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Wetlandcs in Asia

A bookletto accompanythe Map of Wetlands of International Importance in Asia

Produced by Wetlands International -Asia Pacific and The World Bank

CONTENTS

FOREWORD ...

COOPERATING AGENCIES ...... iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... v

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 What are Wetlands? .1

WETLANDS IN ASIA . . 3 Geographicaland Cultural Diversity .3 The Biodiversity of Wetlands .3 The Decline of Biodiversity .5 Wetland Protected Areas .7 Frameworksfor Biodiversity Conservation of Wetlands .8

ACCOUNTS OF THE SUB-REGIONS OF ASIA .11 Middle East .12 North and Central Asia .15 East Asia .17 South Asia .22 South East Asia .27

ACTION PROGRAM FOR THE CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS IN ASIA .31 The Kuala Lumpur Statement .31 Action Program.32 Actions by Government Agencies .32 Actions by Development Assistance Agencies .34 Actions by Non-Governmental Organisations .35

BIBLIOGRAPHY .. 36

The World Bank i Wetlands in Asia

TABLES 1 - Major Threats to Wetlands in Asia ...... 5

BOXES 1 - Wetland Benefits ...... 6 2 - Principal Obligations of Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention ...... 7 3 - Wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia, Iraq ...... 13 4 - Azraq Oasis Conservation Project, Jordan ...... 14 5 - Taymyr Peninsula, Russia ...... 15 6 - The Aral Sea ...... 16 7 - Poyang Lake, China ...... 18 8 - Qinghai Tibetan Plateau, China ...... 19 9 - Kushiro Marsh, Japan ...... 20 10 - Great Rann of Kachchh (Kutch) ...... 22...... 11 - The Ganges Brahmaputra Floodplain ...... 23 12 - Keoladeo Ghana National Park, India ...... 24 13 - The Sundarbans ...... 25 14 - Mekong Floodplain and Delta ...... 28 15 - Tasek Bera, Malaysia ...... 29 16 - Danau Sentarum, Indonesia ...... 30

ii Wetlands International - Asia Pacific FOREWORD

This booklet and the accompanying map represent an initial output of collabora- tion between Wetlands International through its Asia-Pacific operations (formerly Asian Wetland Bureau) and the Environment Department of the World Bank.

The purpose is to enhance awareness of the importance of, and issues facing wet- land ecosystems inAsia. Wetlands in this region provide goods and services worth billions of dollars on a potentially sustainable basis and an important source of food for a high proportion of the population of the region. Wetlands International is dedicated to promoting the wise and sustainable use of the wetlands throughout the region and providing technical advice and assistance to local agencies to further this aim. The World Bank is also firmly committed to the goal of environmentally sound and sustainable development and recognizes that wetlands are one of the most important ecosystems for both biodiversity con- servation and human development. This publication has been produced on the occasion of the 6th Conference of Con- tracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention in Brisbane, Australia in March 1996. We hope it will assist in implementing the objectives of the Convention in its 25th Anniversary Year. Both the Bank and Wetlands International are happy to hear from any party in the region needing advice or assistance. We hope that other technical assistance and funding agencies as well as governments, NGOs and local communities will all join the collective effort to conserve and wisely use the wetlands of the region. This is a major challenge given the pace of wetlands loss in Asia.

Faizal Parish Colin Rees Executive Director Land, Water and Natural Habitats Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Division Environment Department The World Bank

The World Bank iii COOPERATING AGENCIES

Wetlands International is a not for profit organization governed by a global Board, represented by member countries, international organizations and wetlands spe- cialists. Wetlands International draws together and builds upon the strengths of its three founding organizations, which date back more than 40 years. Wetlands International - Asia Pacific is the regional headquarters and is situated in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The organization played a pivotal role in the development of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance and continues to provide technical support. Other major program activities include assessments of wetlands and their resources, research and conservation of migratory waterbirds, support to regional and national action plans for the conservation and wise use of wetland materials. The mission statement of Wetlands International is "to sustain and restore wetlands, their resources and biodiversity for future generations through research, information exchange and conservation activities worldwide."

The World Bank is a multilateral development institution whose purpose is to assist its developing country members to improve the social and economic well being of their people in concert with the protection of the natural environment. Responding to the concerns of its members, the Bank began to fully integrate en- vironmental concerns into its work in 1987. Today the Bank is carrying out some $3.2 billion in loans and credits in natural resource management projects (which are guided by its new Water Resources Management, Natural Habitats and Envi- ronmental Assessment policies), including support of wetlands conservation and rehabilitation. Additional support for wetlands is provided through the Global Environmental Facility, in partnership with the Bank. Currently $27.5 million has been allocated for this purpose under the GEF pilot phase.

iv Wetlands International - Asia Pacific ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The map "Wetlands of International Importance in Asia" and the accompanying booklet "Wetlands in Asia", were coordinated and compiled by Ganesh Kumar and John Howes (Wetlands International -Asia Pacific) based on information pro- vided by many individuals involved in research and management of wetlands in Asia. National and regional experts consulted for the choice, position and impor- tance of wetland sites are listed below; to these, the compilers are particularly indebted. The high-quality color map was prepared by Jeffrey Lecksell (World Bank) with the primary digitizing of all the sites done by Sivaji Paremeswary and Richard Dorall, GIS Laboratory, Institute of Advanced Studies, University of Malaya. Tony Whitten offered comments, Tomoko Hirata designed the cover, Jim Cantrell desktopped the production and Clare Fleming provided advice on editing and printing. Mitos Benedicto, Kuldip Kumar, Sumalita Keris and Daljit Kaur assisted with the typing. The entire exercise was overseen by Faizal Parish and Muralee Menon (Wetlands International-Asia Pacific) and Colin Rees (Environment De- partment, World Bank). Anna-Marie Bernhard, IUCN, Switzerland Bishnu Bhandari, World Conservation Union, Nepal Gordon Claridge, Consultant, Australia Jon Davies, University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei, Darussalam Rebecca D'Cruz, Wetlands International-Asia Pacific Stephen Floss, Prince of Songhla University, Thailand Wim Giesen, Wetlands International-Asia Pacific Brij Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India Ross Hughes, International Institute for Environment Development (IIED), United Kingdom Roger Jaensch, Wetlands International-Oceania Programme Abedullah Jan, Ministry of Environment, Urban Affairs Umeed Khalid, Ministry of Environment, Urban Affairs Forestry and Wildlife, Pakistan Satoshi Kobayashi, Technical Officer, Ramsar Bureau Maurice Kottelat, Consultant, Switzerland Vitaly G. Krivenko, Research Institute of Nature Conservation, Russia Manokaran, FRIM, Malaysia

The World Bank v Wetlands in Asia

Taej Mundkur, Wetlands International-Asia Pacific (WI-AP) Bernard O'Callaghan, Wetlands International-Asia Pacific Mike Ounstead, Wetlands International-Indonesia Narendra M.B. Pradhan, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conserva- tion, Nepal Crawford Prentice, Wetlands International-Europe, Africa and the Middle East Marcel Silvius, Wetlands International-Asia Pacific Beotriz Silvo, Ecological Sciences Department, UNESCO, France Nyoman Suryadiputra, Wetlands International-Indonesia Eugeny E. Syroechkovski, Jr., Russia Vesna Vujinic, UNESCO, France

vi Wetlands International - Asia Pacific INTRODUCTION

This booklet accompanies a map-Wet- mense, for unless decisive steps are lands of International Importance in taken to counter the effects of natural Asia-and provides an overview of in- resource destruction, the Asia region is ternationally important wetland sites, expected to lose a higher proportion of including brief coverage of their biodi- its species than any other part of the versity, threats to their survival and ex- world. Meeting this challenge success- isting frameworks for their conserva- fully will depend upon the strength of tion. The status of wetlands in the five partnerships forged and commitment to sub-regions (Middle East, North and conserving wetland biodiversity for the Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia and benefit of global, national and local com- Southeast Asia) is briefly described and munities. some of the important sites and ex- amples of wetland uses are highlighted. What are Wetlands? The booklet concludes with a suggested Wetlands are very diverse ecosystems Action Program for the Conservation of and mean different things to many Wetlands inAsia and highlights options and Pean therestthinito is for action by government agencies, thatpeople. used Perhaps by the theConvention best definition on Wet- is development assistance agencies and lands of International Importance Espe- NGOs. Details on Ramsar and World ci Heritage sites, Biosphere Reserve HeritageBios sites, r R .knownv adand alya as theaefw Ramsar aia,cmolConvention. This major wetlands indicated on the map states that wetlands are: may be found in directories of wetlands of international importance (IUCN, 1987; Scott, 1989; 1987dScott, 19895).Scott and Poole, 19891989; water,"areas whether of marsh,fen, natural pea ortland artificial, or and Scott, 1995). permanent or temporary, with It is hoped that this exercise will water that is static orflowing, help promote the implementation of the fresh, brackishor salt, including Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of In- areas of marine water, the depth of ternational Importance in the Asia re- which at low tide does not exceed gion through the formulation of prior- six metres" ity regional and national projects and the identification of investment oppor- This definition is very broad and tunities which contribute to the main- includes: coastal zone ecosystems such tenance of wetland biodiversity and as coral reef flats, seagrass beds, inter- sustainable use. The challenge is im- tidal mud- and sandflats, mangrove for-

The World Bank 1 Wetlands in Asia ests, estuaries and rivermouths; and, (Great Barrier Reef Marine ParkAuthor- freshwater habitats such as rapids, ity, The World Bank and IUCN, 1995). marshes, swamp forests, floodplain There is an increasing appreciation lakes as well as saline marshes and salt that wetlands as traditionally under- lakes. For the purposes of this exercise, stood have not always covered impor- coral reefs and other exclusively marine tant areas of freshwater biodiversity systems have been excluded; they have where there is no special waterfowl inter- been effectively covered under the re- est The balance is being redressed in Asia cent publication A Global Representa- through an Asia-wide assessment of fresh- tive System of Marine Protected Areas water biodiversity (Kottelat,in press).

