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Home , Anaimalai Hills, Bagar tract, Bhimtal Lake, Brahmagiri (Maharashtra), Cardamom Hills, Central India

PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

India is the seventh largest and second most populous country in the world. Its area is 2.4% of the total world area but about 16% of the entire human races reside in its fold. In population, only the exceeds that of India. India, , , Nepal and Bhutan form the well-defined realm of south often referred to as the Indian sub-. Lying entirely in the (tropical zone), the Indian mainland extends between the -8°4' N to 37°6'N and longitude -68°7' E to 97°25'E. The southernmost point in the Indian territory, the Indira Point, is situated at 6°30' north in the Andaman and Nicobar . The passes through the centre of India. India covers an area of 3.28 million sq km and measures about 3,214 km from north to south and about 2,933 km east to west. The total length of the mainland coastland is nearly 6,400 km and land frontier about 15,200 km. The boundary line between India and China is called the McMahon line. To the north-west, India, shares a boundary mainly with Pakistan and to the east with Myanmar and Bangladesh. The Indian lies in the south. In the south, on the eastern side, the and the separate India from Sri . The Andaman and in the and the islands in the Arabian are parts of the Indian Territory India's relief is marked by a great variety: India can be divided into five major physiographic units: 1. The Northern Mountains 2. The Great Northern 3. The Peninsular Plateau. 4. The Coastal Plains 5. The Islands

NORTHERN MOUNTAINS It stretches across northern India from and Kashmir to (about 2500 km) with a varying width of 240 to 320 km forming Himalaya in the East-West direction and its offshoots run in North-South direction along the India-Myanmar boundary traversing through , and known as eastern hills. They represent the youngest and highest folded mountains of the formed by the tectonic collision of the Indian plateau with the Eurasian plateau. (i) The Greater Himalayas/Himadri/ Inner Himalayas: This is the most continuous loftiest and northern most range of Himalayas. It has a core of Archaean , and schist’s rocks. This range contains many high mountain peaks of the world. They comprise the northern most ranges having an average height of 6000 m with breadth ranging from 120 to 190 km. Conforming to the underlying rocks, the syntaxial bend is an asymmetrical mountain throwing very few spurs southward. Important peaks of this system include Mt. Everest (8,848 m) at Kathmandu in Nepal, Kanchanjunga (8,598 m), Dhaulagiri (8,172 m) Nanda Devi (7,817m) Nanga Parbat (8,126m). Important passes are Bara Lacha La and (in ), Thaga La, Niti Pass and Lipulekh (); and , (); and Burzil pass and Zojila pass (Kashmir). (ii) The Lesser/ Middle Himalayas: ) It generally consists of unfossiferous sediments or metamorphosed crystalline. Important range include the Dhauladhar, Pirpanjal, Nag Tiba, Mahabharat and Mussoorie range. They have an average height of about 3,500 to. 5,000 metres and average width of 60 to 80 km. It extends in the North of Shiwalik range. Hills and resorts are , Musoorie, , , , etc. (iii) The Outer Himalayas/Shiwaliks: It is almost continuous range of low hills, composed of unconsolidated tertiary sediments emerged as most recent phase in Himalaya . They are the foothills running parallel to the Himalayas. Average height is 1,000 to 1,500 metres. It is a chain of low- lying hills formed, through fluvial deposits like sand, clay and pebbles. valley; Udhampur and Kotli valleys have developed into good human settlements. Shiwalik or Outer Himalayas is a hogback structure formed of river born deposits in the latest phase of Himalayas uplift in Middle Miocene to lower Pleistocene age. It descends northwards to flat-floored structured valleys called "Duns". It is covered with thick tropical wet deciduous forests in the east. Trans-Hlmalayas

They comprise , and the Kailash mountain systems. Mt. K 2 (Godwin Austin - 8,611m) which is now in Pakistan occupied Kashmir is located in the Karakoram. Another important peak is Hidden Peak (8,068m). The (72km) -largest in situated in Nubra valley in this . Other glaciers are Baltoro (60 km), Biafo (60 km) and Hispar (62 km). It is also called the Tibetan Himalaya. or, Eastern Hills After crossing the Dihang gorge in the east, the Himalayas bend towards South forming a series of hills with a north-south direction, convex side facing the west. These hills are made up of sedimentary rocks and are highly dissected. Their heights vary from 500m to 3,000m. The ' Bum' forms the boundary between India (Arunachal Pradesh) and Burma. Further South is the , boundary between Nagaland and Myanmar. Saramati (3,826m) is the highest peak. Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Mikir, Dapha, Mini and Abor are other important hills of the north-eastern region. with maximum rainfall in the world is located on the in .

Longitudinal/Transverse/ Regional Divisions of Himalaya: Region wise, the Himalayas are divided into; (a) The Kashmir Himalayas (b) The Himalayas (c) The Kumaon Himalayas (d) The Central Himalayas (e) The Eastern Himalayas The Kashmir Himalayas cover an area of 3, 50,000 sq. km. Main sub divisions are Karakoram range in north, Ladakh plateau, the Valley of Kashmir and the . BanihaI is an important pass. The Punjab Himalayas have important passes like Zojila, Rohtang and Bara Lacha La. Kangra, LahuI and Spiti Valleys are known for their scenic beauty. The Kumaon Himalayas have important peaks like Nanda Devi; Badrinath; Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamnotri which are located here. The Central Himalayas extend from river to river Tista Important peaks are Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Mt. Everest and Kanchanjunga. This range is known as the Sikkim Himalaya in Sikkim; Darjeeling Himalaya in , and Bhutan Himalaya in Bhutan.

List of Himalayan passes in India The Himalayan mountain system is the highest in the world and is home to the world's highest peaks. There are 14 Himalayan peaks with elevation over 8,000 metres. Important mountain passes/ himalayan passes makes few routes through the mountains possible. 1. Dungri La Pass - The Dungri la pass or is the high altitude mountain pass and is located in the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve of the mountain range in the Uttarakhand. It connects India and . 2. Pass - Chang La Pass is situated at an elevation of over 5300 m and is one of the highest motorable road in the world which connects Indus Valley to Pangong region. Changtang plateau is known for its high altitude giant and vast highlands of . 3. - Debsa Pass is situated at an elevation of over 5360 m in the Himalayas. It is a high mountain pass in Greater Himalayas and connects the and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh. is a desert mountain land between Tibet and India. 4. - The Karakoram Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,693 m between India and China in the Karakoram Range. The Karakoram Pass is the oldest route between and Yarkant and is the tallest pass of the Karakoram Mountain Range. The Siachen Glacier is situated in the eastern Karakoram range. 5. - The frozen Sela Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,170 m in District of Arunachal Pradesh. Sela Pass connects Tawang to rest of India through Tezpur and . It receives heavy snowfall in winter but remain opens throughout the . It is the only Gateway to the Tawang and Buddhist . 6. Pass - Khardung La Pass Bomdi La 5,800 m. Khardung La Pass is the highest motorable pass and one of the highest motorable road in the country. Khardung La pass is located near Leh in Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir. 7. (Jawahar Tunnel) - Banihal Pass is situated at an elevation of 2,850 m in the Pir- Panjal Range. Banihal Pass connects Jammu with . The pass remains covered with snow during the winter season. The Jawahar Tunnel was inaugurated in 1956. 8. Bomdi La Pass - Bomdi La is situated at an elevation of 2600 m to the east of Bhutan in the Greater Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh. It connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa, Tibet. 9. Diphu Pass - Diphu Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,587 m. Diphu Pass is a mountain pass at the tri-point of the , China, and Burma. It is a traditional pass between India and Myanmar which remains open throughout the year for transportation and trade. Diphu Pass is also a strategic approach to eastern . 10. Khunjerab Pass - Khunjerab Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,693 m. is a high mountain pass in the Karakoram Mountains in a strategic position on the northern border of Pakistan's Gilgit–Baltistan Hunza - Nagar District on the southwest border of the Xinjiang region of China. 11. Jelep La Pass - Jelep La Pass is situated at an elevation of 4,267 m. This pass connects Sikkim with Lhasa, Tibet. 12. Lipu-Lekh Pass - Lipu-Lekh Pass is situated at an elevation of 5,340 m. It connects the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand in the Pithoragarh district in India with Tibet. 13. Nathu La Pass - Nathu La Pass is a mountain pass in the Himalayas and is situated at an elevation of 4,310 m. It connects Sikkim (India) with China. It is one of the three open trading border posts between India and China, the other two are Shipkila in Himachal Pradesh and Lipulekh in Uttarakhand. 14. Pir-Panjal Pass - Pir-Panjal Pass is a high mountain pass on the eastern Pir Panjal Range of the Himalayas around 51 km from Manali. It connects the with the Lahaul and Spiti Valleys of Himachal Pradesh, India. Manali-Leh Highway, a part of NH 21, transverses . 15. Shipki La Pass - Shipki La is a mountain pass and border post on the India-Tibet border. It is located in Kinnaur district in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India, and Tibet Autonomous Region in People's Republic of China. river enters India (from Tibet) through this pass. It is an offshoot of the ancient Silk Road. It is a border post for trade with China. 16. - Zoji La is situated at an elevation of 3,950 m. It connects Srinagar with Kargil and Leh. Zoji La is 9 km from Sonamarg and provides a vital link between Ladakh and Kashmir. Important Passes of India

