Wildlife Warden, usually with the rank of est rights are permitted in national parks, and only Chief Conservator of Forests, who is supported by limited grazing can be allowed in sanctuaries. There Conservators of Wildlife at the regional level and is, however, a provision under section 24(2)(c) of Divisional Forest Officers of Wildlife Divisions at the the Wildlife Protection Act, where at the time of district level. All major wildlife areas are directly acquisition of rights the collector of the district can, under the purview of Wildlife Divisional Forest in consultation with the Chief Wildlife Warden, Officers while minor PAs are the responsibility of ter- allow the continuation of any right of any person in ritorial Divisional Forest Officers (also designated or over any land within the limits of a sanctuary. Deputy Chief Wildlife Wardens) who are answer- Nevertheless, this can be allowed only when such able to the Chief Wildlife Warden of the State. rights are compatible with the broad objectives of India has strict laws for wildlife protection, the the management of the PAs, and are sustainable most comprehensive one being the Wildlife without causing any long term harm to the PAs. (Protection) Act 1972, which has been revised a India's human population is 900 million plus number of times, most recently in 1991, to make it with an annual growth rate of 2.1% and a popula- more stringent. Most PAs have been provided facili-

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 37 ties such as a wireless network, support vehicles, opment programmes so that the local people launches, mobile patrol parties, patrolling elephants are offered alternatives to the lifestyles that and the arms and ammunition required for efficient have been closed to them because of their vigilance. denied access to the PAs. The main problems facing India's PAs are: ● Designing Human Resource Development ● Inadequate manpower in many areas. Programmes, which include not only the selec- ● Inadequate funding in general. tion and training of suitable manpower for the ● The fluid position of settlement rights. management of PAs, but also orientation train- ● The absence of adequately trained personnel. ing for the local people living on the periphery ● The absence of any detailed scientific data- of PAs. base. ● Encouraging public awareness programmes, ● Pressures on biological resources due to which can develop people's commitment to human and cattle population growth. the conservation of PAs. ● Pressures brought on by trade and rapid ● Ensuring efficient enforcement of the law, not development. only by providing adequate infrastructure and Issues that must be addressed urgently to manpower to PAs, but also by bringing togeth- ensure proper management of PAs are as follows: er other enforcement agencies through regular ● National development objectives have yet to meetings and consultations. attach adequate importance to the value of PAs. ● Involving NGOs/voluntary organizations and ● There is a tendency to over-exploit the natural NGIs, particularly women, in the conservation resources of PAs for increasing human and cause. economic requirements. ● Developing international cooperation and har- ● The species and the ecosystem upon which the mony so that the policies of one country do not concept of PAs is based are still not properly come into conflict with the policies of another. known or understood. A sense of environmental responsibility has Immediate attention needs to be paid to the been one of the fundamental features of India's following areas: ancient philosophy and culture. Indian tradition ● Improving the policy making environment and teaches us to respect nature and acknowledge the integrating different departments' conservation fact that all forms of life, human, plant and animal, policies. are closely interlinked, and that the future of these ● Integrating conservation with development, in a life forms depends upon the health of the elements far-sighted manner so that the way we use bio- that surround them. We must endeavour to maintain logical resources is in the interest of posterity. the Protected Areas in a befitting and sincere man- ● Increasing financial resources to reinforce PA ner, so that we can ensure ecological security for management, and launching more eco-devel- all of us.

38 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Country Report, Nepal

John McEachern Country Representative, IUCN Nepal

1. Introduction Nepal's protected areas are managed under Nepal, situated in the central sector of the the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, Himalaya, is a 'cross-roads' of six phytogeographi- 2029 with periodic amendments. In order to miti- cal provinces: (1) Sino-Japanese (Sino-Himalayan) gate park and people conflict, the government (2) Central Asiatic (3) Irano-Tourranean (4) Sudano- recently made provision to channelise 30% to 50% Zambian (5) Indian and (6) South-east Malaysian. It of park revenues to the people living within the park lies in the interface of the two major zoo-geographi- vicinity. cal realms of the world i.e. the Palaearctic and the Oriental. Over a distance of little more than 160 2. Protected Area km, the biomes range from tropical evergreen forests to alpine meadows and arctic frigid land Management with treeless steppes to the north of the main HMG's main initiatives in biodiversity conservation Himalayan range (trans-Himalayan area). The PAs have involved an extensive network of National of Nepal thus represent a large number of diverse Parks and PAs developed over the past two habitats with great biodiversity. decades and covering more than 15,000 sq km, Nepal's land surface totals 147,181 sq km almost 11% of Nepal's total land area (Table 1 at with an estimated total population of 19 million in the end of the paper). The PA network includes 8 1994. Recent estimates put Nepal's GNP at US$ national parks, 4 wildlife reserves, 2 conservation 202 per capita (1994). Under the new constitution areas and 1 hunting reserve. The Sagarmatha and of the Kingdom of Nepal 2047 (1991), a multi- Royal Chitwan National Parks have been included party system of democracy prevails in the country, in the United Nations World Heritage List due to and the constitution makes provision for the conser- their outstanding natural values, and the Koshi vation of rare fauna and flora. Conservation policy Tappu Wildlife Reserve has been included in the list is broadly guided by the National Conservation of wetlands of international importance under the Strategy (1987) and is implemented through peri- Ramsar Convention. odic five- year plans. His Majesty's Government However, the existing network of parks and (HMG) has adopted both the Nepal Environmental PAs is not complete and not all physiographic Policy and the Action Plan (1993) in order to inte- zones are fully represented. The tropical mixed grate environment and development. evergreen forests and temperate broadleafed Nepal is endowed with a rich natural and forests for instance, are not adequately represented cultural heritage. In recent years, however, there in the system. The middle mountain region is also has been increasing concern over the degradation poorly represented, with only 1% PA coverage, as of these resources. Conflicts have developed compared with at least 4% for all other zones and between local residents and authorities in areas 17% in the case of the High Himal. surrounding some of the designated PAs and Wetlands in Nepal have often been over- national parks. Growing congestion along the looked as an important habitat. Many wetlands are most popular trekking and mountaineering routes suffering the consequences of land and water pollu- is leading to an accumulation of solid waste and tion and disturbance by humans; some have been localized deforestation. In Nepal, forest cover drained and converted into agricultural land. A wet- (land with at least 10% tree crown cover) is esti- lands inventory, being developed as part of the mated to be 37% while scrub land accounts for a IUCN's NCS Implementation Project, could form the further 4.7%. basis for a wetland protection policy.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 39 3. Management Issues dated management plans that rely mostly on Despite the wide coverage of the PAs system, sev- exclusion through tight policing rather than eral problems related to management have encouraging local participation, or have no emerged. plans at all. ● In some areas, conflicts have developed HMG is now taking steps to address these between the park authorities and local resi- issues based on the recognition that successful park dents regarding the latter's right to extract management depends on the fostering of good rela- products, such as fuelwood, thatch grass and tions between park authorities and the local people fodder from PAs to meet their essential needs. who are the most affected by the existence of PAs. The restriction or denial of access to parks and reserves has, in some cases, resulted in eco- 4. Involving People nomic and social hardship for local people. There is a growing realization that the ultimate suc- Ineffective communication and management cess of PAs depends upon the cooperation and sup- has exacerbated this problem, leading to port of local people. Autonomous, non-governmen- sometimes acrimonious relationships between tal committees should be created in each affected local people and park authorities. area and authorized to collect funds (including ● Successful protection has allowed animal pop- tourism revenues) and to allocate them for sustain- ulations to expand in PAs. As a result, some able community development. Channeling tourism species are having a negative impact on local revenues into community development will help to communities, causing injuries (and occasional increase people's participation in National Parks fatalities) to people, livestock losses and the and reserves. destruction of crops, thus adding to the conflict People living outside the boundary of PAs, but between people and parks. adjacent to them, must be compensated for loss of ● To enforce PA regulations, park authorities resource usage. The compensation should be in the rely on the assistance of the Royal Nepal form of community development works, including Army. Although deployment of the army has agriculture, supported by funds raised from tourism helped reduce poaching within PAs, it has and government allocation, as well as from interna- given rise to other problems. Administrative tional sources. authority has been divided, leading to some These new approaches have been put into confusion as to who has overall authority for practice in the Annapurna Conservation Area and the parks. Also, soldiers who are assigned to the Makalu-Barun Conservation Projects, and protect the parks are not given any special some success at involving local people directly in training and consequently lack an adequate project planning and implementation has been appreciation of their new, non-military role. In reported. These approaches are, however, still addition, the cost of army protection is high, innovative and experimental; the extent to which consuming about three-quarters of the total they may be replicated for other areas is not yet budget of the Department of National Parks clear. and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC). With deforestation, environmental degrada- ● In the past, communities have not been tion and the extinction of species on the increase, involved in management decisions or entitled environmental concerns need to be made an inte- to a share of locally generated revenues from gral part of PA management. park activities. Local people have, therefore, The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation tended to regard parks with suspicion: not Act (1973), the principal legislative measure that only has their access to areas where once they governs the convention of ecologically valuable were free to enter been restricted, but they areas and their indigenous wildlife, has recently have not received adequate compensation for been amended to introduce the concept of revenue this loss of access. sharing. Local communities will henceforth be per- ● Because of the restrictions inside the PAs, mitted to retain 30% to 50% of locally generated extractive activities have intensified in the sur- revenues for development projects. The DNPWC rounding areas, causing severe damage to the has launched the Park-People Project, for which ecosystem. US$ 977,000 has been allocated, with UNDP ● Finally, reflecting some of the points men- assistance, with the objective of mitigating park and tioned above, many PAs either adhere to out- people conflicts.

40 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 5. Institutional Arrangements ly address the management issues outlined above. There are several institutions responsible for biodiver- Many PA plans are outdated and need revision. sity conservation in Nepal. The main agency is the Appropriate plans must be prepared for those PAs DNPWC (under MFSC), but given the lack of finan- that do not have any management plan at all. The cial and human resources, it faces major constraints DNPWC should be responsible for developing in managing and protecting areas. The plan for the management plans. However, there are at present Conservation of Ecosystems and Genetic Resources no specific guidelines for the development of plans prepared as part of the Forestry Sector Master Plan for PAs, and DNPWC's current institutional capaci- noted that "DNPWC has little effective management ty to develop such plans is inadequate. Part of the capacity, no working policy instructions, suffers from overall improvement in DNPWC's institutional shared responsibilities, lacks coordination with other capacity might include the establishment of a task agencies of HMG and with local communities and force to prepare and develop guidelines for man- has substantial unmet training needs". agement plans. The DNPWC's authority to act is further limited One important approach that should be con- in a number of key areas: (1) confusion regarding sidered when developing plans for nature conserva- administrative authority for park management tion areas is the concept of a strictly protected core between the Royal Nepal Army and DNPWC; (2) the area, surrounded by a sustainable resource use Department of Immigration is responsible for issuing area with multiple-use management on the periph- trekking permits — as a result DNPWC has no say in eries to ameliorate park-people difficulties. The core planning numbers or destinations of trekkers; (3) with zone would be managed as a national park, strict no powers in this respect, there is little incentive for nature reserve or wildlife reserve, while the periph- DNPWC to coordinate with other government min- eral zone with its human settlements would be man- istries, such as the Ministry of Tourism, to improve aged as a conservation area. This idea has already management; (4) DNPWC has neither the mandate been introduced in the Makalu-Barun region where nor the resources to work with communities outside the core area, free of permanent settlements, is PAs who are most seriously affected by the presence managed as a National Park with the primary of parks and reserves. objective of nature conservation, while the area The DNPWC's institutional capacity must be with human settlements is managed as a conserva- substantially improved so as to enable it to function tion area where sustainable multiple-use resource effectively. Given some of the difficulties outlined management and community development pro- above, it may also be desirable to reconsider the role grammes will be launched. HMG has recently pro- of the army as park protectors. Closer inter-depart- mulgated the necessary legal provisions to develop mental coordination will only be possible if a forum is buffer areas outside PAs. created for discussion, and responsibilities modified to reflect DNPWC's role as the lead agency for PAs. 7. Major Programmes Other institutions directly involved in biodiversity A biodiversity conservation project funded by the protection include the DOF, which is responsible for Global Environmental Facility, has been launched all flora, fauna and timber species within PAs. in Nepal. Its main implementing agencies are the Biodiversity outside PAs currently receives little atten- DNPWC, Woodlands Mountain Institute and the tion. To remedy this, the Forestry Sector Master Plan King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation suggests that wildlife management outside PAs be (KMTNC). The GEF has earmarked US$ 2.6 million entrusted to the District Forest Office which, where to implement the Makalu-Barun National Park and necessary, should be reinforced by a wildlife man- Conservation Area; US$ 0.19 million for DNPWC's agement expert from the nearest park or reserve. This capacity building activities; US$ 0.361 million for proposal requires further scrutiny before it is put into preparing the National Biodiversity Action Plan; practice. Apart from the DOF, the Department of US$ 0.19 million for capacity enhancing through Plant Resources carries out ex situ conservation of KMTNC; and US$ 0.95 million to monitor UNDP species in the Botanical Garden. projects. The Park-People Project has been implemented 6. Management Plans by DNPWC in 5 terai parks and reserves with Management of PAs is likely to succeed only if UNDP assistance. The immediate objective of the plans are prepared in consultation with local project is to enhance the capacity of the local com- resource users and park authorities, and specifical- munities and DNPWC to jointly manage these

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 41 areas and to improve the socio-economic conditions Hooker. The interaction of the region's terrain, flora of the people living in the adjoining villages. and fauna with indigenous peoples has changed very little since 1948 as a recent survey by a team 8. Opportunities of Protecting from the Royal Botany Gardens of Nepal, Kew and Other Important Areas Edinburgh (American Horticulturist, April 12, 1991) has revealed. A Norwegian naturalist, Dr Per The 800 km of the Himalayan range that lie within Wegge, in his report to the WWF has indicated Nepal have great biodiversity value as well as that this area, which was recently opened (in 1990) tourism potential. However, the opening of each to foreign trekkers, has high tourism value and pos- new area to tourism development poses a corre- sesses great potential for developing hunting sponding threat to biodiversity. The Manaslu tourist reserves for the blue sheep, ghoral and thar. If tro- area in central Nepal is a case in point. IUCN phy hunting is also permitted with the overall Nepal, after conducting a reconnaissance survey, tourism development and conservation plan, a sub- has made various recommendations to resolve con- stantial amount of foreign exchange from licenses flicting interests of tourism and biodiversity conser- and trophy fees could be generated to pay for con- vation. Special biodiversity conservation areas have servation and development in the region. However, been identified for immediate action. Of these, the to date no preparation has been made to manage 'Hidden Valley of Serang' is being especially stud- this area for tourism and community development. It ied by IUCN Nepal's biodiversity team in order to is important that the area be studied for multiple use develop a management model based upon the tra- management options for conservation of natural as ditional monastic authority of the Lama and the well as cultural heritage, and to achieve sustainable local people's high regard and religious compas- use. A reconnaissance survey was carried out in sion towards living souls. 1994. IUCN Nepal is collaborating with DNPWC and the WWF Nepal programme to develop ways 9. Concluding Remarks and means to conserve the environs of the world's Biodiversity conservation through a PAs system has third highest mountain, the Kanchenjungha (8,586 been examined in Nepal through various conserva- m), situated in Nepal's north-eastern Taplejung dis- tion models where the interests of resident people in trict. Flanked by India (Sikkim) towards the east or around PAs are duly addressed. Tourism con- and China (Tibet) towards the north, tributes significantly to foreign exchange earnings, Kanchenjunga, as a pivot of an east Himalayan a factor that has to be incorporated into PA plan- environment, needs special action for the conserva- ning as well as into the country's development plan- tion of its biodiversity. ning. Through its various programmes IUCN Nepal The area has high biodiversity value, some- has been assisting the Kingdom of Nepal in its thing which was recognized as early as a century endeavour to integrate conservation, development and a half ago by the celebrated naturalist J.D. and tourism.

42 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 43 44 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Country Report, Pakistan

Abeedullah Jan Inspector General of Forests, Ministry of Food, Agriculture & Cooperatives, Pakistan

More than 50% of Pakistan's geographical area is years. With such a massive population competing wildland comprising the great mountain ranges — for natural resources, the very continuation of the the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush — and PAs and their effectiveness has become question- including the cold plateau of Balochistan and the able. This issue needs our urgent attention. hot, smouldering deserts of Thar and Cholistan. Wildlife is seriously and increasingly being There are also a large number of water bodies in threatened on account of hunting, competition the form of rivers, canals, reservoirs, natural lakes with domestic livestock, disturbance during the and other types of wetlands scattered through the breeding season, pollution by insecticides, pesti- length and breadth of the country. cides and other forms of toxic substances. Although not a large country, Pakistan is rich As a result, some species have disappeared in biodiversity: three biogeographic zones out of while many others are facing the same fate. The the six covering the entire globe are represented latter category includes 31 species of mammals, here. These are: 20 species of birds, 4 species of reptiles and over ● The Palaearctic realm extending from the 500 species of plants. Remedial measures adopt- n o r t h ; ed so far include: ● The Ethiopian realm touching the southern ● Setting up a network of 14 national parks fringes and (four were added during the last year), 84 ● The Oriental or Indo-Malayan realm stretch- wildlife sanctuaries and 75 game reserves ing from the east. covering about 8% of the total land surface. This converging phenomenon has given rise ● Enactment of relatively comprehensive to nine distinct biomes from the glaciated north to wildlife legislation in the 1970s. the dry tropic in the south. Consequently, marine, ● Institutional strengthening at the federal and coastal, mangrove, estuarine, riverine, wetland, provincial levels including the establishment dry desert, tropical thorn, sub-montane, montane, of Wildlife Advisory Boards to encourage and cold desert ecosystems are all found in participation of private citizens in decision P a k i s t a n . m a k i n g . Of the total land surface, 5.8% is legally pro- ● Regulation and control over export and tected as National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and import of wild flora and fauna. Game Reserves under wildlife legislation with an ● Survey, research and training. additional 3% as reserved and protected forests ● State membership of Convention on notified under forest laws. International Trade in Endangered Species of This wide and varied range of habitat is Wild Flora and Fauna, the Ramsar matched by a diversity of flora and fauna compris- Convention, the Bonn Convention, the World ing more than 5,000 species of wild plants, 188 Heritage Convention, IUCN and International species of mammals, 666 species of birds and Waterfowl and Wetland Research Bureau. about 207 species of reptiles. There is a pro- Finally, I would like to briefly mention the nounced endemism of wild goats, wild sheep, rep- major constraints that hinder the establishment of tiles and plant species. an adequate and effective network of PAs in This natural heritage is, however, threatened Pakistan despite substantial local coverage. These by a human population of more than 120 million constraints include: people that, with an annual growth rate of 3.1%, ● The absence of PAs systems planning. is likely to cross 220 million within the next 20 ● The absence of management plans for most

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 45 of the PAs. ● Inadequate financial and human resource ● Lack of expertise in PA planning, manage- i n v e s t m e n t . ment, interpretation, survey and inventory These are some specific areas of PA manage- techniques due to the lack of training facili- ment in which we would like to benefit from the ties in the country. experience of other countries in the region.

46 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Country Report, Sri Lanka

S. Medawewa Government of Sri Lanka

1. Introduction With the completion of irrigation works in the Sri Lanka, with a land area of 1.7 million hectares dry zone, the clearing of its forests began in the lat- has a rich tropical forest which is a major contribu- ter part of the 19th century. The next drastic change tor to its biological diversity. The total extent of nat- came about after 1900 when large colonization ural forest cover is approximately 26% of the schemes were introduced. Since 1933 the rate of island's land surface while the area under the forest clearing in the low country has steadily closed canopy natural forest covers 1.33 million increased. By 1948, only 50% of the dry zone was hectares or 20.4% of the land area. Over 45% of under forest cover, which continued to dwindle due the total natural forests in the country have been to continuous "slash and burn" or "chena" cultiva- designated as Protected Areas, purely for conservation, and illegal timber extraction. The present nat- tion purposes. ural forest cover is estimated at approximately In Sri Lanka, there are numerous PAs for 20.4% of the land area in the dry zone and 9% of diverse reasons of which the most widely known the land area in the wet zone. areas are under the purview of the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Forest Department. 3. Wildlife Conservation Apart from this, there are PAs under local authori- Faunal species protection preceded the declaration ties (such as town councils or village councils), gov- of Protected Areas in Sri Lanka. During the reign of ernment agents, the Archaeological Department, the ancient kings, according to old chronicles and the Coast Conservation Department and the Tourist rock inscriptions, elephants and fish in certain reser- Board. voirs were declared protected species. Towards the latter half of the 19th century, during the British 2. Forest Cover period of Sri Lanka's history, wild animals (especial- Sri Lanka's central highlands and the wet zone ly the deer, sambhur, buffalo and elephant) were were forested prior to the European invasions of the decimated with impunity in the name of sport. In an country. Among the early arrivals were the Dutch attempt to stem this slaughter the government intro- and the Portuguese who were interested in trade, duced two bills, in 1872 and 1891 respectively, especially in elephants. But when the British took that prohibited the sale of the hides and horns of control of the country, they took to exploiting its nat- the deer and sambhur. ural resources with a vengeance. The efficacy of this legislative measure was Towards the mid-19th century, vast forest limited by its weak implementation. This generated tracts in the higher altitudes were cleared for coffee interest in the idea of creating PAs exclusively for plantations. Tea was introduced in 1850 and wildlife. The first PA, known as a sanctuary, was claimed yet more forests at higher altitudes. established by a European planter in the hill country As late as 1872, the low country zone and covered about 2,000 acres. This concept of remained forested, with few human settlements. sanctuaries (not in the sense currently used) later There were large tracts of forest in the northern half became the cornerstone of the Sri Lankan conserva- of the island; the east and the south-eastern parts tion strategy. In 1898 the colonial government also contained a substantial extent of wild country declared Yala, in the Hambantota District in south- and were thinly populated. The extreme south and ern Sri Lanka, a sanctuary, where no shooting was south-west, on the other hand, were largely under allowed (Times of Ceylon, February 22, 1899). cultivation and paddy fields and coconut planta- This was the first official sanctuary in Asia and is of tions were common. the same antiquity as the Sabi National Park (now

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 47 Kruger) of South Africa (Uragoda, 1994). Two is, incidentally, one of the highest in the world. other areas were declared game sanctuaries in Another interesting feature of this PAs network is the 1905 in the North Western Province and the North numerical increase over the years (see graph) in the Central Province. area that it covers. This fact should be considered The Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance of against the reality of a progressively increasing pop- 1938 provided for the establishment of several cat- ulation that demands new land for development. The egories of PAs with different degrees of protection forest cover subsequently decreases, yet the area for both animals and plants. Strict Nature Reserves under wildlife conservation keeps increasing. were created where wildlife could exist without the PAs under the Forest Ordinance are described intrusion of man. Permission to enter Strict Nature as forest reserves. All or parts of any land devolve Reserves was given only to scientists actively on the state under legislation such as the Land engaged in research. National Parks were estab- Resumption Ordinance, Waste Land Ordinance, lished for people to observe wildlife only through Land Settlement Ordinance etc. Within the precincts permits issued on payment of a fee. While shooting of forest reserves, trespassing or causing willful was allowed in the intermediate zones with a per- damage to any tree such as stripping its bark etc. mit during open season, during the closed season are considered punishable offences. The 30,000 entry was allowed on permit only for the purpose of acre Sinharaja Forest in the Sabaragamuwa and photography and study. The creation of these zones Southern Provinces of Sri Lanka is a primeval forest, for hunting had been much debated: it was argued and one of the Forest Department's major reserves. that the shooting dissuaded the animals from stray- In 1988 it was declared a National Heritage Area ing outside the PAs. However, when licences to under the provisions of the National Heritage and hunt were ultimately banned in 1964, these inter- Wilderness Areas Act. mediate zones were incorporated into National Under Sri Lanka's Coast Conservation Act, Parks. Of all the PAs, sanctuaries became the most PAs are established for the conservation of its relaxed ones for human activities. This classification coastal belt. was based on models developed in Britain. The Sri Lanka has a history several thousand years amendments to the Fauna and Flora Ordinance, in old, which makes for an abundance of ancient 1993, introduced the following changes to the cate- ruins, whose preservation is the responsibility of the gorization of PAs: Archaeology Department. ● The number of PAs was increased to seven. Cultural sites and other natural resources ● Some categories of PAs like intermediate notwithstanding, the PAs network for wildlife on the zones were deleted. island is larger and more complex than the ● New areas were added to the list of PAs, such reserves under any other legislation. Despite as Buffer Zones, Refuges and Marine unremitting demands on land and forest resources Reserves. made by a burgeoning population, they are quite The law currently recognizes seven different well protected. categories of PAs: An interesting feature of these PAs is that the ● Strict Nature Reserves majority of them are found in Sri Lanka's dry zone. ● National Parks The movement of wild animals into the dry zone ● Nature Reserves was a historical process. The dry zone area was ● Jungle Corridors originally the cradle of civilization on the island ● Refuges while wildlife was concentrated in the central hill ● Marine Reserves country and the tropical rain forests in the west. ● Buffer Zones Abandoning the dry zone area in the wake of for- Wetlands as defined by the International eign invasions, Sri Lankans moved to the western Waterfowl and Wetland Research Bureau form and coastal areas. The Central Hills were cleared another category of PAs, especially for migrant by the British for plantation crops like coffee, tea, birds, including waterfowl. rubber and cinchona. Both these events served to Sri Lanka boasts 12 national parks, 3 strict drive the wildlife into the dry zone which was then nature reserves, 2 nature reserves, 52 sanctuaries developed into a secondary forest. and 3 wetlands all covering an area approximately Although biodiversity and endemism are equivalent to over 13% of the total land mass of the greater in the wet zone's tropical rain forests, the island under wildlife conservation. This percentage number of PAs in this part of the island is signifi-