2 WetlandsInternational - Asia Pacific VVETLANDS IN ASIA

Geographical and Cultural land area. Such high population density Diversity has led to increasing dependence on wetlands and to heavy pressure on these Asia is the largest continent covering systems. Many major civilisations have nearly 30% of the world's land area. It evolved in the river valleys and wet- encompasses several major bio-zoogeo- lands. The Tigris-Euphrates Valley in graphical zones, including the wet and Iraq is the legendary site of the Garden humid tropics, the northern tundras, the of Eden, and the lower Mekong flood- Himalayan range and the arid deserts plain was the centre of the powerful of central Asia. Asia is also unique be- Khymer Kingdom some 2500 years cause it is fringed by more than 20,000 ago. Modern civilisations throughout islands, mostly in the South-East Asian Asia, particularly in China and India, archipelagos of Indonesia and the Phil- were also founded and remain depen- ippines. dent on fertile floodplains to support an Many of the world's great rivers agrarian culture based on rice and fish have their headwaters in Asia's back- production. Today it is estimated that bone of mountain ranges. To the north more than 2 billion people in Asia de- flow the Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei and Lena; pend on wetland crops and fish as their to the east, the Amur, Yellow and main staple and protein sources; in Yangtze; and to the south, the Tigris, many places human densities reach Euphrates, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, 2,000+ people per square km in the rich- Irrawaddy and Mekong. Asia also in- est rice growing areas. Only in the rela- cludes the world's largest inland body tively remote areas of North and East of water, the Caspian Sea; its deepest Asia, such as parts of Mongolia, China lake, Lake Baikal; its largest delta and and Russia, do wetlands remain rela- wettest and most flood prone area, the tively unused or undisturbed by man. combined Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna River deltas; and the most ex- The Biodiversity of Wetlands tensive mangrove forest in the Sundarbans of India and Bangladesh. Wetlands are among the most complex Not surprisingly such geography has ecosystems in the world; they also have produced enormous biological and cul- high biological diversity. Only about 6% tural diversity throughout the conti- of the earth's surface is covered by wet- nent. lands but they provide habitats for about Asia houses over 60% of the 20%ofknownspecies,anditisbelievedthat world's population in only 14% of its a large number remain undescribed.

The World Bank 3 Wetlands in Asia

Asia is a global center of diversity been recorded whilst in the waters in for a number of habitats and species and around them more than 230 species groups. For example, Asia is recognised of freshwater fish have been identified. as the global centre for mangrove diver- There are some 830,000 km2 of peat sity and evolution. The region has over bogs and swamps in the Former So- 60 species of true mangroves compared viet Union and about 900,000 km2 of with 7 to 12 in tropical Africa and the marshy ground subject to seasonal Americas. Malaysian and Indonesian flooding. In the Middle East, the most mangrove forests are considered the extensive wetlands occur in Iraq, where world's most diverse with over 200 the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers create plant species associated with these eco- a vast complex of shallow lakes and systems. Apart from mangrove biodi- marshes.

Wetlands contain enormous biodiver- sity. Peat swamp forests have many specialisedand endemic species,the fish Betta livida is found in the North Selangor Peat Swamp Forest,Malaysia.

versity, Asia has the most diverse coral Asian wetlands are also important reefs in terms of numbers of reef build- habitats for many other animals includ- ing species and reef fish species, as well ing exceptional species of fish, amphib- as the most biologically diverse sea ians, reptiles, mammals and birds. For grass communities. example, the only species of freshwater In South-EastAsia, freshwater eco- seal in the world, the Baikal Seal (Phoca systems such as rivers, lakes and swamp sibirica) is endemic to Lake Baikal, Rus- forests are among the largest and best sia; the Chinese River Dolphin (Lipotes developed in the world, but are also bo- vexillifer) is found only in the river sys- tanically very diverse with a high de- tems of eastern China, in peninsular gree of species diversity. Peat swamp Malaysia, Hairy-nosed Otter (Lutra forests in South-East Asia cover nearly sumatrana) may now be restricted to 30 million hectares compared to only peat swamp forests; half the 60 fish spe- one million hectares in Amazonia. In cies, as well as 10 shrimps, three crabs some swamp forests more than 150 tree and a snake, known from the Malili species per one-tenth of a hectare have Lakes, Sulawesi, are endemic; and many

4 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Introduction species of migratory and resident ture, industry, energy and human settle- waterbirds are confined to wetland ment (Table 1). Other reasons for loss habitats for various stages of their life- include the overexploitation of plants histories. and animals, invasion by introduced Although wetlands have high fish, species, air and water pollution, and the mammal and bird biodiversity, their prospect of climate change. Ultimately, true biodiversity significance can be however, the current threat to biodiver- measured by their importance for inver- sity results from a complex variety of tebrates. This is because many inverte- underlying social, economic, political, brate phyla are either aquatic or pre- and cultural forces and trends operat- dominantly aquatic at some stage of ing on local, national, and international their life history and in many cases the scales. These influences are so complex wetland food chain is dependent on in- that it is probably not an overstatement vertebrate biomass. For instance 60 to refer to them as being "rooted in the molluscs are endemic to the Malili contemporary human condition" (Soule Lakes; in Lake Baikal a large percent- 1991). Economic externalities, adverse age of the invertebrate fauna is endemic government policies, human popula- and even in a relatively well studied tion growth, and poverty are among the part of Asia such as Hong Kong recent most powerful of these influences, and studies have revelaed that 10% of ma- these factors are themselves strongly rine invertebrates remain undescribed. interconnected. More than half of Asia's wetlands The Decline of Biodiversity have been lost and more than half of the mangroves in the Indo-Malayan realm In Asia, apart from hunting, the most have been cleared, many for conversion important direct cause of biodiversity to aquaculture ponds (Scott 1989, and loss in wetlands is habitat destruction Scott and Poole, 1989). About 80% of from draining and filling, destroying the remaining wetlands are in seven coastal areas for development, and con- countries: Bangladesh, China, India, In- verting natural ecosystems for agricul- donesia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea,

Table 1 Major Threats to Wetlands in Asia Incidence Threat (% of sites) Hunting and associated disturbance 32 Human settlement/encroachment 27 Drainage for agriculture 23 i Pollution 20 Fishing and associated disturbance 19 Commercial logging/forestry 17 Wood cutting for domestic use 16 Degradation of watershed/soil erosion/siltation 15 Conversion to aquaculture ponds or salt pans 11 Diversion of water supply 9 Overgrazing by domestic stock 9

Source: Scott, D.A. and Poole, C.M. 1989.

