CHAPTER II REVIEW of the RELATED LITERATURE This

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter consists of the writer previous studies and underlying theories such as type of language function, type of language form, function message, and position of the currents Study.Previous study is used as the reference of this research. The underlying theories are useful for the writer to conduct the research.

A. Previous Studies

There are some previous studies related to the study that are necessary as reference to this studies. Ten previous studies used as references in this current research, and those studies are written by Cuevas (2003), Herrera and

Reissland (2003), Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (2003), Mathycuk (2004),

Rowe (2007), Vosoughi (2010), Degaf (2010), Golden (2012), Salehuddin (2012),

Tardif, Shatz, and Naigles (1997).

1. Cuevas (2003)

First study is conducted by Cuevas (B.A., California State University,

Northridge, 2003) entitled Caretakers’ Perceptions of Implementing Applied

Behavioral Analysis with their Children. The topic of his research is the implementation of applied behavioral analysis in parents and/or caregivers whose child has a diagnosis of autism and who receive educational services through Yolo County Office of Education. The objective of this study is to understand the difficulties as well as successes parents have with the

implementation of applied behavioral analysis (ABA) with their autistic child. The type of this study is exploratory and uses qualitative methodologies.

The data source of this study is a convenience sample of parents and/or caregivers whose child has a diagnosis of autism and who received educational services through the Yolo County Office of Education. The data collection technique is documentation. The technique of data analysis are descriptive qualitative.

The result of this study shows that four problems were identified in the interviews. Study participants discussed strategies and techniques for implementing ABA and gave examples of how their home and family were modified and adjusted in order to implement it. Implications for both service providers and parents with autistic children are discussed. Social networking and communication among parents is important for the successful implementation of

ABA.

2. Herrera and Reissland (2003)

The second study is conducted by Herrera and Reissland (Department of

Psychology,University of Aberdeen, UK, 2003) entitled Maternal Touch and

Maternal Child-directed Speech: Effects of Depressed Mood in the Postnatal

Period. This research describes the affects of postnatal depression to the emotional state of mother and the quality of mother-infant interaction. The objective of this study is to understand the affects of postnatal depression to the emotional state of mother and the quality of mother-infant interaction; 10

especially mothers which is in mildly depressed, as assessed by the Edinburgh

Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The type of this study is systematic study.

The data source of this study is mothers who are only in mildly depressed, as assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The data collection technique is documentation. The data analysis technique is quantitative.

The result of this study shows that depressed mothers in comparison with non-depressed mothers lifted their infants more, restraining their behaviors. Infants of depressed mothers in contrast to infants of non-depressed mothers spent greater periods of time in touching self rather than mother or toy, compensating for the lack of positive touch from their mothers. Mothers with depressed mood of 6-month-old infants included fewer affective and informative features in their speech than their controls. Non-depressed mothers of younger babies, showed a higher use of affective features when compared with non- depressed mothers of older infants. In contrast, depressed mothers of 6-and 10- month-old babies showed similar frequencies of affect-salient speech during the interactions in spite of their infants’ changing developmental demands.

3. Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (2003)

The third study is conducted by Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello

(University of Manchester, 2003) entitled A Construction Based Analysis of Child

Directed Speech. This study describes the child directed speech of twelve English- speaking mothers in terms of utterance-level constructions. The objective of this 11

study is to understand the mothers’ utterances which are categorized in terms of general constructional categories. Secondly, to determine mothers’ utterances within these categories which is specified in terms of the initial words that framed the utterance, item based phrases .The type of this study is item based construction study.

The data were taken from the Manchester corpus (Theakston et al.,

2001) whichwas accessed from the CHILDES database (MacWhinney& Snow,

1985, 1990). The corpus consists of data taken from twelve English-speaking mother–child dyads. The dyads were recruited through newspaper advertisements and local nurseries in the Manchester and Nottingham areas. All the children (six girls and six boys) were firstborns, monolingual and were cared for primarily by their mothers. The data collection technique is documentation by recorded the participant at home in the presence of an investigator on two separate occasions in every three week period for twelve months.

The result shows: 1) overall, only about 15% of all maternal utterances had SVO form (most were questions, imperatives, copulas, and fragments); 2)

51% of all maternal utterances began with one of 52 item-based phrases, mostly consisting of two words or morphemes (45% began with one of just 17 words); and 3) children used many of these same item-based phrases, in some cases at a rate that correlated highly with their own mother’s frequency of use.

4. Mathycuk (2004)

The forth study is conducted by Mathycuk (Department of English CHEP,

Andrews University, 2004) entitled The role of child-directed speech in language acquistion: A case study. This research examines the nature of child-directed speech (CDS) from the perspective of function and social interactionist theory.

The objective of this research is to understand the system of knowledge arises in the mind/brain. Specifically, the researcher want to know L1 acquisition through a study of the interaction between a young child and his family in order to discover how it might be that infants come to understand the relationship between the phonetic and semantic net which is thrown over them in the first few years of life and the world which that net represents. The type of this study is a case study.