48 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION cantly lower than those in the dry zone. This is Reserves, Strict Nature Reserves and Jungle largely because of the heavy concentration of popu- Corridors) and sanctuaries that are run by the DWC lation in these areas. while the Forest Ordinance sets guidelines for the Two marine sanctuaries in Hikkaduwa in the Forest Department to establish and protect village Southern Province and the Bar Reef in the North forests, forest reserves, other state forests and their Western Province have been established to protect products, and regulate the transport of timber. The the coral and associated life forms. Of these wet- National Heritage and Wilderness Areas Act gov- land areas one is a Ramsar Site. erns the preservation of genetic resources, unique At present, the management of the PAs net- ecosystems and habitats of endangered and threat- work in Sri Lanka has to contend with the following ened species. problems: At present, the island has 12 National Parks, ● An increasing population and a growing 3 Strict Nature Reserves, 3 Nature Reserves, demand for land. 52 Sanctuaries, 2 Proposed Jungle Corridors, 1 ● Limited employment opportunities, poverty and Wilderness Heritage Site, 41 Man and Biosphere infringement of laws governing PAs. reserves, and 13 other conservation forests in the ● Too many visitors at a limited number of wet zone. National Parks. The system of PAs in Sri Lanka is, thus, a fairly ● Development stresses on overused PAs. extensive one, covering over 13% of its total land ● Ignorance and lack of interest among policy area — Sri Lanka is one of only five countries in the makers about the importance of PAs and their world that has over 12% of land area allocated resources. exclusively for strict conservation. Of this, nearly 12% comes under the purview of the DWC. At pre- 4. Evolution of Conservation sent, over 45% of the existing natural forests have been demarcated as PAs entirely for protection and Objectives conservation purposes. Sri Lanka's emphasis on controlling and regulating However, the distribution of Sri Lanka's exist- game hunting changed with the creation of the ing PAs raises some doubts as to the effectiveness Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) in 1950 of its PA network. While 90% of the PAs are locat- and a report submitted by a committee appointed in ed in the dry zone, representation in the wet and 1957. These events led to an awareness of the need montane zones of the country where the forests are to protect vital ecosystems and their fauna. of the greatest importance in terms of biological Legislation on wildlife conservation was initiat- diversity, endemism and watershed value, is mar- ed to protect and regulate game. Around 1958, the ginal (only about 10% of the PAs). emphasis was mainly on protecting the elephant, a Contributing to this imbalance is the fact that few unique ecosystems and some sites of special in the dry zone, most of the natural forest cover lies interest. Accordingly, the DWC specified areas for within the wildlife Protected Area, while the wet their protection in development programmes and zone contains only a few PAs for wildlife. designated strict nature reserves for unique ecosys- If the major PAs in the dry zone are analyzed tems. Sanctuaries were set up as special interest with respect to habitat type and objectives, one areas for migrant birds and animal aggregates. sees that 24% of the PAs are water bodies, 11% lie This trend continued while major development within high security areas, 6% in archaeological schemes were taking shape. In the early 1960s reserves and islands, and 59% in forests. numerous catchments of dry zone reservoirs were The fact that elephants are found mainly in the stocked with displaced animals, thus fulfilling a dry zone is also pertinent. In 1969, their numbers catchment area conservation objective. ranged between 1,745 and 2,455. In 1987 they With the rapid expansion of this policy since had increased to between 3,051 and 3,435 and at then, almost all the major catchments have become present are estimated to number between 2,500 reserves. Meanwhile, special interest sites and and 3,000. These elephants cause tremendous ecosystems have also continued to attract attention. damage to crops, property and life each year. The Sri Lanka's PAs are administered through vari- resolution of this problem needs to be carefully con- ous legislative measures. The Fauna and Flora sidered and the staff in dry zone PAs must make Protection Ordinance provides for the management maximum efforts to keep these herds within the con- of the national reserves (National parks, Nature fines of the PAs.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 49 Sri Lanka's PAs network has to contend with National Parks around visitor needs. These include the problem of too many visitors, which has an the maintenance of road networks, establishment of extremely negative impact on wildlife habitats and water holes, and under-brushing of the road sides. movements. The number of visitors to PAs has Apart from the construction of water holes to retain increased substantially in the past few years, and is water for the dry spells, little activity is directed concentrated mainly in popular National Parks. towards the well being of animals. The most crucial threat to the management of The wildlife conservation management of PAs PAs is the country's growing population and its is thus a critical issue in Sri Lanka today. PAs and increasing demand for land (for agricultural use, as their wildlife can benefit and be successfully con- well as for housing and industry) and for forest-based served for posterity only if a broad and concerted products such as timber and small wood. The recent effort is adopted to manage the systems through a trend of cultivating cash crops for the export market sound policy. has further inflated the demand for land. While the The Sri Lankan government has launched population has continued to grow, forest cover has such an effort, first by the adoption of a National decreased. The slow but steady increase in the urban Conservation Strategy, and second by the population since 1946 has placed pressure on PA approval of a National Wildlife Conservation management in three respects: the growing urban- Policy 1990, based on the IUCN's concept of con- middle class citizens' demand for land for housing; servation i.e.: the demand for game (protected animals) meat; and ● To maintain ecological processes and life sus- the desire to keep animals as pets. The increase in taining systems; the rural population on the other hand continues to ● To preserve genetic diversity; and put pressure on the park fringes and contribute to the ● To ensure the sustainable utilization of species unrelenting decrease in forest cover. and ecosystems which are of immediate and A burgeoning population translates into a potential importance in supporting people. need for additional avenues of employment, not The protection of wildlife, mainly in the limit- always possible in a situation of slow economic ed PAs, will be shaped around this policy. Its con- expansion. The result is often poverty and starva- tents are included here to give an insight into the tion, which naturally compels the unemployed, spe- future direction of wildlife conservation in Sri cially in the rural sector, to encroach upon land L a n k a . reserved for wildlife. The resolution of this problem lies in long-term economic development and popu- 5. The National Policy for lation control measures. Protected Areas While economists argue about the opportunity cost of land allocated for wildlife, it is interna- Conservation tionally accepted that National Parks must sustain One of the first policy objectives (1953) relates to themselves. When alternative development activi- the conservation of forests. It is "to maintain, con- ties are possible in the wake of increasing popula- serve and create forests for the preservation and tion, it is important that we develop income gener- amelioration of the environment, soil and water ating programmes associated with these PAs. This resources, and for the protection of the local fauna entails the management of greater numbers of visi- and flora where they are required for aesthetic, sci- tors to these parks. However, over-visitation has a entific, historical and socio-economic reasons." twin impact: the stresses due to over-visitation on The National Policy for Wildlife Conservation the one hand and on the other, the fallout of has the following objectives: developments introduced within the parks to meet visitor demands. 5.1 To Identify the Specific Objectives It is important that Sri Lanka's policy makers of Wildlife Conservation take a serious view of the need to protect wildlife in Protective measures need to be instituted for the the country. The fresh interest in the conservation of sake of species conservation, ecosystem conserva- biodiversity created by the Earth Summit should bear tion, endemic species conservation and for recre- fruit in Sri Lanka because much attention is paid to ational purposes. Conservation may concern these the protection of the environment and related matters. objectives singly or in combination. Also needed is In the PAs, management practices have been a complex manifesto which might have to vary from largely centered around protection and in the reserve to reserve.

50 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 5.2 To Recognize Human Use in 5.6 The Decentralization of Reserves Administration People are part of the natural ecosystem, and When multiple use of PAs is a cornerstone of depend upon it and its products for their survival. In national policy, management practices need to be the name of conservation, barriers have sometimes changed accordingly. The administration should be been erected which have prevented people from decentralized. exploiting the forest — even though they may have done this in the past without harming the ecosystem. 5.7 Recognition of Research and A conservation policy, therefore, needs to be Education as Priority Needs humane and take into account the potential human Any strategy, however well intentioned, becomes use of PAs. ineffective if it is not based on an understanding of the situation. The key to this understanding is a 5.3 To Recognize the Multiple Uses knowledge of details as well as a "global" under- of PAs standing of the larger picture. It is research that Recognizing human activities in reserves would assists in elucidating the former and education that lead to multiple use of PAs. User needs and require- paves the way for the latter. ments may be categorized into two main classes: (1) consumptive or extractive uses; and (2) non-con- 5.8 Establish Inter-Institutional sumptive or non-extractive uses. L i n k s A successful national policy depends upon agencies 5.4 To Establish Zones in Protected working together for the common good. Guidelines Areas must be established so that inter-institutional links If the concept of multiple use is accepted, the best can be created and exploited for the mutual benefit method of implementing it is zoning. Buffer zones of the institutions as well as the country. could be opened to extraction while areas which are of scientific or ecological importance would be 5.9 Formulate and Implement a classified as "core" areas. Only non-extractive uses, National Conservation Act such as research, would be permitted here. The guidelines set out above should be incorporated into an effective Conservation Act which must 5.5 To Introduce an Effective serve the real present and future interests of the Management Policy p e o p l e . Recognition of the multiple uses of a PA calls for The Act must also incorporate the fundamental measures to ensure productive and efficient utiliza- concepts of conservation as practised today. These tion of resources. These measures are practicable principles are: only under a proper management policy. ● Protection: to sustain and maintain the bal- A "hands-off" policy which imposes stern mea- anced functioning of nature. sures on the people should not be adopted, for it ● Use: to provide for the daily needs of the pre- would cause resentment and the destruction of the sent as well as future generations. very resources that need to be protected. ● Regulation: to control and regulate through A suitable management policy recognizes the scientific knowledge and sympathetic under- effects of man's actions, and tries to reduce or elimi- standing so that use and protection can be nate such effects. It also attempts to maintain resource provided for. potential at 'natural' levels through successful man- ● Management: to administer and manage nat- agement techniques. Zoning, which was discussed ural resources wisely to ensure maximum earlier, is one such technique that could be practised. benefits for present and future generation.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 51 52 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Integrating Sustainable Development and Conservation: What is the Future for Protected Areas in South Asia?

S. Medawewa Government of Sri Lanka

1. Introduction unmatched by the capacity of government agencies Biodiversity in Asia has been lost largely due to to manage it, compelling financial incentives that habitat destruction from clearing and burning encourage over-exploitation of timber; wildlife; graz- forests, logging and agricultural encroachments, ing lands and croplands; absence of linkages draining and filling wetlands, destroying coastal between conservation needs and factors encourag- areas for development, converting natural ecosys- ing development; and laws, policies, social changes tems for agricultural and industrial use, and human and economic forces over which poor people in settlement. South Asia has lost approximately two- remote rural areas have no influence. thirds of its forest area and half of its wetlands, mangroves, and grasslands. Poaching, hunting, col- 2. Action Needed for a Better lection of valuable plants, introduction of exotic Future species and pollution all pose major threats to many wildlife species and natural habitats. 2.1 Improving the Policy South Asia contains within it the world's high- Environment est mountain system, as well as rainforests, coral ● A need for national policies. reefs and island systems, characteristics that ● Contradictory policy objectives among sectors account for the region's substantial species diversity must be resolved. and high levels of endemicity. ● Policies that have adverse impacts on biodiver- A rapidly increasing population is the cause of sity must be modified. many problems in the region. Asia is the world's most populous region, with 13% of the world's land 2.2 Regional Development area peopled by 50% of the world population and ● PAs need to be integrated into regional devel- comprising some of the world's poorest countries. opment programmes. Demand for economic growth is consequently very ● PAs cannot be regarded solely as an issue of high. People cannot conserve natural resources protected land management. because conservation is in conflict with their sur- ● Parallel efforts should be made to conserve vival needs. How people's needs can be reconciled biodiversity in the context of agricultural and with conservation interests is an issue that must be other land use activities e.g. ex situ methods. resolved urgently. ● National thresholds of PAs must be deter- Setting up comprehensive and well-managed mined. PA systems is the most practical way to preserve the ● Cross-sectoral development in the region — greatest amount of biological diversity and the eco- e.g. tourism, can be a double edged tool. This logical processes that define and mould it. should be carefully evaluated. Therefore, initial efforts should help support the establishment and maintenance of PA systems by 2.3 Administrative Arrangements promoting policy changes, incorporating local peo- ● The protection of biological diversity is weak ple into PA management and mobilizing financial in the region. resources for conservation and protection. ● Although bound by legislation PAs are, in Many of the factors leading to the loss of biodi- practice, inadequately protected, misman- versity and the degradation of protected natural aged and lack infrastructure and staff to such ecosystems originate far from park boundaries. They an extent that some are undeserving of their include public ownership of extensive areas of land d e s i g n a t i o n .

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 53 ● Conservation in some countries is limited by ● Develop curricula. administrative structures. Priority is given to ● Introduce wildlife curriculum into other sectoral production rather than protection. education programmes ● Make PAs part of modern society through edu- 2.4 Legal Framework cation, training and research. ● PAs cannot be preserved unless there are ● School curricula. effective legal and institutional structures. ● Flagship species to symbolize conservation ● Legislation pertaining to PAs can be inade- issues. quate when it is focused on particular species ● Mobilize NGOs, enthusiasts, volunteers, acad- or types of organisms rather than on habitats. emics, youth and children. ● Enforcement of conservation legislation is ● Launch campaigns on specific issues. poor, allowing illegal activities to continue ● Utilize mass media and green advertising, unchecked. e.g. the Asian Forum of Environmental ● Concepts of multiple use, resource use, shared Journalists. control resources etc. have to be brought into ● Use other available training institutes, if neces- the legal framework of each country. sary, for environmental training. ● Training of trainers, school teachers, instruc- 2.5 Management of tors of agriculture etc. should be undertaken. Protected Areas ● Involve tour agents, tour operators, hoteliers, customs officers, coast conservation officials, Management Plans marine affairs, fisheries, military officers. ● Research, inventories, herbaria, surveys. ● There is an urgent need to establish new data- ● Translate research results into practice by apply- bases and strengthen existing ones. ing them research results to management issues. ● Management of the PA and the adjacent land should be planned together as the PAs are not Buffer Zone Management self-contained. ● Laws related to buffer zones must appear use- ● Each area should have a management plan ful and rational to local people. listing objectives, obstacles to achieving them, ● Buffer zone projects should start small and rec- ways to overcome these, the required ognize the need for acquiring knowledge of the resources, the costs and benefits of achieving area's resources and the development needs of them, and the responsibilities of concerned the people. This should be a learning process. agencies. ● A buffer zone development project should not ● Is there a need for additional PAs when many usually be initiated unless there is reasonable of the existing ones still lack adequate human probability of success. Support should be and other resources for effective management? maintained for a substantial amount of time ● Zoning of PAs with the surrounding landscape i.e. 10-15 years. is essential. ● Buffer zone projects should be simple and centre on intensive dialogue with local com- Species and Ecosystems Management munities. A mechanism to provide small This needs to be carefully thought out. For example, amounts of assistance would be sufficient for in the case of elephants, decisions must be made such a project. about live capture, translocation, taming, driving ● Dialogue must be translated into practical etc. Should special reserves or elephant corridors action. be created? How will the human population be ● The project should not bypass existing govern- affected? Should buffers be created? ment rural development agencies. ● Rural development activities in buffer zones Education, Research and Training should use simple technologies besides indige- ● Strengthen visitor information/interpretation nous material and local labour. services. ● Establishment of foundations, trusts or local ● Public education. NGOs can be an effective method of attract- ● Strengthen research component. ing and sustaining outside support for buffer ● Train available cadre. zone programmes.

54 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Partnerships with Indigenous Communities activities, preferential employment as part-time and NGOs, and Local Social and Economic staff and restoration of religious structures with- Development in the park. ● This is the most challenging aspect of integrat- Improvement of the relationship between local ed conservation-development projects and people and PAs is vital for successful biodiversity requires an innovative approach. conservation. When people have been alienated ● The development component should not only from their land in the course of establishing a PA, foster improved local living standards and be the outcome has sometimes been violent. In Assam, economically and biologically sustainable but India, a rebel force of Bodo tribesmen invaded the must also conserve the PAs ecosystem. Manas sanctuary and killed 12 members of the for- ● To satisfy this requirement, explicit linkages est staff. They had been provoked by the denial of between development components and conser- their rights on their land, the curb on traditional vation objectives are needed. uses, and the fact that they had no say in the estab- ● Systematic attention to land ownership and lishment and management of the PA. other resources, as well as access rights of beneficiaries, must be considered. Human Resource Development ● NGO contribution should be strengthened. ● The number of trained personnel at present is ● Conservation and development need to be in a d e q u a t e . integrated in order to expand public support. ● Sufficient funds and facilities to train staff are ● With reference to the traditional and indige- la c k i n g . nous knowledge base, new ways of reconcil- ● There is a lack of commitment to institutional ing the needs of local people with conserva- reorientation from traditional park management tion should be devised. to a people-centred management approach. ● Dependence on external resources should be ● Realistic institutional arrangements are wanting. reduced. ● There is a dire need for professionals, partic- ● Given that women often gather resources from ularly good managers and qualified imple- PAs, their participation in planning and imple- m e n t o r s . menting projects is necessary. ● NGOs and government organizations must 2.6. Financial Resources make a concerted effort to increase public ● Government expenditure is inadequate for the awareness of the importance of biodiversity. preparation of management plans, acquisition The acceptance of protection often depends of lands, capital expenditure, protection activi- on placing sufficient economic value on natur- ties, training of new cadres and maintenance al resources and on demonstrating that such of assets. areas bring positive benefits to the indigenous ● If satisfactory levels are to be achieved, a ten- population. For example: fold increase is necessary (according to a ● Widespread opposition from NGOs helped to World Bank estimate). avert the proposed routing of the Indus ● Sustainability of investments must be insured Highway through the Kirthar NP in Pakistan in through domestic resource mobilization. 1991. ● Although billions of dollars are generated from ● Impact assessment of the irrigation project in PAs through tourism, they are not ploughed Nepal's Chitwan NP led to its being aban- back into the PAs. doned. ● The institutional capacity to manage finances ● In India the Rajasthan government granted needs to developed. about 300 mining licences in the Sariska sanctuary (1986-1992), encouraging thou- 2.7 Political Commitment sands of people, who had initially been paid ● Political support for conservation is often limit- compensation to leave, to return to their ed. Consequently institutions lack the neces- l a n d . sary authority to enforce pertinent legislation, ● In Sagarmatha NP, a World Heritage Site, the which often lowers their morale. initial hostility of local people was converted ● Political commitment to the cause of conserva- into strong support through economic incen- tion varies greatly, e.g. in Bhutan state expen- tives such as employment in tourism-related diture on PAs is only 0.2%.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 55 2.8 International Cooperation ● Sub-regional cooperation on common issues ● Membership in international conventions and should be sought. treaties concerning biodiversity conservation is ● Recommendations of conferences, seminars, relatively low. studies and agreements should be translated ● Participation of South Asian countries in inter- into action. Some of the main international national conservation efforts is low. conventions and guideline documents are: ● Mobilization of financial resources for interna- - World Conservation Strategy tional activities is slow. - National Conservation Strategies ● It is important that new channels for interna- - Caring for the Earth tional assistance are opened. - Convention on Biodiversity ● International organizations such as the - Biodiversity Action Plan World Bank can assist in designing projects, - CITES demonstrating new approaches for the modi- - Ramsar Convention fication of policies and by reconciling the - Bonn Convention needs of local people with conservation - Framework Convention on Climate Change objectives, help to mobilize domestic - Agenda 21 r e s o u r c e s . ● Other institutions such as UNEP, MAB, World ● Existing institutions such SACEP should be uti- Heritage Convention, and ESCAP should also lized. be utilised. ● International cooperation is simpler when the ● The activities of FAO, ESCAP, UNEP, ITTO PAs are situated along borders. etc. need to be coordinated.

56 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Future Issues and Challenges for Marine Protected Areas in South Asia

M. W. Ranjith N. De Silva Fisheries Station, Muara, Brunei Darussalam

1. In t r o d u c t i o n south-east Asia and Sri Lanka, I may be able to give The realization of the need to establish Marine you more than just a cursory overview which Protected Areas in South Asia to provide safe should, I hope, prove thought provoking. havens for targeted marine organisms, sea birds The specialized nature of the environment in and critical marine habitats, is more than half a most MPAs requires a different approach to their century old. Although the basic concept has not management as compared to protected land areas. changed since then, varied terminology has devel- Baker's (1983) remarks pertaining to Marine Parks oped to describe the various approaches to achiev- are applicable to many MPAs as well. For exam- ing this goal over the years. Terms such as 'rational ple, he has stated that access to National Parks on management' and 'sustainable management' had land is often restricted by the nature of the terrain; their hey day in the 1980s, and we now talk main- it can also be controlled through the use of fences, ly of 'integrated management' and 'special area roads and gates. Access to a Marine Park, on the management' (SAM). other hand, is often limited by weather and its dis- Despite these officious phrases, very little tance from the land. Furthermore, once within the progress has actually been made in realizing the boundaries of a Marine Park, movement is con- true goals of MPAs. There have been several controlled with more difficulty than on land where ferences, congresses, symposia and seminars to roads, paths, fences and other obstacles can be highlight the need to establish and improve the sta- used to limit movement. Problems are further com- tus of MPAs in South Asia and elsewhere. The pounded by the fact that the environment in a MPA Symposium on Endangered Marine Animals and is much more susceptible to activities such as land Marine Parks held in Cochin, India in 1985 was a clearance and discharge of effluents than the envi- milestone in this direction. At this symposium De ronment in National Parks on land. Any drastic Silva (1985a) stated that "although at many of changes, particularly underwater, that might pass these international gatherings, the need for rational undetected can also impact negatively on a MPA management of coral reefs has been stressed, the e n v i r o n m e n t . coral reef management and conservation pro- I have to provide an insight not only into grammes of many developing countries of the Indo- some of the existing constraints to optimal func- Pacific region have yet to receive the enthusiastic tioning of MPAs but some of their future chal- support of their governments". A decade later this lenges as well. I will deal with the following statement still holds true, not only for coral reefs but i s s u e s : for MPAs in general. This is in spite of the vast sums ● The past, the present and the future of the of money and the enormous number of scientific Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary in Sri Lanka. papers that have been written on the subject since ● The need to resolve conflicts between various the Cochin symposium. interests. Before tackling the subject of this paper, we ● Planned management as opposed to manage- need to have an understanding of the strengths and ment by crises. weaknesses of the past as well as of the present. ● Enhancement of MPA buffer zones as alternate Although time constraints do not allow me to go employment sites. into specifics for each country, I would like to quote ● Positive and negative impacts of tourism. some examples, particularly from Sri Lanka, to illus- ● National and regional inter-agency cooperation. trate the points I propose to highlight. Given my ● Use of mass media for formal/non-formal long association with the MPA programmes of e d u c a t i o n .