The World Bank 5 Wetlands in Asia

...... Box 1 Wetland Benefits In addition to their high biodiversity and cultural significance, wetlands are highly productive ecosystems that provide important benefits for human societies in Asia today, namely:

* Water Supply:Either through direct extraction by people and communi- ties, through groundwater recharge of underground aquifers or by sup- plying other wetlands lower in the catchment. * Flow Regulation:Through primary flood control where wetlands store floodwater and release it in a controlled manner. * Preventionof SaltwaterIntrusion: Both through surface and groundwater. * Protectionfrom Natural Forces:Providing a physical barrier to erosive waves, storm surges and winds along coastal and river banks. * SedimentTraps: Through the deposition of sediments in wetland basins. * Nutrient Trapsand ToxicantRemovers: Through deposition of sediments and absorption by vegetation. * Foodand NaturalProducts: In situ examples include food from fish, shell- fish, turtles, birds, fruit or vegetables;construction materials such as reed, bamboo, palm fronds, wood, thatch and matting, resins, dyes, poisons and drugs. Ex situ examples include nutrients exported to another site, migratory fish, shrimps, birds and marine mammals. * Energy: In the form of hydroelectricity, peat, fuel wood, dung, dried plants, etc., and direct power for water mills. * Water Transport:For moving goods and people. * Gene Banks: For commercial uses and for the maintenance of wildlife populations. * Recreationand ToursimBenefits: By providing areas of rich biodiversity or outstanding beauty and resources such as coral reefs, fish and birds for pleasure/pursuit. * Socio-CulturalSignificance: By providing aesthetic landscapes, an asso- ciation with religious and spiritual beliefs and activities, wildernessareas and historical sites. * Researchand EducationBenefits: By providing areas for scientificresearch, type localities and education resources. * Maintenanceof Existing Processesand Systems: Such as a global carbon sink, microclimate stability and prevention of acid sulphate soils. Many of these benefits are not only essential to local communities but also to industrial and agricultural processes. It is imperative that wetlands are used wisely to maintain these benefits. Source: Davies, Jon and Clairidge, G.F. 1993. and Viet Nam. Of the wetland sites of with those in Bangladesh, coastal China, international significance, more than Malaysia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka half are reported to be under pressure, the most threatened. At least 50 per-

6 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Introduction cent of all sites are moderately or se- Asia, where Bhutan, Nepal, India, Sri verely threatened in Cambodia, Indone- Lanka, and Pakistan have a significant sia, Lao P.D.R., Myanmar, and Pakistan. proportion of their wetlands under Relatively untouched wetlands are some form of protection. In Southeast found only in New Guinea, where less Asia only Indonesia has a reasonable than 20% of the sites are considered at proportion of its wetlands protected. risk. The Asian countries with the least wet- land protection are Cambodia, Lao Wetland Protected Areas P.D.R., Mongolia, Myanmar, and Viet Nam (Scott and Poole 1989). About half of the wetlands of interna- While the creation of protected ar- tional importance in the Asia region, eas in Asia has been successful to a cer- representing nearly 15 percent of the tain extent, an analysis of the threats to total wetland area, are included in pro- the sites shows the sole or principle tected area networks, although many threat is frequently from an external countries in South and East Asia are source beyond the management capac- under-represented. Greater protection ity of the reserve. This has obvious impli- has generally been provided in South cationsfortheirplanningandmanagement.

Box 2 Principal Obligations of Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention

1. To designate wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (Article 2.1), to formulate and implement planning so as to promote conser- vation of listed sites (Article 3.1) and to advise the Bureau of any change in their ecological character (Article 3.2), to compensate for any loss of wet- i land resources if a listed wetland is deleted or restricted (Article 4.2), to use criteria for identifying wetlands of international importance and to estab- lish "shadow" lists. 2. To formulate and implement planning so as to promote the wise use of wet- lands (Article 3.1),to make environmental impact assessments before trans- formations of wetlands, and to make national wetland inventories. 3. To establish nature reserves on wetlands and provide adequately for their wardening (Article 4.1), and through management to increase waterfowl populations on appropriate wetlands. 4. To train personnel competent in wetland research, management and wardening (Article 4.5). 5. To promote conservation of wetlands by combining farsighted national poli- cies with coordinated international actions, to consult with other Contract- ing Parties about implementing obligations arising from the Convention, especially about shared wetlands and water systems (Article 5). 6. To promote wetland conservation concerns with development aid agencies. 7. To encourage research and exchange of data (Article 4.3).

Source: Ramsar, 1989.

The World Bank 7 Wetlands in Asia

'yTasek Bera is Malaysia's only Frameworksfo idivriy1designated Ramsar site. The lake contains many unique habitats such as this Pandanus swam p.

Frameworks for Biodiversity 1997-2002has been prepared. Through ConservationofWetlandsthe Plan, the Convention's long-stand- ing technical work on wetlands is ex- A number of documents and conven- tended and a new catalytic role is es- tions have attempted to provide guid- tablished for development assistance ance on the conservation of wetland re- agencies. By adopting the Plan, the sources and their environmentally Convention's work will become more sound management. Foremost is the closely related to the broader concerns Convention on Wetlands of Interna- of the Convention on Biological Diver- tional Importance Especially as Water- sity and the UN Commission on Sus- fowl Habitat (Ramsar, 1971) (See Box 2). tainable Development. Under this convention contracting par- The Plan defines a number of new ties undertake to use all wetland re- directions covering: the inclusion of sources under their jurisdiction wetlands in national, provincial and lo- sustainably and to designate for conser- cal planning and decision-making (in- vation at least one wetland of interna- volving local communities and the pri- tional importance under criteria pro- vate sector); the crucial importance of vided by the Convention. By February education and public awareness of wet- 1996, the 92 contracting parties had des- land values and functions; the reinforce- ignated 777 sites covering more than 53 ment of the capacity of institutions of million hectares. The Convention pro- each Contracting Party to achieve con- vides a useful instrument at the disposal servation and wise use of wetlands; the of the international community to en- need to include in the Ramsar List more sure environmentally sound manage- sites from under-represented wetlands ment of water resources, especially categories; and the need to ensure that those that are shared by two or more the ecological character of listed sites is nations. As the demands and expecta- maintained (or restored if necessary). tions of the Parties to the Convention Effective implementation of the Plan have continued to rise against limited will require full participation of the key resources, a Strategic Plan for the period institutions in each country concerned

8 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Introduction with water resources management. conservation bodies and developers Other international agreements with a list of 947 wetland sites having include the 1973 Convention on Inter- international importance. It also iden- national Trade in Endangered Species of tifies and outlines conservation priori- Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which ties and offers recommendations for im- covers wildlife trade, and the Conven- mediate action. Two companion vol- umes also cover portions of the Asia tion on the Conseration of Migratory region-A Directory of Wetlands in the Species of Wild Animals (Bonn, 1979). MefiddleEast (Scott, 1995) and a Direc- The Directory of Asian Wetlands tory of Wetlands of Russia and the Cen- (Scott, 1989) provides governments, tralAsianRepublic, under eparation.

The World Bank 9

ACCOUNTS OF THE SUB- REGIONS OF ASIA

The Asian continent has been divided Southeast Asia. The condition of wet- into five sub-regions for convenience lands in each sub-region is discussed namely, the Middle East, North and and some of the important sites and ex- Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia and amples of wetland uses are highlighted.

The World Bank 11 Wetlands in Asia

The Middle East consists of thirteen ers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, nations, stretching from Syria and Leba- traverse Iraq from northwest to south- non in the west to Afghanistan in the east, uniting as the Shatt al Arab water- east and the Republic of Yemen in the way shortly before entering the Gulf. south. Much of the area is exceptionally Dam-building in central Iraq has con- arid and as such wetlands have tradi- verted several large saline depressions tionally played an important role in the into huge water-storage basins, the most development of human societies. Much important being Lakes Tharthar, of this is due to their value as freshwa- Habbaniya and Rezzaza. In their lower ter, drinking and irrigation water sup- courses, the Tigris and Euphrates cre- ply and for the natural resources they ate a vast complex of shallow lakes and sustain (such as fish, waterbirds and marshes, the Mesopotamian Marshes, reed). However, in recent years, expand- home of the famous "Marsh Arabs." ing human populations and increased Iran also possesses a great diver- pressures on wetland resources for do- sity of wetlands. In the north, there is mestic and industrial uses as well as an almost unbroken chain of freshwa- large scale agricultural irrigation has led ter lakes and marshes, brackish lagoons, to increased pressure. To compound irrigation ponds and rice paddies these pressures, oil pollution is a con- stretching along the southern edge of tinuous threat within the coastal waters the Caspian Sea. Lake Orumiyeh is a of the Gulf, both on a major scale (as vast hypersaline lake with spectacular was witnessed during the Gulf War) and breeding colonies of pelicans and fla- on a smaller scale due to the heavy ship- mingos. Although the lake is too saline ping use and oil exploration. to support any plants or animals other The most extensive wetlands in the than the algae Enteromorphasp. and the Middle East occur in Iraq. Two great riv- brine shrimp Artemia sp., the numerous

12 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Accounts of the Sub-Regions of Asia

Box 3 Wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia, Iraq As they near the Gulf, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers create a vast complex of shallow lakes and marshes. Within the marshes, the principal activities are buf- falo rearing, fishing, hunting, rice cultivation and mat-weaving. Water buffalo provide milk, butter, yoghurt, meat and dung: for most of the year, they graze in the reed-beds, but in winter they remain tethered on platforms and are fed with cut reed shoots. Fishing occurs throughout, and accounts for over 60% of the inland fish catch in Iraq. Waterfowl hunting is also very important to the local economy,with enormous numbers of waterfowl being harvested on a com- | mercial basis each year, and providing a livelihood for many people. Reeds are used in the construction of floating islands for villages and woven to provide materials for house construction, fencing and packaging. Reeds are also har- vested commercially to provide pulp for paper. The elaborate network of rivers and canals is used extensively for boat transportation and, until recently, pro_ vided the only means of travel between the many settlements in the marshes. Rice is cultivated in shallow wetlands, and some vegetables, especially toma- toes, are grown on artificial islands within the marshes. Reclaimed areas of marsh and the adjacent irrigated plains are widely cultivated for millet, rice, wheat, barley, sugar cane and dates.