GREAT NORTHERN PLAINS

The great plains are an aggradational surface of great extent formed after the Himalayas. These are formed by the Indus, the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. The Great stretches in the east-west direction between the Himalayas in the north and the peninsular plateau in the south. Width varies from 500 km in Punjab- to 200 km. in . It covers an area of over 7 1akh sq. km. Important characteristics include Bhabar (unsorted sediments), (Marshy tract) Bhangar (older alluvium) and Khadar (newer alluvium). i. The Bhabar: The Bhabar belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. ii. The Tarai: The Tarai belt lies south of the adjacent Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. iii. The Bhangar: The Bhangar belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. iv. The Khadar: It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.

The Great Northern plains consist of the following : (a) The Punjab- Plains: They are drained by the tributaries of river Indus, Ravi, 'Beas and Satluj. These plains are flat with an average elevation of 200 to 240 metres. These fertile plains include the Bari (between Ravi and Beas rivers) and Bist Doab (between Beas and Satluj) (b) The Rajasthan Plains: They cover an area of 1.75 lakh sq km in Rajasthan and its adjoining states. It includes the Marusthali of and west of the Aravallis. The region is one of the dry river beds () and shifting sand dunes. River Luni is an inland drainage river. Sambhar, Kuchaman, Didwana and Pachbhadra are the salt lakes of this region. (c) The Ganga Plains: The Ganga plains of U.P., Bihar and West Bengal occupy an area of 3.571akh sq km Important rivers of this region are the Ganga, the , the Gandak, the Son and the Kosi. The Bengal basin is mainly composed of the Ganga delta. (d) The Brahmaputra Plains: It contains alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries the Subansiri Dibang and the Lohit. It is a flood prone area because the slope of the valley is too gentle to drain away the large volume of rainfall in season.

PENINSULAR PLATEAU

The Peninsular plateau, which covers an area of about 16 lakh sq km, is the largest physiographic division of the country. It has senile topographical features. The Aravallis form its boundary in the north-west, Hazaribagh and Rajmahal Hills in the north and north-east. South of about 22°N latitude, the Sahyadris (Western ) and the form the western and eastern boundaries respectively. On the basis of variation in relief, further divisions of the Plateau may be made as follows: (a) The AravaIli Range: It is one of the oldest fold mountains of the world. The highest peak is Gurushikhar (1,722m) in Mount Abu. The Ridge marks the northern end of the range. (b) The Central Plateau: It consists of Plateau of Rajasthan and . Average height is 250-300m. The Plateau in Madhya Pradesh lies in the north of Vindhyas. The Plateau is largely broken. The Chambal ravine is an important feature. The area between the Yamuna and Vindhyan Plateau is called Plateau. It lies in the east of Maikal ranges and south of river Son. Important rivers of the region are the Rihand and Son. (c) The : It is an escarpment running in east-west direction. Kaimur Hills form its eastern portion. (d) The : It lies between Narmada and Tapti (Tapi) valleys latitudinally. The plateau is formed of lava. The highest point of Satpura range is in Panchmarhi (1,350m). The eastern part of the range is Maikal Plateau. (e) The Eastern Plateau (Meghalaya Plateau) and the Chhotanagpur Plateau: East of the lies the Baghelkhand Plateau. South of the Baghelkhand is Basin. Further south is Bastar Plateau or . The Chotanagpur Plateau lies in the east of Baghelkhand Plateau. It has an average height of 700m. It has a radial drainage. The Damoder River originates near Tori in Palamau. Damodar valley project is located here. The Chotanagpur Plateau ends in Rajmahal Hills. (f) The and Kutch Peninsula: They have an Archaean structure but are surfaced by tertiary rocks. It tapers into the . (g) The : It includes Mahadev Hills, Kaimur Hills, Maikal Range, , Nilgiri, , Hills and Hills, Eastern Ghats (, Javadi Hills, Palkonda Range ) . Plateau, Basin, , Plateau, Plateau and Upland. It is slightly tilted towards south-east. The peninsula is triangular in shape-rising from 500 to 1,000m. (1,057m) and Dhupgarh (1,350m) are important peaks. (h) The Western Ghats or the Sahyadris: They form the western edge of the Deccan Plateau. Starting from , south of Tapi and running southward parallel along the western coast for 1600 km, it reaches and joins the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiri Hills. (1,646m), (1,438m) and Harishchandra are among the highest peaks in this part of the ghats. Thal and Bhorghat are important passes through which roads and railways run between the Deccan Plateau and the plains. (1,894m), (1,714m) and peak lie south of Coorg. The highest peak of the Nilgiri Hills is Dodabeta (2,637m) situated near Ootacamund. Udyogmandal () is an important hill resort. (I) Palghat : It connects Tamil Nadu and and is located south of the Nilgiri, separating the from the Nilgiris Further south of the Pal ghat Gap, there are the Hills and the Palni Hills in the north east. The culmmination point of these hills is the Anai Mudi Peak (2,69Sm) with the distinction of being the highest peak of . (II) The Eastern Ghats: They form the eastern boundary of the Deccan Plateau. They are broken as compared to the Western Ghats. The highest point (1,680m) is in the district, Mahendragiri (l,501m). The most irnportant hill in the Cuddapah Range is Nallamalla Hills. The Southern part of Nallamalla is called Palkonda Range. Javadi Hills in North Arcot and Ginjee Hills in South Arcot and Pachaimalai in Tamil Nadu, form the others hills of the Eastern Ghats.

COASTAL PLAINS

It occurs along the shores of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The Plains are narrower along the west coast than the east coast. A number of deltas occur on the east coast because the gradient is less steep. 1. The West Coastal Piains: It spreads its structure from the to Kanyakumari, (the southern tip of the Indian mainland) for about 1,500 km. The plain is formed by the Sabarmati, Mahi and several other rivers. The Karnataka coast extends south of for about 525 km. The is an important river. The region has several rocky cliffs. The Kerala plain extends from south of Cannanore to Cape Comorin for about 500 km. To the South the coastline is more rugged. It is called the Konkan Coast up to Goa and from there onwards in Karnataka, it is the Kanara/ Kannad Coast, further South the part that lies in Kerala is called . 2. The East Coastal Plains: Extends from the mouth of Subarnarekha to Kanyakumari for about 1,100 km. Its average width is 120 km. The East t Coast is much wider and contains many deltas. The and Godavari form large delta. is located between Krishna and Godavari. The is a lagoon (salt water lake) separated from the sea by Sriharikota . The include the Mahanadi delta. Chilka Lake, south of Mahanadi delta is an important Lagoon. It is called between Mahanadi and Krishna rivers and South of the Cauveri up to the southernmost tip of the Indian mainland.