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 57 2 . The Hikkaduwa Marine De Silva and Rajasuriya (1985) proposed that S a n c t u a r y the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary with redefined De Silva (1985b) has already examined in detail boundaries and without the use of buoys should be the history of marine sanctuaries and reserves in Sri administered as a multiple use marine park, zoned Lanka including that of the Hikkaduwa Marine for different activities. They proposed that it be Sanctuary up to 1985. However, it is necessary to divided into the following three zones: refer once again to the latter's historical back- ● General Use Zone 'A', where the following ground in order to obtain an idea of the trials and activities would be forbidden: tribulations that beset one of the most talked about – Use of anchors and anchor chains. MPAs in Sri Lanka. Its case is typical of many other – Stepping and walking on corals. similar MPAs in South Asia. – Removal of fish, corals and other marine The first MPAs declared in Sri Lanka were per- organisms without a permit. haps the Ambalangoda/Hikkaduwa Rocky Islets – Use of glass bottom boats. which were declared sanctuaries under the Fauna ● General Use Zone 'B', where the following and Flora Protection Ordinance by Gazette No. activities would be forbidden: 8675 of October 25, 1940. The purpose of the – Removal of fish and other reef organisms sanctuaries, which were limited to the land bound- without a permit. aries of the islets, was to offer protection to the – Stepping, walking and anchoring of seabirds nesting there. According to De Silva boats on corals and coral reefs. (1987): "many people mistakenly believed that ● Research Zone: This area has some relatively these sanctuary regulations were applicable to the undisturbed coral reefs and has not been sub- marine environment and the coral reefs of jected to high visitor pressure because of Hikkaduwa as well". In 1961 regulations were pro- strong currents, especially during tidal mulgated under the Fisheries Ordinance (section 26 changes. The following activities were N O T in Gazette No. 12304 of March 3, 1961) to pre- recommended here: vent the removal of any fish from a 110-acre area – The entry of any boats into the lagoon of the sea, including the coral reefs, at Hikkaduwa, reef area of this zone except with a permit issued by the Director Fisheries – The use of diving and snorkelling gear or an officer authorized by the Director. The permit by unauthorized persons specified the species of fish that could be removed Some of the immediate steps recommended by from the area and the type of gear to be used. The De Silva and Rajasuriya (1985) to prevent the seaward boundary within the territorial limits of the degradation of the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary Hikkaduwa Town Council was defined by the plac- included: ing of two buoys. Although two attempts — in the ● Publicizing the Hikkaduwa Sanctuary as an early 1960s and then in 1966 — were made to area from which no marine organisms, secure the buoys in position, they were subsequent- whether dead or alive, could be removed. This ly lost during the monsoon season and not was aimed primarily at preventing the removal replaced. of coral, shells and ornamental fish. It was rec- In 1979 the same 110-acre area with the sea- ommended, however, that traditional fisher- ward boundary defined once again by the place- men fishing with a permit be excluded from ment of two buoys, was declared the Hikkaduwa this bar. Marine Sanctuary under section 2(2) of the Fauna ● Removing the sand from the so called Fisheries and Flora Protection Ordinance (Chapter 469), as Harbour and providing other amenities to amended by Act No. 44 of 1964 and Act No.1 of enable the shifting of the fishing boats anchor- 1970 (Gazette No. 37 of May 18, 1979). As the ing within the reef lagoon at the heart of the buoys, which had proved to be a problem in the Marine Sanctuary to the 'Fisheries Harbour' past, had not been placed in position to define the lying outside it. limits of the newly declared Marine Sanctuary, any ● Controlling the number of glass bottom boats attempt to enforce regulations could be declared through registration and issue of permits. legally questionable — particularly if directed ● Publicizing Sections 14, 28, and 42 of the against the traditional fishermen who had obtained Coast Conservation Act, 57 of 1981 which permits to fish as required by the above quoted make it an offense to deposit waste or other Fisheries Ordinance. material from outfalls by vessels or by other

58 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION means and the removal of coral, shells, natural ● The glass bottom boats also damage the coral vegetation etc. from the coastal zone as by direct impact while the boatmen compound defined by the Act. The contravention of these the damage by stepping on the coral to keep regulations renders a person liable in the first the boat steady for on board passengers to instance to: a fine of up to Rs. 25,000 and/or get a closer look. Such damage is frequent confiscation of the vessel, craft, boat or vehi- when the water visibility is low, particularly cle used in the commission of the offense. during the monsoon season. At present the These recommendations of De Silva and maximum number of glass bottom boats Rajasuriya were ratified by the meeting of the allowed to operate in the sanctuary is 50. De Urban Development Authority (UDA) held on August Silva (1987) recommended a maximum of 22, 1985 to discuss Development Projects of only five in the General Use Zone 'A' at any Hikkaduwa. The Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary was one time and not more than 10 in the General the subject of discussion at several UDA meetings Use Zone 'B'. on Development Projects of Fisheries and Aquatic ● Discharge of septic tank and other wastes by Resources from 1986 to 1990. However, the long large and small hotels. There have been sever- awaited breakthrough for the Hikkaduwa Marine al instances where hotels have reportedly emp- Sanctuary came in 1991 with the appointment of a tied septic tank effluent into the reef lagoon by committee by the Parliamentary Consultative using pumps. Committee of the Ministry of Tourism and Rural ● Authorities have failed to enforce regulations Industries under the chairmanship of the Minister for on influential hotels either due to political or Lands, Irrigation and Mahaweli Development for other considerations while attempting to the purpose of discussing the implementation of the enforce legally questionable regulations on proposals by De Silva and Rajasuriya (1985). At a others. meeting of this committee held on December 17, ● Sedimentation. 1991 the Department of Wildlife Conservation was Most of the present problems of the clearly identified as the agency responsible for the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary can be attributed to development of the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary poor planning prior to the tourist boom in the under the Hikkaduwa Special Area Management 1970s and to the introduction of mechanized fish- Project "in collaboration with the Coastal Resources ing boats and glass bottom boats into the area. Management Project, NAREPP and National In an effort to stem the damage, the Department Aquatic Resources". of Wildlife Conservation has put up several hoard- At present, the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary ings, some extremely colourful and eye-catching, at Development Committee meets on a quarterly basis strategic locations in order to create awareness to monitor the implementation of programme activi- about the Marine Sanctuary. Several Park Rangers ties. A more action-oriented working group was are being trained in monitoring the coral reefs and formed in January 1994, made up of a few select- enforcing regulations. Five volunteer guards have ed members of the Sanctuary Committee, to review also been appointed (Nakatani et al., 1994). The and guide the Special Area Management (SAM) SAM project has also contributed towards creating plan as it evolves (Nakatani et al., 1994). awareness of the need for sustainable management Although a concerted effort is now being of the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary among the vari- made to establish authority and manage the ous user groups such as hoteliers, glass bottom boat Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary on the lines of a mul- operators, fishermen etc. tiple use Marine Park, the degradation of the coral The key to protecting the coral reefs in the reefs continues as a result of the following factors: Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary lies in removing all ● The increasing numbers of mechanized fishing the mechanized boats (both fishing and glass bot- boats using the reef lagoon as a safe anchor- tom) from the lagoon area and shifting their anchoring point inflict physical damage on the age to the Fisheries Harbour. This harbour was set corals. These also contaminate the area with up by the Irrigation Department to prevent the silt- spilt oil and oily wastes. Rajasuriya (1992 ing of the mouth of the Hikkaduwa River and needs and 1994) has recorded a decrease of live remodeling to be put into use as a fisheries har- coral cover in areas where the fishing boats bour. Close monitoring of the movements of the are anchored — from 21.7 % in 1992 to glass bottom boats is necessary to ensure that they 13.2% in 1994. do not get too close to the live coral and damage

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 59 them. Good intentions notwithstanding, there The following statements of De Silva (1985a), still appears to have been little or no enforcement at the valid almost ten years later, need to be given seri- ground level in containing the negative aspects of ous consideration with reference to MPAs. glass bottom boat operations as observed by myself "There is a need to convince govern- as recently as Sunday September 11, 1994. ments of many developing countries of Removal of ornamental fish from the sanctuary has, the value and vulnerability of their coral however, not been reported for some time. The reef ecosystems. There is also a need to removal of coral and shells by souvenir hunters has develop expertise not only to manage also been minimized. coral reefs but also to obtain estimates of The Research Zone designated in the zoning their value in quantitative terms. It is not plan of the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary by De sufficient for coral reef scientists to under- Silva and Rajasuriya (1985) remains, to date, an stand the problems of coral reefs alone. area of low visitor pressure and includes some They need to understand the problems of areas of good coral cover. Enhancement of this the policy makers and administrators as area by coral transplanting and introduction of resi- well. This will necessitate close collabora- dent fish varieties such as clownfish and associated tion between scientists and policy makers sea anemones, might provide a useful seed source to formulate plans which are scientifically in preparation for similar enhancement of the and politically acceptable for managing lagoon reef area once the fishing and other boats coral reefs. Such plans might not com- are translocated to the Fisheries Harbour whose pletely fulfill the aspirations of the scien- development should be a top priority. Other prob- tists but they stand a better chance of lems requiring immediate attention are: being implemented than the more scientif- ● The disposal of oily wastes from mechanized ic but politically suicidal ones, which boats. without doubt will be doomed to collect ● The containment of discharges, both septic dust on an administrator's shelf or join tank effluent and other discharges from hotels many others as scientific works, but and restaurants. remain unimplemented." ● Strict enforcement of the Coast Conservation Inter-department/agency conflicts within govern- Act 57 of 1981 without exceptions, until such ment departments as well as within aid or funding time as the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary has agencies together with uncoordinated effort have its own regulations. played a part in stymying efforts at MPA manage- The Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary embodies ment. These conflicts must be resolved. In the best all the problems and conflicts of interest that beset interest of the MPAs they must be placed before self- MPAs in South Asia e.g. fisheries versus conserva- interest if the MPA programmes are to succeed — not tion and tourism versus conservation. A classic only on paper, but in practice as well. example of management by crisis, the sanctuary is also an illustrative example of the dangers of 4 . Planned Management as neglecting preplanning prior to development. Opposed to Management 3 . The Need to Re s o l v e by Crisis Conflicts between Va r i o u s The first attempts at managing Hikkaduwa's coral reefs was a result of pressure by influential personali- I n t e r e s t s ties and foreign visitors who pointed out the degrada- Conflicts of political, inter-department/agency and tion of the reefs from the use of seines and other scientific interests have been one of the major rea- kinds of fishing nets as well as due to spear fishing sons for the non-implementation of management and to collection of ornamental fish. This led to the plans for MPAs in the past. This is evidenced by the declaration of a 110-acre area as a fishery Protected many proposals for MPAs forwarded for approval Area in 1961. The tourist boom in the early 1970s by various government and non-governmental agen- coupled with the introduction of mechanized fishing cies that have yet to be taken up for discussion at boats in the area, resulted in the further degradation political and decision-making levels. of the coral reefs and led to the hasty declaration of The resolution of such conflicts presents a the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary in 1979. Although major challenge for MPA development in the future. declared a marine sanctuary, no action was taken

60 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION until several studies were conducted by De Silva and needed foreign exchange. Multiple use MPAs with Rajasuriya (1985) and again by De Silva (1987) recreational and educational components are under the National Aquatic Resources Agency, and bound to be the target of ecotourism in the future, a management plan was formulated for the marine and, if properly planned, an MPA could serve not sanctuary to be administered as a multiple use only as a useful foreign exchange earner but also marine park. This plan sought the views of the as a source of creating awareness on the sustain- Member of Parliament for the area who released Rs. able use of marine areas. 50,000 from his development funds for the studies to Unplanned ecotourism can, however, lead to be conducted. The plan took into consideration the the irreversible degradation of an ecosystem which ways and means of improving marine environment was itself a key factor in attracting tourists. Another without drastically changing the lifestyles of the peo- danger is that the long term basic objectives of MPAs ple dependent on the area for their livelihood. It was might be compromised for quick financial returns. a compromise plan compelled to accept the The Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary is a case in point. unplanned development of hotels, glass bottom boat The numerous unplanned hotels, some built right into activities and heavy visitor pressure. the sea, the rapid increase in the number of glass Had foresight dictated the development of a bottom boats, the emptying of septic tanks into the proper management plan for Hikkaduwa prior to sanctuary by hotels, the physical changes to the the tourist boom and the introduction of the mecha- beach by illegal construction — are but a few exam- nized fishing and glass bottom boats, the sanctuary ples of the negative impacts of tourism on an MPA. may have ranked as one of the best, most easily With the inevitability of tourism becoming a accessible near-shore coral reef based MPAs of major income earner for many South Asian coun- South Asia — if not Asia. tries in the future, MPAs will be subjected to immense pressure to support ecotourism. Voysey 5 . Enhancement of MPA Buffer (1994) points out, for instance, that the Sundarbans Zones as Alternative Wildlife Sanctuary in Bangladesh is likely to become more accessible in future as the govern- Employment Sites ment's National Tourism Policy identifies the forest One of the critical dilemmas and challenges facing as a priority area for development with safari tours the MPAs of South Asia and other developing areas and the construction of tree top lodges. of the world is the provision of alternative employ- Although MPAs can undoubtedly sustain well- ment for traditional fishermen and their families who planned ecotourism with carefully organized visitor have been adversely affected by the establishment of carrying capacities, excesses in carrying capacity MPAs. A sound education which would open up new as well as over-development can be detrimental avenues of employment to the younger generations is both to ecotourism and to the ecosystem concerned. one of the best long term options available to them. Although attractive in theory, there could be practical 7 . National, Regional and difficulties in providing the necessary facilities for a International Agency proper education in some cases. Experience also indicates that relocation and a change in employ- C o o p e r a t i o n ment is not the preferred option by the elderly. One of the major constraints to the proper manage- Enhancement of MPA buffer zones or selected areas ment of MPAs in many countries is the overlapping within a MPA by artificial reefs or similar ecosystem of responsibilities of various government depart- and provision of alternate sites for employment with- ments and agencies. The Hikkaduwa Marine out a radical change of lifestyle is a more viable Sanctuary offers a good example of this shortcom- alternative. Replanting of degraded mangrove areas ing. While the overall authority for the sanctuary in MPAs could also serve a similar purpose. within its defined boundaries rests with the Department of Wildlife Conservation, the same 6 . Positive and Negative area has been declared a Fishery Protected Area under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Fisheries Impacts of To u r i s m and Aquatic Resources which issues permits for Recent evidence indicates an upsurge of tourism, in catching targeted fish species using specific gear. particular ecotourism, in South and south-east Asia. The Urban Development Authority and the Coast The positive effect of tourism is that it attracts much Conservation Department are also key players in

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 61 the area. The only available expertise in coral reef publications rather than for improving the sta- management, however, is at the National Aquatic tus of the MPAs. Resources Agency. ● A preference for management by crisis rather Foreign aid agencies provide the funding for than preplanned management. research and development purposes pertaining to ● Development pressures for short term, non-sus- MPAs through various government agencies. There tainable economic benefits. is a dire need to coordinate not only foreign fund- Many of the present constraints to MPA devel- ing but also the various activities of MPAs such as opment and management will continue into the the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary. De Silva (1987) future unless immediate remedial measures are recommended "the declaration of the Hikkaduwa taken. Recommendations at meetings such as this Marine Park and the establishment of an authority one may increase awareness among those present, for its management". The establishment of such an but would rarely be taken up at top decision-mak- authority linked to the Department of Wildlife ing national levels unless packaged in a proposal Conservation may resolve some of the existing man- format ready for a decision by those in authority. At agement constraints and conflicts. Once estab- a regional level it is best to identify a pilot MPA for lished, this authority would be expected to coordi- each country and make a concerted effort with the nate funding and research so as to prevent duplica- assistance of external funding, organizations and tion of effort and ensure the proper use of external expertise to manage the identified area as a model funds and the available skilled manpower. MPA. Immediate steps should be taken by South Asian countries to plan for future tourism pressure 8 . Use of Mass Media for — something which is bound to become a major Formal and Non-Formal issue. Enhancement of MPA buffer zones and even degraded areas within MPAs as alternative employ- E d u c a t i o n ment sites to reduce pressure on coral reefs and Awareness of the importance of MPAs in South other ecosystems should be considered. A mecha- Asia has generally tended to lag behind that of PAs nism needs to be established to coordinate the on land, primarily because more emphasis had efforts of various funding agencies to prevent dupli- been placed on what was familiar rather than other- cation of effort and concentrate on ground level wise. Apart from mangroves, very little attention implementation rather than on theoretical, academ- had been hitherto given to wetlands, seagrass ic and report producing exercises. beds, coral reefs and other coastal marine ecosystems. Awareness of MPAs should be urgently under- Re f e r e n c e s taken and the role they play in the health of the Baker, J. 1983. A Model for Marine Park coastal area must be publicized. For this purpose, Development — The Great Barrier Reef maximum use of the mass media, particularly elec- Marine Park Authority. Preprint, XV Pacific tronic, can be employed. International agencies Science Congress, Dunedin, New Zealand. should support the development of educational and D e Silva, M.W.R.N. 1985a. A Strategy For the informative films for television and school use. Rational Management of Coral Reefs. In Proceeding of Symposium on Endangered 9 . C o n c l u s i o n s Marine Animals and Marine Parks, 1: 4 4 0 - 4 4 7 . Marine Biological Association of India, Cochin. Some of the major constraints to the establishment De Silva, M.W.R.N. 1985b. Status of Coral Reefs and proper management of MPAs in South Asia are: of Sri Lanka. In Proceedings of the 5th ● The inability to convince the top policy and International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti, decision makers of the need for, and the value 6 : 5 1 5 - 5 1 8 . of, MPAs. De Silva, M.W.R.N. and Rajasuriya, A. 1985. ● Insufficient expertise to develop practical man- Management Plans for the Proposed Marine agement plans. Park at Hikkaduwa. Paper presented at the ● A lack of skilled manpower, equipment and 41st Annual Session of the Sri Lanka funding to manage and enforce Marine Association for the Advancement of Science, Protected Area regulations. 9-13 December, 1985. ● The bulk of available foreign funding is used De Silva, M.W.R.N. 1987. Effects of the Tourist for gathering information for reports and other Industry on Coral Reefs at Hikkaduwa, Sri

62 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION L a n k a . Project Report to the International Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary. N a t i o n a l Development Research Centre and National Aquatic Resources Agency, Colombo, Sri Aquatic Resources Agency, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 3 pp. L a n k a . Rajasuriya, A. 1994. Report on the Present Status Nakatani, K., Rajasuriya, A., Premaratne, A. and of the Coral Reefs in the Hikkaduwa Marine White, A. 1994. The Coastal Environmental Sanctuary. National Aquatic Resources Profile of Hikkaduwa, Sri Lanka. C o a s t a l Agency and the Coastal Resources Resources Management Project, Colombo, Management Project, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka. 70 pp. Voysey, Phil, 1994. In Silver Kris — S i n g a p o r e Rajasuriya, A. 1992. Preliminary Report on the Airlines inflight magazine, September 1994. Present Status of the Coral Reef at pp 49-54.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 63 64 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Application of the World Heritage Convention and the Biosphere Reserve Concept in South Asia

N. Ishwaran UNESCO, Jakarta, Indonesia

World Heritage sites and biosphere reserves are 1. Overview of the Current UNESCO's specific contribution to the international State of Implementation of Protected Areas system. Cultural and natural World the World Heritage Heritage sites are identified, nominated and inscribed in UNESCO's World Heritage List as part Convention and the Concept of UNESCO's ongoing effort to implement the of Biosphere Reserves in World Heritage Convention. Biosphere reserves South Asia have been set up and developed into an international 'network' in order to demonstrate the applica- The World Heritage Convention (i.e. the tions of the Biosphere Reserve Concept, under Convention for the Protection of the World's UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme. Cultural and Natural Heritage) was adopted by The South Asian region (Bangladesh, Bhutan, UNESCO's General Conference in 1972. It arose India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) is out of the merger of two separate initiatives, one home to more than a billion people and contains cul- for the protection of the world's cultural heritage tures and civilizations dating back almost 5,000 initiated by UNESCO, and the other, promoted by years. Several religious traditions in this region IUCN, to protect natural areas of universal signifi- preach an inherent compassion and concern cance. As the only international Convention that towards all forms of life, and in historical times these simultaneously provides for the protection of cultur- had a profound influence on encouraging social al and natural heritage sites, it provides unique practices which guarded against the over-exploita- opportunities for strengthening the management of tion of natural resources. These restraining religious several PA categories. As of April 1994, the influences and/or tradition-based resource-use prac- Convention has been ratified by 137 countries, tices have been breached in recent decades due to including all the countries of South Asia, except the concomitant increase in population and in rural Bhutan. Of the 411 sites throughout the world, poverty. The majority of South Asia's population presently recognized as World Heritage sites, 307 lives in rural areas and depends on land and biolog- are cultural, 88 natural and 16 mixed. In South ical resources to better its economic conditions. This Asia, the current status of the implementation of the pressure, given the increasing demands of the rural Convention (with the emphasis on natural heritage) poor for land and biological resources, will continue is as follows: to be the major challenge to the long-term survival of I n d i a : Kaziranga, Manas, Keoladeo, PAs in South Asia. Sunderbans and Nada Devi are recognized as nat- UNESCO, while actively engaged in initiating ural World Heritage sites. Silent Valley National and participating in global forums which search for Park was nominated in 1990 but the decision new equations in balancing the conservation and regarding its inclusion in the World Heritage List development needs of people and societies, will tar- was deferred by the committee pending the Indian get most of its operations for testing new principles Government's revision of the nominated area's and improving PA management practice in World boundary to include the adjacent Karimpuzha Heritage sites and biosphere reserves. This article Valley National Park and the Nilgiri Thar Wildlife examines the manner in which UNESCO's work Sanctuary, and the completion of legal measures to with regard to these two PA categories can meet establish the Karimpuzha Valley National Park and the needs as well as benefit from opportunities in upgrade the legal status of the Nilgiri Thar wildlife the South Asian region. Sanctuary.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 65 India also has 16 cultural heritage sites (e.g. As of 1993, the international list of biosphere Taj Mahal, Mahabalipuram, etc.) reserves has included 324 sites from 82 countries. International assistance from the World But the scope of the concept's application extends Heritage Fund has until now been directed largely far beyond the sites included in the UNESCO List. A towards supporting regional training courses in PA recent publication described 'promising reserves' management organized by the Wildlife Institute of for conserving tropical forests for the future using India in Dehra Dun. characteristics promoted by the three functions of Nepal: Royal Chitwan and Sagarmatha biosphere reserves i.e. conservation, logistics National Parks; one cultural site (Kathmandu Valley). (defined as research, training, environmental edu- Royal Chitwan and Sagarmatha have both cation and monitoring — Batisse, 1986) and devel- received support for specific site-management pro- opment of local economies and people. These char- jects from the World Heritage Fund. acteristics include the use of scientific research in Sri Lanka: Sinharaja. management decisions and local community owner- Six cultural sites (some of them e.g. Sigiriya ship of and/or participation in the management of and Polonnaruwa include 'national' wildlife sanctu- reserves etc. The listed reserves included biosphere aries). reserves from the UNESCO List, e.g. Sian Ka'an Sinharaja has received some support from the (Mexico) as well as others (community baboon World Heritage Fund for the organization of train- reserve of Belize; see Gradwohl and Greenberg, ing activities and field excursions during internation- 1988). In South Asia the current status of the imple- al seminars. mentation of the Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves Bangladesh: Has two cultural sites but no (UNESCO, 1984; derived from the first natural sites; when the Sunderbans of India was International Symposium on Biosphere Reserves, in included in the World Heritage List, the World Minsk, USSR, in 1983) is as follows: Heritage Committee urged the government of Sri Lanka: International BRs: Sinharaja and Bangladesh to nominate its part of the Sunderbans Hurulu. Several national MAB Reserves. for inclusion in the World Heritage List. Pakistan: International BR: Lal Sohanra NP. Pakistan: A meeting to prepare the nomina- India: National BRs: Nilgiri, Nanda Devi, tion dossier for the Karakorum National Park, with North Island of the Andamans, Gulf of Mannar, the support of the World Heritage Fund, was held Kaziranga, Sunderbans, Thar Desert, Kanha, on 21-23 September 1994. Mokrek (Tura Range) Namdapha, Valley of Flowers To date there are no World Heritage sites in the (Uttarkhand) and Mannas (Khushoo, 1984) Maldives; ratification of the Convention by Bhutan is Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and the Maldives aw a i t e d . have no International BRs and the number of nation- Potential transborder sites which may qualify for al BRs is not certain; Nepal is, however, well known World Heritage status: Sunderbans for its Annapurna Conservation and Development (India/Bangladesh), Manas (India/Bhutan), Royal Project whose approach is similar to that promoted Chitwan/Udaipur and Valmiki Nagar (Nepal/India), by the biosphere reserve concept. Khunjerab/Taxkorgan (Pakistan/China) and Sagarmatha/Proposed site (Nepal/China) (IUCN, 2. World Heritage Sites and 19 9 2 ) . Biosphere Reserves: Past, Since its adoption in 1974 the concept of biosphere reserves has evolved and found widespread Present and Future application in the following: Negotiations and discussions for the drafting of the (1) PA management aimed at demonstrating the World Heritage Convention (a legal instrument) use of scientific research, training, environ- and the concept of biosphere reserves (a strategic mental education and monitoring to link the instrument) in the late 1960s and early 1970s took conservation of ecosystems, genetic resources place concurrently with the preparations for the and socio-economic development of local peo- Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment ple and economies. in 1972. It was a time when the international com- (2) As a tool (the 'cluster biosphere reserve munity was beginning to question the arbitrary divi- model') for designing and managing regional sion between our notions of 'nature' and 'culture' as integrated conservation and development well as between 'conservation' and 'development'. areas (through projects). The impetus for such a re-evaluation of the conven-