The diversion of water from the Tigris and Euphrates for irrigation has reduced the size of wetland habitats. Parts of the marshes have been reclaimed for agri- culture and oil exploration; recent wars have also had adverse affects. As no special measures have been taken by the Iraqi government to conserve these marshes, their continued survival as one of the finest and most extensive natu- ral wetland ecosystems in Asia is in doubt. small fresh and brackish water lakes within an internal drainage basin, they and marshes along the rivers entering are predominantly freshwater. The sys- the lake support abundant aquatic veg- tem is fed by the Helmand River which, etation and are very rich in wildlife. during long periods of drought, sup- In the very heart of the great plies sufficient water to flood only the deserts of eastern Iran and western Af- uppermost of the lakes. The only other ghanistan lies a vast complex of fresh- wetlands of note inAfghanistan are two water lakes and reed beds in the Seistan salt lakes in the eastern highlands, Basin. These wetlands are unusual in Dasht-i Nawar and Ab-i Istada, re- that although the three main lakes, the nowned for their huge colonies of Hamun-e Helmand, the Hamun-e breeding greater flamingos Puzak and the Hamun-e Sabari, lie Phoenicopterusruber.

The World Bank 13 Wetlands in Asia

Box4 Azraq Oasis Conservation Project,Jordan Until recently Azraq Oasis was an exceptional example of an oasis wetland in an arid region. Azraq, with its permanent freshwaters and springs has always been a rich habitat being recognized internationally for its populations of migratory birds and several indigenous plant and fish species. Traditional activities in- cluded livestock-rearing, reed-cutting, fishing and salt extraction.

However, massive extraction of groundwater for water supply and irrigation, especially since 1982, has resulted in the loss of all spring flow, and the former extensive spring-fed marshes have almost disappeared. The recently initiated Azraq Oasis Conservation Project endeavors to halt further degradation of the aquatic ecosystems in the oasis and to restore as much of the wetlands as pos- sible with a view to maintaining the biological diversity of this unique wetland ecosystem. Although in the early stages of restoration, Azraq Oasis has come back to life and presents a vivid example of the potential for success in restoring oasis wetlands.

14 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Accounts of the Sub-Regions of Asia

A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ K

w o 4~- -- X

NORTH AND CENTRAL ASIA

North Asia is dominated by the vast along the coast creating myriads of shal- expanses of the Russian tundra, to the low lakes and ponds. Extensive bogs, east of the Ural Mountains. The region dominated by mosses and sedges, oc- also includes Kazakhstan and cur in depressions and on gentle slopes Mongolia. The area possesses vast wet- with a permanent supply of water from lands, including three of the world's ten largest _ _ _ lakes, the Caspian Sea, the Box 5 Aral Sea and Lake Baikal, Taymyr Peninsula, Russia and three of its longest riv- ers, the Irtysh, Amur and The most extensive tundras in Russian Arctic oc- Lena. cur on the Taymyr Peninsula, most of which is in- cluded in a nature reserve of over 1.3 million hect- The tundra zone ex- ares. It contains the full range of tundra ecosys- tends from the High Arctic 1tems from barren Arctic wilderness in the north to wildernesses of Severnaya forest-tundras in the south. The dwarf larch for- Zemlya, Novosibirskye ests in the southern part of the reserve are remark- Ostrova and Wrangel Is- able in being the world's most northerly forests, land in the Arctic Ocean while Lake Taymyr is the largest lake in the Rus- south through the tundra sianArctic. Other regions of the Arctic tundra with proper of the Mid-Arctic to important wetland areas include the Yamal Penin- the shrub-tundras and for- sula and Gydan Peninsula in the west; the delta of est-tundras of the Low Arc- the Lena River and lower basins of the Indigirka tic. Wetlands abound, with and Kolyma River in Yakutia; and the Chaun Ba- spring snowmelt flooding sin, Wrangel Island and coastal zone of Chukchi vast expanses of low-lying (Chukotka) Peninsula in the east. land in river valleys and _

The World Bank 15 Wetlands in Asia

melting snow. The intense cold in win- The greatest concentrations of ter causes cracking of the surface, pro- freshwater lakes and marshes occur in ducing characteristic polygon fens and the north, in the Ob and Irtysh, and far- bogs. ther south, along the Tobol and Ishim The two Rivers. The main types of _ largest wet- wetland are Box 6 land of this re- nutrient-rich The Aral Sea gion is Lake peat swamps The Aral Sea, once the world's fourth largest Tengiz, a shal- and nutrient- lake, now ranks only sixth. TheAAmuand Syr low saline poor peat rivers which flow into the lake have had so lake noted for bogs. The much of their water diverted for agriculture its large former occur that there is not enough remaining to coun- b r e e d i n g in dead arms teract evaporation from the lake surface. As population of of rivers and a result water levels have fallen and salinity greater fla- in old oxbow has increased. At present rates of inflow the m i n g o s lakes, around Aral will continue to shrink and by the year (Phoenicoptems margins of 2000 will be reduced to two-thirds of its ruber), and lakes and in present size. Declining drinking water qual- L a k e any depres- ity, high salt content of the air, and high lev- Kourgaldzhin, sion where els of pesticide residues applied to prevail- a complex of there is a ing cotton fields, impact on the state of hu- lakes and good supply man health in the Aral Sea basin.channels with o f water. varying sa- Some are forested with dense willow linities, some supporting abundant thickets; others with more open forest aquatic vegetation and extensive reed of birch, alder and larch. The peats are beds. rich in minerals and support an abun- On the Chinese border, lies Lake dant growth of aquatic vegetation such Khanka (Xmghai Hu), the largest lake as sedges, cattails and reeds. in northeastern Asia. This shallow, The most extensive region of lakes, freshwater lake is fringed by extensive swamps and bogs in the middle and reed beds, willow thickets and peat lower basin of the Ob and Irtysh River bogs. in western Siberia, and cover about 1.8 2 million km (695,000 sq. miles). This is CentralAsia Si a natural extension the great "duck factory" of western Si- othe North asian be edt to beria, producing many of the ducks the west by the Caspian Sea and to the which winter in the Mediterranean Ba- east by the high altitude plateaus of sin, the Middle East and South Asia; it North West China. The area includes is thus comparable with the prairie pot- the dry and arid grasslands of hole country of North America. Other Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, the Kyrgyz important wetlands for breeding Republic and Tajikistan of which little waterbirds occur along the middle and information on its wetlands is available. lower courses of theAmur River, on the The high altitude Issyk-Kul Lake in the north end of Sakhalin Island and in the Kyrgyz Republic and Krasnovodsk and coastal lowlands of the Kamchatka Pen- North-Cheleken Bays in Turkenistan are insula. the only two Ramsar sites.

16 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Accounts of the Sub-Regions of Asia

AL . ^~~~~~~~~~~A

EASTASIA -i

East Asia covers the Oriental biogeo- Tnatural and artificial-and 2 million hect- graphical region and includes the ares of coastalsalt marshes and mudflats. People's Repub- Red-crowned crane lic of China, Ja- (Grus japonesis) pan, Hong Kong in display posture and the Korean at the internation- peninsula. 4 ally important ThePeople's Kushiro Marsh in

Republic of - I Japan. China comprises K over 80 per cent of this region (and indeed . over 20 per cent

The World Bank 17 Wetlands in Asia T Wetlands such as Poyang Lake, China provide important resourcesfor local

communities. ensures that grass- lands remaintfertile and nutritious for grazing livestock.

Some of the largest freshwater (Amur), Sungari and Wusuli (Ussuri) marshes in Asia occur in north-eastern rivers. Other extensive systems of fresh- China. There are over one million hect- water lakes and marshes include the ares of marshes on the Sanjiang (Three Zhalong Marshes and Xiang Hai Rivers) Plain alone and this region, Marshes. All three of these wetlands are sometimes know as the Plain of Reeds, of great significance as breeding and consisting of a vast complex of shallow staging areas for huge numbers of freshwater lakes, reed beds and peat waterbirds, including four endangered bogs near the confluence of the Heilong species of cranes.

Box 7 Poyang Lake, China Poyang Lake is a large freshwater lake with associated marshes and wet grass- lands, south of the Yangtze River in central China. Poyang stores up floodwaters from the Yangtze River and other rivers during the rainy season and plays a vital role in flood protection. It supports a significant commercial fishery and a small freshwater pearl industry, as well as providing valuable grazing land for domes- tic water buffalo. Local villages cut grasses and aquatic vegetation for fodder, fuel and thatching; during the dry season, many parts of the wetlands are culti- vated for vegetable crops and rice. The lake is world-famous for its wintering population of the endangered Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus) and many other waterbirds. The construction of dykes to prevent seasonal flooding, as well as the reclamation of land for agriculture and the removal of the water for irrigation, has resulted in the loss of some wetland habitat. In the long term, however, damming projects on the Yangtze River and other source rivers could have a much more drastic impact upon the lake.