Important difference between and the

The differences and comparison between Eastern and Western Coastal Plains are as follows: 1. The Eastern Coastal plain lies along the east coast of India and is washed by the Bay of Bengal. But the Western Coastal Plain lies along the west coast of India and is washed by The Arabian Sea. 2. The East Coast plain runs smoothly from the north to the south with a broad plain and level surface. But the West Coast plain also runs from the north to the south and it is in some places intersected by the mountain ridges. 3. Eastern Coastal Plain is broader than the West Coast plain. The width varies from 80 to 100 km. But the Eastern Coastal Plain is narrow with a width of 50 to 65 km. In some places it is so narrow that the Western Ghats touch the Sea water. 4. The large rivers make wide deltas on the Eastern Coastal Plains. But the short swift rivers do not make any deltas on the West Coast. 5. The Eastern Coast is sandy with alluvium and slopes gently towards the sea. Sand dunes and marshy lands are also found. In some Coastal strips lagoons (Chilka, Pulicat) are formed. But the Western Coast is relatively rocky with sand and sand dunes. It slopes abruptly down to the sea. There is no lagoon on the northern part. It has many on the Konkon Coast. But the southern part especially the Malabar Coast has the beautiful scene of back-water country with a series of lagoons. 6. The Eastern Coast is smooth and unfit for making ports. So, very few ports are developed there. But the Western Coast is broken and indented and suitable for ports. For this, a large number of ports are there. 7. This Coastal plain receives comparatively low rainfall. But the Western Coastal plain receives heavy rainfall. 8. The East Coast Plain is formed by fine alluvial soil and is fertile especially on the deltas. Consequently agriculture is developed. The West Coast Plain lies along the west coast of India and is washed by the Arabian Sea. But the West Coast Plain is formed by coarse grained soil. It is infertile and agriculturally not prosperous except in the Malabar Coast.

THE ISLANDS India has in all 247 islands of which 204 lie in the Bay of Bengal and remaining in the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Mannar between India and . Some of these islands are of volcanic origin while some are of origin. The Andaman and Nicobar are two major groups of Islands in the Bay of Bengal. They are a group of 324 islands which are volcanic in nature. are separated from the Nicobar Islands by the ten degree channel. They are mostly rugged mountainous hills and considered submerged part of Arakanyoma fold belt of Mayanmar. The islands in the Arabian Sea have a coral origin and are surrounded by fringing reefs. It is a group of 36 coral islands. They are located off the coast of Kerala. These islands are mostly flat and hardly a few metres above sea level. Rameshwaram Island which lies just off the Tamil Nadu coast, between India and Sri Lanka, is also of coral origin. Impo rtant Hills of Peni nsula r India India-

The is broadly, of the tropical monsoon type. The word monsoon (Arabic: Mausim) stands for seasonal reversal in the wind pattern and is associated with the rhythm of season, changes in the direction of winds, distribution pattern of rainfall and temperature with the change of seasons. However, the regional variations in climate can't be ignored. These variations are expressed in terms of winds, rainfall, temperature and humidity. Main factors deciding the local climate are location, altitude and distance from general relief.

Mechanism of Indian weather India has wide regional variations in terms of winds, rainfall, temperature, humidity, etc. These differences in local climate are produced by the following factors; I. Surface distribution of pressure and winds; II. Upper air circulation caused by factors controlling global weather and the inflow of different air masses and jet streams; and III. Inflow of western disturbances and tropical depressions into India creating weather phenomena leading to rainfall.

SEASONS On the basis of monsoonal variation, there are four seasons in India. (a) The Cold Weather Season (December to February): Mainly felt in an important event of the season is the inflow of the depression from the west to the north-west. These low pressure systems, called Western disturbances, originate in West Asia and travel towards India causing some rain and snowfall in winter months in north and north-eastern India. The temperature increases from north to south. The isotherms run parallel to the 20° isotherm runs east-west through the middle part of India. By the mid-December in the north-west India a series 'of shallow cyclonic disturbances is observed.. The rainfall is mostly confined to Punjab & Haryana Plains, North-east Rajasthan, Kashmir and western U .P. In northern India it is very useful for Rabi crops. (b) The Hot Weather Season (March to May): Because of the heating of the subcontinent, the equatorial trough moves northward and lies at 25°N in July. This trough attracts surface winds from South –Westerly direction along the West Coast and from north, north -Westerly direction along the Bengal Coast. The northward shift of equatorial trough and the excessive heating of the Himalayan and the central Asian highlands are responsible for generating the monsoon, the influx of monsoon in mid - June changes the season to the rainy one. -like dust storm of Punjab and Haryana; the "Andhis" of U.P. and the "Kalbaishakhis" of West Bengal involving strong movements causes some precipitation. The "Norwesters" (Kalbaishakhis of West Bengal) originate over the Chotanagpur Plateaus and blow in the north east direction which brings about 50cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10cm rainfall in West Bengal and Orissa. This rainfall is very useful for Assam and spring crops of West Bengal. Similar thunderstorm causes about 25cm rainfall in Karnataka which is locally called as "", beneficial to the plantation and "Mango Showers" elsewhere in South India, which are of salutary effect on the mango crop. “", a hot wind blows in the northern plain during May and June, with the temperature range of 45°C to 50°C. (c) The South -West Monsoon Season (June to September): The 'monsoon burst' brings about the sudden onset of rain on different dates in different parts of India. The Arabian Sea current covers West Coast, Maharashtra, Gujarat and parts of Madhya Pradesh, whereas the Bay of Bengal current strikes the Bengal coast and the plateau and moves West and north- west, parallel to the Himalayas and brings rain to Bihar, U.P., Delhi etc. The two currents merge over Punjab. The tropical depressions, which occur periodically, cause dry spells during the monsoon season. So these depressions determine the amount of rainfall The East Coast of India remains dry during this season of June -September, since it is in the area: of the western current and is parallel to the Bengal current. The normal date of onset of the S. W. -Monsoon is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar Island, 1st June on Kerala toast and by l5th July it covers whole of India. The withdrawal of monsoon is much more gradual process than its onset. Normally it withdraws from north-west India by the beginning of October and from remaining part of India by the beginning of December. Out of the total moisture brought by the monsoon, only 20 percent is precipitated in India. Arabian Sea branch causes the first monsoon-burst over the Kerala coast normally by 5th June and later on causes heavy rain along the western coast, while the large part of Deccan lies in a rain shadow of the Western Ghats and receive decreasing amount of rainfall. The Arabian Sea branch does not brings much rain to Gujarat and Rajasthan mainly due to absence of a mountain barrier, but gives moderate to heavy rainfall in the foothills of Western Himalayas, Eastern Punjab and North-eastern Rajasthan. The Arabian Sea branch is much more powerful than the Bay of Bengal branch. The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region enters the Khasi Valley and entrapped within it due to funnel shape of the region and strikes in a perpendicular direction causing heaviest rainfall near "Mawsynram" (1143cm). A series of depression are originated at the head of Bay of Bengal and travel in a north westerly direction across central and northern India causes heavy rainfall along their tracks, with the frequency of 2 to 4 depressions per month from June to September. (d) The North -East Monsoon (October to December): The retreat of South-West monsoon from North India starts in September and is gradual. During this season, severe cyclonic storms develop in the Bay of Bengal which moves in a South-easterly to North-Westerly direction. They give substantial amount of rainfall to the East coast and sometimes cause havoc in , Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. In Tamil Nadu and surrounding areas, it is known as the north east monsoon period. Generally the withdrawal of monsoon starts from 1st September in the north- and is completed in mid December from South-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu. With the migration of Sun towards the south, a high pressure centre begins to build up over the landmass and there is a gradual weakening and withdrawal of monsoon. The retreating monsoon causes rain in the coastal tracts to the south of Krishna delta and the interior of the southern districts.

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

The climatic division of India is based upon Trewartha's scheme, which is a modified form of Koppen's system and it corresponds with the vegetative, agricultural and geographical regions of India. Main climatic regions of India include: (i) Tropical Rain Forest (Am): It is found on the West coastal plain, the Western Ghats and some parts of Assam, It is characterized by high temperature in winter not below 18.2°C; and in summer about 29°C. The average rainfall exceeds 200 cm. (ii) Tropical Savanna (Aw): It is located in peninsular region except the semi -arid zone in the leeward side of the Sahyadris. It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter and early summer and high temperature (above 18.2°C). Annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east. (iii) Tropical Semi-arid Steppe (BS): Prevails in the rain-shadow belt running southward from Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Sahyadris and Cardamom Hills. It is characterized by low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature between 20°- 30° c. (iv) Tropical and Sub-Tropical Steppe (BSh): Occurs over Punjab extending to Kutch region. The Thar Desert is in the west and the more humid climate of the Ganga plain and the Peninsula to its East and South respectively. (v) Tropical Desert (BWh): The area includes the western parts of Barmer, and Bikaner district of Rajasthan. A large portion of Kutch Peninsula along with Thar Desert is also included. It is characterized by scanty rainfall (30 cm average) with few parts receiving 12 cm annual rainfall. Temperature is above 35° C. (vi) Humid Sub-tropical with Dry Winter (Cwa): The area includes South of the Himalayas, East of the tropical and sub -tropical steppe and north of tropical Savanna. It is characterized by rainfall of 63.5 cm to 254 cm most of which is received during the South West Monsoon season. (vii) Mountain Climate (H): The area lies above 6000 metre sea-Ievel. Examples are the Himalayan and Karakoram ranges. Temperature decreases with altitude. The Trans -Himalayan region particularly Ladakh has a dry and cold climate -what may be called cold desert. Drought is permanent. Variability in the rainfall The average annual rainfall in India is 100 cm; however, this rainfall is neither uniformly distributed throughout the country nor certain to occur every year. The unpredictable nature of the annual rain poses a major problem for India. But, there are certain regions of heavy rainfall in India which are almost certain .to get the annual rainfall of more than 200 cm every year. These are Assam and its neighborhood, the Western Ghats and the adjoining coastal areas and foothills of the Himalayas. In contrast, certain areas, particularly western Rajasthan, Kutch, Ladakh plateau are perpetually drought - prone, with average annual precipitation of about 100 cm.