66 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION tional understanding of these notions arose from Stockholm World Conference on Human nearly two decades of attempts to apply them in Environment, 1972.... I feel even the term developing countries in the same way as they had 'Biosphere Reserve' is incorrect. The manage- been practised in developed countries. ment proposed is Utopian — an unknown ulti- As observed by Batisse (1993), the 1968 mate in the Indian context. The concept is like- UNESCO Conference on Rational Use and ly to end up in a compromise, in favour of Conservation of the Resources of the Biosphere man, a retrograde step in nature conserva- implicitly dealt with issues which are now being tion." (Sankhala, 1986) raised under the rubric of 'sustainable develop- The fear that it may be impossible to harmo- ment'. A biosphere reserve has to deal with the fol- nize the tensions between the practice of nature lowing issues which are major elements of the cur- conservation and sustainable development of natur- rent environment-development debate: al resources can still be heard among PA managers ● Protection of ecosystems and the biodiversity who are struggling to enforce and ensure the invio- they contain (including genetic resources). lability of PA boundaries in densely populated ● Research and monitoring of ecological and South Asian countries. Nevertheless, it appears that global change (including climatic, hydrologic the willingness to attempt the experiment has and edaphic change). become a necessary condition for government sup- ● Experimentation and implementation of vari- port and/or international assistance to PAs in many ous forms of sustainable development for local countries of the world. people. Even the operations of the World Heritage ● Environmental education and awareness, for Convention have, in recent years, been impacted both local people and visitors. by the tensions inherent in our efforts to achieve a In a PA designated a biosphere reserve, the harmonious integration between conservation and delineation of the site into core, buffer and transi- development. One of the criteria defining natural tion zones is expected to facilitate the managemen- heritage in the 'Operational Guidelines for the t's efforts to link conservation of ecosystems and Implementation of the World Heritage Convention', genetic resources in the core zone with initiatives to up to 1992, included a reference to sites which promote development of local economies and peo- demonstrate a harmonious interaction between ple in buffer and transition zones. This need for link- man's natural and cultural environment. The experts ing a PA's goal of biodiversity conservation with its who revised the natural heritage criteria in com- role in facilitating socio-economic development of memoration of the Convention's 20th anniversary in local economies and people, has begun to have a 1992, found that this specific reference to the com- broader appeal and acceptance since the publica- bined influence of man and nature was incompati- tion of the Report of the World Commission on ble with the definition of natural heritage in the Environment and Development (1987) and the glob- Convention itself (Mishra and Ishwaran, 1992). al significance of the UN Conference on The current set of natural heritage criteria (see Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio Box 1) assign World Heritage status only to those de Janeiro in 1992. However, the assumption that natural areas which have an outstanding universal areas within and around PAs could be the focus of significance from the geological, ecological, biolog- sustainable development initiatives has always been ical and aesthetic points of view. Yet, the met with a good deal of skepticism as indicated by Convention has shown itself a versatile instrument in the following quotes: the recognition of the 'outstanding universal signifi- ● "National parks represent a widely accepted cance' of harmonious landscapes, where resource form of land use, providing conservation, recre- use and conservation has been harmonized by pre- ational and educational services. To suggest vailing traditions and customs that have evolved in that these parks should be 'exploited' in some full recognition of location-specific environmental different form to provide for 'sustainable devel- constraints. opment' is tantamount to heresy and has been The new criterion for cultural landscapes (see so since the Yosemite National Park Hetch- Box 2) recognizes 'a continuing landscape' as 'one Hetchy dispute of 1913." (Eidsvik, 1984). which retains an active social role in contemporary ● "The theory of biosphere reserves is said to society closely associated with the traditional way have originated at the headquarters of of life, and in which the evolutionary process is still UNESCO, Paris, probably as a prelude to the in progress. At the same time it exhibits significant

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 67 Box 1. Natural Heritage Criteria other indigenous people of the Cordilleras (Northern Philippines). This nomination will be sub- A natural heritage property, which is submitted mitted for consideration to the World Heritage for inclusion in the World Heritage List will be Committee in 1995, and poses legislative and man- considered to be of outstanding universal value agement challenges which, if resolved satisfactorily, for the purpose of the Convention when the com- could provide valuable insights for implementing mittee finds that it meets one or more of the fol- sustainable development strategies. The Cordilleras lowing criteria and fulfills the conditions of region experiences many of the demographic and integrity set out below. Sites nominated should socio-economic trends characteristic of rural areas therefore: in less developed countries. Yet the Ifuago and ● Be outstanding examples representing major stages of the earth's history, including the Box 2. Cultural Landscape Categories record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of land Cultural landscapes fall into three main forms, or significant geomorphic or physio- categories: graphic features; or ● The most easily identifiable is the clearly ● Be outstanding examples representing signif- defined landscape designed and created icant ongoing ecological and biological intentionally by man. This embraces garden processes in the evolution and development and parkland landscapes constructed for of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and aesthetic reasons which are often (but not marine ecosystems and communities of always) associated with religious or other plants and animals; or monumental buildings and ensembles. ● Contain superlative natural phenomena or ● The second category is the organically areas of exceptional natural beauty and evolved landscape. This results from an ini- aesthetic importance; or tial social, economic, administrative, and/or ● Contain the most important and significant religious imperative which has developed its natural habitats for in-situ conservation of present form by association with and in biological diversity, including those contain- response to its natural environment. Such ing threatened species of outstanding univer- landscapes reflect that process of evolution sal value from the point of view of science in their form and component features. They or conservation. fall into two sub-categories: - a relic (or fossil) landscape is one in material evidence of its evolution over time' which an evolutionary process came to (UNESCO, 1994). an end at some time in the past, either The first site to be recognized, in December abruptly or over a period of time. Its 1993, as a 'cultural landscape' in UNESCO's World significant distinguishing features are, Heritage List was New Zealand's Tongariro National however, still visible in material form. Park, a spiritual home to the Maoris. Tongariro had - a continuing landscape is one which already been recognized in 1990 as a natural retains an active social role in contem- World Heritage site but in 1993 the committee was porary society closely associated with requested by the New Zealand government to recon- the traditional way of life, and in sider the nomination in the light of Tongariro fulfilling which the evolutionary process is still the criterion for cultural landscapes. continuing. At the same time it exhibits Australia's Uluru National Park, which com- significant material evidence of its evo- prises traditional lands of resident Aboriginal popu- lution over time. lations who have given the land on a 99-year lease ● The final category is the associative cultural to the Australian National Park Service for manag- landscape. The inclusion of such landscapes ing it in harmony with their traditional lifestyles, on the World Heritage List is justifiable by was to be considered according to the same criteri- virtue of the powerful religious, artistic or on for cultural landscapes during 1994. cultural associations of the natural element An extremely interesting nomination for cultur- rather than material cultural evidence, which al landscapes is shortly expected to come from the may be insignificant or even absent. Philippines; i.e., the rice terraces of the Ifuago and

68 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION other groups which are resident there seem to have teria and the conditions of integrity, although other deliberately retained terracing as a sustainable and zones, i.e. buffer zones and transitional zones, optimal land use practice for their tropical, high alti- would be important for the conservation of the bios- tude environment. The traditions of sowing, harvest- phere reserve in its totality." ing, transport of seeds and marketing are still in Some sites included in the World Heritage List place. However, the continuity of these practices is are, in fact, core zones of biosphere reserves: e.g. threatened by people abandoning their traditions to Sinharaja in Sri Lanka. find employment in other growing sectors, such as The challenge for UNESCO activities in South tourism. UNESCO and the Philippine government Asia with regard to the implementation of the will convene an international scientific symposium World Heritage Convention arises directly from the in late March 1995 on rice-terraced landscapes more important goals of a World Heritage Strategy with specific reference to tropical, high altitude drawn up in 1992 (Von Droste, 1992). These were: environments in Manila and the Cordilleras. The ● To establish a credible and universally repre- outcome of this meeting will have implications for sentative World Heritage List. the nomination of similar sites (many of whom could ● To protect, conserve and manage effectively fall under the IUCN PA category V — i.e. protected these irreplaceable sites, and landscapes; see Lucas 1992) in South Asia and ● To build public awareness and mobilize skills elsewhere. and resources for preventive and curative The fact that only the best, or the near pristine World Heritage work. natural areas could meet the recently revised natur- It is hoped that the new opportunities provided al heritage criteria does not ensure that such areas, by the cultural landscape criterion to identify areas once they are ascribed World Heritage status, will where sustainable resource use practices and their be immune to resource demands and pressures aris- associated traditions have survived the impacts of ing from areas outside their boundaries. Paragraph industrialization and modernization, will be exploit- 44 (b) (vi) in the 'Operational Guidelines for the ed by the South Asian countries who are party to the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention', Convention. The region also offers opportunities for in its definition of one of the conditions of integrity bilateral cooperation in the management of transbor- that natural sites nominated for World Heritage list- der PAs, at least some of which may meet World ing are required to meet, clearly highlights the need Heritage criteria. Managers of World Heritage sites for the site manager to recognize and mitigate pres- in South Asia should make use of the resources of sures arising from areas outside the boundaries of the World Heritage Fund. The fund, which at pre- the World Heritage site. This condition of integrity sent is worth approximately US$ 1.3 million per also demonstrates the conceptual link between nat- year for natural heritage sites, could be used to sup- ural World Heritage sites and biosphere reserves: plement national and other sources, particularly the "A site described in paragraph 44 (a) should expenses related to problem-oriented technical stud- have adequate long term legislative, regulatory or ies, urgent infrastructure requirements and staff train- institutional protection. The boundaries of the site ing which are all essential for effective site manage- should reflect spatial requirements of habitats, ment. In the long term, however, the objectives of species, processes or phenomena that provide the the Convention with regard to effective site manage- basis for its nomination for inscription on the World ment will also require that UNESCO and the World Heritage List. The boundaries should include suffi- Heritage Committee devise flexible procedures to cient areas immediately adjacent to the area of out- liaise with a broad range of government agencies standing universal value in order to protect the site's and non-government organizations which are active heritage values from the direct effects of human at the site level. In several South Asian countries, encroachment and the impact of resource use out- such as Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka, consider- side of the nominated area. The boundaries of the able decentralization has been achieved and grass nominated site may coincide with one or more exist- roots organizations dealing with conservation and ing or proposed PAs, such as National Parks or development are on the increase. In many cases biosphere reserves. While an existing or proposed they could be the optimal focal points for interven- PA may contain several management zones, only tion to ensure effective site management. some of those zones may satisfy criteria described The international dimension of the implementa- in paragraph 44 (1)… For example, in the case of tion of the Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves in a biosphere reserve, only the core may meet the cri- South Asia has been prominent only in sites such as

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 69 Sinharaja, Sri Lanka. The Ministry of Environment and Society. Contributions to the First and Forests in India coordinates a national bios- International Biosphere Reserve Congress, phere reserve programme and its experiments to Minsk, Byelorussia/USSR, Sept-Oct 1983, establish legislation and set up appropriate man- UNESCO, Paris. pp 73-80. agement regimes for specific sites could provide Gradwohl, J. and Greenberg, R. 1988. Saving the valuable lessons for other countries of the region. Tropical Forests. Earthscan, UK. The lack of legislative framework for biosphere Khoshoo, T.N. 1983. Biosphere Reserves: An reserves as a PA category is acknowledged and the Indian Approach. In Conservation, Science Second International Conference on Biosphere and Society. Contributions to the First Reserves, scheduled for 19-26 March 1995 in International Biosphere Reserve Congress, Seville, Spain, is expected to develop specific rec- Minsk, Byelorussia/USSR, Sept-Oct 1983, ommendations in this regard. UNESCO, Paris. pp 185-189. In UNESCO there is a greater awareness of Lucas, B.J. 1992. Protected Landscapes. I U C N other efforts which parallel those promoted by the Gland, Switzerland. biosphere reserve concept, whether they are in and Mishra, H. and Ishwaran, N. Summary and around PAs or increasingly, since UNCED and the Conclusions of the Workshop on the World adoption of Agenda 21, in integrated conservation Heritage Convention held during the IV and development projects. As part of a South-South World Congress on National Parks and Cooperative Programme, UNESCO is currently Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela, attempting to organize regional and international February 1992. In World Heritage, Twenty forums for discussing experiences in linking conser- Years Later. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. vation and development in and around biosphere pp 13-18. reserves and comparable areas mentioned above. Sankhala, K. 1986. Biosphere Reserves: A In the South Asian region, a number of integrated Confused Concept. Proceedings of the First conservation and development projects and pro- National (Indian) Symposium on Biosphere grammes are underway. Comparing and contrast- Reserves, Udagamandalam, October 1986. ing information and experience gained in such inte- Ministry of Environment and Forests, New grated programmes with that of the more successful Delhi, India. biosphere reserves could also provide lessons and UNESCO. 1984. Action Plan for Biosphere insights for the practice of sustainable development Reserves. Nature and Resources, 4:11-22. in South Asian countries. UNESCO, Paris. UNESCO. 1994. Operational Guidelines for the References Implementation of the World Heritage Batisse, M. 1986. Developing and Focusing on the C o n v e n t i o n. World Heritage Centre, Biosphere Reserve Concept. Nature and UNESCO, Paris. R e s o u r c e s, 9:101-111. UNESCO, Paris. Von Droste, B. 1992. Strategic Perspectives on the Batisse, M. 1993. Biosphere Reserves: An World Heritage Convention. Nature and Overview. Nature and Resources, 29:3-6. R e s o u r c e s, 28:2-3. UNESCO, Paris. UNESCO, Paris. World Commission of Environment and Eidsvik, H.K. 1984. Evolving a New Approach to Development. 1987. Our Common Future. Biosphere Reserves. In Conservation, Science Oxford University Press, UK.

70 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Building Public Support for Protected Areas in South Asia

Nafisa Shah Environmental Journalist, Newsline, Pa k i s t a n

In the Pakistani context, public support can be of pains — not when they are arbitrarily forbidden to two kinds: central, which involves the local commu- collect fuelwood or chop trees in the area. Often nity, and peripheral, where residents of urban when areas are designated as protected, locals are areas, most of whom have no direct links with the not preinformed: it is only when, for example, protected areas, lobby for or support an issue game wardens forbid them to cut trees that they directly or indirectly concerning the PAs. Given that learn what has transpired. It would, perhaps, be the interests of indigenous communities often con- interesting to conduct a survey before actually des- flict with the motives of the conservationists, ignating a PA, so as to gauge whether the local instances of central support are comparatively rare. people are at all supportive of the idea of being In this paper, I will focus mainly on the build- enclosed within a National Park. ing of peripheral support through the print media. Pakistan has an extremely ambitious list of This is for two reasons: first, because of my own sanctuaries and parks and, not surprisingly, most experience in this field and second, because most of these are not manageable. Many of them are, of the public support on controversial environmen- in fact, in a dismal state. Moreover, Pakistan is an tal issues has, in fact, been generated by the indulgent country and has allowed people living m e d i a . within the parks to do whatever they please, The dominant ideology of contemporary capi- which is why the conflict between conservation talist societies is based on the use of natural and development has not really sparked off resources for commodity production and the accu- protests and movements by indigenous people. In mulation of capital. This has led not only to the Kirthar National Park, for instance, agriculture destruction of natural resources — tropical rain thrives: the area is dotted with onion fields as well forests, rivers and wetlands — it has also destroyed as hundreds of tubewells for irrigating crops; it is species and interfered with the genetic data that also home to several thousand goats in its capaci- existed in these habitats. In order to stem the dam- ty as a rangeland. All this is taking place with the age, the concept of protecting ecosystems artificial- complete cognizance of the Sindh Wildlife ly has been devised, similar to the way in which D e p a r t m e n t . rapidly vanishing relics of heritage are quietly While the people most concerned with PAs tucked away in museums. are those living in or around them or hunting In the context of third world countries, howev- there, urban areas are at the other end of the er, these natural museums are not planned realisti- spectrum, often demonstrating least concern for cally. Thousands of acres of land are designated as this issue. Protected Areas, and while the indigenous flora Generating public support through the media and fauna acquire some form of protection through for the protection of a particular area, or a particu- this measure, the people who are native to the area lar species of flora or fauna, is thus extremely diffi- are ignored in the process. cult. If there is an environmental issue where public In Pakistan, PAs and parks are, by and large, support can be mustered at all, it is in the defence considered a luxury. The popular sentiment is: "mil- of the rights of those who utilise the park resources lions of people do not even have bread to eat while as per need. Leadership on these issues must come a small group of environmentalists is out to save a from within these people. The increased feeling of few birds". Communities living within the parks redundancy by the people who sense that they comprehend the rationale behind 'protecting' areas must compete with trees and animals for attention only when they gain employment in return for their and resources weakens them even further. This

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 71 defeatist attitude, rather than mobilization on 1.1 The Indus Highway and issues is what prevents many people conflicts from Kirthar National Park being articulated. Spanning an area of 308,733 acres, the Kirthar National Park is Pakistan's first, largest and per- 1. Mobilizing Public Support haps most badly damaged park. It is also Pakistan's first NP to be included in the United Nation's List of through the Media National Parks (not that this is any longer an It is an unfortunate fact that the rich oral traditions achievement for it is all too easy to get onto lists of Pakistan are slowly dying out and the once and sign international conventions. The real test lies robust performing arts institutions have all but disap- in implemention). peared. Television and radio are state controlled so The Indus Highway was the proposed dual their power to muster public support is considerably carriageway that was to open up the underdevel- diminished. The state, moreover, treats the environ- oped western bank of the Indus river. The project ment as little more than a fashionable concept to was given the go-ahead in 1991, and the requisite which it pays lip service in order to curry favour aid was lined up. However, because part of its with the West. While there are a number of pro- southern alignment was cutting across the park, the grammes that ramble on and on about how impor- Sindh Wildlife Department refused to issue a No tant trees are, the real issues are never touched Objection Certificate (NOC) which the donors had upon and hence remain undiscussed and unre- made conditional on realizing funds. With all other solved. agencies and departments having given the project The print media in Pakistan is made up of pub- a green signal, the Wildlife Department came lications in various regional languages as well as in under intense pressure to reconsider its stance. Urdu and English and is, by and large, bold and It was from this point that the media took up independent. Although the country's population is the issue. Dawn and Newsline wrote extensively on largely illiterate, the written word is still a potent the subject, and the controversy that was subse- means of disseminating any message in this society. quently generated put the National Highway The rural areas are home to the regional lan- Authority on the defensive. In response, IUCN guages, while Urdu, and to a lesser extent English, engaged the services of a neutral person who con- are spoken in the urban areas. Yet, environmental ducted an EIA on the proposed highway and rec- issues are only communicated in English or highly ommended the project be redesigned. Based on the stylised Urdu, both of which are difficult for the IUCN report, the road was ultimately realigned out- average person to comprehend. Nevertheless, side the park. urban people are aware of local issues that immediately concern them: the Karachi citizen, for 1.2 The Haleji Fishing Contract instance, is concerned about the chronic shortage Located in Thatta, southern Sindh, the Haleji Lake is of water, just as a farmer is concerned about the a Ramsar site that plays host to a large population yield of his crop. But such local issues are often of migratory birds in winter. compelled to take a back seat to general ones per- Haleji is valued by hunters as well as trappers taining to the ozone layer or greenhouse gases. for its wealth of fauna. Instances of violations have This obviously renders the mobilization of public been on the increase, mostly committed in an official support through the media a difficult undertaking. capacity. Two years ago, for example, a licence was The English language press is the most well- issued by the Karachi Water and Sewerage Board to equipped to comprehend issues as the Western a contractor permitting him to fish in the lake. information database would like it to. The English Once again, prolific reporting in the dailies press has, therefore, been most active in the mobi- and magazines arrested the issue. NGOs came out lization of public opinion (among the English-speak- in its support: the Society for Conservation and ing public in most cases) on environmental issues. Protection of the Environment (SCOPE) actually took Parks and protected areas are such issues. the issue to court. The contracting parties' con- Listed below are some examples of issues in tention was that since fish was not included in which the media-generated public support did result wildlife it could be harvested. The Sindh Wildlife in a re-evaluation or revoking of decisions. Management Board responded by promply enact- However, I must stress that in none of these exam- ing an ordinance which designated fish as a part of ples was the support massive or impressive. wildlife.

72 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION As it transpired, the courts ruled in favour of The results of all the publicity have, however, the conservationists' appeal and the licence was been mixed. Whereas every winter the public con- cancelled. demns the special permits granted to the Arabs, the government blithely continues to issue them. But 1.3 The Arabs in our National Parks every year the protests become louder. And the bur- For several years, the Arabs have been frequenting den of guilt, if nothing else, weighs heavier on the Pakistan's National Parks in their pursuit of falcon- government of Pakistan. ry. Even if they are not directly within a park, they will enter in pursuit of the birds they are hunting. 1.4 Hunting in Sanctuaries Last year as many as three hunting parties The many instances of hunting within sanctuaries and were allowed to enter the Kirthar National Park. An National Parks have been pointed out time and entourage belonging to Arab princes usually com- again by the media, including the vernacular press. prises two to three hundred people and tens of vehi- Last year, for example, when the President of cles that camp out in the desert where, for two to Pakistan went on a hunting spree and violated the three months, they hunt the houbara bustard with bag limits, it was widely reported in the press, and their falcons. the fact that the individual concerned was the highest The houbara bustard is an endangered bird dignitary in the land, added more fuel to the issue. whose hunting is banned in Pakistan — yet the restriction appears to be in force exclusively for 1.5 Bani Gala, Margalla Pakistanis. Such indulgence may be an aspect of Residents of Islamabad had some years ago Pakistan's diplomatic protocol, which believes that acquired land in Bani Galla in the Margalla Hills prohibiting the Arabs from hunting the houbara year National Park area adjacent to the Rawal Lake after year will strain our ties with the Gulf states. where they had then constructed houses. Nevertheless, this wooing of the Arabs is also due in Islamabad's environmentalists protested that the res- no small measure to personal gains by officials and idents' colony was polluting the lake. However, the politicians in the form of lavish gifts from the Arabs. courts upheld the residents' right to live there as Over the last five years, public pressure on the they had acquired the land lawfully, even if this government to stop issuing special permits to the was due to mismanagement by the Capital Arabs has mounted. Credit for this can be claimed Development Authority in granting allotments. by the press which conducted a sustained cam- A parallel can be drawn between the example paign on the issue. Several protest walks were also of Bani Gala and that of the Khunjerab Park or organized by the World Wide Fund for Nature Chitral Gol. While in the former case, the rich (WWF). Meanwhile, SCOPE's petition against an bought land within the park and proceeded to settle Arab, illegally allotted an area for hunting, was there with impunity, the poor (and therefore the upheld by the Sindh High Court. However, last year weak) in the parks mentioned above are expected there was silence on the issue from both the press to drastically change their lifestyles when the land and the NGOs. One major national daily contend- they have lived on for centuries becomes govern- ed that its sales were being affected by repeated ment property. references to the controversy; another was persuad- ed that national interest was at stake as Pakistani 2. The Role of NGOs in expatriates in the Gulf would be deported because of its campaigning. The government promised to Mobilizing Public Support stop issuing hunting permits from 1994 onwards, so If the press has made issues out of environmental WWF has now adopted a wait-and-see stance concerns, the NGOs have followed up in such a while continuing to conduct regular surveys to way as to pressurize decision makers. The involve- check the houbara's status. ment of SCOPE and Dharti Dost Sangat in litigation The publicity generated has, nevertheless, and the mobilization of public opinion for the pro- already served a valuable purpose. The locals of tection of the houbara bustard is just one case in the concerned areas are mobilizing themselves point. Sungi and the Margalla Hills Society are against the Arabs' annual onslaught. Last year, Islamabad-based NGOs that work on the environ- Dharti Dost Sangat, a Sanghar-based NGO vocif- ment agenda as well as on other issues. erously registered its protest and went to court on In a volatile political atmosphere, the politi- the issue. cization of issues can help to generate considerable

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 73 support. The distribution of water between the change it is vital to muster the support of those actu- provinces, for instance, has become a political ally based around the PAs. Unless local communi- issue. Politicization, nevertheless, has its dangers: ties are actively involved in PAs, little long-term there may be such strong arguments both for and change will be effected. The fish contractor is no against an issue that any kind of decision making longer coming to Haleji, but hundreds of birds are may become impossible. still being trapped. The highway eventually did not cut across Kirthar, but the issue left in its wake a Conclusion sense of deprivation among the people who were If local people are to support the protection of their to benefit from this road. These once nomadic peo- area, they in turn must be supported. The peripheral ple are now a settled community and they must in support generated in urban centres against threats the near future have access to a road. Involving facing PAs has been positive, but for any long-term them in future planning is crucial.