The data source of this research is Hikaru (H), born on October 20, 1996

(19 months old at the beginning of the study), is the youngest son of a Japanese couple living in a small mid-Western college town. At the time of data collection

H’s father was a doctoral student and his mother was a homemaker who, in addition to caring for H, cared for his two older siblings, a boy, Tadahiro (usually called Ta-kun), at the initial time of the study, seven years of age and a girl,

Sakura (usually called A-chan), five years of age. The data collection technique is by recording H’s speech during normal interactions with his parent over a period of twelve months. The data analysis technique is first transcribe the recorded data from H’s speech, and then numbering the data. The numbering is of two 13

types: (1) the data sets are numbered from 1 to 32 and represent the different recording sessions and, (2) a consecutive numbering of utterances from the beginning of the first data set to the end of the last data set.

The results of this study showed that four of Halliday’s seven functions appeared to be present in the language the parents used with their child. They were: (a) the Regulatory function—the “Do as I tell you” function, (b) the

Interactional function the “Me and you” function, (c) the Heuristic function—the

“Tell me why” function, and (d) the Informative function—the “I’ve got something to tell you” function. While the parents of the subject were seen to use roughly equal amounts of language with the child, the distribution of language functions used by mother was importantly different from that used by father, therefore, it is suggest that this difference in CDS aids the language development of the infant by providing more interactive negotiation, which is argued to be crucial factor in language development.

5. Rowe (2007)

The fifth study is conducted by Rowe (University of Chicago, 2007) entitled Child-Directed Speech: Relation to Socioeconomic Status, Knowledge of

Child Development and Child Vocabulary Skill. The objective of this study is to determine why American parents from different socioeconomic backgrounds communicate in different ways with their children.

The data source of this research is forty-seven parent–child dyads were videotaped engaging in naturalistic interactions in the home for ninety minutes 14

at child age 2;6. Transcripts of these interactions provided measures of child- directed speech. Children’s vocabulary comprehension skills were measured using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test at 2;6 and one year later at 3;6. The data collection technique is by documentation.

The result of this study indicate that: (1) child-directed speech with toddlers aged 2;6 predicts child vocabulary skill one year later, controlling for earlier toddler vocabulary skill ; (2) child-directed speech relates to socioeconomic status as measured by income and education; and (3) the relation between socioeconomic status and child-directed speech is mediated by parental knowledge of child development. Potential mechanisms through which parental knowledge influences communicative behavior are discussed

6. Vosoughi (2010)

The sixth study is conducted by Vosoughi (B.S., Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, 2010) entitled Interactions of caregiver speech and early word learning in the Speechome Corpus: Computational Explorations. The research comprises a series of computational studies on the fined-grained interactions of caregiver speech and one child's early linguistic development, using the naturalistic, high-density longitudinal corpus collected for the Human

Speechome Project. The objectives of this study are to predict the child's language outcome based on his linguistic interactions with the caregivers and also to understand whether the relationship between the child's lexical 15

acquisition and caregiver speech is bidirectional. The type of this research is computational exploration research.

The data source of this study is 9 children {24 month age range, and the corresponding subset of the corpus contains 4260 hours of 14-track audio, of which an estimated 1150 hours contain speech. Of the 488 days in this time range, recordings were made 444 of the days with a mean of 9.6 hours recorded per day. The data collection technique is by transcriptions, speaker identity, and prosodic features. The data analysis of this study is by developing a parallelized algorithm similar to map-reduce [36] that runs across four Intel quad-core machines. Each of these four machines can run 4 simultaneous clients software

(one for each core).

The result indicates that the researcher found significant correlations between all 6 variables and the child's age of acquisition (AoA) for individual words, with the best linear combination of these variables producing a correlation of r = -.55(p < .001). The current results are based on 218 fully transcribed days containing an average of 28,712 words per day of combined

CAS and child speech, totaling 6.26 million words. It is estimated that the fully transcribed 9{24 month corpus will contain 12 million words.

7. Degaf (2010)

The seventh study is conducted by Degaf (Maulana Malik Ibrahim State

Islamic University of Malang, 2010) entitled A Study of Language Function Used by the Caretakers of Autistic Children in “Miracle Run”. This research describes 16

language functions used by the caretakers of autistic children in Miracle Run. The objectives of this study are to find out the kinds and the effectiveness of language functions used by the caretakers in film and to describe the most dominant kinds of language functions found. The type of this study is descriptive qualitative research.

The data source are the language used by the caretakers like mother, doctor, teacher, and therapist when talk to the autistic children. The result of this study shows that there are several language functions used by the caretakers, such as instrumental function, regulatory function, representational function, interactional function, personal function, heuristic function and imaginative function. The most dominant kind of language function is regulatory function.

Then the effective of language functions are regulatory function used in 19 utterances, interactional function used in 6 utterances, imaginative function used in 5 utterances, personal function used in 2 utterances and representational function and heuristic function used in 1 utterance.

8. Golden (2012)

The eighth study is conducted by Golden (the University of Utah, 2012) entitled Parents in Relationships with Their Children with Autism: A Qualitative

Study. This study describes parent’s perceptions and experiences in their relationship with their children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

The objective of this study is to understand parent perceptions of how they create and sustain relationship with their affected children, and how those 17

relationships grow and change over time. The type of this study is qualitative research.

The data sources of this research are 34 caregivers whose children had been diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. The study include 9 fathers

(26%), 24 mothers (71%), and 1 grandmother (3%). The data collection technique is individual interview and member checking. The data analysis technique is interpretative, phenomenological methods.