India- Drainage Important Concepts 1. Tributary: A river or stream which contributes its water to a main river. For example, the Yamuna is the tributary of the Ganga. 2. Distributary: A branch or outlet which leaves a main river and does not rejoin it, carrying its water to the sea or a lake. 3. Delta: A triangular shaped alluvial tract, formed at the mouth of a river. For instance the delta of the is the largest delta in the world. 4. Doab: The alluvial tract of land between two adjacent rivers, e.g. the plain between the Ganges and the Yamuna. 5. Catchment Basin (Drainage Area): The region which drains all the river water that falls on it into a river or stream. 6. Breakwater: A barrier built into the sea in order to break the force of the waves and thus to serve as a protection against them. 7. : The mouth of a river where tidal effects are felt and where and sea water mix. Drainage Patterns: River and its tributaries drain an area, which is called a 'river basin'. Its boundary is formed by the crest line of the surrounding highland which is the watershed of the basin. A river system usually develops a pattern which is related to the general structure of the basin. A dendritic pattern develops in a region made of rocks which offer some resistance to erosion and which has a uniform structure. A trellis drainage pattern develops in a region made up of alternate belts of hard and soft rocks all of which dip in the same direction and which lie at right angles to the general slope, down which the river flows. A radial pattern develops on a dome or volcanic cone.

Classification of Drainage System: Over 90% of India's land surface drains into the Bay of Bengal and almost all the remaining area drains into the Arabian Sea. Only a very small area in Rajasthan has an inland drainage. Our river system can be classified into: (a) The Himalayan River System (b) The Peninsular River System a) The Himalayan rivers fall into four broad groups: 1. Pre-HimaIayan Rivers: Arun, Indus, Satlui and Brahmaputra. 2. Great-Himalayan Rivers: Ganga, Kali, Ghaghra, Gandak, Tista, etc. 3. Lesser -Himalayan Rivers: Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, etc. 4. Shiwalik Rivers: Hindan, Sonali etc. b) The peninsular rivers fall into two categories, viz. the coastal rivers and the inland rivers. The former are comparatively small streams. Although only 3 percent of the areal extent of the basins of India is drained by the west-coast rivers, as much as 14 percent of the country's water resources are contained by them. 1. Rivers rising from the Western Ghats: the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Pennar, the Palar, the Vaigai, etc. 2. Rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea: The Narmada, the Tapi, the Sharavati, etc. 3. Rivers originating in the Vindhyas and Satpura but flowing north-east towards Ganga: The Chambal, the Betwa, the Damodar, the Son, the Ken etc. The Narmada and the Tapi flow in the fault created by them during the Himalayan uplift.

A Comparative Analysis of Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers: The Himalayan Rivers drain high mountain regions and descend deep slopes. The peninsular rivers, on the other hand, drain a senile topography. The Himalayan rivers are characterised by their youthful nature forming deep gorges, carved out by millions of of the erosional activity along” with the uplift of the Himalayas. These rivers continue to perform intense erosional activity, which is evident from huge loads of sand and silt transported by them annually. The major rivers—the Indus, Brahmaputra and Satluj—are of antecedent origin while the Kosi, Gandak and Ghaghra exhibit river capture. The peninsular rivers, in contrast, are basically matured rivers. The east flowing streams form deep valleys and have graded courses throughout, while the west flowing ones are swift and have narrow valleys. Overall, the peninsular rivers have straight and generally linear courses. The Himalayan Rivers are free to form their courses and follow a dendritic pattern. These rivers have very large basins. The Indus drains approximately 2.5 lakh square kilometres within the Himalayan region alone. Himalayan reaches are very tortuous for the Himalayan Rivers, but, over the plains, they display a strong meandering tendency and often shift their beds. The peninsular rivers, having little erosional activity to perform, follow natural trends and joints in rocks. Superimposed drainage and river capture are common where there is difference in rock structure. Hard rock-bed and the predominantly non-alluvial’ character of the plateau surface hardly allow any significant meandering. The Himalayan Rivers derive their water flow from melting snow, rainfall and springs in the Terai region and, therefore, are perennial in nature. But they are not free from seasonal variations. The peninsular rivers are completely rain-fed. During summer, the small ones become dry while the large ones have a low discharge. The Himalayan Rivers are suitable for irrigation purposes because Of their perennial nature and the easily penetrable soil of the region which allows canals to be dug here. The peninsular rivers, on the other hand, are more suited for the generation of hydro-electricity; this is especially true of the west flowing ones. The seasonal nature of these rivers reduces their value as sources of irrigation.

Himalayan Rivers 1. The Indus system 2. The Ganga system 3. The Brahmaputra system

1. The Indus System: The Indus rises in Tibet at an altitude of 5,180 metres near the Mansarovar Lake. With a total length of 2,880 km, the Indus is one of the world’s largest rivers. It has a catchment area of 1,165,000 square kilometres, of which 3, 21,290 square kilometres lies within India. It flows through a spectacular gorge cutting through the Kailash ranges and enters Jammu and Kashmir. From here, it flows through Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit and descends down to the plains at Attock. In India, it flows for a length of 709 km. Its tributaries include the Gartang, Zaskar, , Shyok, Shingar, Nubra, Gilgit arid Hunza in Jammu and Kashmir, Kabul and tributaries in foothills near Attack and south of Attock—Kurram, Toch and Zhob-Gomal. Then, there are well-known Punjab tributaries—the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj. The Jhelum rises in Verinag at the foothills of pir Panjal and its drainage area in India is 28,490 square kilometres. It flows through the and Lake Wular before entering Pakistan through a narrow gorge. The Chenab is the largest of all the Indus tributaries and is formed by two streams Chandra and Bhaga which rise in the snow-covered Himachal Mountains near Kulu. Its drainage area in India is 26,755 square kilometres. The Ravi also rises in Kulu hills, near Rohtang Pass, of Himachal Pradesh and drains 5,957 square kilometres in India. The Beas originates at a place called Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass in the Himachal hills. In its early stages, its valley is called the Kulu valley. Since some of its tributaries originating from the southern side of the Great Himalayas are snowfed, it has a relatively larger volume of water even during the long dry season. It joins the Satluj near Harike after flowing for a distance of 615 km. It drains an area of 25,900 square kilometres in India. The Satluj originates from the Rakas Lake situated at an altitude of 4,555 metres in Tibet. The Rakas Lake is connected with the Mansarovar Lake by a stream. The Satluj enters India through Shipki La. Before entering the Punjab plains, it cuts a deep gorge through Nainadevi ranges. A dam has been constructed across this gorge near village Bhakra. This dam is called the and the reservoir which it forms is called the Gobind Sagar Lake. The Satluj drains 24,087 square kilometres in India and is of immense economic value for the Punjab plains.