74 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Biodiversity Conservation through Local Community Participation: the Himalayan Jungle Project Experience

Guy Duke BirdLife International

1. Introduction The western Himalaya EBA extends from eastern At the 1994 BirdLife International XXI World Afghanistan to western Nepal. A substantial portion Conference in Germany, the keynote address was by of this EBA lies within Pakistan. Ismail Serageldin, the World Bank's Vice President Temperate forests form the most important for Sustainable Development. Mr Serageldin's mes- habitat within the western Himalaya EBA. These sage was about the linkages between poverty and forests are substantially under-represented in the the environment in the developing countries. PAs system in Pakistan. Within NWFP, a province "No approach to environmental conserva- larger than Bavaria (Germany's largest state), and tion," he said, "is likely to succeed if it does not the meeting point of two of the world's great moun- simultaneously meet the basic needs of the poor." In tain ranges — the Himalaya and the Hindu Kush — concluding his speech, he looked forward to the less than 0.6% of the land area (less than a tenth of contribution that BirdLife International and other the global average) is protected. conservation agencies might make to what he Of the nine restricted range bird species found called "the delicate art and science of sustainable in this EBA, the western tragopan (T r a g o p a n development". melanecephalus) is considered the most threatened. No doubt many of those present admired Mr In 1983 the surviving population was estimated at Serageldin's eloquent speech, but wondered what it 1,600—4,800 birds, a precarious population level all really meant in practical terms. Based on our given the fragmented nature of the species habitat. experience of the Himalayan Jungle Project in According to the 1988 World Checklist of Pakistan1, I will attempt to illustrate just this. That is: Threatened Birds, the species was "seriously ● How one environmental conservation project reduced in distribution and abundance". is seeking to simultaneously meet basic human However, in one of the most exciting ornitho- needs; and logical discoveries of 1989, a BirdLife/World ● The kind of contribution this project is begin- Pheasant Association/NWFP Wildlife Department ning to make to "the delicate art and science team documented, for the first time, a large popula- of sustainable development". tion of western tragopans in the forests of the Palas Valley, in District Kohistan, NWFP. The Palas Valley 2. The Importance of Palas forests probably contain more than 600 western In 1992, BirdLife International published its tragopans — far surpassing the previous largest acclaimed study, Putting Biodiversity on the Map known population of some 100 birds at the (ICBP, 1992). Using birds as indicators, the study Machiara Game Reserve, in Pakistani Kashmir. identifies key areas — so-called Endemic Bird Areas Palas Valley is, in fact, not one valley but a (EBAs) — for global biodiversity conservation. The major valley system. It extends over 1,400 sq km study won the prestigious Amsterdam Prize for the and reaches altitudes of 1,000 metres to 5,500 Environment 1994, an award which aims to pro- metres. Forests in Palas cover some 400 sq km, mote scientific research in environmental issues. much of which is in primary or near primary condi- Two EBAs coincide with Pakistani territory, tion, in other words, Himalayan 'wilderness'. This is namely the western Himalaya, and the Indus Valley. almost certainly the most outstanding remaining tract

1. The Himalayan Jungle Project has been largely financed over the last three years by the British Overseas Development Administration, WWF International and Biodiversity Support Programme. It is currently financed by the European Community and the Government of the North West Frontier Province, Pakistan.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 75 of temperate forest within Pakistan, or indeed the 4. HJP's Goal, Approach and entire western Himalaya EBA. Institutional Arrangements In addition to their importance for birds, these forests exhibit significant endemism in other life The Himalayan Jungle Project was inaugurated in forms. The Himalayan Jungle Project's collabora- 1991. The project's long-term goal was to safe- tion with Pakistan's National Herbarium has guard the globally outstanding natural heritage, the already identified over 100 plants endemic to forest, tragopans and other biodiversity of Palas. Palas, probably the world's largest population of From the first, the project has adopted a par- the threatened West Himalayan Elm, and two ticipatory approach, the purpose of which has been species entirely new to science — including the yel- to empower and enable local communities to estab- low Delphinium. lish sustainable, integrated natural resource management in the valley. 3. Threat to Palas Forests Definitions of 'participation' in conservation and the Tragopans and development vary widely. I will attempt to explain in the remainder of this brief presentation The forests and tragopans of Palas are threatened what I mean by 'a participatory approach'. But it by unsustainable commercial logging. Commercial may be useful to first explain WHY a participatory logging is prescribed under the Forest approach was adopted. Department's management plan which was pre- From a theoretical viewpoint, it is now widely pared prior to the tragopan discoveries, and there- accepted that the traditional 'top-down' approach fore does not take into account the biodiversity to conservation and development has not worked. importance of Palas. Of the traditional approach to development, a Sri Although the plan aims to be silviculturally sus- Lankan wrote in 1985: tainable, logging is, in practice, often excessive. ".... it is well known that the administra- The Palas forests belong to the local communities, tor of development projects and the bene- but these communities lack the necessary skills, ficiaries do not sit on the same side of the organization and finances for forest management. table. In fact, they sit at different levels, Consequently, they have no option but to sell their the former being always at a higher logging rights to outside contractors at knock-down level. What follows, therefore, is quite rates. Contractors are keen to maximize profits, inevitable. Each looks at the other with and the Forest Department lacks resources and suspicion. To the official, the villager is incentives to exert effective control. Twice the pre- lazy, ignorant, unresourceful and irre- scribed volume was cut from this compartment at sponsible. To the villager, the official is the western gateway to Palas. conceited, unsympathetic, unconcerned Moreover, poor accessibility necessitates the and corrupt. Each does not take the other use of a wasteful system whereby logs are convert- into his confidence. Instead of getting ed in the forest to square-cut beams for sliding to together, they continue to stay apart." the nearest river or road-head. As a result, only As long ago as the mid-1970s, disenchant- 40-50% of the timber from each tree reaches the ment with such an approach led to the emergence r o a d - h e a d . of participation as a major new force in develop- With an outdated management plan, inade- ment thinking. By 1982 the United Nations had quate controls over logging, a wasteful harvesting established a Panel on People's Participation. In system, and low payments for logging rights, the 1991, the UN declared: "in terms of thinking and people of Palas realize a mere fraction of the value practice about development, we are currently in the of their timber, and are left with a degraded and, age of participation". in places, devastated resource. A participatory approach in Palas was dictat- Studies of nearby valleys using satellite ed by certain local realities. The most immediately imagery show rates of decline in forest area of up obvious of these is the forbidding mountain environ- to 8.8% per year. At such rates, these forests will ment. Palas is one of the world's deepest gorges, completely disappear in 10-20 years. For much of and touring the widely scattered villages involves the neighbouring valley of Alai, they have already weeks of trekking on poor and dangerous paths. To disappeared. The threat to the Palas forests is all anyone but a born-and-bred Palasi, this is punishing too real. terrain.

76 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION There are also few bridges: rivers are often ings. However, it became increasingly clear that such crossed by jhulas, diabolical cable and trolley con- dialogue was not adequate to assess the problems traptions. These, and the torrential, icy rivers they and opportunities in natural resource conservation cross, claim several lives every year. and development in Palas. If the mountain paths and jhulas are daunting, In order to do this, the project adopted the the social environment scarcely appears more tools and techniques of Participatory Rural encouraging. Untouched by the British Raj, Palas, Appraisal or PRA. PRA methodologies are increas- 47 years after Independence, remains a tribal area. ingly being adopted by conservation and develop- The tribes of Palas, and indeed of Kohistan in gen- ment agencies and a wealth of literature and train- eral, have consistently and forcefully resisted state ing opportunities is available on the subject. Using interventions. PRA, the project was able to access a wealth of This particularly applies to forest resources. The local knowledge and generate enthusiastic villager Kohistanis, including the Palasis, have consistently participation in the planning process. refused to allow the government logging agency access to their forests. And, as recently as last year, 5.2 Emergency Relief and they blocked the famous Karakoram Highway, the Rehabilitation only supply route to Pakistan's Northern Areas, for By September 1992 the project had established two weeks, firing on any moving vehicle. grass-roots dialogue and was in the process of final- Clearly, neither the resistance of the Palasis to izing plans for developmental initiatives when disas- state intervention, nor the daunting mountain envi- ter struck. In the space of four days, Palas received ronment, are conducive to the imposition of classic half its annual rainfall. In Bar (interior) Palas, rivers 'top-down' solutions: no imposed measures could broke their banks, destroying villages, bridges, path- ever be enforced in such a remote area against ways, irrigation channels and water-driven flour mills such determined opposition. and plunging the remote interior into a food crisis. Moreover, existing forest rights in Palas also Familiar with the region and having built links preclude state intervention. By law, the forests of with the local community, donor organizations and Palas belong to the local communities, and by cus- the government, the HJP was well placed to coordi- tom, they are the common property of one or more nate relief work. Working with the government's Palasi tribes. Any proposals to change the manage- Emergency Relief Cell, the Project airlifted over 50 ment of the Palas forests are, therefore, the legiti- tonnes of food commodities to 10,000 stranded vil- mate concern of these local communities. By impli- lagers. cation, forest management can only be improved The need to distribute 50,000 kg of foodstuff through local participation. to 10,000 people scattered over 1,000 sq km of remote mountain terrain presented the project's first 5. Participatory opportunity to test a working partnership with the Methodologies/Instruments people of Palas. As it turned out, the distribution used by HJP was rapidly and equitably administered by the tribal councils. History books traditionally refer to the people 5.1 Dialogue and Participatory of Palas as 'ungovernable savages'. Travel guides Inquiry warn you never to enter the valley without a govern- Perhaps the first prerequisite of participation is the ment escort. Development agencies have consistent- establishment of project-community dialogue. Here, ly avoided the valley on the grounds that the tribes the project faced its first challenge — how to com- would never collaborate. The HJP's flood relief municate with 30,000 scattered people, most of experience exploded this myth of the Palasis as whom understand only their own obscure and intractable tribesmen. It demonstrated the strength unwritten language. and organizational capacity of the traditional insti- The appointment of a native Palasi as a Field tution of the jirga. Officer was a critical first step in meeting this chal- But, perhaps more importantly, it extended lenge. The project then spent the best part of 18 awareness of the HJP from a handful of villages to months exchanging information and opinions with the entire upper valley, and generated a mutual con- the people of Palas through small tribal council meet- fidence between the people and the project. The dis- ings, discussions in hujras, and simple wayside meet- aster had provided the latter with the vital entry point.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 77 The challenge was now to consolidate this gain. ever, rendered this a difficult task. Many families in With the immediate crisis over, HJP visited Palas are engaged in active and violent feuds with Palas with the Minister for Environment, who readily one another, to the extent that sometimes an entire sanctioned a request to airlift engineers into the area village will be 'in fort'. The HJP has, on occasion, to assess flood damages and rehabilitation needs. negotiated ceasefires in order to hold village meet- The engineers arrived a week later and along with ings. Over 20 village organizations were estab- the community, identified the priorities for rehabilita- lished by June 1993 and implementation of rehabil- tion after flood damages. The resulting Bar Palas itation works began immediately. Rehabilitation Programme contained proposals for The village organizations have proved the construction of 22 essential foot-bridges, the ren- extremely efficient. At Paro, for example, they com- ovation of 54 irrigation channels and the reconstruc- pleted a dual canal at a cost of US$ 2,000, less tion of 20 watermills. By April 1993, full funding of than a fifth of the government's own estimate for the over US$ 200,000 had been secured. scheme. In 1993 the village organizations mobilised some 10,000 man-days of labour to ren- 5.3 Written Agreement ovate over 40 irrigation channels and a dozen or Helicopters and engineers might seem irrelevant to so watermills. the conservation of forests and tragopans. But this Suspension foot-bridges are under construction major package of economic assistance presented to reconnect isolated villages and summer pastures. the project with a wonderful opportunity. For the Four have so far been completed, and a further four first time, it had a significant incentive to offer the are in progress. Village organizations have commit- people of Palas in return for their commitment to ted substantial contributions to all these works. conservation. Therefore, with funding more or less By insisting that beneficiaries pay something in in their pocket, project officials went back to Palas the form of equity, a degree of ownership and to seek this commitment. financial involvement has been established. In the They called a great tribal council meeting in long-term, these village organizations will provide a June 1993, after exhaustive preparatory regional vital social platform for natural resource manage- jirgas had been concluded a month before. Three ment in Palas. hundred tribal elders were expected to attend and arrangements were made for selected VIPs to be 5.5 Other Development Incentives flown in by helicopter to witness the occasion. With the basic infrastructure and flood rehabilita- Following protracted negotiations, the jirga tion well under way, the Project is now beginning to duly signed the Bar Palas Agreement. In return for implement the development opportunities identified the HJP's rehabilitation assistance, the Bar Palas by the pre-flood PRA. The PRA pointed to poor qual- tribes formally recognized the concept of Palas ity maize seed as a major constraint. This year, a becoming a special area for conservation and dozen trial sites have been established with local development, agreed to formal dialogue on farmers to test and multiply appropriate new maize improved forest management, and to instant ban on varieties. all hunting. The Bar Palas Agreement represents the first 6. Conclusion step towards a conservation convention for Palas, I have explained a few of the tools, instruments, under which the community might commit customary methods and incentives which have been used to land for conservation in return for assistance in the address the linked problems of poverty and environ- sustainable development of their natural resources. ment in Palas. I should add that participation alone is not 5.4 Community Organization enough. This paper has not described in any detail Since the agreement was signed, the project has the technical work — on forestry, agriculture and used rehabilitation works to catalyse the formation biodiversity — done by the Project which is an of village organization throughout Bar Palas. The essential complement to local knowledge and skills. jirgas, traditional tribal councils, are essentially con- A workshop on forest management in Palas flict resolution bodies. The project hoped to evolve was held in October 1993 and the dimensions of a out of this existing tribal institution new organiza- more sustainable system outlined. With increasing tions which could play a more pro-active role in confidence between the Project and the people of conservation and development. Local conflicts, how- Palas, we expect to take forward local dialogue on

78 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION the sensitive issue of forest management this year. would be one of encouragement. Here in BirdLife, The importance of the forests of Palas has been and elsewhere among the conservation and devel- recognised in key government policy documents opment agencies, people are gradually putting and the government has welcomed the proposal of together the basic toolbox of methods required for an expanded 5-year second phase of the project — p a r t i c i p a t i o n . now under consideration by the European To return to Serageldin's words, we are learn- Community. ing the delicate art and science of sustainable Finally, I would stress that participation is nei- development. Judging by the response we are get- ther easy nor quick. It requires time, effort, and ting — from the government, from our sponsors, skills that are not readily taught, but must be dis- and most of all from the people of Palas — it is covered in the process. However, our message worth the effort.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 79 80 Towards the Next Century: Training Priorities for Protected Areas in South Asia

Hemendra S. Panwar Director, Wildlife Institute of India (Paper presented by S. C. Dey)

1. Diversity of Physical and ● Encroachments for agricultural use. Bioclimatic Environment ● Pressures from development and markets. in South Asia ● Human activists sometimes equate PAs with development projects as ways of denying peo- ● Trans-Himalayan cold desert ple their resources. ● Ice fields ● Serious interface conflicts stemming from ani- ● Alpine areas mal damage, restrictions on biomass use. ● Montane temperate forests ● Uncertain, often declining, political support. ● Flood plains grasslands ● Paucity of infrastructure, human and fiscal ● Semi-arid thorn-scrub resources. ● Desert: sand and Rann of Kutch ● Poor human resource development — the prin- ● Deciduous forests cipal constraint in the face of above adversities. ● Wet tropical forests ● Institutional weakness and poor professional ● Dry evergreen forests capacity mainly due to lack of HRD. ● Mangroves ● Wetlands: fresh and coastal 3 . PA Management Challenges ● Islands ● Anti-poaching measures are now increasingly ● Coral reefs required to deal with big money traffickers. ● Marine environment Besides the establishment of modern infrastructure for mobility and communications, it is now 1.1 Special Attributes/Situations of necessary to reinforce the effort through intelli- Biodiversity gence probes. Appropriate training for field ● Pristine systems personnel and for some wildlife forensic tech- ● Man-influenced systems: mildly modified and nicians is required. secondary systems ● Wildlife health monitoring and preventive ● Transnational ecological contiguity measures are needed against disease, epi- ● Migratory bird habitats demics and pollution of air and water in many ● Sea turtle nesting sites PAs. Training veterinarians in wildlife health and also imparting basic training to field per- 2. Constraints in Protected sonnel is now a necessity. Area Management ● Management of small, isolated populations. ● Majority of PA units are small. Independent ● Special habitat support, in-situ. viability is rare. There is great dependence on ● Gene-exchange through translocation. neighbouring land/resource use. ● Captive breeding and well-considered ● Legal boundaries are often ecologically inade- t r a n s l o c a t i o n . quate: many species with large home ranges, e.g. tiger, elephant — face habitat inadequa- 3.1 Proper Habitat Management cy, corridor problems. ● Amelioratory: mitigation of modification/ ● Population pressures: unrelenting, often accen- degradation. tuated by degradation, biomass dependence ● Compensatory: providing habitat values lost for subsistence, income supplementation, also due to deficient boundaries or small size of socio-cultural factors. protected areas.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 81 ● Interventionary: to create or perpetuate sec- ager should be all-in-one. However, efficient and ondary habitats favouring highly threatened expert support from biology and extension special- species e.g. (1) Asiatic lion in Gir, India ists is essential. where much of scrub savanna habitat is lost to Thus a park manager must have adequate agriculture and bulk of available habitat is knowledge and practical understanding of wildlife hilly and forested, and (2) Swamp deer biology and extension, with full professional skills in (Cervus duvauceli branderi) in Central India resource management. A successful manager needs where it survives on colonized secondary also to have a good understanding wildlife law and grasslands of human origin — a species repre- its enforcement, and to be a competent leader at senting biodiversity in secondary ecosystems his own level in the field. A park manager's course of early man's creation. The Asian elephant in at any level must include components conforming to Sri Lanka and North-east India which thrived these requirements. on secondary habitats of slash and burn agri- In addition, there is need for education/train- culture may need similar support. ing in wildlife biology and wildlife extension in ● Competent wildlife biology expertise that takes order to have specialists to provide the essential into account people's concerns is needed. research, monitoring and extension support. ● Competent wildlife extension expertise that is aware of conservation concerns is required. 4. Training Requirements 3.2 HRD Must Conform Directly to A look at protected areas in South Asia is given in Management Requirements Table 1. ● PAs are seen as an integral, compatible and important segment of a larger landscape 4.1 Personnel Requirements including other land and resource uses. The average area of each protected area unit is ● PAs must have systematic and scientific 440 square kilometre. In terms of personnel per PA Management Plans. unit, this means: ● The planning process must include people par- – Park Director/Superintendent/ ticipation not as an exercise in appeasement Warden 1.0 but to promote the understanding, mutual – Asst. Director/Asst. Superintendent adjustment and community self-discipline (Management - Extension) 1.5 prevalent in traditional management systems. – Biologist 0.5 ● Participatory planning should lead to rational – Rangers (one per 100 sq km, for zoning and a zonal plans package. territorial, extension, tourism ● Competent implementation of all components management works) 4.4 of management plans — biological, protection and people-related — by appropriately Table 1. Protected Areas in South Asia trained personnel. Country Number Total Area ● People's problems and pressures are best of PAs (sq km) managed with ecodevelopment support — a package of measures such as alternate effi- Bangladesh 8 968 cient utilization of energy and resources, sub- Bhutan 5 9,061 stitution of resources, value addition process India 331 131,596 for produce collected and sold, additional Maldives - - compatible income generation activities, joint management of buffer zone segments under Myanmar 2 1,733 people's use etc. Nepal 12 11,085 Pakistan 53 36,550 3.3 What Should a PA Manager be? Sri Lanka 43 7,837 ● A Biologist? ● A Resource Manager? Total 454 198,830

● An Administrator? Source: 1993 United Nation List of National Parks and ● An Extension Worker? Protected Areas. Clearly the answer to this is that a park man- Note: Above 10 sq km only.

82 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION – Beat Officers/Range Asst. 11 wildlife research, education and training as – Wildlife Guards (one per 10 sq km) 44 specifically required in a developing South Asian country. For the total number of PAs in South Asia (see Table ● The Institute offers all the recommended 1), the following would be required: courses for biologists and managers up to the – Park Director/Supdt./Warden 450 level of rangers and has developed training – Asst. Director/Asst. Supdt./ syllabi for Range Assistant and Wildlife Asst. Warden 675 Guard training which are being used by – Biologists 225 some training schools in Indian states. It has – Rangers 2,025 also developed a wildlife management com- – Beat Officers/Range Asst. 4,950 ponent for the training syllabus at the post- – Wildlife Guards 20,250 graduate forestry course being conducted by India's Indira Gandhi National Forest 4.2 Training Centres A c a d e m y . Training programmes for rangers and other staff ● WII also trains research biologists and exten- should, as far as possible, be run within respective sion specialists through on-field research dur- countries. For managers/biologists, where pro- ing special PhD programmes. grammes are difficult to run within the country, train- ● Both WII programmes on research and training centres preferably within the region (south and ing are based on extensive interaction with PA south-east Asia). The Wildlife Institute of India or uni- managers, scientists in institutions and universi- versities offering analogous courses, can be used. ties, as well as conservation NGOs. WII's See Table 2. research, supervised by the institute's faculty, helps it stay abreast of scientific and techno- logical progress while also being in direct 4.3 Experience at the touch with field realities. This ensures that Wildlife Institute of India teaching by WII's multi-disciplinary faculty — ● WII's development presents a good case study biologists, park managers and socio-econo- of an institution specially set up to support mists — remains relevant at all times.

Table 2. Training Programmes Requirement

Target Trainers Required Course Duration

1. Park Managers Masters/Post Graduate Diploma One year after post-graduate (Director/Asst. Director level) in Wildlife Management forestry training or 2 years after BSc

2. Bi o l o g i s t Masters/PhD in Wildlife Biology Two to four years

3. Ra n g e r s Senior Certificate Course 6 months after forestry training or 2 years after Senior Secondary school (10+2 years)

4. Range Assistant Junior Certificate Course 6 months after forestry training or 1 year after secondary school

5. Wildlife Guards Primary Certificate Course 6 months after 8 (preferably 10) years of school

6. Specialized Certificate Courses for Directors/Assistant Directors/Research Biologists/Extension Specialists i. Management Planning for PAs 6 months ii . Remote Sensing/Geographical Information Systems 6 months ii i . Ecodevelopment Planning/Education-Interpretation 6 months

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 83 5. Conclusion The above drag factors are listed according to As the next century looms ahead in the distance, their importance because, without skilled managers we stand at a cross roads. Among decision making neither meaningful participation of people nor prop- circles, there is widespread awareness of conserva- er utilization of resources is possible. tion as an essential ingredient for the long term wel- Even in the decision-making circles directly fare of the global community. Nevertheless, expedi- responsible for conservation, conviction about the ent concerns often get the better of such wisdom, need for training seems to be less than firm. This is leading to half hearted action with wavering politi- reflected in under-utilization of training facilities cal support. within the region and/or of the training slots avail- We need to realize that despite the concern of able in internationally assisted projects. the global community, and notwithstanding the Often, training opportunities are used to 'over impressive growth in PAs in developing countries, train' a small number of individuals, while much of the following remain as the main drag factors: the workforce remains blissfully unaware. There is ● Neglect of meaningful human resource devel- also not enough emphasis in all South Asian coun- opment (multi and interdisciplinary, and bal- tries on the training of trainers for the effective run- anced training) in PA management and biodi- ning of in-country training centres. versity conservation. The challenges that beset conservation in ● Rare and sporadic efforts at securing local South Asia are daunting but tractable if the drag people's involvement in field conservation. factors are addressed properly and adequately. ● Paucity of financial resources, both national Broad based training programmes as suggest- and international, to support conservation on ed here would perhaps give conservation a better a large scale. chance in the next century.