The main land-use activities are fishing, cattle grazing, cutting of grass and aquatic vegetation for a variety of purposes, and small-scale cultivation of vegetable crops and rice.

18 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Accounts of the Sub-Regions of Asia

Many wetlands in Asia have been convertedfor rice production. Fresh- water wetlands ensure the survival of many wild rice varieties which are essential to main- tain the genetic pool.

The alluvial plains of the Yellow In south China, around Lunming, and Yangtze River Basins in eastern Yunnan Province, are relatively small China contain the greatest concentra- lakes, some important for wintering wa- tion of large freshwater lakes in the terfowl but also with notable endemic country. The Yangtze Basin in particu- fish. One, Lake Dianchi, has (or perhaps lar is famous for its lakes, such as the had) twelve fish species confined to its Dongting Hu, the Wuhan Lakes, waters. Poyang Hu and Shengjin Hu. All are Most of China's 2.1 million hect- freshwater, and many are fringed with ares of coastal marshes and mudflats oc- extensive reed beds. They all have huge cur in three main areas in the north-at numbers of communities dependent the mouth of the Yangzte River and upon them for water, fish and other along the adjacent coast; around the es- products. tuary of the Yellow River; and the es-

Box 8 Qinghai Tibetan Plateau, China The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of western China is the largest high-altitude pla- teau in the world. It is dotted with innumerable lakes, ponds and bogs, and includes the sources of several of the world's greatest rivers: the Yellow, Yangtze, Mekong and Salween in the east, and the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra in the south. Much of the plateau consists of inland drainage systems, and most i c.r the larger lakes are saline in nature. Qinghai Lake in the east is the largest saline lake in China.

This whole region of China is undergoing desiccation as the uplift of the Himalayas increasingly blocks the inflow of moist trade winds from the south; i as a result most of the lakes of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau are shrinking in size, i and the largest lake in Xingjiang, Lop Nur, has dried out completely in recent years.

The World Bank 19 Wetlands in Asia

Box9 Kushiro Marsh, Japan Kushiro Marsh, in the lowlands of eastern Hokkaido, is a marshy floodplain along the Kushiro and Akan Rivers, with several small freshwater lakes, extensive reed beds, sedge marshes and peat bogs.

The marsh is one of the largest and most important natural wetlands remaining in Japan, supporting a very rich and diverse fauna. The shallow marshes are particularly imnportantas a breeding and wintering area for the endangered red- crowned crane (Grus japonensis). The entire Japanese population of these birds I breeds in eastern Hokkaido and the great majority of the birds winter in the Kushiro area.

The clearing of forests for agriculture and the straightening and deepening of rivers in the catchment area have led to increased siltation in the marshes, exces- sive flooding in spring and drought in summer. Road-building and the urban sprawl around Kushiro City have also resulted in loss of wetland habitat. The Ramsar site is located in the centre of the marsh where all the rivers converge. Several feeding stations have been established for the wintering cranes, and large quantities of food have been provided every year since 1952.

tuarine system of the Shuangtaizi, Liao ened with large scale reclamation and Hun Rivers. Most of the rivers flow- projects. Already several of the most ing into the Yellow Sea carry large important estuaries and bays have been amounts of sediment, resulting in rapid bounded and filled to create new land buildup of deltas and continuous cre- for development. ation of new wetlands. Japan possesses a large number of Mangroves still occur patchily natural wetlands, although most have along the coast as far north as central been adversely affected by development Fujian province and the west coast of in recent decades. Most of its lakes are Taiwan, and are particularly well pre- very small, Lake Biwa in central Honshu served in the Deep Bay of Hong Kong. being a notable exception, it is one of The famous Mai Po Marshes Nature Re- the few lakes in Japan of pre-glacial ori- serve incorporates a portion of this man- gin. There are several other large lakes, grove ecosystem along with a large area mostly of volcanic origin, in Hokkaido. of adjacent shrimp ponds. Extensive freshwater marshes still Most of the Korean Peninsula is persist in some of the most remote ar- mountainous and the only large wet- eas, particularly in eastern Hokkaido lands are located along the west and and contain the majority of the south coasts, where there are numer- country's coastal lagoon and salt ous estuaries and shallow sea bays with marsh systems of which Lake Furen is extensive intertidal mudflats and the largest. Elsewhere, most of the low- many small offshore islands. Due to land marshy habitats and coastal la- high pressure for more land area, in- goons have been drained for agricul- tertidal areas along almost the entire tural land. west coast of South Korea are threat- Japan's largest areas of intertidal

20 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Accounts of the Sub-Regions of Asia mudflats are in estuaries and bays along of this habitat has been lost to develop- the Pacific coast, such as the Bay of To- ment. Mangrove swamps are confined kyo and Inner Isa Bay, where there are to the Amami Island and Ryukyu Island particularly large tidal ranges, but much in the south.

The World Bank 21 Wetlands in Asia

India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, numerable small water-storage reser- Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka, are voirs and irrigation ponds, known as rich in wet- tanks, that lands and constitute the biodiversity Box 10 only signifi- and with Great Rann of Kachchh (Kutch) cantbodiesof ever-increas- The Great Rann is a vast saline plain stretching standing wa- ing human eastward from the eastern edge of the Indus ter over much pressures on delta. India's frontier with Pakistan passes of the sub- all natural through the northern edge of the Rann. The I continent's h a b i t a t s. grasslands, salt marshes and mangrove swamps f arid interior. There are an are extensively graded by domestic livestock Other major estimated 33 particularly camels. The Great Rann is critical w e t 1 a n d million hect- as a refuge for the Indian wild ass (Equus types include ares of wet- Hemionus khur), a threatened subspecies of the the coastal la- lands in the Asiatic wild ass. Other mammals include the | goon systems Indian sub- . chinkara gazelle (Gazelladorcas sp.) and wolf of peninsula continent (ex- (Canislupus). The Asian population of the lesser India and Sri cudinge aGrea flamingo (Phoeniconaiasminor) is centered on the Lanka and under rice Great Rann of Kutch. the salt lake cultivation), systems of the riverine, flood plain and deltaic wet- Pakistan and western India. lands of the Indus, Ganges and Mangrove forests once occurred Brahmaputra accounting for a large pro- along the coasts of the subcontinent, but portion of them. However, throughout these have been drastically reduced in the rest of the subcontinent there are in- extent, and are now largely confined to

22 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Accounts of the Sub-Regions of Asia

Box 11 The Ganges BrahmaputraFloodplain I The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers unite Bangladesh to form one of the largest I delta systems in the world with the flood plain covering over 30 percent of the country. The wetlands of the floodplain include rivers, irrigation canals season- ally flooded cultivated plains freshwater lakes and marshes (boarsand beels), small water storage reservoirs and fish ponds. The major rivers are the I Brahmaputra Jamuna, Ganges Padma and Meghna, and their various tributar- ies and distributaries. Vast areas of the low lying alluvial plains between the i I major rivers are flooded during the rainy season. The flood waters remain for between two and five months. As the waters recede, most of the exposed land is cultivated for rice and jute.

Apart from the rivers, the most important natural wetlands of the flood plain i are beels. These saucer-shaped depressions usually retain water throughout the I year and range in size from a few hectares to many thousands of hectares. Fish- ing is very intensive with annual production up to 1000 kg per hectare recorded. The margins of the beels,boars and rivers are leased on an annual basis for the cultivation of rice and during the dry season, large numbers of domestic live- stock, mainly cattle and buffalo, graze in the wetlands. the remoter portions of the Indus and plain, there are often extensive wetlands Ganges-Brahmaputra Deltas and the known as terai such as those along the Andaman Islands. Rapti and Narayani Rivers in the Royal There are relatively few wetlands Chitwan National Park in Nepal and in the Himalayas, other than the river along the Manas River on the border be- systems and a scattering of small, fresh- tween Bhutan and India. water lakes and bogs at medium to high The Indus is one of the great riv- altitudes. However, where the rivers ers of Asia, rising in Oinghai Tibet and leave the foothills and spread out on the flowing to the delta in the Arabian Sea. The Great Rann of Kachchh(Kutch) is a famous breeding groundfor the lesserflamingo (Phoenicopterus minor) and greater; flamingo (P.ruber). Locallythe area is r known as "Fla- - mingo City".

The World Bank 23 Wetlands in Asia

Virtually all of Pakistan's wetlands de- thickets. The recent construction of pend to some extent on this river and huge reservoirs on the larger rives has its tributaries. For centuries, water from added to the extent of wetland habitat. this river has been tapped for irrigation Some of these dams and barrages, such using an elaborate system of canals. as Chashma and Taunsa, have devel- This system now extends almost oped a rich growth of aquatic vegeta- throughout the plains of Pakistan and tion and now support important com- carries water year-round to cultivated mercial fisheries and large concentra- land and to many natural wetlands tions of waterbirds.