2. The Ganga System: The Ganga river basin, with an area within India of 8, 61,404 square kilometres, is the largest in the country. This river basin drains the middle part of the Himalayas in the north, the northern part of the Indian plateau (roughly, north of the line running along the Vindhya Range, the Amarkantak Plateau and the watershed lying to the east of Subarnarekha) in the south and the Ganga plain in between. The Ram Ganga, Gomati, Ghaghra, Gandak and the Kosi are the Ganga’s major left-bank, tributaries and the Yamuna and the Son, its major right- bank tributaries. The Ganga rises in the in Uttarakhand. Its two main headstreams— Bhagirathi and Alaknanda—meet at Devaprayag, from where onwards it is called the Ganga. Its total length is 2,510 km, and it drains 9, 51,600 sq. km. Of its length in the plains, the longest stretch lies in , and the rest of it lies mostly in Bihar and West Bengal. Beyond Farakka, the mainstream of the Ganga flows southeast into Bangladesh and is known as the Padma. From Farakka, a bifurcation channel runs southwards through the deltaic plain on to the sea. In this reach, the river is known as Bhagirathi- Hooghly and receives minor plateau streams such as Dwarka, Ajay, Rupnaryan and Haldi. Before falling into the Bay of Bengal below Chandpur in Bangladesh, the Padma receives the Brahmaputra, known here as the Jamuna and Meghna. The stretch from to Haldia port, has been declared as the National Inland Waterway No.l. The Yamuna is the most important tributary of the Ganga and it rises at the Yamnotri glacier in Uttarakhand. From its source upto Allahabad, where it meets the Ganga, the Yamuna’s length is 1,376 km and it drains an area of 3, 59,000 square kilometres. Important towns such, .as Delhi, and are situated on the Yamuna’s banks. The Chambal, Betwa and Ken are the major tributaries of the Yamuna. The headwater of the Ghaghra, the Karnali, is of trans-Himalayan origin and crosses the western part of the Nepal Himalayas through deep and narrow gorges. It joins the Ganga near Chapra. It is a large river choked with silt which keeps shifting its course. The Ram Ganga rises in the Kumaon Himalayas and enters the Ganga Plains near Kalagarh. It joins the Ganga near . The Gandak rises near the Sino-Nepal border and joins the Ganga at Sonpur. It drains an area of 9,540 square kilometres. The Gandak also keeps shifting its course and is notorious for its floods. The Kosi has its sources in the Himalayan heights of Sikkim, Nepal and Tibet. It drains 21,500 square kilometres in India and joins the Ganga below Bhagalpur. The river has shifted its course westwards by 112 km-during the last 200 years converting 7,000-8,000 sq km of cultivable land into wasteland. The Son is a right-bank tributary of the Ganga which, after rising from the Amarkantak Plateau, joins the Ganga near . It drains an area of 71,900 square kilometres. The Damodar which actually meets the Bhagirathi-Hooghly in West Bengal, rises in the hills of Chhotanagpur Plateau. It drains an area of 22,000 square kilometres. Formerly referred to as the ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ on account of its floods, the Damodar has transformed itself into a boon to West Bengal after the completion of the Damodar valley multi-purpose project.

3. The Brahmaputra System: The Brahmaputra rises in a glacier, about 100 km south-east of the Mansarovar lake in Tibet. Before entering India, it is called the Tsang-Po in Tibet. Chinese maps show it as Yarlung Zangbo Jiang. It crosses the Assam Himalayas under the name of Dihang. The total length of the Brahmaputra in India is 2,900 km, and it drains an area of 2, 40,000 square kilometres -in India. The Subarnasiri, Bhareli and Manas are its main right-bank tributaries and the Dibang, Luhit, Buri Dihang, Dhansiri and Kapili are its left-bank tributaries. The catchment areas of these streams receive heavy rainfall during the , as a result of which the Brahmaputra becomes slow- moving and silt-laden. Its channel is braided and it is notorious for floods and erosion of its banks. Recurrent floods hamper not only navigation through the river but also the establishment of large towns on its bank. The Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh near Dhubri. The stretch from Sadiya to Dhubri has been declared as the National Inland Waterway No.2. Peninsular Rivers: The Western Ghats are the main watershed in the peninsula and the major rivers are the east-flowing ones. These rivers are characterised by huge deltas at their mouths, while the west-flowing ones are small with no deltas at their mouths. The Narmada and the Tapti are unusually large west-flowing rivers, flowing through troughs which have been formed due to faulting.

East-Flowing Peninsular Rivers:

Mahanadi: The Mahanadi rises in the Sihawa range in Chhattisgarh. It is 857 km long and drains an area of 1, 41,600 square kilometres in Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Bihar and Maharashtra. The left-bank tributaries of the Mahanadi include the Seonath, Hasdo, Mand and lb, while the Jonk, Ung, Tel are among the right-bank tributaries. After crossing the Eastern Ghats through a gorge, it divides itself into distributaries at . The smaller basins of Subarnarekha, Brahmani and Baitarni are interposed between the Ganga and Mahanadi basins. The Brahmani is known as South Koel in its upper reaches in . These rivers draining the eastern parts of the peninsula have drainage and discharge patterns similar to the Mahanadi. The Brahmani is 800 km long with a drainage area of 39,000 square kilometres. The Subarnarekha is 395 km long with a catchment area of 19,500 square kilometres. The Baitarni has its source region in the Keonjhar Plateau in Orissa.

Godavari: The Godavari basin is the largest river system in the peninsula and second only to the Ganga system in India. It rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra, and drains and area of 3, 12,812 square kilometres, half of which lies in Maharashtra. Besides Maharashtra, the basin is shared by Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The Godavari flows for a length of 1,465 km and is often referred to as Vridha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga because of its large size and extent. The major tributaries of the Godavari are the Pravara, Purna, Manjra, Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha, Pranhita, Indravati, Maner and Sabari.

Krishna: The Krishna is the second largest east-flowing river. It rises from a spring near Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra. Its total length of 1,400 km is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Krishna drains an area of 2, 58,948 square kilometres. The Bhima and Tungabhadra are the two most important tributaries of the Krishna, besides the Koyna, , Malaprabha, Musi ( is situated on its bank), Muneru, Yerla, Panchganga and Dudhganga. The Pennar basin lies between the Krishna basin and the Cauveri basin, and drains an area of 55,213 square kilometres, most of which lies in Karnataka. Its principal tributaries are the Jayamangali, Kunderu, , Chitravati, Papagin, and Cheyyeru.

Cauveri: The Cauveri rises in the Brahmagir rage of the Western Ghats. It flows for a length of 800 km before falling into the Bay of Bengal near Kaveripattinam. It drains an area of 87,900 square kilometres, which is shared by Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Cauveri basin is one of the most developed regions of India from the point of view of power and inigation. Ninety to ninety-five per cent of the total potential in these two spheres has already been exploited. The left-bank tributaries of the Cauveri include the Herangi, Hemavati, and Arkavati, and the right-bank tributaries include the Lakshamantirtha, Kabini, Suvarnavati, Bhawani and .

West-Flowing Rivers:

Narmada: The Narmada rises near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh and flows for 1,300 km, while draining an area of 98,796 square kilometres, most, of it lying in Madhya Pradesh. The Narmada basin is characterised by the lack of development of the tributary streams. The Narmada valley is gorge-like and full of rapids and waterfalls between Handia and Mandhata. The Kapildhara and Dhvandhar are the most important waterfalls. The Orisan is the major tributary and others include the Burhner, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar, Dudhi, Tawa on the south and the Hiran, Barna and the Kolar on the north.

Tapi: The Tapti is the second largest west-flowing peninsular river. It rises in the of Madhya Pradesh and while flowing for a length of 724 kilometres, it drains an area of 65,145 square kilometres in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The left-bank tributaries of the Tapti are Purna, Veghar, Girna, Bori and the Panjhra and those joining it on the right bank are the Aner, Betul, Ganjal, Arunavati and Gomai.

The north-western flank of the plateau is drained by the Sabarmati and the Mahi. The Sabarmati rises in the Aravalli hills and flows for a length of 300 km. It drains an area of 21,674 square kilometres in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The Mahi rises in the east of Udaipur and drains an area of 34,842 square kilometres while flowing for a length of 533 km in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. There are also a large number of coastal streams draining the narrow coastal plains on the western edge of the peninsula. There are as many as 600 tiny streams which drain the western face of the Western Ghats alone. The most important among these are the Mandovi, Zuari and Rachol in Goa; Kalinadi, -Bedti, Sharavati, Tadri and Netravati in Karnataka; Beypore, Ponnam, Bharatapuzha, and Pamba in Kerala. All these streams have carved out narrow valleys with steep gradients and often descend to the plains in the form of cascades and waterfalls. The famous (271 metres) is on the Sharavati River.