The result of this study shows that a majority of parents in this study described having relationships that were close and satisfying, despite the numerous challenges of having a child with autism. This study emerged five themes: 1) parent perceptions of early bonding and attachment ranged from

“highly unusual” to “unremarkable and normal”; 2) an overwhelming majority of parents described their relationships as nonreciprocal; 3) a large majority of parents identified significant barriers to creating relationships with their children;

4) parent strategies for creating connections with their children ranged from very limited to successful and well-established; and 5) an overwhelming majority of parents described their relationships as “growing and changing” over time, although they recognized they would remain their children’s caretaker.

9. Salehuddin (2012)

The ninth study is conducted by Salehuddin (University Kebangsaan

Malaysia, 2012) entitled Malay Numeral Classifier Usage in Caretaker-child Talk.

This study describes caretakers’ usage of numeral classifiers and their reactions 18

to children’s usage of numeral classifiers. The objective of this study is to identify the numeral classifiers usage in caretaker-child interaction in a situation where all numeral classifiers had the same chance of being talked about.

The data sources of this study are 11 caretakers. The participants were all native speakers of Malay who spoke standard Malay as their first language and were from middle SES. The caretakers were between 22 and 56 years old

(mean = 37.55 years old) whereas the children were between 4:4 and 5:9 (mean

= 5.14 years old). Only three of the caretakers were male and among the children five were female. The data collection technique is by playing “Putar, Cari, &Kira”

(“Spin, Seek, & Count”) game that was designed to encourage a caretaker and a child to interact with each other in a naturalistic setting, playing a counting game by spinning (putar) a spinning wheel, seeking (cari) the object that is revealed by the spinning wheel, and counting (kira) the objects in a picture book. The data analysis technique is by used a semi-structured elicitation procedure in the form of a game to examine numeral classifier usage in caretaker-child interactions.

The result indicates that five of the eleven caretakers who participated in this experiment used at least one numeral classifier while playing the game; two caretakers used all six out of the eight numeral classifiers tested, either when counting the objects or when prompting the children to count. The butir

[3D: fine] numeral classifier was the only numeral classifier that was not produced by any of the caretakers in their interactions. Out of the eight numeral classifiers tested, helai [2D: -rigid] was the most frequently-produced numeral 19

classifier (12 times) followed by biji [3D: small] (8 times), and batang [1D: +rigid]

(8times). A majority of caretakers used numeral classifiers as a prompting mechanism to get children to count the objects. Except for one caretaker (pair

11), all the other caretakers did not insist their children to use numeral classifiers when counting. Two of the caretakers also used numeral classifiers as an anaphoric expression – an expression used to refer to an already mentioned object.

10. Tardif, Shatz, and Naigles (1997)

The tenth study is conducted by Tardif, Shatz, and Naigles (University of

Michigan, 1997) entitled Caregiver Speech and Children's Use of Nouns versus

Verbs: A Comparison of English, Italian, and Mandarin. This study describes naturalistic samples of adult-to-child speech to determine if variations in the input are consistent with reported variations in the proportions of nouns and verbs in children's early vocabularies. The objective of this study is to examine the use of common nouns and main verbs across all three languages; and to examine various input factors and their possible relations both to formal structural features of the language and to the composition of children's early vocabularies.

The data sources of this study are: 1) the English data involve six children from a larger sample of 63 mother-child dyads from Wisconsin (Hoff-

Ginsberg, 1991). 2) The Italian transcripts were obtained from the Calambrone corpus (Cipriani et al., 1989) and include six normally developing children and 20

their caregivers recorded in their Pisa homes. 3) The Mandarin transcripts are from a sample of children studied by Tardif (1993) and involve 10 children and their Mandarin-speaking caregivers in Beijing, China. The data collection technique is documentation by using naturalistic records of interactions between the caregivers and toddlers in their own homes. The data analysis technique is coding or transcript each language that produce by the participant.

The results suggest a pattern consistent with the children's spontaneous production data. Namely, the speech of English-speaking caregivers emphasized nouns over verbs, whereas that of Mandarin-speaking caregivers emphasized verbs over nouns. The data from the Italian-speaking caregivers were more equivocal, though still noun-oriented, across these various input measures.

11. Shiou-ping ye (2002)

The eleventh study is conducted by Shiou-Ping Ye (De La Salle University, 2002).

Entitled A correlational study of behavioral problems of children with autism and the coping strategies of their parents. This Research describes strategies used by parents with their autistic children's behavior problems. This research consistsinvolved 40 parent-respondents of children with autism from six public schools and two private schools in Metro Manila.

The data source of this study is 40 parent-respondents of children with autism from six public schools and two private schools in Metro Manila. The data collection technique is documentation. The data analysis technique is quantitative. 21

The result finding in this result indicated that in order for parents to be effective in helping their autistic children's problems regarding communication, psychomotor, psychosocial, and degree of dependence, they should have adequate knowledge, background and information about their children's learning process. Among the parents most helpful coping strategies were psychological counseling, self-education and family therapy. Its results and findings also showed that home and school should establish a harmonious partnership with regard to working towards the total development of the autistic children.