84 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Future Cooperation on Protected Areas with Emphasis on Information Collection in the South Asian Re g i o n

Professor Pei Shengi International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal

It is my pleasure to have this opportunity to attend Asian countries including those with common the IUCN-CNPPA 42nd Working Session in boundaries. ICIMOD recently concluded a series of Islamabad, Pakistan. I am honoured to have this meetings on indigenous knowledge systems and opportunity of presenting some ideas about future biodiversity management. One of the recommenda- cooperation on PAs with special emphasis on infor- tions was that ICIMOD play an increasingly more mation collection in the South Asian region. important role in promoting regional collaboration First of all, let me take a few minutes to intro- among the HKH countries in PAs management in duce the International Centre for Integrated the HKH ecosystem. The social dimensions included Mountain Development (ICIMOD). ICIMOD is an in this session are thus particularly relevant as international centre with particular focus on the ICIMOD is keen that the information exchange Hindu Kush–Himalaya region. One of its main prior- among PA and biodiversity managers in the HKH ities is a regional perspective for its mandated activi- region be improved. Particularly important is the ties. This includes biodiversity and ecosystem conser- development of a common or, at least, compatible vation in the vast region. As the highest, largest and biodiversity data management system which would youngest systems in the world with a high diversity facilitate monitoring trends in biodiversity conserva- of nature, cultures and social systems, the HKH tion and PAs coverage in the future. Dr Jim Paine of region is an area which has long attracted interna- WCMC has mentioned this in detail in his paper so tional attention. But the fragile mountain systems of I need not discuss it further. the HKH region have been facing an overall envi- In conclusion, I would like to propose the fol- ronmental degradation since the 1970s. It was in lowing points for future cooperation with IUCN- these circumstances that eight countries of the region CNPPA in the region: joined hands and with the help of UNESCO, estab- ● Cooperation in information collection on PAs lished ICIMOD in 1983 in Kathmandu. ICIMOD is and biodiversity. not a traditional research institution or a develop- ● Cooperation in transboundary conservation ment agency rather it is a facilitator between these between all countries sharing common bound- two areas of sustainable development. ICIMOD aries in the region. plays four roles in a regional context: (a) as a focal ● Active networking: a regional network on bio- point for information exchange; (b) to conduct diversity must be formulated and established applied or problem solving research in collaboration for the sharing of information and experi- with actual institutions; (c) to provide consultancy ser- ences. Training and coordination in joint pro- vices for the region and (d) to provide training on jects in the area is recommended. capacity building for regional countries. I do hope that interaction and collaboration The first two days of this meeting are of most between ICIMOD and IUCN will be further strength- interest to ICIMOD as the issues addressed focus on ened in the field of PAs and Biodiversity Ecosystems the regional context of PAs management in South Conservation in the HKH region.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 85 86 Capacity Building for Protected Areas in South Asia: Future Challenges

Kishore Rao Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, India

1. Introduction recently for Africa and this concept needs to be It has taken 17 working sessions for the CNPPA to extended to the South Asia region as well. refocus attention on the South Asia region — nearly 10 years since the 25th session at Corbett 2. Capacity Building — Priority National Park, India. Is this a realistic time frame within which to have a meaningful review of the Co n c e r n s progress made in the implementation of the Goal 2 of CAP recognises the development of man- Corbett Action Plan (CAP)? Perhaps not — com- agement capability for PAs as a priority concern. placency is bound to set in over such a long peri- Five distinct objectives are identified which deal od, even more so in the absence of regular moni- with the following key issues: toring and assessment of efforts for operationalis- ● Strengthening of the wildlife administrative ing the CAP. authorities to make them effective. The South Asian region has witnessed signifi- ● Establishment of training facilities. cant changes over the past decade and rapid ● Development of management policies and developments continue to take place, particularly in preparation of management plans. the economic and political spheres. In this swiftly ● Provision of adequate financial and infrastruc- evolving scenario, priorities also change frequently ture resources. and developmental considerations take precedence ● Establishment of research and monitoring facil- over conservation needs as the countries in the ities and programmes. region seek to integrate with the global economy. An assessment of the implementation of CAP Events like UNCED, IUCN's General Assembly and in the region reveals several shortcomings in the the World Congress on National Parks and achievement of the stated objectives, which specifi- Protected Areas help to bring conservation impera- cally deal with strengthening the capacity to man- tives back to centre stage, but largely at a macro- age PAs at various levels. Consequently, PA net- level with very little trickle-down effect to help PA work, development and management efforts remain conservation at the field level. largely inadequate, which is in turn is reflected in The CNPPA, therefore, needs to step in to fill their poor conservation status. this gap and plan a more active role in improving Although there has been a steady increase in the level of PA network development and manage- the network of PAs in some countries, both in terms ment. For this it will have to establish a strong and of their biogeographic representation as well as in permanent regional presence in South Asia with their total area coverage, this has not been decentralised powers and functions, not only to matched by commensurate growth in management facilitate greater and more frequent regional coop- capability. According to the IUCN's 1992 Review eration but also to sustain its advocacy efforts and of the Protected Areas of the World, the PA cover- catalyze the implementation of PA conservation pri- age in the South Asian countries reveals the follow- orities. If this were already a reality, a different pic- ing (see Table 1). ture would have emerged from our assessment of According to available information, only the CAP, as it would have been possible to monitor Nepal and Sri Lanka have separate wildlife admin- its implementation closely and more frequently istrative authorities at the national level. In the through review meetings, regional consultations remaining countries, wildlife and PA conservation is and actual field visits. The need for a regionalized the responsibility of the forest administration. CNPPA management structure has been recognized Although an independent authority may not by itself

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 87 Table 1 Bangladesh. In 1989, the number of wildlife staff Country PAs % of PA stood at only 53 in Bhutan, while Myanmar had No Total Area area to GA 498 staff within the Forest Department for wildlife Bangladesh 12 1,084 0.75 conservation in 1987. The progress of management planning for PAs Bhutan* 9 10,508 21.00 has been equally slow. An evaluation report on the India* 490 140,262 4.26 management of PAs in India published in 1989 revealed that only 43% of the National Parks and Nepal 12 10,910 7.70 28% of the sanctuaries surveyed had management Pakistan 170 72,000 9.00 plans and not all of them of the desired quality. Sri Lanka 67 7,838 12.00 Preparation of management plans, thus, continues to remain a high priority task for the PAs in the region. Myanmar 2 1,731 0.26 Recognising this need, the Wildlife Institute of India * (updated figures) (WII) at Dehra Dun now offers a specialised annual training programme for PA management planning in an effort to bridge this gap. This is in addition to the be an ideal system, particularly in the case of India management planning inputs already being provid- and Pakistan which have strong provincial govern- ed under the regular wildlife management training ments at the state levels, it does reflect a firm com- course for PA managers. Unfortunately, the existence mitment to direct concerted management attention of management plans does not necessarily guaran- to the wildlife sector. The advantages include a sep- tee their implementation. arate budget and a separate cadre of profession- In the absence of adequate financial als, while the disadvantages could be in the form of resources to support infrastructural and manpower potential conflicts with the forest administration and development, and to implement protection enforce- lack of coordination for resolving interface prob- ment and other PA management measures, man- lems and buffer zone management issues etc. agement plans and action plans will remain large- However, the choice of system should best be left to ly on paper. No matter how well-intentioned or the respective countries to make; whichever system desirable a particular piece of legislation may be, is used, the need is to develop a strong, profession- it will be ineffective in the absence of an adequate al and effective authority which can plan, promote enforcement machinery. This is also the case with and coordinate PA and wildlife conservation pro- the plans for effective management of PAs. In grammes and emerging challenges. 1992-93 an amount of only Rs. 213 million was In-country professional training facilities for allocated as central financial assistance to the wildlife and PA personnel exist only in India and Indian states for the development of PAs. these are also being utilised, albeit sparingly, by Considering that the states on their own are able other countries in the region. They also have affiliat- to provide only minimal resources and that too ed training programmes with countries such as mainly for maintenance related activities, this New Zealand, the US, etc. However, there is a additional input is too meagre for any meaningful wide gap between the desired levels of training capacity building and development exercise in the inputs and those presently available. Consequently, country's 490 PAs covering an area of over professional standards in management are very low 140,000 sq km. An analysis of budgetary support and this is particularly true where there is frequent for PAs in the other countries reveals similar inade- interchange of personnel between the wildlife and quacies. In Bhutan, the wildlife budget was only forestry wings because of a common cadre. In US$ 110,000 in 1989; NRs 124.3 million for India, for example, where there are nearly 500 Nepal during 1990-91, much of which was utilised PAs, the number of officials trained up to 1990-91 for protection enforcement; Rs. 332 million in at the managerial level was only 230, and those Pakistan for the five year period between 1988 and trained at the field executive level was only 108. 1993; and in Sri Lanka too the Department of The picture is not very different elsewhere in the Wildlife Conservation is severely handicapped by a region. The difference is only of scale, depending lack of financial resources. Funding is critical to the upon the size of the protected estate and the num- efforts at capacity building for PAs anywhere, but ber of personnel. Lack of trained personnel is recog- even more so in the developing countries of South nized as a severe handicap for PA management in Asia. These fall under the low and lower-middle

88 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION income categories, and thus require international fact that they need to be reiterated in successive funding support to finance such programmes. action plans is an indication that they continue to The application of science to PA management remain relevant primarily because action has not is an impossible task in the absence of adequate matched precept, at least to the desired extent. financial, infrastructural and human resources to However, although these critical issues are being establish research facilities and carry out even underscored once again, an attempt has been basic research (e.g. resource inventory) and moni- made at a qualitative difference in their treatment. toring activities. Only a handful of PAs have perma- This is being done in recognition of the fact that nent in-house research facilities and their develop- strait jacket approaches will have to yield to innova- ment too is hampered on account of the paucity of tive strategies in view of the changed circumstances funds and lack of growth opportunities for scientific in which they are to be implemented. Besides, one personnel. Although sporadic scientific studies may has to account for regional and inter-regional differ- have been carried out in some PAs, what is lacking ences also, while making recommendations for is a systematic and comprehensive research pro- actions. This is a major limitation of most 'action gramme for each PA, at least for those of high con- plans' as they deal mainly with generalities, when servation significance, covering the ecological, what is required are recommendations for specific environmental and socio-economic aspects of man- actions. These can only be developed by individual agement. Even where management plans do exist, countries within the framework of their own legal these have not been based in most cases on and institutional structures, while regional and inter- research findings. Therefore, developing research national efforts can be aimed at facilitating imple- capability remains a priority of capacity building. mentation by helping to overcome various financial and technical constraints which stand in the way. 3. Future Challenges The South Asian region's ecological and cultural 4. Priorities for Action diversity, coupled with rapidly growing demograph- The key aspects identified here as the priorities for ic pressures, presents management challenges that action are critical elements of the capacity building are in themselves rapidly evolving. The principal exercise for PAs in the South Asia region. These challenge, therefore, is to quickly build up PA man- constitute not only future challenges but are also agement capability to a level where it is able to present concerns which need to be addressed respond effectively to the new situations and immediately. The priorities are: enhance the conservation status of PAs. The human ● Development of professionalism. population of the seven countries taken to comprise ● Financing issues. this region, estimated at about 1,172 million in ● Constituency building. 1990, is expected to grow to a staggering 1,783 ● Protection aspects. million by the year 2025. Livestock population also ● International assistance. has an equally fast growth rate and totals nearly half the human population. Together they represent 4.1 Development of Professionalism pressures that are going to compete for the scarce Professionalism among PA staff suffers on several natural resources, and it is very often the forests counts. Firstly, where PA management is also a and PAs which fall victim to these mounting pres- responsibility of the forest administration, inter- sures because they are expediently viewed as com- changeability of officers and staff results in frequent mon property resources (CPRs). The need is to gear turnover and loss of PA management experience up administrative mechanisms and management and expertise which has to be acquired afresh by systems not only to successfully face this onslaught succeeding incumbents. This time-lag causes discon- but also to respond positively by demonstrating the tinuity of management inputs to the detriment of the various values of PAs and wilderness areas. PAs. Secondly, even if the administrative responsi- Viewed in this context and in the light of the bility for PAs rests with a separate Wildlife or Parks progress made so far towards strengthening PA Directorate, lack of resources ensures that the areas management capabilities, a number of key issues are understaffed, the staff are not provided with the emerge which constitute the priorities for action. desired requisites and cannot be provided profes- These may not be new issues since they find men- sional training. This aspect of resource constraint tion in the Bali, the Corbett and the Caracas Action will be discussed in greater detail under the rele- Plans, spanning a period of 10 years, but the very vant item. Thirdly, and perhaps most importantly,

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 89 the absence of professionalism results from very financial resources as government agency bud- inadequate remuneratory levels, especially for the getary support is generally inadequate. The result is field executive staff. Apart from the PA that available resources are spread too thinly. manager/director and possibly his assistant, the Therefore, in the given situation three policy options remaining staff who are actually charged with imple- are available: (1) continue with the present system menting all management prescriptions, including while making efforts to obtain enhanced fund alloca- protection enforcement, are very poorly paid. Such tions; (2) prioritise PAs on the basis of their conser- low levels of remuneration are disincentives to vation values and/or threats faced by them and attracting the right talent with suitable qualifications direct available funds to the high priority areas; (3) and experience. Moreover, their career paths do not seek supplementary funds from other sources, includ- allow them to rise to the manager level even if they ing international agencies. Efforts must be made on possess the right aptitude and acquire the relevant all three fronts but the third option seems to be experience and expertise. This factor is again a dis- emerging as a major strategy for financing PAs. incentive to their acquiring the necessary training or It is reported that 22 countries have, so far, qualifications as a means of career advancement. established trust funds, also known as 'National Fourthly, training facilities are mainly aimed at the Environmental Funds'. As these trust funds are manager level staff. The WII does offer a certificate administered independently and are able to garner course for the supervisory level (Range Officer) but funds from a variety of national and international there is no specialised training programme in the sources, they offer steady and substantial sources of region for lower levels, who in some cases are funding. Examples of trust funds in the region sup- exposed only to the basics of forestry training. porting PA development activities are: The Pakistan All the above mentioned are fundamental Wildlife Conservation Foundation, The Bhutan Trust issues requiring urgent consideration to improve PA for Environmental Conservation, and The King management efficiency. Organizational restructur- Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation, Nepal. ing is essential to develop a permanent cadre of PA Greater resources are certain to become available management professionals at all levels who should in the near future as a result of the Rio agreements be offered higher salaries and service benefits. On- through sources like the Global Environment site training should be provided to the lower level Facility, the funding mechanism to be established field staff by a team of trainers from institutes such under the Convention for the Conservation of as WII who could travel from area to area to impart Biological Diversity, and several other multilateral specialised training through appropriately designed and bilateral international funding agencies, so it training modules. Professional training facilities would be advantageous for all the countries in the available within the region (e.g. WII) should be bet- region to establish such trust funds. ter utilised because they are both cost effective and Trust funds should be independent with both relevant to the local conditions. The mobile seminar government and non-government representatives as organized by WII a few years ago with support well as representatives of special interest groups on from UNESCO should be made a regular feature the governing board to ensure unbiased considera- with greater coverage of representative PAs in the tion of proposals. Prominent NGOs in each country region including the mountain, desert, coastal, can take the lead in establishing such trust funds in marine and forest ecosystems. collaboration with their government. Moreover, there is also justification for establishing a Regional 4.2 Financing Issues Trust Fund, possibly under the aegis of CNPPA if it This is perhaps the single most important factor decides to establish a permanent presence in this which has wide ramifications, affecting every region. The advantages of a regional fund would aspect of PA management. Starting from manage- be to support activities of inter-country significance ment planning to research and monitoring, the e.g. transborder PAs, or support certain activities of entire gamut of PA management issues are influ- high priority to the CNPPA in selected PAs of the enced by the availability and level of funding. In region. A danger to guard against, however, would fact, without funding there can be no capacity be the possible withdrawal or reduction of govern- building and without management capability avail- ment budgetary support to the PAs in the face of lib- able, funds cannot be efficiently utilised. As men- eral funding by the trust fund(s). Such sources tioned earlier, PA management authorities through- should only be viewed as additional and supple- out the region suffer from a chronic shortage of mentary to the government effort.

90 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION The trust funds, in addition to principal contri- a specialised training programme with FAO-UNDP butions from international funding agencies, should assistance in PA Ecodevelopment Planning. Full also be able to tap sources within the country such advantage needs to be taken of such facilities with- as the business sector, industry and corporations, in the region as a means of capacity building. funds generated by the PAs through tourism, other Environmental NGOs will have to play a income generating activities and so on. One of the major role in the constituency building effort. Local recommendations of the Caracas Action Plan is to self-government institutions should also be used as levy a charge on hydroelectric generating facilities vehicles for this purpose: for example, in India the which benefit from the watershed protection ser- Panchayati Raj institutions have recently been vices provided by the PAs. With the private sector strengthened through a constitutional amendment now getting involved in the power sector, this innov- and enactment of relevant legislations. A variety of ative strategy for generating revenue is a distinct local area and rural development schemes and pro- possibility. Therefore, a variety of strategies need to grammes have been entrusted for implementation to be considered for increasing financing and generat- the village panchayats and other intermediate and ing revenues to support the PA management efforts. district level people's institutions. The possibility of As mentioned earlier, availability of adequate entrusting some PA management activities, such as funds is crucial to every aspect of capacity building border patrolling/protection, tourism related facili- for PAs. Preparation of management plans and their ties etc. to such people's institutions should be con- implementation is constrained due to a lack of finan- sidered seriously as a means of enlisting their sup- cial resources. Similarly, infrastructure development port. Similarly, rehabilitation of degraded forest cannot be undertaken, nor can research and moni- areas through people's institutions (Village Forest toring facilities and programmes be established. Protection Committees) has achieved notable suc- Although these are also thrust areas of the capacity cess under the Joint/Participatory Forest building effort, they will not be discussed here in fur- Management initiative in many parts of India. ther detail as they are chiefly influenced by the avail- Therefore, this concept can easily be extended to ability or otherwise of adequate finances. PAs, with certain modifications. The political leadership is another very 4.3 Constituency Building important segment of the society which needs to More effort needs to be directed towards eliciting be developed as a support group. Forums like the public support for PAs in the region. General Parliamentary and Legislative Environmental awareness levels about the need for and value of Forums need to be established and activated as a PAs is very low, partly due to the fact that educa- means of educating politicians. This is necessary tion/literacy levels are correspondingly low and to bring conservation on the agendas of the politi- much of the population is rural-based. Therefore, cal parties. The local leadership in particular efforts also need to be directed towards these two needs to be won over and requested to use their fronts, in addition to the other target groups. Apart influence for getting enhanced resources for the from the general public, specific target groups PAs, resisting adverse developmental threats etc. would be the political leadership, local resident Therefore, developing an effective constituency in populations and special interest groups such as favour of PAs can contribute greatly towards their NGOs, adventure/recreation groups (such as c o n s e r v a t i o n . mountaineering, trekking, rafting etc.) and business groups, particularly in the service sector such as 4.4 Protection Aspects tourism, hotels, transport, and others which benefit These, like financing issues, are chronic problems directly from the PAs. for PAs, particularly in developing countries with Local community participation in PA affairs high population densities which are rural-based and their deriving economic benefits from them and dependent upon the natural resource base for would be the surest method of building up a strong their livelihood and survival. Moreover, the attrac- constituency in favour of PAs which would also help tions of high economic returns from forest and in resisting outside threats. PA ecodevelopment wildlife products has led to increased poaching strategies need to be planned and implemented for activities, which can be successfully countered only this purpose so that the local people realize the rel- by adequate capacity. Armed conflicts and insur- evance of PA conservation to their livelihood and gency related threats have lately added yet another economy. The WII, Dehra Dun has recently started dimension to PA protection. Several instances have

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 91 come to light where terrorists/insurgents have used To promote excellence in PA management, PAs as hideouts and for generating revenue through CNPPA should consider instituting a system of region- wildlife and timber poaching. With limited man- al awards for the best managed PA, for outstanding power and financial resources at their disposal, PA services by PA personnel, acts of valour etc. It can authorities are ill-equipped to deal with such emerg- also recognize certain PAs in the region as 'Centres ing challenges. of Excellence' for a particular field of management or A multi-pronged approach is, therefore, for specialization in a particular ecological setting required to deal with such protection issues. Firstly, e.g. deserts, mountains, coastal, marine, rainforest as pointed out earlier, local village level institutions etc. Such centres of excellence can then be used for should be constituted and part of the protection training of personnel from other PAs in the region in funds transferred to them for protection enforcement relevant aspects of management. With most of the and intelligence gathering activities. Secondly, the Rio conventions and agreements providing for the PA authorities can even consider entering into a transfer of substantial financial resources to the devel- dialogue with the leaders of insurgent outfits and oping world, CNPPA through its presence can ensure convince them not to damage the forest and wildlife that adequate resources are transferred and effective- resources. Thirdly, effective anti-poaching capability ly utilised for strengthening PA management capabili- needs to be developed through the provision of ty in the region. Thus there are many areas of PA trained personnel who are also adequately management in which international assistance is equipped with arms and provided with modern indispensable and needs to be stepped up manifold communication facilities. Protection task forces, to achieve the desired levels of management capabil- comprising ex-servicemen, can also be raised on ity in the region. the pattern of the ecological task forces in India which have proved very effective in undertaking 5. Conclusion afforestation projects in ecologically difficult areas Progress in developing management capability for such as deserts and mountains. By doing so, the PAs in the South Asia region has not been very sat- military training of these ex-servicemen can be gain- isfactory. Moreover, given the existing demograph- fully utilised in anti-insurgency/poaching operations ic pressures and the levels of inputs into this effort within the PAs prone to such threats. PA administra- there is not likely to be any significant improvement tive authorities at the national levels will have to in the near future unless investments are stepped up take the lead in formulating and promoting such on all fronts. At the same time new management innovative schemes. challenges are emerging in a region which is characterized by extreme socio-cultural diversity, eco- 4.5 International Assistance nomic disparities and different political systems. Assistance from international agencies and organi- These are developing countries and there are many zations is crucial to the capacity building task in competing demands for the scarce financial this region, as should be evident from this discus- resources, which are mainly channelised into the sion. The principal area of assistance is the provi- core sectors of development. sion of technical expertise through training and con- A concerted effort is, therefore, required to sultancy, and financial assistance to support man- bring conservation firmly onto the political and agement and development efforts. Other forms developmental agenda by building up an effective would include facilitating greater regional coopera- constituency of various support groups. tion in PA issues. Although regional forums such as Conservation in general and PA conservation in the South Asian Association for Regional particular, should not be viewed in isolation from Cooperation do exist, PA conservation issues can the process of socio-economic development. They be better addressed through a specialised body are both complementary and supportive of each such as CNPPA and therefore a suggestion has other and constitute the bedrock of sustainable been made for a permanent presence in this region. development. Programmes of poverty alleviation, lit- Such a presence can promote greater advocacy of eracy, population control etc., are very relevant PA concerns and oversee the implementation of var- and contribute directly to conservation efforts and, ious policies and guidelines. With the recommend- therefore, need to be integrated and closely coordi- ed decentralization of CNPPA's management struc- nated with nature conservation programmes. ture it would also be possible to monitor various In the post Rio era substantial obligatory finan- developments more closely. cial resources are certain to flow into the region

92 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION from the industrialised nations and various interna- MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. 1986. R e v i e w tional organizations. Suitable national and regional of the Protected Areas System in the Indo- institutional mechanisms must be established to cap- Malayan Realm. Prepared for CNPPA/IUCN ture these funds and direct them to the task of in collaboration with UNEP. 284pp. capacity building of PAs. Rather than depend upon Panwar, H.S. 1994. Protected Areas for the technical expertise and facilities in the devel- Biodiversity Conservation in India: Problems oped world, which are in many cases inappropri- and Prospects. Wildlife Institute of India, ate to the local conditions, countries of the region Dehra Dun. should aim at developing indigenous and regional Panwar, H.S. 1991. A Review of Progress of the expertise and training facilities, in addition to fully Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. W I I , utilizing the existing resources in this field. Dehra Dun. Future challenges in PA development will con- IUCN-CNPPA. 1994. Parks: Financing Protected sist of deciding 'how' to deal with a particular situa- Areas. Vol. 4, No. 2. tion rather than 'what' to do, which is fairly well IUCN-CNPPA. 1993. Newsletter, Number 62. known by now. Innovation will be the key to suc- IUCN-CNPPA. 1993. Newsletter, Number 61 cess and local solutions more relevant to the particu- IUCN, UNEP & WWF. 1991. Caring for the Earth - lar conditions in the region. It is important that A Strategy for Sustainable Living. G l a n d , CNPPA play a more active role to promote, facili- Switzerland. tate and monitor PA development activities within IUCN. 1993. IUCN Bulletin, Vol 24(3). Gland, the region. For this purpose it should seriously con- Switzerland. sider separating the South and South-East Asia IUCN. 1993. IUCN Bulletin, Vol. 24(2). Gland, regions into two and establish a permanent region- Switzerland. al presence in South Asia, preferably in India, IUCN. 1987. The Bali Action Plan. CNPPA, IUCN, which should be distinct from and in addition to the Gland, Switzerland. existing regional office of IUCN. Hopefully then, a IUCN. 1985. Conserving Asia's Natural Heritage. brighter picture will emerge in the next review of Gland, Switzerland. the PA system of the South Asia region. UNEP & UNDP. 1990. World Resources 1990-91. A Report by the World Resources Institute. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Oxford University Press, New York. Kothari, A., Pande, P., Singh, S. and Variava, D. UNDP. 1991. Human Development Report. Oxford 1988. Management of National Parks University Press, New York. and Sanctuaries in India. Indian Institute of World Bank. 1993. India - Policies and Issues in Public Administration, New Delhi. 298pp. Forest Sector Development.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 93 94 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Future Priorities for Protected Areas in South Asia

Samar Singh World Wide Fund for Nature India (Paper presented by Mr John Joseph)