LAKES

Lakes in India are mainly found in mountainous or coastal regions. The plains have few lakes. On the basis of their origin they can be classified as under: (1) Tectonic lakes- Wularlake (Kashmir), Kumayun Lake (2) Lakes formed due to - Lunar Lake (Maharashtra) (3) Lagoon lakes- Chilka (Orissa), Pulicat (Tamil Nadu), Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh), , Astamudi (Kerala). (4) Glacial lakes-Khurpa Taal, Sat taal, Puna taal, Malwa Taal, Nainital, Rakas Taal, (all in Kumayun Himalayas) (5) Lakes formed due to Aeolian process-Sambhar, Pachbhadra, Lunakransar, Didwana (Rajasthan) (6) Others- (Kashmir), Udai Sagar, Pichola, Rajsamand, ]aisamand, Annasagar (Rajasthan), Loktak (Manipur) , Husain Sagar (Andhra Pradesh).

Wetlands: India has 16 wetlands. They are Kolleru (A.P), Wular (J & K), Chilka (Orissa), Loktak (Manipur), Bhoj (M.P), Sambhar and Pichola (Rajasthan), Astamudi, Sasthamkitla (Kerala), Harike, Kanjali (Punjab), Ujni (Maharashtra), Renuka (U.P), Kabar (Bihar), Nabsarovar (Gujarat), Sukhna ().

Water divide: The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea drainage systems are separated along a distinct divide which lies approximately along the Sahyadris, Amarkantak, Aravallis and the Satluj- Yamuna divide.

Multiple Choice Questions:-

1. Which force results in the deflection of winds on the earth surface? a) Revolution of earth b) Centrifugal force c) Coriolis force d) Gravitational force 2. Which one of the following is the highest peak of the Himalayas in India? a) Nanda Devi b) Nanga Parvat c) Mt Everest d) Kanchenjunga 3. The length of the Himalayas is about: a) 2,200 km b) 2,500 km c) 3,200 km d) 3,500 km 4. According to the archaeological history, the oldest mountain range in India is the: a) Himalayas b) Nilgiris c) Aravalis d) Vindhyas 5. The largest peninsular river is: a) Mahanadi b) Cauvery c) Krishna d) Godavari 6. The western disturbances which cause winter rain in India originate in: a) West Asia b) Pakistan c) Afghanistan d) Bay of Bengal 7. Which of the following regions receives rainfall from the North- East Monsoon? a) Assam b) Tamil Nadu c) Kerala d) West Bengal 8. Which of the following places receives minimum annual rainfall? a) Bikaner b) c) Allahabad d) 9. Which of the following is the highest hill in south India? a) Cardamom hills b) Nilgiri hills c) Rajmahal hills d) Anamalai hills 10. Which of the following cities in India has a modest temperature throughout the year? a) Allahabad b) Bangluru c) Dehradun d) Patna 11. The Western Ghats join the Eastern Ghats at: a) Jawadi hills b) Cardamom hills c) Nilgiri hills d) Anamalai hills 12. River Luni drains into: a) Ganga Delta b) Kerala Coast c) Rann of Kutch d) Godavari Delta 13. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists: List I (Rivers) List II (Tributaries) A. Indus 1. Mahananda B. Ganga 2. Bhima C. Krishna 3. Wainganga D. Godavari 4. Nubra Codes: A B C D a) 4 1 2 3 b) 2 4 1 3 c) 2 1 3 4 d) 4 2 1 3 14. When south- west monsoon retreats in December it is called a) East monsoon b) North- west monsoon c) North- east monsoon d) East- west monsoon 15. Which of the following pair is incorrectly matched: a) Kabar Lake- Bihar b) Nalsarovar Lake- Gujrat c) Wullar Lake- Jammu and Kashmir d) Chilka Lake- Andhra Pradesh 16. Which of the following ranges forms the water divide between Narmada and Tapi rivers? a) Aravalli b) Satpura c) Kaimur d) Vindhyan 17. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists: List I (Lakes) List II (States) A. Chilka 1. Tamil Nadu B. Pulicut 2. Jammu & Kashmir C. Dal 3. Rajasthan D. Sambhar 4. Orissa Codes: A B C D a) 4 1 3 2 b) 1 4 3 2 c) 1 4 2 3 d) 4 1 2 3 18. The Indian Plateau is made up of: a) Ancient igneous rocks b) Metamorphic rocks c) Sedimentary rocks d) Molten Lava 19. The in Tibet is known as: a) Tsangpo b) Dihang c) Subansiri d) Dhansiri 20. Which one of the following pair of river and state is incorrectly matched? a) Kyrdemkulai- Meghalaya b) Sholayar- Tamil Nadu c) Idukki- Kerala d) Koyana- Himachal Pradesh 21. The Tropic of Cancer passes through: a) Bihar b) Gujarat c) Uttar Pradesh d) Orissa 22. The four shaded Coastal regions shown in the above map and labeled as 1, 2, 3 and 4 are respectively 1 4

2 3

a) Coromandel, Malabar, Konkan and Northern Circars b) Konkan, Coromandel, Malabar and Northern Circars c) Northern Circars, Konkan, Coromandel and Malabar d) Konkan, Malabar, Coromandel and Northern Circars 23. Which of the following is structurally the most stable regions? a) Indo- Gangetic Plain b) Deccan Plateau c) Himalaya d) Punjab Plain 24. Which of the following divides India into almost two equal halves? a) Equator b) Tropic of Cancer c) Tropic of Capricorn d) Prime Meridian

25. India completely lies in: a) Northern and b) Southern and c) Northern and western hemisphere d) Southern and eastern hemisphere 26. Which is the southernmost latitude of Indian Mainland? a) 08˚04' N b) 08˚04' S c) 06˚04' S d) 06˚04' N 27. Latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is: a) 33˚ b) 27˚ c) 66˚ d) 30˚ 28. What is the southernmost point of the Indian Union called? a) Indira peak b) India point c) Indira point d) Cape Comorin 29. Area wise which is the smallest state of India? a) Haryana b) Punjab c) Goa d) Sikkim 30. Identify the mountain peak marked in the following map:

a) Mt Everest b) Kanchenjunga c) Dhaulagiri d) Mt Kamet 31. The North- south distance of India in terms of Kms is: a) 2900 Kms b) 3214 Kms c) 3000 Kms d) 3500 Kms 32. The Tropic of Cancer does not pass through: a) Rajasthan b) Chhattisgarh c) Orissa d) 33. How many States are located along the western coast? a) 5 b) 4 c) 3 d) 8 34 . India is called a tropical country mainly on account of its a) Latitudinal extent b) Longitudinal extent c) Areal size d) 35. What is the other name of the highest range in the Western Ghats? a) Pir Panjal b) Sahyadris c) Shiwaliks d) Namcha Barwa 36. The port of India connected to the interior through the Palghat gap is- a) b) Cochin c) Marmagao d) New Mangalore 37. In which state does the most part of region lie? a) Madhya Pradesh b) Andhra Pradesh c) Uttar Pradesh d) Maharashtra 38. The length of the coastline of Indian mainland is approximately- a) 4000 Kms b) 6100 Kms c) 11000 KMs d) 13000 Kms 39. The highest range of the Himalayan System is the- a) Central Himalayas b) Outer Himalayas c) Middle Himalayas d) Trans Himalayas 40. Name the highest peak of Zaskar range. a) Namcha Barwa b) Dhaulagiri c) Kamet d) Kanchenjunga 41. What is the characteristic of Narmada valley? a) Glacial origin b) Volcanic origin c) Wind eroded valley d) Structural origin 42. Which of the following accounts for the largest share of precipitation in India? a) Tropical depressions b) Southwest monsoon c) Northeast monsoon d) Westerly depressions 43. Which region of India receives most of its precipitation in winter? a) Tamilnadu b) Uttar Pradesh c) Meghalaya Plateau d) West Bengal 44. In the Ganga valley rainfall decreases from- a) West to east and north to south b) East to west and north to south c) West to east and south to north d) East to west and south to north 45. The Raman peak is situated in- a) Andaman and Nicobar b) Siwaliks c) Zaskar range d) Arabian sea 46. Shillong is situated in- a) b) Khasi Hills c) Naga Hills d) Mikir Hills 47. Rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea from Kerala do not form deltas because- a) They flow over steep slopes b) They do not contain much silt c) Most of them are consequent streams d) They have very few tributaries and are seasonal 48. In India volcanic activity that spreads over areas can be seen in: a) Rajasthan b) N. W Deccan c) Meghalaya d) Nilgiri Hills 49. The Himalayas were said to originate in a: a) Anticlinal Structure b) Geo syncline c) Synclinal valley d) Batholith 50. Name a meteorite crater in India: a) Dal Lake b) lake c) Sambhar Lake d) Kolleru Lake 51. Taking into account the amount of rainfall occurring from June to September, Which one of the following is the correct sequence of cities in terms of rainfall? a) – - Allahabad b) Kolkata- Allahabad- Ahmedabad c) Allahabad- Kolkata- Ahmedabad d) Ahmedabad- Kolkata- Allahabad 52. Name the river which originates from Verinag. a) The Ravi b) The Chenab c) The Sutlej d) The Jhelum 53. Which of the following glacier is largest? a) Gangotri b) Mandakini c) Yamnotri d) Siachen 54. Subansiri, Barali, Manos, Buri and Dhansiri are the tributaries of river: a) Indus b) Brahmaputra c) Ganga d) Godavari 55. Which of the following Lagoon is not located along the eastern coast? a) Vembanad b) Chilka c) Kolleru d) Pulicat 56. Match the contents of the following two columns and select the right answer from the given codes. Column A (Rivers) Column B (Length) A. Indus 1. 2900 Kms B. Brahmaputra 2. 3180 Kms C. Ganges 3. 2525 Kms Codes: A B C a) 3 2 1 b) 1 3 2 c) 2 1 3 d) 3 1 2 57. Which among the following is not a tributary of river Ganga? a) Yamuna b) c) Gandak d) Beas 58. Sri Lanka is separated from India by which narrow channel of sea? a) Gulf of Khambat b) Gulf of Mannar c) Gulf of Kachch d) Shri Ram Samudram 59. The Satluj, the Ravi, the Beas, the Chenab and the Jhelum are tributaries of which of the following rivers? a) The Ganga river b) The c) The Brahmaputra river d) The 60.Which one of the following states does not share common border with Bangladesh ? a) West Bengal b) Meghalaya c) Tripura d) Manipur