12. Position of current study

The similarity of this study with all of the previous study is object of the research. All of the study examine about caretaker or caregiver speech and also analyzed about child directed speech.The difference between these studies with all of the previous study is the data source. In this study the writer uses the speech from the caretakers (include mother, father, Nanny 911) and this study the writer analyzes about type of language form is used by caretaker, type of language function is used by caretaker and message function is used by caretaker found in The Finck Family in Nanny 911 Reality Show Episode 1 and the other previous studies analyzes about “for the first previous study uses 63 mother- child dyads from Wisconsin, 6 normally developing children from Italian, and 10 children and their Mandarin and analyzing strategies and techniques for implementing ABA (applied behavioral analysis)”. “The second previous study 22

uses convenience sample of parents and/or caregivers whose child has a diagnosis of autism and who received educational services through the Yolo

County Office of Education and analyzing about the affects of postnatal depression to the emotional state of mother and the quality of mother-infant interaction”. “The third previous study uses mothers which only in mildly depressed, as assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The fourth previous study uses twelve English-speaking mother–child dyads from the

CHILDES database (MacWhinney& Snow, 1985, 1990)and analyzing about describes the child directed speech of twelve English-speaking mothers in terms of utterance-level constructions”. “The fifth previous study uses the speech from

Hikaru (H), the youngest son of a Japanese couple and analyzing about the nature of child-directed speech (CDS) from the perspective of function and social interactionist theory”. “The sixth previous study uses the speech from forty- seven parent–child dyads were videotaped engaging in naturalistic interactions in the home for ninety minutes at child age 2;6 and analyzing about analyzing about comprises a series of computational studies on the fined-grained interactions of caregiver speech and one child's early linguistic development, using the naturalistic, high-density longitudinal corpus collected for the Human

Speechome Project”. “The seventh previous study uses the speech from 9 children {24 month age range, and the corresponding subset of the corpus contains 4260 hours of 14-track audio, of which an estimated 1150 hours contain speech and analyzing about language functions used by the caretakers of autistic 23

children in Miracle Run”. “The eighth previous study uses the language used by the caretakers like mother, doctor, teacher, and therapist when talk to the autistic children found in Miracle Run Movie and analyzing about parent’s perceptions and experiences in their relationship with their children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD”. “The ninth previous study uses the speech from 34 caregivers whose children had been diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder and analyzing about caretakers’ usage of numeral classifiers and their reactions to children’s usage of numeral classifiers”. “The tenth previous study uses the speech from 11 caregivers of native speakers of Malay who spoke standard Malay as their first language and was from middle SES and analyzing about naturalistic samples of adult-to-child speech to determine if variations in the input are consistent with reported variations in the proportions of nouns and verbs in children's early vocabularies” and the last previous study uses strategies used by parents with their autistic children's behavior problems and analyzing about strategies used by parents with their autistic children's behavior problems”.

B. Underlying Theory

The following are the theories presented by the writer to support the data analysis of this research. The theories include notion of caretaker speech; type of language form; and type of language function.

1. Caretaker Speech

In the early life, center of children’s speech environment is their parents

or caretakers (Fauziati, 2008: 114). Talking the children has always been

fundamental to language development. The parents talk to children to give

some information and ask the children to communicate. When the parent talk

to children emphasizes important word, and usually the children will identify

where words begin and end. The caretaker or parent will provide them the clues

needed to help them develop their own language skill. The adults usually use

the pitch and slow voices to make the children easy understand what the

purpose of speech directed to children.

a. Notion

Caretaker speech is a sort speech that children receive when they are still young. In other word, caretaker speech is a speech by adult to children.

While Bloomer Grifiths, and Merrison (2005: 320) stated that caretaker is an adult who is there for the most of young child's waking hours and give a good source of information about which words the child knows.

Yule (2006: 150) argues that caregiver speech (also called caretaker speech or motherese) is the characteristically simplified speech style adopted by someone who spends a lot of time interacting with a young child. Salient features of caregiver speech are frequent use of questions, often using exaggerated intonation, extra loudness and a slower tempo with longer pauses.

Moreover Whyatt (1994) stated that caretaker speech is simple; redundant; 25

contains many questions and imperatives; its pitch is higher and has an exaggerated intonation pattern.

Similarly, Warren; Leubecker; and Bohannon (1984) assume that motherese is characterized by simpler, shorter, well-formed utterances of limited sentence types, a greater proportion of concrete words, and more repetition.

Moreover, differing prosodic features, including a slower rate of speech, a rise in the fundamental frequency (pitch) of the voice, and a preference for certain intonational contours, have been observed in maternal speech (Baldwin and

Baldwin: 1973).

There are some features of child directed speech according to Tiritilli

(2002), namely: phonological features, lexical features, syntactic features, conversational features, repetition, and turn-taking.

a. Phonological features: Higher pitch, greater range of frequencies,

slower rate of speech, clearer enunciation, emphasis on one or two

words in a sentence, and special pronunciations of individual words.

b. Lexical features: Substitutions, diminutives, semantically inappropriate

words, and use of child’s nonce forms.

c. Syntactic features: Use of nouns in lieu of pronouns, use of plural

pronouns in place of singular, intentional ungrammatical usage, more

grammatically correct usage, more grammatically simple phrases, and

shorter phrases. 26

d. Conversational features: More restricted topics, more repetitions of

own utterances, more questions, fewer declaratives, more deictic

declaratives, provision of both questions and answers by adult, and

repetitions, expansions, recasts of child’s utterances (Baron, 1990: 22).

e. Repetition is one of the most frequently used methods of prolonging

conversation, as well as one of the particular traits of child-directed

speech. The more times a child hears a sentence clearly modeled, the

more that child’s language learning is facilitated (Baron, 1990: 38).

f. Turn-taking becomes a model for the infant of the conventions.