Box 12 Keoladeo Ghana National Park, India Keoladeo Ghana, or Bharatpur as it is often known, is the most famous wetland in India, and is situated at the western edge of the Ganges plain. The Park is located in one of the most densely populated regions of India. The park however is relatively well wooded and there are many artificial islands with trees to en- courage colonial nesting waterbirds. Keoladeo Ghana was des- ignated as a Ramsar site in October 1991. Formerly local vil- lagers had grazing rights within the Park but these were re- scinded in 1982. Current land use is designed to enhance the long term value of the site for scientific study, recreation and wildlife oriented tourism.

Nearly all wildlife tours to India from overseas make an obliga- tory visit to Bharatpur, and the economic potential of this grow- ing market is yet to be fully realized. Revenue derived from wildlife tourism is bound to increase if the park can be main- tained as an outstanding location for wildlife viewing. Corre- spondingly, the Park could play an even greater role in expand- ing ecological awareness among a large and increasing portion of Indian society, if managed appropriately. which would otherwise have dried out In the east, the delta of the Indus during the dry season. Some natural River merges into the vast saline la- wetlands are now linked to the canal goons and salt flats of the Great Rann system and managed for specific pur- of Kutch, which are famous for their poses; for example, Haleji Lake is main- large breeding colonies of flamingos. tained as a stopgap water supply for Most of the wetlands of northern Karachi. In addition, the unintentional India lie within the basin of the Ganges seepage of water from the canal and ex- River, which also originates in Tibet and cess water from irrigated land have cre- flows to its mouth in the Bay of Bengal. ated large areas of new wetland habitat The alluvial plain of the Ganges on the once arid plains. Many of these stretches from Calcutta to Amritsar, are freshwater or brackish wetlands comprising a vast lowland, studded with extensive reed beds and tamarisk with innumerable small water freshwa-

24 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Accountsof the Sub-Regionsof Asia

Mangrovesare the lifebloodof many coastalcommunities. -i X 5iThey provide timber, fuel,

-' wood,medicines and fodder, they supportfish and shellfish productivityand help prevent coastalerosion and storm damage.

Box 13 The Sundarbans The Sundarbans is part of the world's largest delta, formed from sediments deposited by three great rivers, the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, converging in the Bengal Basin. The mangroves of the Delta are the largest continuous block in the world and have been exploited since time immemorial. The principal activities are fishing, collection of wild honey and beeswax, and timber extraction, pulpwood and firewood. The Sundarbans provide vital breeding and nursery grounds for a large proportion of the fish and crustaceans that make up the extremely important marine fishery in the Bay of Bengal. The mangrove forest also protects the densely settled agricultural areas to the north from the full force of cyclonic storms and tidal waves.

The Sundarbans support a very rich and diverse fauna, includ- ing a substantial population of estuarine crocodiles and the world's largest single population of royal Bengal tigers-noto- rious for their man-eating tendencies.

The World Bank 25 Wetlands in Asia ter lakes with luxuriant vegetation. One Kerala, although most of the original of the most famous waterbird sanctu- mangrove swamps have now disap- aries in Asia, the Keoladeo Ghana Na- peared. tional Park (Bharatpur) lies on the rim In marked contrast, the east coast of the Gangetic Plain in Rajasthan. is relatively low-lying with extensive al- Near its mouth, the Ganges unites luvial floodplains and deltas. There are with another of Asia's great rivers, the several very large brackish lagoons on Brahmaputra, whose floodplain con- the coast, notably Chilka Lake and tains some of the countries finest wet- Pulicat Lake, and freshwater lakes in the lands. The Brahmaputra Valley retains interior of the deltas,notablyKolleruLake. relics of natural ecosystems which have Some well-preserved areas of man- all but disappeared from the remainder of Idiacobine Th flodpain ofgrove forest remain, as at Bhitarkanika ofIdaobndfodlivs h in in the delta of the Brahmani and Baiterani the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers and at Coringa in the Godavari Bangladesh and West Bengal comprise l the largest deltaic system in the world. Delta. The entire region is crisscrossed with an The principal coastal wetlands of intricate network of rivers, streams and Sri Lanka are estuaries and lagoons, canals. many of which contain small patches of In the western part of peninsular mangrove forest. Although there are no India, the narrow coastal plain is fed by natural lakes in Sri Lanka, there are rivers rising in the Western Ghats, and some 12,500hectares of small floodplain there are several important lagoon sys- lakes, known as villus, particularlyin the tems, such as the Cochin Backwaters in Mahaweli river system to the east.

26 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Accounts of the Sub-Regions of Asia

SOUTH EAST ASI

Southeast Asia is a very diverse region, rivers have been almost entirely con- both in terms of its natural resources verted to agricultural land. The largest and cultural communities. Much of this lake in central Thailand, Beung diversity has evolved because the area Boraphet, was formed by the damming is characterized by many archipelagos. of a large swamp, and constitutes the For instance Indonesia contains over single most important wintering site for 17,000islands and the Philippines 7,100. ducks in the country. The largest wet- Most of the major wetlands of land in the south is Lake Songkhla, a mainland SoutheastAsia are situated in series of shallow coastal lagoons with the lower basins and deltas of the ma- fresh and brackish water. There are also jor rivers of the Irrawaddy, the Chao many estuarine systems with mangrove Phraya, the Mekong and the Red River. swamps and mudflats along the coast, The most extensive wetlands of Malay- the most extensive and species-rich oc- sia, Indonesia and the Philippines are curring along the west coast. typically coastal mangrove swamps The Mekong is one of the great riv- with their associated mudflats, and of- ers of Asia, the twelfth longest in the ten freshwater and peat swamp forests world and sixth in terms of discharge. which occur to the landward of the man- It rises from the Qinghai-Tibetan Pla- grove forest. Vast areas of mangrove teau in China, and flows through Laos, forest and swamp forest are found in the Thailand and Cambodia on its way to remoter areas of Sumatra and Borne-, its delta in Vietnam. In northern Cam- although they are now under great pres- bodia, the river enters a fluviatile low- sure from logging. land landscape with broad floodplains In south-central Thailand, the once and extensive backwater swamps, extensive wetlands on the floodplain of many of which remain flooded through- the Chao Phraya and several other large out the dry season. The Great Lake and

The World Bank 27 Wetlands in Asia

The Great Lake in Cambodia is a highly productive wetland system. High fish produc- tivity is maintained by the flooded forestssurrounding the lake.

Tonle Sap River, in central Cambodia, of the Mekong, and is surrounded by a form an integral part of the Mekong broad belt of freshwater swamp forest. floodplain system. The Great Lake is The Red River (Song Hong) is the the largest lake in Southeast Asia and largest river in northern Viet Nam. It lies in a vast shallow basin to the west carries a very large silt load giving the

Box 14 Mekong Floodplain and Delta The Mekong Delta a is vast fertile plain with extensive floodplain wetlands, where freshwater swamp forests are dominated by paperbark trees (Melaleucaspp.), man- grove forests and intertidal mudflats.

The delta includes some of the most productive agricultural land in Southeast Asia and also supports a major fishery involving over 200 species of fish as well as many shellfish and shrimp. The forests constitute an important resource, and also play a very important role in coastal protection in a region prone to typhoons. The marshes support the rare eastern sarus crane (Grus antigonesharpii), and the mangrove and paperbark forests provide nesting sites for large numbers of colo- nial waterbirds.

Rapid growth in human population and intensive development of the delta for agriculture pose major threats. Developments upstream on the Mekong River, including hydroelectric, flood-control and irrigation projects, are changing the hy- drology of the delta: water quality, and therefore the fishery, are affected by in- dustrial and domestic wastes, pesticides and fertilizers. Six reserves have been established in Vietnam to protect representative examples of wetland ecosystems, and large areas of former mangrove and paperbark forest have been replanted. In some areas, following the failure of agricultural conversion, considerable efforts have been made to restore wetlands to their natural condition.