Almost 10 years ago in February 1985, the first full ● Monitor the implementation of the Corbett meeting of the members of this commission from 12 Action Plan and update at future Indo- countries of the Indo-Malayan realm took place in the Malayan working sessions of CNPPA. (Action picturesque natural setting of the Corbett National by IUCN). Park in India, to review the status of Protected Areas In retrospect, the emphasis on monitoring was in this region. It was the first such in-depth review on indeed appropriate. The negligible attention given the subject. At the end of five days of hard work, the to this aspect in the past decade is both sad and then Chairman, CNPPA, Harold Eidsvik, described unfortunate. The fact that we are meeting after near- the meeting as 'a most productive one'. The major ly 10 years is in itself a poor reflection on the noble output of the meeting was the Corbett Action Plan, intentions expressed at Corbett. In this context, the which was the first such exercise for the Protected opening statement of the Corbett Action Plan is wor- Areas network of the Indo-Malayan realm. thy of note: "the next 10 years provide what may The Plan laid down a set of five main goals. be the last chance to achieve significant additions Under each goal, several objectives and activities to the world's network of Protected Areas" and also to be carried out at the national and international that "the situation is particularly critical in South levels were identified and set down. These provided and East Asia, where rapidly increasing human the general direction and guidelines as well as a populations are exerting unprecedented pressure kind of check-list for necessary actions to improve on some of the richest and most diverse living natur- the expansion and management of PAs in the coun- al resources on earth". tries of the region, no doubt to be modified and There is little doubt that the situation as it applied in accordance with the situation and stands today, 10 years since the Corbett Action requirement of each country. Plan was formulated, gives no cause for satisfaction I had felt then, and do more so now, that Goal or complacency. On the contrary, the situation is 5 of the Corbett Action Plan, which pertained to the definitely more critical than ever before, and I have monitoring of the Action Plan's implementation, was no doubt that one of the principal reasons for this is crucial. The emphasis was on continuous monitor- that we have collectively not lived up to the expec- ing of the relevant activities set down in the Action tations and intentions agreed upon at Corbett. We Plan. For this purpose, the following action points have lost precious time by neither undertaking sus- had been identified at the national level: tained follow-ups nor monitoring implementation at ● Promote the implementation of the Corbett the national and international levels. It is not the Action Plan through wide publicity among citi- purpose of this paper to apportion blame or respon- zen groups and government departments. sibility for this serious lapse. The crux of the matter ● Contribute to international coordination by is that unless all concerned take the follow-up and keeping IUCN/CNPPA informed about monitoring stages seriously and ensure proper actions contributing to the Corbett Action Plan. implementation of the agreed activities, convening ● In each country the non-governmental conser- such meetings or conferences and preparing further vation organizations should monitor implemen- strategies and action plans is an exercise in futility. tation of the Corbett Action Plan. It is necessary, therefore, to reiterate that the first And, at the international level: and foremost priority for any serious action in the ● Promote the implementation of the Corbett future is scrupulous adherence to Goal 5 of the Action Plan through wide publicity in the Corbett Action Plan — i.e. continuous and rigorous region and internationally. (Action by IUCN). monitoring of implementation. To ensure this, a

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 95 proper mechanism for such monitoring, along with has actually resulted in alienating the local commu- the requisite process and institutional structures, nities, arousing their hostility towards the concept of needs to be worked out at both the national and PAs and the species which they seek to preserve. international levels. It has become increasingly clear that PAs can- At Corbett in 1985 in a paper titled A n not be protected without the active support of the Overview of the Conservation Status of the indigenous people living within and around them. National Parks and Protected Areas of the What needs to be defined, however, is the role that Indo-Malayan Realm. I had stated that: they can play in PA management and protection. "The major threats to the continuation of Given the restrictions imposed on forest use the protected areas of the realm, as well within national parks and sanctuaries under the as much of the rest of the world, come not existing laws, at least in India, a practical way by from within the areas but from the human which local people's antagonism towards PAs can pressures outside. It is to these threats that be overcome, and their cooperation and participa- conservationists must increasingly address tion elicited for PA management and protection, is themselves. Conservation must no longer by 'ecodevelopment,' also referred to as 'integrated be seen as an alienation of rights of the conservation and development'. The term ecodevel- rural people, but as a positive factor in the opment essentially refers to the strategy of protect- long-term process. But this requires careful ing PAs by recognising that the local people have planning with considerably greater inputs biomass, income and other dependencies on the than appears on the surface. natural resources within the PAs which are sought Perhaps three distinctive fields of endeav- to be protected. These dependencies manifest them- our can be identified as being crucial in selves in activities like grazing, fuelwood collection, this major thrust to solving the human etc. If the needs of the local people can be met by dimension of conservation. The first is to providing them with viable alternatives, the conflict achieve a greater awareness of the impor- between them and PA managers can be minimized. tance of the PAs network at all levels of Much of the latter's hostility can also be overcome society from the international to the rural by adequately compensating crop damage, and populations themselves. Second, there is human and livestock death and injury. the need to involve local people in conser- The management of PAs (of which ecodevelop- vation and to plan conservation so as to ment should be considered an integral part) needs stimulate rural development. Third, we to be carried out in a way in which there is greater must demonstrate conservation benefits participation of the local communities. This will lead practically, a show-by-results campaign. to greater support for the PAs. Various ways in This applies to education of conservation which participation of people can be enlisted are: cadres and the training of managers just ● Providing them with direct employment for car- as much as of the rural people." rying out work such as soil and moisture conser- It is my considered view that this statement vation, fire protection, wildlife protection, etc. and the priorities indicated therein are as valid ● Recruiting them as PA staff. now, as ever before. Hence, instead of reinventing ● Sharing with them the biomass which may be the wheel, which is not really necessary in any generated through the management of grass- case, I intend to reiterate and elaborate on the lands or through removal of exotic plantations same theme. from certain PAs. Taking the second point about the involvement ● Employing the revenues generated through of the local people first, it is becoming increasingly activities such as ecotourism within and clear that conservation of biological diversity within around the PAs for the benefit of the local PAs cannot be carried out without recognising and community in a participatory manner accord- fulfilling the bonafide needs of the local people. ing to the activities identified by them. PA managers have traditionally tried to dis- ● Involving the local people in decision-making charge their responsibilities in accordance with the at the PA management level. This involvement prevailing policy of keeping people out of PAs with is especially crucial in making decisions per- the assistance of aids such as fences, guards, guns, taining to the prevention of damage to crops etc. While this strategy may have been successful in and livestock as well as to human injuries and a few instances and for a certain period of time, it deaths.

96 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION ● By establishing institutions where local people aimed at all sections of the society can help over- can participate in identifying the sites where come this and build up a constituency in support of PAs can and/or should be set up, their area PAs, which, in turn, will ensure the long-term sur- and boundaries should be, and where work vival of PAs in the Indo-Malayan realm. on related issues can continue. Environmental education programmes are the At present, ecodevelopment or integrated stepping stones to capacity building for the protec- conservation and development projects are being tion of PAs. However, if these programmes are to initiated in the Indo-Malayan region. If these pro- have an impact, they too must be designed through jects succeed in reducing and/or removing pres- a process which is participatory, and integrated not sure on the PAs around which they are centred, only into formal educational structures, but also into then the 'show-by-results campaign' which I have informal ones. mentioned earlier needs to be set into motion. At the same time, different sections of society Success stories, if widely publicised, will go a should be targeted by appropriate environmental long way towards convincing the general public education programmes. For instance, it would be that the conflicts between conservation and devel- more appropriate to inform local rural communities opment, which in any case exist only in the short of the better soil conditions or water regimes that run, can be resolved in a manner that allows the arise out of the existence of PAs. For urban target objectives of both to be met. This would help in groups on the other hand, it may be better to not only strengthening and consolidating the exist- emphasise PAs' aesthetic value. The benefits of bio- ing PAs network, but would also allow for the diversity conservation also need to be clearly expansion of the PAs network in the Indo-Malayan explained to both the local as well as the distant r e a l m . urban communities. One important reason why PAs are threatened While action needs to be taken on a broad today is that there is a lack of awareness among range of issues after a comprehensive action plan is the general public about the role of PAs in the envi- developed, the priorities which must be emphasised ronment as well as in a nation's economy. in order to extend public support for PAs, are the Launching multi-media awareness programmes ones discussed above.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 97 98 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Future Priorities for Investment in Protected Areas in South Asia

Hikmat Nasr World Bank1

1. Introduction it suggests that initial efforts should help support the It is well known that the South Asia region is establishment and maintenance of PA systems by marked by great geographic and biological diversi- promoting policy change, incorporating local peo- ty. The region includes the world's largest mountain ple into Protected Area management, and mobiliz- system, rich rainforest complexes, deserts, coral ing financial resources for conservation and protec- reefs and mangrove areas, and encompasses seg- tion. Broadly, four key areas for priority action are ments of two of the world's eight biogeographic recognized. divisions, as well as the Indian Ocean. These characteristics account for great species diversity, with 2.1 National Programmes India being among the 12 so-called 'megadiversity' Since every country in South Asia has PAs of inter- countries. national significance, most of which are under The region is home to over a billion people, a threat, national programs to protect biodiversity are figure that is estimated to increase by two-thirds vital. Given that the value of threatened resources within the next 35 years. Pressure on the region's and their link to economic activity is uncertain and biodiversity is therefore intense, and will continue to that all countries require additional technical and grow. It is also clear that people cannot conserve financial support to protect their biological natural resources if this is in conflict with their imme- resources, there must be a regional strategy (to be diate survival needs. developed at this meeting) that strives to identify The challenge in the region then, is to con- and protect resources of national importance within serve as much of the region's biological resources each country. as possible while reconciling people's needs as well. 2.2 Models to Follow Investments in the region should focus on pro- 2. Biodiversity Conservation gramme development rather than exclusively on the protection of specific sites. Obviously, when sites of Priorities for the Region global significance are identified, a major effort The findings and recommendations of the World should be made to protect them. This is particularly Bank's publication Conserving Biological important in countries with limited institutional D i v e r s i t y : A Strategy in the Asia-Pacific Region capacity, or in areas under very severe threat. In (1992), which was reviewed at the 1991 the South Asia region in general, however, there is Indo-Malayan Protected Areas Workshop in widespread respect and reverence for nature and Bangkok, as well as by several international an emerging willingness to support conservation if NGOs, provides the basis for the Bank's biodiver- social and financial obstacles can be overcome. sity work in the region. Therefore, primary attention should be given to sup- The strategy accepts the position that setting porting policy systems, promoting linkages between up comprehensive and well-managed PA systems is small-scale village-based development and conser- likely to be the most practical way to preserve the vation, mobilizing financial resources, and produc- greatest amount of biodiversity and the ecological ing model projects rather than simply concentrating processes that define and mould it. For this reason, on protecting single sites.

1. The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author and should not in any manner be attributed to the World Bank or its affiliated organizations.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 99 2.3 The Economic Viewpoint oration with bilateral agencies and national and Parallel efforts should also be made to conserve bio- international NGOs and academic institutions. diversity in areas intended for economic purposes, The World Bank is currently developing a particularly agriculture and other landscape activi- paper on biodiversity conservation, highlighting its ties. If the region does attain the IUCN-recommend- areas of current involvement as well as of future ed goal of bringing 10% of its land area under pro- emphasis. tection, what will happen to biodiversity in the other The heightened support for biodiversity conser- 90%? And how will these affect the PAs them- vation in client countries is illustrated by the trend in selves? From a biological point of view, PAs that global financing for biodiversity within the Bank's become 'isolated' islands amid agriculture and natural resource management projects, particularly human settlements, invariably result in a progressive those directed at agriculture and forestry. For exam- erosion of genetic diversity. Multiple-use agriculture ple, in the period between 1984 to 1991, 4.5% or or improved management of watersheds and forests US$ 155 million of the Bank's global forestry lend- around PAs can offer opportunities for extending ing constituted direct support for National Parks and the range of biodiversity protection while achieving other PA activities. During the period 1992 to economic objectives. Similarly, regional landscape 1994, 11.3% or US$ 281 million of forestry lending strategies are necessary to protect wetlands and was for PAs and National Parks (Progress Report on marine ecosystems, areas that have not received World Bank GEF Operations, June - July 1994). serious attention in the past.

2.4 People's Organizations 4. Bank Involvement in Concerted efforts by governments and local and the Region international NGOs are also needed to increase The Bank's support for biodiversity conservation in public awareness of the importance and value of the South Asia region focuses on three key areas: biodiversity. To enhance these efforts, it is neces- (1) investment lending; (2) strategy formulation; and sary to strengthen developing countries' NGOs and (3) regional studies. grass roots organizations and promote their participation in biodiversity policy-making and planning. 4.1 Investment Lending Although overall bank lending for biodiversity con- 3. Biodiversity and the servation in the South Asia region is comparatively limited, there are indications that countries in the World Bank region are becoming more inclined towards borrow- Donor support, of course, remains important for ing for biodiversity conservation. There are currently promoting biodiversity conservation in the region. nine World Bank investment projects in forestry and The World Bank has, in the past few years, made natural resources in South Asia (excluding GEF pro- great strides in supporting policies, economic and jects) that provide US$ 30 million for PAs and biodi- sector work and investment projects related to biodiversity conservation activities. Although precise fig- versity conservation. Much of this growth preceded ures are not available at the moment, future projects and now supplements the Bank's involvement in the for PAs in the region are likely to include approxi- Global Environment Facility, and has resulted both mately another US$ 25 million within the next year from increasing national and international concern or two. A list of current Bank lending projects in the about biodiversity and rapidly evolving Bank opera- region, at the preparation as well as implementation tional policies (e.g. wildlands, natural habitats, stages, is given in Table 1. environmental assessment, forestry and water In India, the Bank, is committed to supporting resources management). At present, the basic ele- the country's efforts to sustainably manage its large ments of the Bank's biodiversity conservation work forest estate, and it will assist a number of state- programme include policy formulation and guid- wide forestry projects in the country. So far, four ance; country economic and sector studies; prepa- state-wide forestry projects are under implementa- ration of country biodiversity conservation strategies tion, and a number of additional projects are under and action plans; the design of specific regular preparation or being considered for future funding. lending projects that include activities for biodiversi- Most bank-financed forestry projects in India would ty protection; and client country training and include between 10% to 15% of the total project advice. In all these activities, the Bank seeks collab- investment for PA activities. In Pakistan, rehabilita-

100 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Table 1. South Asia Region: Bank Biodiversity Conservation Components Under Implementation and Proposed

Country Fiscal Project Component Cons. Total Year Co m p o n . Project Cost Cost (Est. $m) (Est. $m) Bangladesh 1992 Forest Resources Management Developing and strengthening environmental 2.3 58.7 capacity within the Department of Forestry; biodiversity assessments and establishment of data- bases; protected area investments in Sundarbans; and development of management plans in other PAs.

Bhutan 1993 Forestry III Developing environmental monitoring capability - 8.9

India 1992 West Bengal Forestry Conservation of biodiversity, including protection of 2.6 39.0 rhino, leopard and wetlands, and management

1992 Maharastra Forestry Establishment of a protected areas system; 7.2 124.0 institutional strengthening; ecodevelopment; notification and legal settlement for priority protected areas

1994 Forestry Research, Education Integrated conservation and development activities 5.3 56.0 and Extension in two protected areas; institutional strengthening and conservation research

1994 Andhra Pradesh Forestry Establishment of a protected area system; 6.5 84.0 institutional strengthening, ecodevelopment and improved park management

1995 Madhya Pradesh Forestry Establishment of a protected area system; improved 9.6 67.3 management in 24 protected areas; institutional strengthening; ecodevelopment

1996 Bihar Forestry State-wide biodiversity action plan; improved 16.0 95.0 management of 12 protected areas; integrated conservation and development; institutional development and research

1996 Kerala Forestry (to be determined) tbd tbd

1998 Uttar Pradesh Forestry (to be determined) tbd tbd

Nepal 1995 Forestry IV Developing and strengthening environmental 1. 5 23 . 0 capability; biodiversity assessment and database establishment; and preparation of management plans Pakistan 1993/4 Environmental Protection & Institutional strengthening of federal and provincial 1.5 62.3 Resource Conservation Environmental Protection Agencies and natural resource rehabilitation, including rangelands and wildlife populations

1994 Balochistan Natural Resource Hazarganj-Chiltan National Park development; 1.5 17.8 Management institutional strengthening; inventory and infrastructure Sri Lanka 1990 Forest Sector Development Establishing an environmental unit within the forest 1.3 31.4 department; developing a database; drafting environmental guidelines for conservation

1996 Environmental Action 1 Biodiversity Conservation Fund in support of tbd tbd training, public awareness; participatory programme; and university and NGO research

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 101 tion of rangelands and wildlife populations and ments are efficient and cost effective. In particular, improved management of key Protected Areas are information is required: (1) to identify geographical components in two Bank-financed projects. The distribution of important sites where national and Bank's forestry portfolio in the region also includes regional priorities overlap with global interests; (2) the development of institutional capabilities for bio- to make explicit and then test the hypotheses on diversity assessment and PA management planning human-biodiversity interaction that underly ongoing in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, and the development or planned PA policies and activities; (3) to define of environmental monitoring capability in Bhutan. appropriate tools and approaches to link investments in socio-economic development around PAs 4.2 Strategy Formulation with biodiversity conservation; and (4) given the Recently, Bank economic and sector studies have limits of resources available, identify the most cost- examined biodiversity issues in a number of Asian effective ways to conserve the greatest amount of countries, including India. The Bank has supported biodiversity and ensure financial sustainability of the development of National Environmental Action investments. Acquiring this information will entail Plans or their variants in all the countries of the collaboration between governments, local and inter- region. The NEAPs include treatment of biodiversity national NGOs, and donors. conservation and have provided valuable inputs into country economic work. Given its mandate in 6. Conclusion policy analysis and sector work, the Bank is well South Asia's rapid loss of biological resources placed to contribute towards the preparation of affects us all and addressing it is a responsibility country biodiversity action plans (BAPs) and is that we all share. These issues cannot be resolved working with the governments of Pakistan and Sri around the conference table, but only by collective Lanka in this respect. Within the Asia-Pacific region, action between national governments, local and the Bank has already assisted Indonesia and China international NGOs, donor agencies and through in producing BAPs. the participation of local communities. The Bank, for its part, intends to continue supporting biodiversity 4.3 Regional Studies conservation in the region through its economic and With the assistance of Dutch funds, the Bank is updat- sector work and, most importantly, through financing the Indo-Malayan Review of Protected Areas ing for PAs and projects that integrate people's (MacKinnon and MacKinnon,1986). This will serve needs with conservation. to (1) update the database on the status of PAs in the Indo-Malayan realm as a basis for re-evaluating and 7. World Bank and Related revising regional conservation priorities; and (2) Publications on Biodiversity enhance existing database management and provide training in its application to conservation manage- Conservation ment problems in order to establish a standardized Bhatnagar, B. and Williams, A. C. (eds). 1992. approach to storing, retrieving and analyzing biodi- Participatory Development and the World versity information for the realm. The latter is to be Bank: Potential Directions for Change. World achieved through sub-regional workshops to build Bank Discussion Paper No. 183. consensus among the countries on priorities for con- Braatz, S., Davis, G. Shen, S. and Rees, C. 1992. servation action. The update is timely in the light of Conserving Biological Diversity: A Strategy for the numerous initiatives which have recently been Protected Areas in the Asia-Pacific Region. undertaken in the region such as NEAPs, numerous Technical Paper No. 193. GEF projects and the recent Biodiversity Convention Brandon, C. and Ramankutty, R. 1993. Toward an which calls for each participating country to develop Environmental Strategy for Asia. World Bank biodiversity action plans or strategies. Discussion Paper No. 224. Brown, K., Pearce, D. Perrings, C. and Swanson, T. 5. Critical Questions Related to 1993. Economics and the Conservation of Global Biological Diversity. G l o b a l Biodiversity Conservation Environment Facility Working Paper No. 2. Despite the increasing support for biodiversity con- 19 9 3 . servation in the region, there are critical questions Castilleja, G., Poole, P.J. and Geisler, C.C. 1993. that still need to be answered to ensure that invest- The Social Challenge of Biodiversity

102 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Conservation. GEF Working Paper No. 1. Larson, J. 1993. Financial Mechanisms for Davis, S. H. (ed.) 1993. Indigenous Views of Land Sustainable Conservation. AFTES Working and the Environment. World Bank Discussion Paper No. 1. Paper No. 188. Ledec, G. and Goodland, R. 1988. W i l d l a n d s : Goodland, R. 1982. Tribal Peoples and Economic Their Protection and Management in Economic Development: Human Ecologic Considerations. Development. King, K. 1993. The Incremental Costs of Global Olson, D.M. and Dinerstein, E. 1994. A s s e s s i n g Environmental Benefits. Global Environment the Conservation Potential and Degree of Facility Working Paper No. 5. Threat Among Ecoregions of Latin America Kiss, A. (Ed.) 1990. Living with Wildlife: Wildlife and the Caribbean: A Proposed Landscape Resource Management Local Participation in Ecology Approach. LATEN Dissemination Africa. Technical Paper No. 130. Note No. 10. Land Resources Unit, Asia Technical Department. Wells, M., Brandon, K. and Hannah, L. 1992. 1992. Strategy for Forest Sector Development People and Parks: Linking Protected Area in Asia. Technical Paper No. 182. Management with Local Communities.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 103 104 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Towards the Next Century – Funding Mechanisms for Protected Areas in South Asia

David Sheppard Head, Protected Areas Programme, IUCN

1. Introduction 3. Options for Financing This paper will cover three broad areas: Protected Areas ● The issue of financing Protected Areas — why Some of the options for financing Protected Areas is it important? include : ● Examination of some of the options for financing PAs on both the broad scale and the individual site level. 3.1 Private Sector Involvement ● Identification of important principles for In many parts of the world, the assistance of the pri- financing PAs. vate sector for the establishment and management My aim is to provide a broad overview paper of PAs is vital. Such support can range from direct which summarizes the current global situation and financial assistance for park development to direct derives valuable lessons for South Asia. management of PAs by private agencies. In the Caribbean, for example, a major hotel has provid- 2. Why is Financing Protected ed direct support for the development of a national park in the British Virgin Islands. While such sup- Areas Important? port is generally site-specific and ad hoc, more sys- Adequate funding is essential if PAs are to survive tematic cooperation programmes are in the into the next century. PAs have traditionally been pipeline. managed by government agencies. In many parts Although there are limited examples to date of of the world, the level of funding available for gov- successful private sector management of PAs, a ernment agencies is diminishing and governments number of instances are emerging. For instance, the in general are being asked to do more with less. Kasanka National Park in Zambia, Africa, is man- Looking into a crystal ball, I would predict that not aged entirely by a private trust under a lease only is this funding situation unlikely to change as arrangement from the government for a 10-year we move into the next century, it is, if anything, like- period. The management of PAs by trusts has also ly to become tighter. proved successful in the Bahamas, where National In many cases, the financial constraints are Parks are managed by the Bahamas National Trust. compounded by increasing pressure on PA agen- Potential advantages of private sector involve- cies to 'pay their own way', that is, to generate ment in PAs is the relative efficiency in management more revenue to cover their capital and recurrent and economies of scale available to large compa- costs. In countries with developed PA systems, much nies. On the flip side is the need to ensure that con- has been done to implement and extend cost recov- servation objectives are not eclipsed by short-term ery systems, and recruit volunteer personnel. Where profit motives which would lead to resource degra- PA systems are less well developed, NGOs and the dation. This is particularly important considering the private sector are becoming increasingly involved fact that few private companies are currently in conservation efforts. geared up for effective conservation management. Given that finance in many parts of the world is one of the major challenges facing protected 3.2 The Involvement of NGOs areas into the next century, it is necessary to review An increasing number of NGOs are becoming the range of options available and develop involved in conservation activity around the world. approaches which are appropriate to the needs of Co-management by the government and the non- each country. government sector is one option for PA manage-