Routines of turn-taking also serve other functions in linguistic

development. Babies gain experience in vocalizing, and participate in

situations in which that vocalizing becomes more language-like. Bloom

(1987:212)

Adult typically exaggerates annunciation, specifically vowels, reduces the speed of conversation, simplifies the grammatical and vocabulary content of the conversation, speaks in a higher tone or pitch and uses shorter duration sentences and phrases (Seaton: 1905).

Fernald (1989: 10) argues that motherese is a way to adapt speech to the child’s perceptive abilities and thus must evolve as a function of her development: ‘to be effective, the communicative signals of the mother must be well matched to the perceptual capabilities and limitations of the young’. The other perception about caretaker speech is coming from Nordquist which argue 27

that the simple language forms used by young children, or the modified form of speech often used by adults with young children also known as motherese or caregiver speech.

b. Characteristics of Caretaker Speech

According to Fauziati (2011: 116) states that adult generally exaggerate intonation and use a slower tempo and frequently repeat or rephrase what their say or children say. And according to Clark and Clark (1977: 32) stated that adult’s speech to infants is influenced by three factors. First, Adults have to make sure that children realize a speech is being addressed to them. Usually they use a name, special tone of voice, or by touching them. Second, when they have the children’s attention, they must choose the right words and the right sentences to make the children easily understand them. Third, they say what they have to say in many different ways.

Yule (2006: 150) said that salient features of caretaker speech are the frequent use of questions; generally use exaggerated intonation; extra loudness and a slower tempo with longer pauses. Besides, caregiver speech also incorporates a lot of forms associated with baby talk, for example, the use of simplified word (tummy, nana) and the use of repetition of simple sounds and syllables (choo-choo, pee-pee, wawa). According to Whyatt (1994) caretaker speech is simple; redundant; contains many questions and imperatives; its pitch is higher and has an exaggerated intonation pattern. 28

Further, Warren; Leubecker; and Bohannon (1984) assume that motherese is characterized by simpler, shorter, well-formed utterances of limited sentence types, a greater proportion of concrete words, and more repetition.

Baldwin: 1973).

There are some features of child directed speech according to Tiritilli

(2002), namely: phonological features, lexical features, syntactic features, conversational features, repetition, and turn-taking.

g. Phonological features: Higher pitch, greater range of frequencies,

slower rate of speech, clearer enunciation, emphasis on one or two

words in a sentence, and special pronunciations of individual words.

h. Lexical features: Substitutions, diminutives, semantically inappropriate

words, and use of child’s nonce forms.

i. Syntactic features: Use of nouns in lieu of pronouns, use of plural

pronouns in place of singular, intentional ungrammatical usage, more

grammatically correct usage, more grammatically simple phrases, and

shorter phrases.

j. Conversational features: More restricted topics, more repetitions of

own utterances, more questions, fewer declaratives, more deictic 29

declaratives, provision of both questions and answers by adult, and

repetitions, expansions, recasts of child’s utterances (Baron, 1990: 22).

k. Repetition is one of the most frequently used methods of prolonging

conversation, as well as one of the particular traits of child-directed

speech. The more times a child hears a sentence clearly modeled, the

more that child’s language learning is facilitated (Baron, 1990: 38).

l. Turn-taking becomes a model for the infant of the conventions.

Routines of turn-taking also serve other functions in linguistic

development. Babies gain experience in vocalizing, and participate in

situations in which that vocalizing becomes more language-like

(Bloom, et al, 1987:212)

c. Function of Caretaker speech

There are several explains about functions of caretaker speech. The writer presents 2 figures who explain about function of caretaker speech, they are

Brown and Fergusson (1977), Garnica’s (in Whyatt 1994).

Brown and Fergusson (1977) answer the question “why they use baby talk” are likely answer ‘to teach children to speak’. They also argue that the 30

intention behind the use of a simplified speech style is more communicative than pedagogical.

Garnica’s interview (in Whyatt 1994) suggest that mothers don’t use baby talk to teach language to their children, but in order to make themselves understood; to keep to minds on the same topic by controlling attention; to improve the intelligibility of their speech; and mark utterances as directed to children. In other word, to maximizes their chance in guaranteeing communicative interactions.

2. Speech Act

According to Searle ( in Yan Huang, 2007: 93) states that speech act theory is that the uttering of sentence is, or is part of, an action within the framework of social institutions and conventions.

3. Teaching English to Young Learners

According to Fauziati (2010:89) the best to teach children English is not to create the illusion that they are simply playing games. And rather than focus on individual development, it is also a very good idea to promote class interaction as far as possible.

According to Harmer (2007) states that younger leaners are not necessarily better learners compared to older learners. Younger children are indeed more likely to develop native-like English proficiency than adult learners, as suggested by Lynne Cameron (cited by Harmer, 2007) that children

“reproduce the accent of their teacher with deadly accuracy”. Yet research in 31

language acquisition has shown that older learner exhibit more learning gains than younger learners. Light bown and Spada (1999 )point to the various studies showing that older children and adolescents make more progress than younger learners. This may have been due to the children’s increased cognitive abilities.