28 WetlandsInternational - Asia Pacific Accounts of the Sub-Regions of Asia

...... :...... Box 15 Tasek Bera, Malaysia Tasek Bera, Malaysia's first Ramsar site, is one of only two major natural fresh- water lake systems in peninsular Malaysia. The lake, and its associated marshes and freshwater and peat swamp forests, encompass an estimated 6,150hectares. Tasek Bera is a dendritic complex occupying extensive sinuous arms of water, and wide areas of reed and swamp forests in between patches of raised ground. More than 75% of the swamp area is vegetated.

water its reddish color. Almost the en- eastern coast, the lower reaches of cer- tire delta has been converted to agricul- tain rivers in Sarawak, and in parts of tural land and aquaculture ponds, or peninsular Malaysia. The most exten- drained for forestry and urban devel- sive freshwater swamp forests, how- opment, and very little natural wetland ever, occur in Irian Jaya, in the huge riv- habitat remains, except for a few rem- erine swamp forest of the Manberambo, nants of the mangrove and mudflat eco- Rouffaer and Digul rivers. In the South system along the outer coast. This area, East of Irian Jaya these wetlands gradu- known as the Xuan Thuy Nature Re- ally change to seasonally inundated serve was designated as Viet Nam's first Melaleuca and open grassland savan- Ramsar site. nas, which include some of the richest The principal wetland systems waterbird areas of the region. The rich- throughout peninsular Malaysia and est and most extensive peat swamp for- the Greater Sundas (Borneo, Sumatra, ests are in Sumatra and Borneo. Java and Bali) are mangrove swamps The Philippines formerly sup- and intertidal mudflats, freshwater ported extensive mangrove forests, tidal swamp forests and peat swamp forests, mudflats and coastal swamps, but these although locally there are some impor- have been severely degraded as a result tant freshwater lake systems. The most of conversion to shrimp ponds and rec- extensive mangrove forests occur along lamation for agriculture. The country the eastern coast of Sumatra and in West is rich in freshwater lakes, many of and East Kalimartan, in South Sulawesi which are of volcanic origin. The larg- and Central Java (Segara Anakan). est lake in the Philippines is Laguna de Some of the largest mangrove swamps Bay near Manila. This shallow fresh- of the world occur in Irian Jaya, includ- water lake, formerly an extension of ing over 250,000 hectares in Bintuni Bay Manila Bay, has been extensively devel- and even more along the south coast. oped for its fisheries, and about 70 per Most are still in a pristine stage, al- cent of the lake's surface has been en- though the last decade has seen the al- closed in fish pens. The Agusan and location of huge forestry concessions. Liguasan Mashes in Mindanao are of There are still some significant stands major importance to biodiversity con- in the states of Perak, Selangor Kedah servation. and Johor in peninsular Malaysia. More than one third (150 million The largest areas of freshwater ha.) of Papua New Guinea is classified swamp forest occur in the lowlands of as wetland. The largest wetland system Sumatra and Kalimantan, along Sabah's in the country, occupying 4.5 million

The World Bank 29 Wetlands in Asia hectares, is the Fly River Floodplain and forest (notably Melaleuca spp.) but is its numerous oxbox lakes and lateral dominated by herbaceous swamp com- lakes. The largest of the lateral lakes is monly comprising the reeds Phragmites Lake Murray which at 65,000 hectares karkaand Saccharumsp. No comprehen- is the largest lake in the country and one sive surveys of wetland fauna have been of the largest bodies of freshwater in conducted and most information is an- Oceania. The lake system is most ex- ecdotal. Crocodiles, both Estuarine tensive in the middle reaches of the Fly Crocodylus porusus and New Guinea River Floodplain-the "Middle Fly" re- Freshwater C. novaeguineae, remain gion. Floodplain vegetation in the relativelycommon. Atleastl20fishspe- Middle Fly includes fringing swamp cies occur in the system.

Box 16 Danau Sentarum, Indonesia This area, with its numerous lakes and many interconnect- ing water courses, acts as a buffer for flood waters from the Kapuas River. The lakes are generally shallow and ephemeral and comprise an extensive flood plain bearing a close similarity to the Great Lake system in Cambodia.

The area was declared a Wildlife Reserve in 1982 but as yet there is very little protection. The main land uses are fish- ing, shifting cultivation, rice agriculture and hunting. About 2,800-3,500 people live in some twenty villages within the reserve, most being dependent on fisheries for their livelihood.

Illegal logging, heavy hunting pressure and considerable human disturbance from the many small villages in the area are major threats. The forests are also very suscep- tible to fire, and many hundreds of hectares have been lost to forest fires in recent years.

30 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific ACTION PROGRAM FOR THE CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS IN ASIA

The previous sections of this booklet "...work together to prevent further outlined the status and importance of loss and degradationof wetlands, to ensure wetlands in the different regions ofAsia, their wise use, and to maintain, restoreand giving examples of their uses and infor- appropriatelyenhance wetland biodiversity mation on some of the key sites. This andfunctions." concluding section presents a suggested action program for the future conserva- As such the Conference recom- tion of wetlands in Asia. It begins with mended: a summary of the nine recommenda- * That governments develop policies tions agreed by participants at the first and legislation to ensure the sustain- International Conference on Wetlands able use of wetlands, recognising best, and Development, 8-14th October 1995, multi-sectoral practice, in both pub- Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The recom- lic and private sectors, and that plan- mendations (popularly referred to as the ning for the conservation and devel- "Kuala Lumpur Statement") were for- opment of wetlands should be under- mulated by 360 participants represent- taken at the appropriate interna- ing Government, NGOs and other agen- tional, national and local levels. cies from 60 nations world-wide and provide the way forward. The section * That the co-operative spirit of this then concludes with a more detailed Conference be further developed overview of actions available to the through partnership between the pri- Governments of Asia, development as- vate sector, local communities, non- sistance agencies and NGOs. governmental organisations govern- ment and development agencies to The Kuala Lumpur Statement help establish specific mechanisms and methods for the wise use of wet- Participants at the first International lands to be promoted and applied Conference on Wetlands and Develop- throughout the world; ment, 8-14th October 1995, Kuala Lum- pur, Malaysia, urged governments, in- * That the planning of land-use, water tergovernmental organisations, regional management, economic development economic organisations, local commu- and conservation should be inte- nities, NGOs, the private sector and oth- grated at catchment scale, including ers to: coastal areas, taking into account

The World Bank 31 Wetlands in Asia

hydrological, ecological and human and involved from the outset in de- interrelationships and needs; velopment; That activities likely to affect wet- * That international co-operation lands should proceed only after con- should be enhanced to assist the ex- sideration of environmental assess- change of information and expertise, ment and include appropriate review to develop site networks, flyway stages. Prior socio-economicand en- management agreements and conser- vironmental impact analysis of indi- vation strategies, such as the Asia- vidual project components should be Pacific Waterbird Strategy, and to carried out and taken into account implement action plans to protect during the implementation phase. wetlands and their wildlife,especially Long-term and cumulative impacts, waterbirds; and the effectivenessof wetland man- That improved programmes should agement and restoration, should be be developed providing education, monitored and fed back into reviews training, information materials and of these procedures. mechanism to improve the level of * That more resources should be pro- awarenessand capacity to implement vided to enhance understanding, wetland conservationand sustainable knowledge and awareness of wet- use, for example, the establishmentof lands, to establish their true eco- an annual World WetlandsDay to ef- nomic, social, cultural and ecological fect popular mobilisation. Particular values and to promote greater appre- attention should be given to those ciation of their intrinsic worth. people livingin and around wetlands, to other users of those wetlands, to * That to build upon the environmen- decision makers and to wetland man- tal framework negotiated at the agers. United Nations' Conferenceon Envi- ronment and Development in Rio de Action Program Janeiro in 1992, incremental cost analysis is recognised as a valuable This section draws heavily on docu- tool for choosing between alternative ments published by Dugan (1990),AWB development options, and should be (1992), Ramsar (1989), and the World given high priority to assist the wise Bank (1995)and should be consulted for use of wetlands and the conservation elaboration. of their biodiversity. . .. ~~ActinbyGvrm t * That, recognising the importance of ions by Government cultural heritage, local practices and Agencies indigenous knowledge, it is essential As a first stage each country to identify ways in which the liveli- should be encouraged to review the sta- hood of local people in wetland areas tus of its wetlands and the effectiveness can be maintained and improved of conservation and protection efforts. while safeguarding wetlands and Subsequently, concerned agencies then their resources for the benefit of fu- collaborate in determining the reasons ture generations. In order to ensure for wetland loss and review develop- sustainable use of wetlands and avoid ment programs under their jurisdiction. adverse impacts, local people should Attention should also be given to po- be integral to the planning process lices favouring interventions in natural