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 105 ment, and usually requires some delegation of National Park Service equivalent cost recovery fig- responsibility by the designated management ure is under 10% and the New South Wales agency to an NGO or an organized group of (Australia) National Parks and Wildlife Service fig- resources users. Many NGOs play active roles in ure is around 15%. Nevertheless the New conservation, ranging from small groups such as Hampshire Parks System provides an interesting the Solomon Islands Development Trust in the model, which may represent the future for many Solomon Islands in the Pacific to The Nature park agencies around the world. Conservancy which is directly involved in the establishment and management of some rather large 3.4 National Environment Funds Protected Areas. The King Mahendra Trust for The establishment of trust funds for environmental Nature Conservation in Nepal offers a very success- purposes, known as National Environmental Funds ful model of NGO involvement in the management (NEFs), is another recent initiative. Such funds can of an important PA. provide a flexible and unrestricted source of sup- There are a number of spin-off benefits from port for PA management. Experience has shown, the involvement of NGOs in PA management. however, that considerable effort is needed to set NGO involvement can lead to increased local sup- up a trust fund: a high level of initial capital, at port for PAs. By demonstrating local commitment least 10 times the desired annual income, is and in-kind support it can also provide an effective required for the purpose. Nevertheless, the experi- tool for external fund raising. ment has been a successful one and it is clear that Co-management requires clear agreement on trust funds have significant potential as a means of respective responsibilities of each party involved financing PA systems. and can only succeed in a climate of cooperation NEFs are a recent initiative: approximately and mutual respect. US$ 370 million has been committed to NEFs in 17 countries, including the Philippines and Bhutan, 3.3 Strengthening the Ability of since 1990. They share the characteristics of (1) governance by a board of directors; (2) capability Existing Government Structures of receiving funds from a variety of sources; (3) dis- to Generate and Retain Revenue bursal of grants to beneficiary organizations and Apart from examining alternatives to the traditional agencies. The sources from which these funds can government sector management of PAs, there is a be capitalized include contributions from donor need to examine how existing government struc- agencies, fees and various forms of levies, and tures can be strengthened in relation to revenue funding from major international NGOs such as the generation. An interesting trend in certain African World Wildlife Fund. There is some indication that countries such as Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda is donor agencies are becoming increasingly interest- the establishment of parastatal bodies, which have ed in NEFs. The Danish Parliament for instance, has a greater level of independence and autonomy than reportedly adopted a new policy in favour of more traditional government agencies particularly in their trust fund programming instead of project funding. ability to generate and retain revenue. Results to A successful example of an Environment Fund is date indicate that this approach may have great provided by the Jamaica National Park Trust Fund. potential for improving the efficiency of PA management, largely through the increased level of finan- 3.5 The Role of Donors cial security associated with this option. Donor agencies such as the World Bank and the In the United States, the New Hampshire Parks European Union play a major role in the funding of System became a self-funding agency in 1991, conservation and PA activities. For example, the which meant that the agency could retain all its Global Environmental Facility, which is the interim earnings and reinvest these in new programmes, funding mechanism for the Convention on expansion of services and increased maintenance. Biodiversity, is operated in its pilot phase jointly by Its direct source of income from fees, rents and com- the World Bank, the United Nations Development mission services is supplemented by an innovative Programme and the United Nations Environment volunteer corps and partnership programmes. The Programme. To date GEF has allocated US$ 303.5 organization is thus able to generate income in million to 54 projects in 43 countries. Excluding the excess of its operating costs. This situation, howev- global UNEP projects, all but eight of the remaining er, is the exception rather than the rule: the US projects address the needs of PAs. Two of them are

106 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION geared to establishing trust funds in Peru and avoid 'killing the goose that laid the golden egg,' it Bhutan, while 11 of the other projects also incorpo- is essential that developments associated with rate a trust fund element to provide long-term sup- tourism do not detract from the inherent value of port for activities. the PA which attracted the tourists in the first place. These projects average nearly US$ 6 million To counter this possibility, close collaboration each and can make an extremely valuable contribu- between tourist operators and Protected Area man- tion to PA management. However, in increasing lev- agers is important. Clear and explicit guidelines els of donor funding, there is, to use an Australian must also be provided about the types of tourist expression, an inherent danger of the tail wagging related activities which are appropriate in and the dog. It is vital that each country clearly define its around PAs. particular needs and priorities, preferably through a Category VI Protected Areas (Managed Use National Systems Plan for Protected Areas which Protected Areas) incorporate conservation and sus- can be the basis of the allocation of external fund- tainable development activities. There is, obviously, ing. Such a plan should clearly define the major scope for revenue generation from development issues facing PAs in that country and the priority activities in such areas, where effective and equi- programmes that are required to address them. table systems must be set up for sharing revenue However, few such plans exist, and few GEF pro- with local communities that derive benefits from the jects support their preparation. The latter could pro- PAs management. There is also a need for clear vide a significant service if it could stimulate the communication with local communities whenever preparation of such plans and ensure that future benefit sharing is to take place, which must occur at funding is allocated in accordance with the priori- all stages. ties identified in these. There is also considerable scope for donor 4. Principles For Funding agencies to further define their priorities pertaining to funding for Protected Areas. An example of this Protected Areas approach is provided by the European Union. It is clear from the above that much interest has recently been displayed in financing PAs, and this 3.6 Expansion of Funding for issue will continue to grow in importance as we Protected Areas at the Site Level move into the next century. There are some impor- There is considerable potential for increasing fund- tant lessons that can be drawn from the experience ing for PAs at the site level. However, as for all rev- to date: enue generation, here too there is a need for cau- tion. Revenue generation must be the means to 4.1 Systems Plans more effective conservation management rather The fundamental principle is that funding must relate than an end in itself. Empiricism has demonstrated to priorities at both the national and site level. the potential for revenue enhancement in increased Governments need to make concerted efforts to pre- charges for entrance and certain other services, pare National System Plans for PAs which clearly such as concession development. User fees can be identify major issues and define priorities for invest- directly correlated to the costs of management and ment. The importance of such plans is underlined by adjusted as costs change. In many countries rev- the recent rapid increase in donor funding for PAs. enue from Protected Areas is returned directly to the central treasury agency; this can be a disincentive 4.2 Diversification for an agency to increase its efforts for revenue gen- Diversified funding strategies are more effective eration programmes. The success of the parastatal than dependence on a single source of support. arrangement for managing PAs in some African countries stems partly from the agency's right to 4.3 Modification retain its revenue. A similar case is that of New The effectiveness of national PA systems can be Hampshire, cited earlier. Where possible, it is enhanced by developing a mixture of management important to have mechanisms to ensure that fees options which may include the management of PAs collected are utilised for the management of the by the private sector and NGOs. There is no one area and not returned to the central treasury. 'right' answer — each country needs to develop an Tourism focused on PAs also offers a signifi- individual system which most appropriately cant opportunity to generate revenue. However, to addresses its needs.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 107 4.4 Partnerships beyond the life of the project intervention. Partnerships among governments, NGOs and the Sustainable options such as National Environment private sector should be developed to take advan- Funds need to be examined in this context. tage of the range of financing options available and increase management capacity in general. 4.7 Working Relationships For the purpose of financing PAs, there is a need to 4. 5 Minimal Government Dependence establish close and effective relationships between One of the aims of any strategy should be to reduce national governments and donor agencies which dependence on government subventions, and with it should aim to ensure that funds are clearly allocat- the annual funding competition with other govern- ed in accordance with national priorities. ment agencies and budgetary uncertainties. 4.8 Priorities 4.6 Funding Options At the site level, there is a need to ensure that priori- Funding options which are sustainable in the long ties are addressed in a logical manner, ideally term need to be explored. Short term donor inter- through the development of a management plan. ventions have in many countries led to projects that Avenues for increasing revenue need to be build infrastructure, such as roads and buildings, explored though not at the price of destroying con- which are not possible to maintain in the long term, servation values.

108 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION Part II. A n n ex u r e s

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 109 110 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION A n n ex 1 Developing a National Biodiversity Heritage Trust Park for Dulahazara Reserve and Protected Forest, Bangladesh G. M. M. E. Karim Regional Member for Asia, IUCN

The world we live in is an ecologically and biologi- deterioration of these forests is adversely affecting cally composite whole. Every organism, through its wildlife habitats. Apart from the above mentioned evolutionary growth, is dependent on nature's bal- forest areas, there are large tracts of denuded forest ancing ecology and the earth's biosphere. lands where no afforestation or plantation pro- In his insatiable appetite for self-serving indus- gramme is in force. The gradual encroachment of trial and scientific achievement, Man has ruthlessly these barren areas into adjacent Protected, exploited natural resources and destroyed wildlife Unclassified or Reserve forests has begun to affect and forests. natural watersheds for water resources as well as Now at the threshold of the twenty-first centu- rainfall in the country and is also silting up river ry, man's very existence on this planet is imperilled. basins causing floods, devastating cyclones, and Destruction of forests, pollution of air, water and consequently, untold misery to millions of people. soil, and of all other known natural resources, has Aware of the importance of addressing the brought mankind to the brink of disaster. above problems in the nation's own future interest, In 1980, UNEP commissioned IUCN to devise a number of concerned promoters recommended a World Conservation Strategy, calling upon the that the government immediately commission a nations of the world to participate and cooperate in National Forestry and Wildlife (Policy) Council, to its implementation. promote and patronize all national environmental This strategy gives top priority to conservation societies and agencies, both governmental and of vegetation, water, air, and wildlife resources all non-governmental, working towards the achieve- with the help of local people's cooperation. All ment of similar goals. Acknowledging the national member nations have been requested to adopt this responsibility to conserve the natural resources of planning programme and various 'strategies' for the the biosphere, a proposed Trust Body offers to conservation of biological diversity and sustainable establish, among others, a pilot project at natural resources. Dulahazara, located in an ecologically suitable Bangladesh, as one of the signatories to the (Protected, Unclassified and Reserve) forest area in United Nations' environmental objectives is, there- the Fashiakhuli Forest Range, to be known as the fore, also required to honour the implementation of Dulahazara National Wildlife Heritage Trust and the IUCN programme. Safari Park. The organization also plans to set up a Bangladesh has enormous potential for conser- National Wildlife Research Institute dedicated to the vation in its wealth of primary tropical and rain research of the habitats, breeding habits, and dis- forests. These are located in the Chittagong Hill eases of those wildlife species which are immedi- Tracts in the reserve forest areas in the Shishak, ately endangered, such as the tiger, deer, water Rankhyong, Kassalong and the Subalong valleys, in fowl (e.g. the white-winged wood duck), etc. An the Fashiakhuli-Dulahazara and Jaldi Hills, the evaluation and assessment of biodiversity status has Chunati Forest in Cox's Bazaar Forest Division and already been prepared. the Sundarbans mangroves. These rich Reserve My proposal is to set up the aforementioned forests (approximately 290,974.30 hectares), park in accordance with required strategies. These Protected and Unclassified State Forests strategies, though principally aimed at the immedi- (460,655.67 hectares); as well as vast Protected, ate preservation of wildlife, are part of a long Unclassified and Acquired forests (390,287.29 term policy that would also conserve all types of hectares) all abound with innumerable wildlife forests and their resources, protect them from fur- species. However, exploitation and consequent ther deterioration and gradually increase

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 111 afforestation in Protected, Unclassified, and It is, therefore, suggested that a forest area of Reserve forest areas, as well as in the adjacent approximately 2,000 to 4,000 acres, contiguous barren forests lands (vide 6.4.2, xii-page 199 of with the existing fenced area of the Forest NCS draft report). Department's Deer Breeding Centre which includes In order to implement the above strategies to the new plantation area of 4,500 acres and conserve natural and renewable resources, field extends into the reserve forest of the Chittagong Hill studies and research into wildlife habitats, zoolo- Tracts in the Fashiakhuli Range, be officially gy, biodiversity and forestry will be conducted. As declared as the Wildlife Heritage Trust and Safari a corollary it may be necessary for the government Park by the government. This move can be effected to declare these areas as being under the purview under the Trust's viable management plan, with the of a Trust Body. Field study groups and research government permitting unhindered access to the scholars can, through the course of their activities Trust's scientific and research scholars for the pur- related to wildlife management programmes for poses of research and implementation of the pro- maintaining the area's natural and ecological bal- grammes in its first phase. ance, contribute to the growth of forest habitats In the interests of wildlife conservation, the suited to indigenous wildlife. They can also be of government should also: assistance in the implementation of people's partic- ● Permit the Trust's employees to work in collab- ipatory projects and forest conservation pro- oration with members of international environ- grammes, and develop techniques of natural mental organizations; breeding to increase and rehabilitate the wildlife ● Permit the construction of temporary and semi- p o p u l a t i o n . pucca sheds as accommodation for field In terms of priorities, the immediate strategy is research and investigating teams; to be directed towards saving endangered species, ● Adopt the recommendations based on the such as the tiger, black panther, elephant, sambur results of the Trust's field research; deer, barking deer, hog deer, wild cat, crocodile ● Subsidise the Trust with an annual grant of (marsh and estuarine), monitor lizard, rhesus mon- Taka one crore for the first five years as a key, hill mynah, mathura pheasant, white-winged token of its contribution to and participation in wood duck, red Indian jungle fowl and some the programme of the trust which is assisted, species of herons, storks and water fowls within the both financially and technologically, by its park's forest and marsh 'wetland' areas. To achieve counterpart international organizations. This this objective, the scientific conservation policy and money can be raised annually by simply levy- wildlife management projects are to be launched ing a charge of Rs 0.50 per cubic foot on the on a national-level footing. sale of forest timber and forest products in The Trust further believes that, with government Bangladesh for the cause of the conservation support on the policy, finance and management of the environment, biological diversity and fronts as well as with practical and dedicated assis- wildlife habitat as well as participatory tance from related government agencies/depart- forestry of the people around the Heritage ments, it will be able to successfully achieve its Trust Park. objectives within 10 to 15 years. ● Assist other sponsors in raising funds for the Therefore, our first and immediate conservation trust through a 'Wildlife Conservation target is the (1) tiger, (2) white-winged wood duck, National Appeal' through lottery, wildlife (3) sambur, hog deer, barking deer, (4) monitor and nature conservation films and exhibi- lizard, (5) black panther, (6) kalij (black) pheasant tions, festivals, wildlife stamps and souvenir (7) gibbon, and other rare and endangered mon- sales. Also through wildlife coinage, export keys, (8) marsh and estuarine crocodiles (9) python or exchange of non-banned or over-populat- and some snakes, as well as large varieties of rare ed wild animals to world zoos or research birds, and herons, storks and water fowls (both centres devoted to the promotion of wildlife endemic and migratory) within the safari park area. causes and reintroduction of rare species into Phasewise, therefore, the proposed priority for compatible forest areas and for the welfare the first Five-Year Programme would be the Zone A of the local people. forest areas in the Trust Park which are ecologically It has been observed, in other parts of the suitable as common habitats of the above men- world where such schemes are under implementa- tioned species. tion, that the sincere cooperation of the government

112 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION with private-cum-public and international organiza- The Body of Trustees proposed is envisaged as tions has helped (and continues to help) save many below: endangered species from extinction. Large tracts of ● Chief Patron The President or vanishing jungles have thus been afforested and the Prime Minister tropical forests saved as a national inheritance for ● Patron Donors National and future generations. International Various non-political and non-profit organiza- ● Life Members tions and international trustees like the World ● Executive Body of the Trust Wide Fund for Nature, the International Chairman Concerned Minister Waterfowl Research Bureau, the International Vice-Presidents 4-6 Research Council for Waterfowl, the International Secretary-General 1 Council for Bird Preservation (now BirdLife Under secretaries 2-3 International), IUCN-The World Conservation Treasurer 1 Union, United Nations Environment Programme Executive Body Members, MPs, and the World Bank etc. are displaying keen inter- veteran conservationists, est in helping the Third World financially and WWF, IUCN, technologically, in their research efforts and also accredited wildlife NGOs in Bangladesh, in launching funding campaigns for raising funds representatives of ministries/departments of for such projects as ours. The national counter- the government parts of international organizations are usually ini- The authorized capital of the trust would be Tk. tiated by prominent, wealthy and dedicated 15 crores, with the government contributing wildlife and nature lovers, research scholars and Tk. 1 crore annually. This would be raised form con- dedicated field workers, NGOs who raise funds tributions Tk. 0.50 paisa per cubic foot from all for- through donations, grants, etc., and operate as est timber sales of the government FIDC; and 2% non-political, non-profit, tax-exempted organiza- from all sports' arms and ammunition import costs; tions for the conservation of wildlife, biodiversity Tk. 0.25 per cinema hall ticket sales; and Tk 0.05 and forest areas in the country. from sales of each wildlife postage stamp etc., other The promoters of this Trust Body include dedi- sources and from national and internationaldonors. cated organizers of research into wildlife preser- I appeal to the government for its support for vation and nature conservation and founders of the above mentioned programmes with a request that national wildlife conservation societies, as well as a public declaration be made with relevant orders donors to the cause of wildlife and natural announcing the demarcation of the Dulahazara resource conservation and forestry development. National Wildlife Heritage Trust and Safari Park as I am is already in touch with relevant global well as the formation of the government's Board of organizations such as the WWF, IUCN, UNEP and Trustees for effective management of the above park the World Bank, who have responded positively to in the light of the guidelines set by its Executive Body my efforts and have assured me of their coopera- of Trustees and raising the required annual capital tion and support for my proposal to persuade the funds. As a lifelong wildlife lover I am prepared to government to declare the Dulahazara National make a token memorial donation of Tk. 20,000 to Wildlife Heritage Trust and Safari Park under a the Government Trust Body, when the government Government Trust Body for the conservation of for- declares this area a National Wildlife Heritage Trust est, wildlife, biodiversity and its sustainable devel- and Safari Park, to enable future generations to opment in Bangladesh. enjoy the grandeur of the forests and their wildlife.

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 113 114 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION A n n ex 2 A g e n d a

CNPPA 42nd Working Session NARC Auditorium, Islamabad, Pakistan September 21—23, 1994

21 SEPTEMBER, WEDNESDAY 0900 - Recitation from the Holy Quran 0905 - Welcoming remarks - Mr Abeedullah Jan, Inspector General of Forests, and Ms Aban Marker Kabraji, Country Representative, IUCN Pakistan 0920 - CNPPA International and Asian Region Focus and Priorities - Mr Adrian Phillips, Chair, CNPPA 09 4 0 - Objectives and Structure of the Meeting - Mr David Sheppard, Head, IUCN PAs Programme. 09 5 0 - Inaugural speech - Nawab Muhammad Yousuf Talpur, Federal Minister for Food, Agriculture and Co o p e r a t i v e s 10 0 0 - Te a

SESSION 1 - SETTING THE SCENE Chair: Dr Zafar Altaf, Secretary MINFA, Pakistan 1030 - Overview of the Protected Area coverage in South Asia - Mr Jim Paine, Protected Areas Data Unit, WCMC 1100 - Country Presentation, Bangladesh - Mr Salamat Ali 1115 - Country Presentation, India - Mr S.C. Dey 1130 - Country Presentation, Nepal - Mr John McEachern 1145 - Country Presentation, Pakistan - Mr Abeedullah Jan 12 0 0 - Country Presentation, Sri Lanka - Mr S. Medawewa 1215 - Di s c u s s i o n 1225 - Formation of drafting group for review of Corbett Action Plan, and for preparation of resolutions and recommendations 12 3 0 - Closing remarks by the Chair 12 3 5 - Lunch and prayer break

SESSION 2 - BROADENING THE TRADITIONAL FOCUS OF PAs IN SOUTH ASIA Chair: Mr Abeedullah Jan, IGF; Co-Chair: Mr Abdul Rehman Khan 1330 - Integrating Sustainable Development and Conservation: the Future for PAs in South Asia - Mr S. Medawewa, Sri Lanka 1400 - Future Issues and Challenges for Marine Protected Areas in South Asia - Dr Ranjith De Silva, Fisheries Department, Brunei Darussalam 1430 - The Application of the World Heritage Convention and the Biosphere Reserve Concept in South Asia: Future Challenges - Dr N. Ishwaran, UNESCO, Indonesia 1500 - Te a 1515 - Two concurrent small working group sessions; one focused on Marine Protected Area priorities, the other focused on Protected Areas — linkages between sustainable development and conservation. A list of discussion questions was prepared and distributed 1625 - Reports of the working groups and discussion 1655 - Closing remarks by the chair

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 115 22 SEPTEMBER, THURSDAY SESSION 3 - BUILDING COMMUNITY SUPPORT FOR PAs IN SOUTH ASIA Chair: Mr S.C. Dey, India 0900 - Involving local communities in Protected Areas in South Asia: Future Challenges Mr Sidhartha Bajracharya, Director, Annapurna Conservation Area Project, Nepal 0925 - Building Public Support for Protected Areas in South Asia - Ms Nafisa Shah, Pakistan 0950 - Biodiversity Conservation Through Local Community Participation: the Himalayan Jungle Project Experience - Mr Guy Duke, Himalayan Jungle Project, ICBP 1015 - Te a 1030 - Two small working group sessions, (with different focus), on the topic of building community support for PAs in South Asia. A list of discussion questions was distributed. 1200 - Report of the working groups and discussion 1230 - Closing remarks by the chair 1235 - Lunch and prayers break

SESSION 4 - MAKING IT WORK - CAPACITY BUILDING FOR PROTECTED AREAS IN SOUTH ASIA Chair: Mr Haroun Er Rashid, Chairman, IUCN National Committee, Bangladesh. 1330 - Towards the Next Century: Training Priorities for Protected Areas in South Asia - Mr Hemandra Panwar, Advisor on Protected Areas, Sri Lanka, (paper presented by Mr S.C. Dey, India) 1400 - Capacity Building for Protected Areas in South Asia: Future Challenges - Mr Kishore Rao, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, India 1430 - Towards the Next Century: Alternative Institutional Options for Managing Protected Areas in South Asia 1500 - Te a 1515 - Two small working group sessions (with different focus) on the topic of capacity building for Protected Areas in South Asia. A list of discussion questions was distributed. 1630 - Report of the working groups and discussion 1655 - Closing remarks by the chair

23 SEPTEMBER, FRIDAY SESSION 5 - FINANCING PROTECTED AREAS IN SOUTH ASIA - FUTURE DIRECTIONS Chair: Mr S. I. Ali, University of Karachi 0900 - Future Priorities for Protected Areas in South Asia - Mr Samar Singh, (paper presented by Mr John Joseph, India) 0925 - Future Priorities for Investment in Protected Areas in South Asia - Mr Hikmat Nasr, World Bank 0950 - Towards the Next Century: Funding Mechanisms for Protected Areas in South Asia - Mr David Sheppard, Head, IUCN Protected Areas Programme 1015 - Te a 1030 - Two small working group sessions (with different focus) on the topic of financing Protected Areas in South Asia. A list of discussion questions was distributed. 1200 - Reports of the working groups and discussion 1255 - Closing remarks by the chair 1300 - Lunch and prayers break

SESSION 6 - WHERE FROM HERE? - THE FUTURE FOR PAS AND CNPPA IN SOUTH ASIA Chair: Mr Adrian Phillips, CNPPA 1400 - Presentation of Review of the Corbett Action Plan by the drafting group and discussion. 1500 - Te a 1510 - Resolutions, recommendations and associated material by the drafting group, and discussion 1645 - Closing remarks by the chair

116 CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION A n n ex 3 List of Pa r t i c i p a n t s

September 21—23, 1994, Islamabad

SP E A K E R S DO N O R S Nawab Muhammad Yousuf Talpur, Federal Minister A. Qaiyum, World Bank for Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives Fatma Shah, UNDP Dr Zafar Altaf, Secretary, Food and Agriculture Neil Buhne, UNDP Abeedullah Jan, Inspector General of Forests Aban Marker Kabraji, Country Representative, IUCN OT H E R S Guy Duke, Himalayan Jungle Project Z. B. Mirza, Bio-tech Professionals A. L. Rao, IUCN FOREIGN PARTICIPANTS FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Adrian Phillips (UK) Ashraf Moten, Environment Section, P&D David Sheppard (Switzerland) K. M. Siddiqi, Pakistan Forest Institute Dr Fernando (Sri Lanka) Shah Alam, Tourism Division G. M. M. E. Karim (Bangladesh) G. M. Oza (India) PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT Haroun Er Rasheed (Bangladesh) Dr A. Aleem Chaudhry, Wildlife Research Institute, James Paine (UK) Pu n j a b John Joseph (India) Mohammad Yousaf Qureshi, AJK John McEachern (Nepal) Rashid Mahmood Randhawa, CDA Kishore Rao (India) Yar Mohammad Khan, NWFP Dr N. Ishwaran (Indonesia) Pedro Rosabel (Switzerland) IUCN MEMBERS Pei Shengji (Nepal) Haider Hayat, SUNGI Ranjith de Silva (Brunei) Mohammad Ayaz, SUNGI S. C. Dey (India) Dr Suleman Shaikh, SPO S. Medawewa (Sri Lanka) Tanveer Arif, SCOPE Salamat Ali (Bangladesh) Umeed Khalid, NCCW Sidartha B. Bajracharya (Nepal) Stuart Chape (Laos) IUCN COMMISSION MEMBERS W. A. Jayasingha (Sri Lanka) Kalimullah Shirazi, E&UAD Wang Xianpu (China) M. Farooq Ahmed, Zoological Survey Department Dr S. I. Ali, University of Karachi IUCN STAFF Arshad Gill TOUR OPERATORS Maheen Zehra Kaiser Khan, Expedition Pakistan Obaidullah Baig Pervaiz Naim NON-MEMBER NGOs Manzoor Hussain, Alpine Club Qazi Azmat Isa, BRSP

CNPPA 42ND WORKING SESSION 117