4. Language Form

According to Katamba (1994: 11) language form consists of some expressions and sentences as follows:

a. Expression in disciplining children

According to Elizabeth, (2007:69) states that disciplining children is Discipline means to teach—and it is a very rare lesson that can be learned in one simple session. According to Christine Chandler Laura MCGrath (2004:24) there are six expressions in disciplining children, namely natural consequences, reward for good behavior, positive discipline method, be consistent, calm down.

1) Natural consequences

Chandler (2004:24) states that to develop control over their own

behavior children need to understand consequences, as follow: a) if then

thinking provides the rational basis for understanding the consequences of

their actions; b) The consistent use of clear, contingent consequences

provides the frame work for behaving with intention; c) in disciplining

children, “parents” most powerful consequences is their own intention. In

this example is “You were the first born. You were the first born on this

family where you adopted and you were born on your mommy. You were 32

the first born in this new family and you are very important and actually

being adopted with special because you were born under the heart and a lot

of that they wanted to give you”.

2) Be consistent

According to Chandler (2004:58)states that consistent is require children to use the good manners that you’ve taught them. Children who routinely practice using good manners will adopt those manners as good habits. From expression as follow: 1) teach children with empathies; 2) practices what to say; 3) teaches him/her how to calm down. For example in these expressions such as: 1)teach children with empathies “It’s important when you need the attention, when you feel like think so being fair, you go to tell you don’t grow to mommy your dad. I feel attention tonight and I really need more attention”. 2) practices what to say

“you need to use your words”. 3) teaches him/her how to calm down “do not to choose screaming, do not to choose screaming”.

3) Positive Discipline method

According to Chandler (2004:188) states that Positive discipline method is a technique used by parents and caregivers to modify their children's behavior by reinforcing desired behaviors. This technique has proven effective for parents, teachers, coaches, leaders, and anyone responsiblefor a child or group of children.in this example is “you get a reward”.

4) Reward for good behavior 33

According to Chandler (2004:80) states that reward system is a technique

specially structured to encourage children to take responsibility for performing

daily task.

Expression is the manner or form in which a thing is expressed in words;

wording; phrasing. www.dictionary.reference.com/../expression. In this example

is “you doing a good job”.

5) Calm Down

According to Chandler (2004:46) states that calm down is a structured discipline

tool designed to help children learn to manage their own behavior-particularly to

bring an end to unwanted actions.

In these example are “hands are not for hitting”, “ first-first no whining”, “be

consistent”. b. Sentence

Sentence is a full predication contains a subject plus predicate with a

finite verb (Frank, 1972: 220). Frank explains that sentences are classified in two

ways, by types and the other one is by number of full predication.

1) Classification by types.

There are four kinds of sentence based on its type. They are declarative,

imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentence (Frank, 1972: 220).

a) Declarative sentence. 34

In declarative sentence or usually called statement, the subject and predicate have the normal word order. The characteristic of this sentence is that it is ended by full stop in writing and a drop in pitch in speech. For example:

- She is my teacher.

- He buys some apples.

a) Imperative sentence.

An imperative sentence just expresses the predicate in spite of

person or tense, the simple form of the verb is used. The major

characteristic of imperative sentence is that it is finished by a period in

writing and a drop in pitch in speech. For example:

- Open the door!

- Do not liter!

b) Interrogative sentence.

In interrogative sentence, the subject and the auxiliary are often

reversed. The sentence is finished by a question mark in writing. For

example:

- Do you live in Indonesia?

- What are you doing?

c) Exclamatory sentence.

An exclamatory sentence usually expresses strong emotion or

feeling. This sentence uses an exclamation mark. For example:

- I can’t believe it. 35

- How beautiful she is. b) Classification by number of full predication.

According to Frank (1972: 222-223) there are 4 classifications of sentence by number full of predications. They are simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, and compound complex sentence.

a) Simple sentence

Such sentences have only one full predication in the form of an

independent clause. For example Martha has been painting her room.

b) Compound Sentence

Such sentences have two or more full predictions in the form of

independent clauses. In compound sentence, each verb has a different

subject. The sentences are joined three ways:

- By a comma and coordinating conjunction (and, but, yet, so, or,

for, nor). For example: Martha has been painting her room, but

Peg went to the movies.

- With a semicolon (;). For example: Martha has been painting her

room; Peg went to the movies.

- With a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb (then, however,

therefore, consequently, etc.). For example: Martha has been

painting her room; however, Peg went to the movies.

c) Complex Sentence 36

Such sentences also have two or more full predication. One of

these is an independent clause that is similar to the form of the simple

sentence, and one or more of these are dependent clauses. The

dependent clauses in a complex sentence may occur at any place in the

sentence. They are:

- Before a main clause: Although Tom reads novels, Jack reads

comics.

- After a main clause: Rugby is a sport that I have played only once.

- Interrupting a main clause: The dog, although he was well fed,

howled loudly.

- Before and after a main clause: When the pianist sat down at the

piano, she played a melody that she had written recently.

d) Compound-complex Sentence

It contains two or more independent clauses and one or more

dependent clauses. For example:

- The dog lived in the garden, but the cat, which was smarter, lived

inside the house.

According to Paul (2009: 34), language form also called structure of language is divided into 3. They are the sound system, the structure of word, and the structure of sentence.

a. The sound system 37

The major topic associated with the sound system are phonology and phonetic. In fact, both phonetic and phonology are important for discussing the speech reception and production of deaf or hard of hearing students (Paul, 2009:

34-35). According to Owens in Paul (2009: 21) phonology is the aspect of language concerned with the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.

