CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE This chapter consists of the writer previous studies and underlying theories such as type of language function, type of language form, function message, and position of the currents Study.Previous study is used as the reference of this research. The underlying theories are useful for the writer to conduct the research. A. Previous Studies There are some previous studies related to the study that are necessary as reference to this studies. Ten previous studies used as references in this current research, and those studies are written by Cuevas (2003), Herrera and Reissland (2003), Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (2003), Mathycuk (2004), Rowe (2007), Vosoughi (2010), Degaf (2010), Golden (2012), Salehuddin (2012), Tardif, Shatz, and Naigles (1997). 1. Cuevas (2003) First study is conducted by Cuevas (B.A., California State University, Northridge, 2003) entitled Caretakers’ Perceptions of Implementing Applied Behavioral Analysis with their Children. The topic of his research is the implementation of applied behavioral analysis in parents and/or caregivers whose child has a diagnosis of autism and who receive educational services through Yolo County Office of Education. The objective of this study is to understand the difficulties as well as successes parents have with the 8 9 implementation of applied behavioral analysis (ABA) with their autistic child. The type of this study is exploratory and uses qualitative methodologies. The data source of this study is a convenience sample of parents and/or caregivers whose child has a diagnosis of autism and who received educational services through the Yolo County Office of Education. The data collection technique is documentation. The technique of data analysis are descriptive qualitative. The result of this study shows that four problems were identified in the interviews. Study participants discussed strategies and techniques for implementing ABA and gave examples of how their home and family were modified and adjusted in order to implement it. Implications for both service providers and parents with autistic children are discussed. Social networking and communication among parents is important for the successful implementation of ABA. 2. Herrera and Reissland (2003) The second study is conducted by Herrera and Reissland (Department of Psychology,University of Aberdeen, UK, 2003) entitled Maternal Touch and Maternal Child-directed Speech: Effects of Depressed Mood in the Postnatal Period. This research describes the affects of postnatal depression to the emotional state of mother and the quality of mother-infant interaction. The objective of this study is to understand the affects of postnatal depression to the emotional state of mother and the quality of mother-infant interaction; 10 especially mothers which is in mildly depressed, as assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The type of this study is systematic study. The data source of this study is mothers who are only in mildly depressed, as assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The data collection technique is documentation. The data analysis technique is quantitative. The result of this study shows that depressed mothers in comparison with non-depressed mothers lifted their infants more, restraining their behaviors. Infants of depressed mothers in contrast to infants of non-depressed mothers spent greater periods of time in touching self rather than mother or toy, compensating for the lack of positive touch from their mothers. Mothers with depressed mood of 6-month-old infants included fewer affective and informative features in their speech than their controls. Non-depressed mothers of younger babies, showed a higher use of affective features when compared with non- depressed mothers of older infants. In contrast, depressed mothers of 6-and 10- month-old babies showed similar frequencies of affect-salient speech during the interactions in spite of their infants’ changing developmental demands. 3. Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (2003) The third study is conducted by Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (University of Manchester, 2003) entitled A Construction Based Analysis of Child Directed Speech. This study describes the child directed speech of twelve English- speaking mothers in terms of utterance-level constructions. The objective of this 11 study is to understand the mothers’ utterances which are categorized in terms of general constructional categories. Secondly, to determine mothers’ utterances within these categories which is specified in terms of the initial words that framed the utterance, item based phrases .The type of this study is item based construction study. The data were taken from the Manchester corpus (Theakston et al., 2001) whichwas accessed from the CHILDES database (MacWhinney& Snow, 1985, 1990). The corpus consists of data taken from twelve English-speaking mother–child dyads. The dyads were recruited through newspaper advertisements and local nurseries in the Manchester and Nottingham areas. All the children (six girls and six boys) were firstborns, monolingual and were cared for primarily by their mothers. The data collection technique is documentation by recorded the participant at home in the presence of an investigator on two separate occasions in every three week period for twelve months. The result shows: 1) overall, only about 15% of all maternal utterances had SVO form (most were questions, imperatives, copulas, and fragments); 2) 51% of all maternal utterances began with one of 52 item-based phrases, mostly consisting of two words or morphemes (45% began with one of just 17 words); and 3) children used many of these same item-based phrases, in some cases at a rate that correlated highly with their own mother’s frequency of use. 12 4. Mathycuk (2004) The forth study is conducted by Mathycuk (Department of English CHEP, Andrews University, 2004) entitled The role of child-directed speech in language acquistion: A case study. This research examines the nature of child-directed speech (CDS) from the perspective of function and social interactionist theory. The objective of this research is to understand the system of knowledge arises in the mind/brain. Specifically, the researcher want to know L1 acquisition through a study of the interaction between a young child and his family in order to discover how it might be that infants come to understand the relationship between the phonetic and semantic net which is thrown over them in the first few years of life and the world which that net represents. The type of this study is a case study. The data source of this research is Hikaru (H), born on October 20, 1996 (19 months old at the beginning of the study), is the youngest son of a Japanese couple living in a small mid-Western college town. At the time of data collection H’s father was a doctoral student and his mother was a homemaker who, in addition to caring for H, cared for his two older siblings, a boy, Tadahiro (usually called Ta-kun), at the initial time of the study, seven years of age and a girl, Sakura (usually called A-chan), five years of age. The data collection technique is by recording H’s speech during normal interactions with his parent over a period of twelve months. The data analysis technique is first transcribe the recorded data from H’s speech, and then numbering the data. The numbering is of two 13 types: (1) the data sets are numbered from 1 to 32 and represent the different recording sessions and, (2) a consecutive numbering of utterances from the beginning of the first data set to the end of the last data set. The results of this study showed that four of Halliday’s seven functions appeared to be present in the language the parents used with their child. They were: (a) the Regulatory function—the “Do as I tell you” function, (b) the Interactional function the “Me and you” function, (c) the Heuristic function—the “Tell me why” function, and (d) the Informative function—the “I’ve got something to tell you” function. While the parents of the subject were seen to use roughly equal amounts of language with the child, the distribution of language functions used by mother was importantly different from that used by father, therefore, it is suggest that this difference in CDS aids the language development of the infant by providing more interactive negotiation, which is argued to be crucial factor in language development. 5. Rowe (2007) The fifth study is conducted by Rowe (University of Chicago, 2007) entitled Child-Directed Speech: Relation to Socioeconomic Status, Knowledge of Child Development and Child Vocabulary Skill. The objective of this study is to determine why American parents from different socioeconomic backgrounds communicate in different ways with their children. The data source of this research is forty-seven parent–child dyads were videotaped engaging in naturalistic interactions in the home for ninety minutes 14 at child age 2;6. Transcripts of these interactions provided measures of child- directed speech. Children’s vocabulary comprehension skills were measured using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test at 2;6 and one year later at 3;6. The data collection technique is by documentation. The result of this study indicate that: (1) child-directed speech with toddlers aged 2;6 predicts child vocabulary skill one year later, controlling for earlier toddler vocabulary skill ; (2) child-directed speech relates to socioeconomic status as measured by income and education; and (3) the relation between socioeconomic status and child-directed speech is mediated by parental knowledge of child development. Potential mechanisms through which parental knowledge influences communicative behavior are discussed 6. Vosoughi (2010) The sixth study is conducted by Vosoughi (B.S., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2010) entitled Interactions of caregiver speech and early word learning in the Speechome Corpus: Computational Explorations. The research comprises a series of computational studies on the fined-grained interactions of caregiver speech and one child's early linguistic development, using the naturalistic, high-density longitudinal corpus collected for the Human Speechome Project.