61.Which one amongst the following rivers forms estuaries? a) Ganga b) Indus c) Narmada d) 62. Which of the following Indian state does not share its boundary with Nepal ? a) Himachal Pradesh b) Uttar Pradesh c) Assam d) Bihar 63. Which type of drainage pattern develops where the river channel flows the slope of the terrain? a) Trellis b) Rectangular c) Dendritic d) Radial 64. Which one of the following is the Latitudinal extent of India? a) 4°8´N - 37°6´N b) 8°4´N - 37°6´N c) 8°4´S - 37°6´S d) 4°8´S - 37°6´S 65. Which one of the following is the largest Peninsular River of our country? a) River Mahanadi b) River Indus c) River Ganga d) River Godavari 66. Which one of the following is the longitudinal extent of India? a) 68° 7´ E to 97° 25´ E b) 68° 7´ S to 97° 25´S c) 8° 4´ N to 37° 6´ N d) 8° 4´E to 37° 6´ E 67. Which of the following groups of rivers is of Peninsular rivers? a) River Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra b) River Mahanadi, Krishna, Indus c) River Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna d) River Mahanadi, Krishna, Indus 68. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched? Rivers Tributaries 1. Narmada Tel 2. Tapi Parna 3. Godavari Manjra 4. Mahanadi Seonath a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 2, 3 and 4 c) 1, 2 and 4 d) 1, 3 and 4 69. The area drained by a single river system is called: a) Water divide b) c) River bank d) River valleys 70. The western most longitude of India is located at: a) 67°8´E b) 97°25´E c) 98°25´E d) 68°7´E 71. Which one of the following rivers is a peninsular river? a) Ganga b) Krishna c) Indus d) Brahamputra 72. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea called: a) Gulf of Kachchh b) Palk strait c) Gulf of d) Gulf of Khambat 73. Which among the following is the largest freshwater lake of India? a) b) Bhimtal Lake c) Dal Lake d) Pulicat Lake 74. Which one of the following rivers is known as ‘Dakshin Ganga’? a) Krishna b) Godavari c) Mahanadi d) Narmada 75.The Latitudinal extent influences the duration of the day and night as one moves from : a) South to north b) East to west c) West to east d) North to south 76. Which one of the following statement is not related to the peninsular rivers? a) Most of these rivers flow eastward and drain into Bay of Bengal. b) The drainage basins of these rivers are comparatively small in size. c) Most of these rivers are perennial. d) One of these rivers is known as Dakshin Ganga. 77. Which of the following lake is a salt water lake? a) Bhimtal Lake b) c) d) Wular Lake 78. Indian standard meridian does not pass through: a) Uttar Pradesh b) Chattisgarh c) Andhra Pradesh d) Tamil Nadu 79. Where does Alaknanda join Bhagirathi? a) Gangotri b) Devprayag c) Rishikesh d) 80. Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie to the: a) North west of the main land b) South west of the main land c) South east of the main land d) North east of the main land 81. From which place does river Narmada rise? a) Betul district b) Brahmagiri c) Satpura Hills d) Amarkantak Hills 82. Through which one of the following states does River Brahamputra enter in India? a) Assam b) Manipur c) Sikkim d) Arunachal Pradesh 83. Which one of the following is the neighboring country towards the east of India? a) Myanmar b) Pakistan c) Sri lanka d) Nepal 84. At which place does the Ganga emerge on to the plains? a) Devprayag b) Allahabad c) Haridwar d) Ambala 85. What is the degree of longitude of westernmost tip of India lying in Gujarat? a) 97° 25’ E b) 8°4’ N c) 68° 7’ E d) 37°6’ E 86. An elevated area such as a mountain or an upland which separates two drainage basins is called - a) Drainage pattern b) Drainage basin c) Mountain basin d) Water divide 87. Which one of the following rivers flows in a rift valley? a) Ganga b) Tapi c) Kaveri d) Mahanadi 88. What is the time lag between Gujarat and Arunachal Pradesh? a) 1 hour b) 2 hours c) 3 hours d) 4 hours 89. Which one of the following tributaries is the tributary of river Ganga? a) Wardha b) Satluj c) Yamuna d) Tungabhadra 90. The southernmost point of the Indian Union is: a) Saraswati point b) Minakshi point c) Indira point d) point 91. Through which of the following cities does Standard Meridian of India pass through? a) Srinagar b) Delhi c) Mirzapur d) 92. Which of the following cities is located at the confluence of Ganga – Yamuna? a) b) Patna c) Allahabad d) Chandigarh 93. Which one of the following river form braided channel and riverine islands. a) Tapi b) Kosi c) Ganga d) Bharamputra 94. The length of the Himalayas is about: a) 2,200 km b) 2,400 km c) 3,200 km d) 3,500 km 95. Veliconda group of low hills is a structural part of a) Nilgiri hills b) Western Ghats c) Eastern Ghats d) Cardamom hills 96. What would be the influence on the weather conditions when in mid- winter a feeble high pressure develops over the north- western part of India? 1. High and dry winds would blow outward from this high pressure areas. 2. The northern plains would become cold 3. Scorching winds (locally called loo) would blow during the day time. 4. There would be torrential rains brought by thunderstorms. Select the correct answer using the code given below a) 1 and 2 only b) 2 and 3 only c) 3 and 4 only d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 97. Which of the following is/ are west flowing river(s) of India? 1. Mahanadi 2. Krishna 3. Narmada 4. Cauvery Select the correct answer using the code given below a) 1, 2 and 4 b) 2 and 3 c) 3 only d) 1 and 3 98. Amarkantak plateau in the Maikal hills marks the origin of the river: a) Gandak b) Chambal c) Narmada d) Ghaggar 99. Which one among the following is the correct sequence of the rivers from north to south? a) Damodar- Brahmani- Mahanadi- Tungbhadra b) Damodar – Mahanadi- Brahmani- Tungbhadra c) Brahmani- Tungbhadra- Damodar- Mahanadi d) Damodar- Brahmani- Tungbhadra- Mahanadi 100. Which one among the following States does not form part of the Narmada basin? a) Madhya Pradesh b) Gujrat c) Rajasthan d) Maharashtra 101. Which of the following statements about Nathu la pass are correct? 1. It links Sikkim with Tibet 2. It was the main artery of the ancient Silk Route 3. It was reopened in the year 2006 Select the answer using the code given below: a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 1 and 2 only c) 2 and 3 only d) 1 and 3 only 102. South- West monsoon in India represents the: a) N. E. Trades b) S. E. Trades c) d) Easterlies 103. An atoll is a/ an: a) Long but dwarf coral b) High and long coral deposit c) Offshore bar- like coral formation d) Circular or horse- shoe shaped 104. The given map of India shows the location of mountain peaks. Give their names in correct sequence of their serial numbers: a) Dhupgarh, Doda Betta, Mahender Giri and Amarkantak b) Amarkantak, Dhupgarh, Mahender Giri and Dodda Betta c) Mahender Giri, Dhupgarh, Doda Betta and Amarkantak d) Mahendra Giri, Doda Betta, Dhupgarh and Amarkantak