32 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Action Programfor the Conservation of Wetlands in Asia systems. A wide range of national po- port. lices, laws and regulations can create "perverse" incentives that discourage fImprovedplanning and management conservation, even as other policies are for all development projects likely to intended to provide incentives to con- affect wetlands. This should be sub- serve. These "perverse" policies include ject to an environmental assessment economic and social policies such as in collaboration with local communi- land ownership and resource tenure ties, paying careful attention to tra- policies, and sectoral policies in agricul- ditional management approaches to ture, forestry, fisheries, energy and in- wetlands and their resources. The dustry. assessments should be made widely Thetrproduction.of a National Wet available as part of consultation with The production of a National Wet- affected parties and NGOs. River land Action Plan must be the ultimate basin planning and coastal zone man- goal of all countries focusing primarily agement provide pragmatic instru- on actions to conserve the natural func- mentsment forforiue use ofofawetln wetland resourcesresour tions and values of wetland ecosystems and these and other tools should be through sound management and sus- developed and implemented to facili- tainable use of resources. Key elements tate this process. include: • The survey and inventory of a * Enhanced institutional capacity. In- country's wetlands, including the vestment is needed to strengthen in- identification of sustainable and de- stitutional resources to enable staff to structive uses. Critical information on design and implement environmen- wetlands of international and na- tally sustainable development ac- tional importance will enable govern- tions. Management capacity should ments and development assistance be reviewed and priorities for train- agencies to take account of these pri- ing identified. orities in deciding investment. Such * Improved protection is required to information can constitute the found- conserve ecosystems and sites judged ing of a database for monitoring evi- to be of highest priority and/or most dence of ecological change and for endangered. National and regional designing research programs. programs that set priorities should be * A review of policy and legislation implemented and critical wetlands concerning wetlands. The govern- protected in reserves governed by ments should review agricultural, management plans developed within water and other relevant policies to an integrated system of protected ar- determine how they contribute to eas. A first step may involve estab- wetland loss and how they may be lishment of a National Wetlands Man- changed. New conservation policies agement Committee. should consider costs and benefits of wetland conservation versus conver- * International collaboration. Coun- sion. For example, policies to pro- tries should identify their shared wet- mote allocation of water to wetlands land resources and develop manage- ecosystems and encourage the resto- ment approaches using the Ramsar ration of degraded sites may need to Convention as a guide for collabora- be developed and implemented. Leg- tion. Opportunities for exchange of islation should be formulated to pro- information and transfer of technol- vide the necessary institutional sup- ogy in wetland conservation and

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management and encouraged. Gov- source management agencies and ernment conservation agencies in as- protected area administrations and sociation or with conservation and systems. environmental NGOs should assist To enhance these and other chal- development assistance institution in lenges facing wetlands conservation, reviewing the impact of current poli- the World Bank is broadening its in- reviewand practicesandimplementing volvement in biodiversity conservation cies and practices and implementig to assist countries to meet their obliga- actions supportive of wetland conser- tions and aspirations. In particular, the vation. Bank will try, whenever possible, to use Further details on the approach are its policy dialogue, country economic provided by the IUCN (1990),Wetlands and sector work, and country assistance International - Asia Pacific (Asian Wet- economic and sector work, and coun- land Bureau [1992] and the Ramsar try strategies to help countries main- Convention's "Towards the Wise Use of stream biodiversity within national and Wetlands" [1993]). sectoral policies and programs. The success of such an endeavour will, in Actions by Development part, depend on how well the Bank can build on past experience. It will depend Assistance Agencies also on how effective the Bank is in its International assistance agencies such continuing efforts to forge substantive as the World Bank can greatly assist partnerships with governments, the UN wetlasnte onerlBaonkcand theatysus agencies and other aid organisations, wetlands conservation and their sus- academic institutions, NGOs and local tainable use by providing financial as- communities involved in conservation sistance to national governments and, and sustainable development. increasingly, to local governments and To assist its client countries to NGOs. Two concerns are particularly mainstream biodiversity, the Bank and important: other development assistance agencies e Biodiversity conservation and manage- are exploring ways to better: ment is not just an ecologicalconcern. * integrate biodiversity conservation For many countries, sustainable and sustainable use within overall utilisation and conservation of biodi- policy dialogue and country assis- versity is intrinsic to socio-economic tance strategy; development. Especially for the ru- a . t ral poor, biological resources often adjushng traditonal economic and provide the single most important sector work to include biodiversity contributioncontibuton tto thirtheir lvelioodsandlivelihoods and contextpriorities of betterand issues addressing (possible global in theex- welfare in the form of food supplies, ternalities); medicines, shelter, income, employ- ment, and cultural integrity. * reflect biodiversity objectives in the * Successful biodiversity conservationde- design of individual investment pends on sound policies (pricing, taxa- projects across all sectors of the tion, land tenure) and effective institu- economy; tional and social arrangements (laws, * enhance environmental assessment regulations, and the roles of the state, practices; private sector NGOs, local communi- ties and indigenous people) provision * support the development of the hu- for which often falls outside the tra- man resources and the institutions are ditional conservation domain of re- required to facilitate the

34 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Action Programfor the Conservation of Wetlands in Asia

mainstreaming of biodiversity; and ing. adapt internal operational procedures * Protection and management. Many and practices to better support the NGOs own and manage wetland re- mainstreaming of biodiversity in de- serves and have developed innova- velopment work. tive management measures for wet- land ecosystems. NGOs should iden- Actions by Non-Governmental tify critical wetland sites and manage- Organisations ment problems not covered ad- equately by government measures, Non-governmental organisations and pursue actions to protect and (NGOs) can play a major role in sup- manage these sites effectively. porting government and development and agency efforts in wetland conser- * Dissemination of information. In vation. In some instances they are par- many countries the greatest strength ticularly well placed to show leadership of NGOs is in public awareness. and take initiatives to be followed up NGOs should review the information by governments. NGOs should carry activities of others and prepare pro- out their own review of wetland con- grams that fill important gaps. Work servation in their country and then iden- with schools and colleges, and with tify actions needed to be taken by Gov- the general public through campaigns ernment, NGOs, and other institutions and media events is likely to be par- at national and international levels. ticularly effective, and will draw There are a number of areas where upon the unique qualities of many NGOs are likely to be particularly ef- NGOs. fective: * Providing training opportunities. * Policy review. Although national NGOs can assist governments to in- policies are set by Governments, crease the technical abilities of re- NGOs can help by reviewing agricul- source staff through the implementa- tural, water, tax and other policies tion of national and regional training leading to wetland loss, by recom- programs. mending changes, and by disseminat- Interational collaboration. NGOs ing these to the wider public, should encourage their Government * Building public support. NGOs can to join the Ramsar Convention and to generate public awareness of policy use the Convention to increase inter- issues, and site specific conservation national, regional and local support problems and either support govern- for wetland conservation. ment action or press when it is lack-

The World Bank 35 Wetlands in Asia

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Asian Wetlands Bureau (AWB) IWRB. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Au- 1992. Action Programme for the thority, The World Bank and IUCN. Conservation of Wetlands in South 1995. A Global System of Marine and West Asia. Kuala Lumpur, Protected Areas. Washington, D.C., Malaysia. USA. AWB. 1994, Priorities in Wetland IUCN, 1987. A Directory of Wetlands of AWB.n994,ervaioritsin WutlEandAInternational Importance.Gland, Conservation i South-East Asia: Switzerland. Selected Recommendations for James, R.F. 1991. Wetland Valuation: Action. Ramsar South-East Asia Guidelines and Techniques.PHPA/ Regional Workshop. 29 March- AWB Suamtra Wetland Project 1 April, 1994. Indoesia. AWB, Kuala Report No. 31. Asian Wetland Lumpur, Malaysia. Bureau - Indonesia, Bogor, Indone- Claridge, G.F. (compiler). 1993. Wet- sia. landsfor the LaoP.D.R.: An Interim Ramsar, 1989. Report of Working Group Inventory. IUCN Working Paper. on Criteriaon Wise Use. Ramsar IUCN, Bangkok. Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzer- Davies, J. and Claridge, G.F. (eds). land. 1993. Wetland Benefits. The Potential , 1993. Towardsthe Wise Use of for o SuportandMainainetlads for Wetlands to Support and Maintain RamsarWetlands. Centre Gland, Japan. Switzerland. 1995. Public Duevelopment.Asian Wetland Bureau Awareness of Biodiversity in Wetland Publication No. 87; IWRC Special in Asia. Ramsar Centre Bureau. Publication No. 27, Wetlands for the Scott, D.A. (ed). 1989. A Directory of Americas Publication No. 11. Asian Wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Dugan, P. (ed.). 1990. Wetland Conser- Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K. vation: A Review of Current Issues .1993. A Directory of Wetlands in and Required Action, Gland, Swit- Oceania.IWRB, Slimbridge, zerland. Gloucester, U.K.

. 1993. Wetlands in Danger.Mitchell -. 1995. A Directory of Wetlands in the Beazley in association with IUCN - Middle East. rUCN, Gland, Switzer- The World Conservation Union, land and IWRB, Slimbridge, U.K. London, U.K. . 1989. A Status Overview of Asian London, U. . Wetlands. AWB Publication No. 53, F 9layson,M. and Moser, M. (eds). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 1991Wetlands. Facts on File, . 1993. Action Programmefor the London, U.K. Conservationof Wetlands in China.

36 Wetlands International - Asia Pacific Bibliography

Soule, M. 1991. Conservation: Tactics Bank Assistance Strategyfor Imple- for Constant Crisis. Science, 253 menting the Convention on Biological (5021): 744-750. Diversity. Environment Department World Bank. 1995. Mainstreaming Paper No. 29, Washington, D.C., Biodiversity in Development:A World USA.

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