The sound system of English refers to the use of phonemes. A phoneme is an abstract concept that actually refers to a family of distinctive, similar sounds, and guides the pronunciation of words. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sounds that can signal a difference in meaning (Paul, 2009: 35).

b. The structure of words

Morphology is related to phonology and is concerned with the structure of words. Morphology is the study of morpheme, which can be described as the smallest segments of speech that carry meaning (Goodluck, 1991; Mathews,

1991 in Paul 2009). For example the word eats, contains two morphemes /eat/ and /s/, and it also contains four phonemes associated with the four sounds in the word (Paul, 2009: 38). Morphemes are divided into two types, free morpheme and bound morpheme. Free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand by itself. This morpheme usually represents the minimum notion of word.

While bound morpheme is morpheme that cannot be occur alone. It needs one other morpheme to combine. Bound morphemes usually formed as affixes, such as prefixes (i.e. in-, un-, dis-) and suffixes (i.e. –ly, -ment, -ness). According 38

Johannes, (2009:157) states that morpheme, word or lexeme which are used in linguistics to describe a grammatical fact or to elaborate a general and new theory, but they are not defined on the basis of a consensus among linguists.

“Word” is the oldest of these terms.

c. The structure of sentences

In the structure of sentences, the important point is syntax. Syntax refers to rules that govern the order or arrangement of words. This arrangement reveals meaningful relationship within and between sentences. The arrangement concerns word order, sentence organization, and relationship between words

(Paul, 2009: 50). Paul argues that a better way to describe a sentence is that it must contain at least one noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP). A noun phrase (NP) contains at least a noun, with the option of one or more determiners. The verb phrase (VP) contains an auxiliary (such as modal, tense, or aspect) and a verb, and maychontain noun phrase, embedded sentence, and prepositional phrase.

5. Language Function

There are several concepts which explain about language function. The writer presents 6 figures who explain about language function, they are

Halliday’s concept, Finocchiaro’s concept, Brown and Yule’s concept, Jackobson’s concept, Brown and Yule’s concept, Crystal’s concept,and Pozzi’s concept.

a. Halliday’s concept of language function. 39

Halliday (1977: 19–20) stated that there are at least 7 function of language, namely instrumental, personal, interactional, regulatory, representational, heuristic, and imaginative function.

1) The instrumental function: is the function that language serves of

satisfying the child’s material needs, of enabling him to obtain the

goods and services he wants. This is the “I want” function of language.

2) The personal function: is used to express the child’s own uniqueness;

to express his awareness of himself, in contradistinction to his

environment, and then to mould that self-ultimately, language in the

development of the personality. This includes expression of personal

feeling, of participation and withdrawal, of interest, and pleasure. We

might call this the”here I come” function of language.

3) The interactional function: is what we might gloss as the “me and you”

function of language. This is language used by the child to interact with

those around him, particularly his mother and others that are

important to him, and it includes meanings such as generalized

greetings ‘‘Hello,’’ ‘‘Pleased to meet you.’’ And also responses to calls

‘‘Yes?’’, as well as more specific forms.

4) The regulatory function: is the function of language as controlling the

behavior of others, something which the child recognizes very easily

because language is used on him in this way: language is used to

control his own behavior and he soon learns that he can turn the 40

tables and use it to control others. The regulatory is the ”do as I tell

you” function of language.

5) Representational function: use language to explain something. It is the

one which is undoubtedly dominant in the adults use of language, and

even more so in the adults image of what language , is one which does

not emerge in the life of the child until considerably after the others.

We can also call informative function or the “I’ve got something to tell

you” function.

6) Heuristic function: once the boundary between the child himself and

his environment is beginning to be recognized, then the child can turn

towards the exploration of the environment; this is the heuristic

function of language, the “tell me why” function that which later on

develops into the whole range of questioning forms that the young

child uses.

7) Imaginative function: is the function of language whereby the child

creates an environment of his own. As well as moving into, taking over

and exploring the universe which he finds around him. The child also

uses language for creating a universe of his own. This we may call the

“let’s pretend” function of language.

b. Finocchiaro’s concept of language function.

According to Finocchiaro (Finocchiaro&Brumfit: 1983), there are 5 functions of language. They are: 41

1) Personal function is clarifying or arranging one’s ideas. It consists of:

(a) Expressing ones thoughts or feelings: love, pleasure, surprise, likes,

dislikes, distress, anger, fear, sorrow; (b) Communicating moral,

intellectual, and social concerns; and (c) Expressing everyday feelings

of hunger, fatigue, cold, or warmth.

2) Interpersonal function is enabling us to establish and maintain

desirable social and working relationships. It consists of: (a) Greetings

and leave-taking; (b) Introducing people to others; (c) Extending

invitations - accepting invitations; (d) Refusing invitations politely or

making alternative arrangements; (e) Apologizing; (f) Indicating

agreement - Indicating disagreement; (g) Interrupting another speaker

politely: (h) Complimenting someone; and (i) Expressing gratitude -

Acknowledging gratitude.

3) Directive function is attempting to influence the actions of others

accepting or refusing direction. It consists of: (a) Making requests; (b)

Making suggestions; (c) Refusing to accept a suggestion or a request

but offering an alternative; (d) Persuading someone to change their

point of view; (e) Asking for help - Responding to a help; and (f) Giving

instructions - Responding to instructions.