4 3 1

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105. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists: List I (Rivers) List II (Tributaries) A. Indus 1. Mahananda B. Ganga 2. Bhima C. Krishna 3. Wainganga D. Godavari 4. Nubra

Codes: A B C D a) 4 1 2 3 b) 2 4 1 3 c) 2 1 3 4 d) 4 2 1 3 106. What is the name given to the foothills zone of Himalayas? a) Inner Himalayas b) Central Himalayas c) Middle Himalayas d) Siwaliks 107. The port of India connected to the interior through the Palghat gap is: a) Madras b) Marmagao c) Cochin d) New Mangalore 108. The length of Indian mainland is approximately: a) 4,000 Kms b) 6,400 Kms c) 11,000 Kms d) 7,500 Kms 109. The length of Himalayas from East to West along Indian border is approximately: a) 1,500 Kms b) 3,000 Kms c) 2,500 Kms d) 4,000 Kms 110. What is the correct sequence from north to south of the following coastal regions? a) Kerala- Konkan- Malabar- Gujrat b) Gujrat- Konkan- Malabar- Kerala c) Gujrat- Malabar- Konkan- Kerala d) Gujrat- Konkan- Kerala- Malabar 111. Which of the following river is older than the Himalayas? a) Sutlej b) Kosi c) Beas d) Teesta 112. The Peninsular region is rich in: a) Sedimentary rocks b) Argillaceous rocks c) Fossiliferous rocks d) Crystalline rocks 113. Which river forms its delta in the ? a) Ganga b) Damodar c) Mahanadi d) Godavari 114. Name a volcanic island of India. a) Narcondam b) New Moore c) Pamban d) Rameshwaram 115. Other than Chilika, which among the following is a lagoon? a) Sambhar b) Deedwana c) Pulicut d) Sukhna 116. Which river valley has the rocks? a) Ganga b) Damodar c) Brahamaputra d) Sutlej 117. How much is the breadth of the Himalayas? a) 50 to 100 Kms b) 100 to 200 Kms c) 250 to 400 Kms d) 400 to 550 Kms 118. Which river of India is known for its course changing behavior? a) Narmada b) Kosi c) Brahamaputra d) Damodar 119. The Badrinath temple is situated on the banks of river: a) Ganga b) Bhagirathi c) Alakananda d) Gandak 120. Which river forms the famous Gersoppa fall? a) Cauvery b) Sharavati c) Narmada d) Godavari 121. Which river forms the famous Marble falls? a) Narmada b) Tapti c) Cauvery d) Sharavati 122. What is the normal date of burst of monsoon in ? a) 1st June b) 5th June c) 10th une d) 15th June 123. The source of winter rains in northern plains is the: a) Retreating monsoon b) South west monsoon c) Westerly depressions d) Easterly depressions 124. The major source of rainfall in coastal Tamil Nadu is the: a) Westerly depressions b) South west monsoons c) Northeast monsoons d) Easterly depressions 125. The south west monsoon is established over the entire country usually by: a) 15th June b) 29th June c) 5th July d) 30th July 126. How much is the approximate length of India’s land frontier? a) 12,600 Kms b) 15, 200 Kms c) 13, 800 Kms d) 15, 600 Kms 127. The term Tethys is associated with: a) Old fold structure b) New fold structure c) The old plateau region d) A geosynclines 128. Structurally, the Meghalaya Plateau is a part of: a) Himalayas b) Ganga Plain c) Deccan Plateau d) Trans Himalayas 129. The Maikal range is situated in: a) Bihar b) Madhya Pradesh c) Tamil Nadu d) Rajasthan 130. The Peninsular Plateau north of the Vindhyas is called: a) Deccan Trap b) Chhota Nagpur Plateau c) Bundelkhand Plateau d) Malwa Plateau 131. Cardamom hills (Yelagiri) is a branch of: a) Sahyadris b) c) Nilgiri Hills d) Annamalai Hills 132. Which region of India has an internal drainage? a) Central Himalayas b) Siwalik region c) Thar region d) Chhota Nagpur region 133. The northward shift of the ITC over India leads to the onset of: a) Northeast monsoon b) Retreating monsoon c) Southwest monsoon d) Westerly depressions 134. What is the major cause of low rainfall in Tamil Nadu during the summer season? a) Rain shadow of Western Ghats b) Land to sea winds c) Very high temperature d) Lack of moisture in the air 135. Which place in India will receive maximum lnsolation in the month of January? a) Delhi b) c) Chennai d) Kanyakumari 136. Which place has the highest daily and annual range of temperature? a) Kolkata b) Mumbai c) Chennai d) Amritsar 137. What is the location of the Gulf of Mannar? a) West of Gujrat b) West of Kerala c) East of Tamil Nadu d) East of Orissa 138. Teesta is a tributary of: a) Ganga b) Brahamaputra c) Meghna d) Yamuna 139. Which one of the following hills are not a part of Purvanchals: a) Naga hills b) Manipur hills c) Garo hills d) Mizo hills 140. Which one of the following coastal strip is situated along the eastern coast? a) Coromandel Coast b) Malabar Coast c) Konkan Coast d) Kannad Coast 141. In which state is the largest salt water lake of Asia located? a) Andhra Pradesh b) West Bengal c) Kerala d) Orissa 142. Where is India’s only active found? a) Lakshadweep Islands b) Barren Islands c) Pitli Islands d) Nicobar Islands 143. Mumbai has the maximum heat in the month of: a) March b) April c) May d) July 144. Which Himalayan peak is also called Sagarmatha? a) Nanga Parvat b) Dhaulagiri c) Kanchenjunga d) Mt Everest 145. India has both floods and droughts as the: a) Monsoon causes heavy rainfall in a few months b) Behaviour of monsoon is highly variable c) Size of the country is very large d) Relief of India is highly uneven 146. In which state is the situated: a) Gujrat b) Maharashtra c) Tamil Nadu d) Kerala 147. What is the character of the jet streams over India during the southwest monsoon season? a) Easterly jet occupies a position over b) Westerly jet is located over south India c) The easterly jet moves beyond Himalayas d) No jet stream is positioned over India 148. Which of the following statements with regards to the western coastal plain of India are correct? 1. It is a narrow belt. 2. It is an example of submerged coastal plain. 3. It provides natural conditions for development of ports. 4. It has well developed deltas. Select the correct answer using the code given below a) 1, 2 and 3 only b) 1 and 2 only c) 1, 2, 3 and 4 d) 3 and 4 only 149. Telengana state is surrounded by a) 5 States b) 4 States c) 6 States d) 3 States 150. Which of the following place is closest to the intersection of Tropic of Cancer and Indian Standard Meridian? a) Koriya District b) Ambikapur District c) d) Mirjapur District 151. Loktak lake is situated in the state of a) Sikkim b) Manipur c) d) Mizoram 152. Which river forms Hondru falls? a) Betwa b) Subernarekha c) Mahanadi d) Indrawati 153. Thalaiyar falls, also known as Rat Tal Falls is situated in…………………… a) Kerala b) Karnataka c) Tamil Nadu d) Andhra Pradesh 154. Consider the following statements: 1. Winds called Jet Streams blow parallel to the isobars. 2. Southwest monsoon over India is favourably affected by an easterly jet stream. Which of these statements is/ are true? a) 1 only b) 2 only c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 155. In which region is the Makurti peak located? a) Eastern Ghats b) Satpuras c) Nilgiri Hills d) Siwaliks