4) Referential function: talking or reporting about things actions events

or people in the environment in the past or in the future talking about

language this is often termed the metalinguistic function. It consists of: 42

(a) Asking for a description of someone or something; (b) Defining

something or a language item - Asking for a definition; (c) Requesting

facts about events or actions - Reporting facts; and (d) Evaluating the

results of an action or an event.

5) Imaginative function: expanding ideas offered by others or by a

listening or reading passage. It consists of: (a) Creating rhymes poetry

stories or plays; and (b) Solving problems or mysteries.

c. Jackobson’s concept of language function.

Roman Jackobson (in Waugh: 1980) defined six function of language.

Each function has an associated factor. They are:

1) Referential function: corresponds to the factor of message and

describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive

statements of the referential function can consist of both definite

descriptions and deictic words, e.g. "The autumn leaves have all fallen

now."

2) Expressive (alternatively called “emotive” or “affective”) function:

relates to the addresser (sender) and is best exemplified by

interjections and other sound changes that do not alter the denotative

meaning of an utterance but do add information about the Addresser's

(speaker's) internal state, e.g. "Wow, what a view!" 43

3) Conative function: engages the addressee (receiver) directly and is

best illustrated by vocatives and imperatives, e.g. "Tom! Come inside

and eat!"

4) Poetic function: focuses on "the message for its own sake" (the code

itself, and how it is used) and is the operative function in poetry as well

as slogans.

5) Phatic function: is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore

associated with the Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be

observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather,

particularly with strangers. It also provides the keys to open, maintain,

verify or close the communication channel: "Hello?", "Ok?",

"Hummm", "Bye"...

6) Metalingual (alternatively called "metalinguistic" or "reflexive")

function: is the use of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to

discuss or describe itself.

d. Brown and Yule’s concept of language function.

Brown and Yule (1983) argue that language performs two major functions: transactional and interactional function. (1) Transactional function is to passing information across, giving instructions, socialization etc. while (2)

Interactional function is to help in establishing and sustaining social relationships.

e. Crystal’s concept of language function. 44

Crystal (1997) stated that language serves seven purposes. It is used for the communication of ideas, for emotional expression (as the case of expressing frustration), for social interaction (i.e. greeting others), for the sheer power of reality (as there is in magic and incantation), for recording facts, as the instrument of thought and for the expression of identity (i.e. the signaling of who we are and where we ‘belong’).

f. Pozzi’s concept of language function.

According to Pozzi (2004), language function refers to the purpose for which speech or writing is being used. In speech these include giving instructions; introducing ourselves; and making requests. In academic writing we use a range of specific functions in order to communicate ideas clearly. These include describing processes; comparing or contrasting things or ideas; and classifying objects or ideas.

C. Theoretical Framework

The literature and underlying theories above give the writer the understanding on language forms, language functions, message function. The underlying theories are used as a basic of clarifying the framework of this study that leads into actual discussion. The major issue of this research is to analyze the language forms in the Finck Family Nanny 911 Reality Show Episode 1 based on Language forms concept’s. such as expressions and sentences. The researcher analyses the language forms based on Katamba’s concepts. After classifying and identifyingall the problems, the writer can answer the research problems. To 45

solve the problem above, the researcher uses theories in underlying theories as the foundation to analyze the detail as follow: language forms, language functions, message functions.

To analyze the caretaker speech, the researcher applies seven theories are used to guide in language function namely Finocchiaro (1983) suggests that there are 5 function of language, they are “personal function”, “interpersonal function”, “directive function”, “referential function”, imaginative function”.

Jackobson (in waugh 1980) explains that defined six function of language, they are “expressive function”, “conative function”, “expressive function”, “referential function”, poetic function”, “phatic function”, “metalingual function”. Crystal

(1997) stated that language serves seven purposes. It is used for the communication of ideas, for emotional expression (as the case of expressing frustration), for social interaction (i.e. greeting others), for the sheer power of reality (as there is in magic and incantation), for recording facts, as the instrument of thought and for the expression of identity (i.e. the signaling of who we are and where we ‘belong’). Pozzi (2004) explains that language function refers to the purpose for which speech or writing is being used. In speech these include giving instructions; introducing ourselves; and making requests. In academic writing we use a range of specific functions in order to communicate ideas clearly. These include describing processes; comparing or contrasting things or ideas; and classifying objects or ideas. Brown and Yule(1983) argue that language performs two major functions: transactional and interactional function. 46

Halliday (1977) stated that there are at least 7 functions of language, namely instrumental, personal, interactional, regulatory, representational, heuristic, and imaginative function. And to analyzing language form the researcherapplies theories are used to guide in languages forms, they are: Speech Act theory (1998:

93) and Katamba Theory (1994:11). Speech act theory is that the uttering of sentence is, or is part of, an action within the framework of social institutions and conventions. And Katamba theory explains that language form consists of some expression and sentences. And the researcher applies theory is used to guide in teaching English to young learners such as Fauziati (2010:89) explains that the best to teach children English is not to create the illusion that they are simply playing games. And rather than focus on individual development, it is also a very good idea to promote class interaction as far as possible.

While conducting the research, the researcher referred to the literature of caretaker speech starting that caretaker has function to help to communicate parent to children.