BIO Review Ironically Further Sharpen Our Skills

Home , Botwood, Burgeo, Drifter (fishing boat), Lewisporte

Bedford Institute BIO of Oceanography REVIEW ‘85

Canada On the cover: A satellite infrared image that depicts the sea-surface temperature (SST) over the Grand Banks of Newfoundland: it was taken on 31 October 1984 by a NOAA-7 satellite from an altitude of 833 km. The magnetic tape of infrared data was pro- cessed and enhanced for SST by Kevin Reid at the image processing facility located at BIO. The BIO facility was config- ured by Perceptron Computing Inc. of Toronto: the analysis software used to process and enhance the cover illustration was provided by the Rosenstiel School of Ma- rine and Atmospheric Sciences. The image nicely illustrate several features of the oceanography of the region. The Labrador Current is shown as the broad band of cold water (1.0 - 3.5°C) in the upper third of the image that narrows markedly between 49° and 48°N at the northern shoulder of the Grand Banks. It follows the outer edge of the Banks along a path parallel to the 200 m isobath. The shelf edge of the Labrador Current is highly variable with waters of about 3°C inter- spersed with waters of about 7°C. At 44°N, 49° W the variability on the temperature front is quite regular and wavelike. Near the Tail of the Banks, the Current is broken up by a blob of warmer water with central temperatures of about 15°C. Note that the reddish area in the southwest (bottom left) portion of the image is cloud cover and not a part of the Labrador Current. The inshore branch of the Labrador Current can be seen as a cooler (5 - 7°C) region in Avalon Channel. Along 47°N and southwestward towards Whale Bank and Haddock Channel. the seaward boundary of the cooler water corresponds to the 100 m isobath. The central portion of the Grand Banks feature warmer waters with SST increasing to a maximum of about l2.5°C at Southeast Shoal (near 44°20’S. 50°20’W). This warmer body of water situated on the Shoal is another well known phenomenon of the Grand Banks: it is currently being studied by DFO scientistsat the Norrhwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre in St. John’s, Newfoundland, and at BIO.

TEMPERATURE (°C) Regional oceanography: The Grand Banks of Newfoundland

or a thousand years or more, the Grand Banks and icebergs drifted down from the eastern Arctic Fhave been a nursery of seamanship, a source of brought the voyages of many ships, including the great wealth for some but of hard-wrung small Titanic, to an abrupt and tragic end over the returns for many, and a most dangerous region lying centuries, and progressively sharpened seamanship athwart the sea-lanes to North America from the and the techniques of navigation. The terrible night older countries. The Grand Banks in the eighties of of February 15, 1982, when a bitter winter storm this century are a challenge for Canadian fisheries took the lives of all 84 crew of the Ocean Ranger development, and the site of a great engineering drilling rig and of 33 of the 37 seamen from the adventure. Truly, the Grand Banks is a place we need Soviet cargo vessel that attempted their rescue, will to know more about: this issue of BIO Review ironically further sharpen our skills. records how federal oceanographers and hydrog- You may ask, what has all this got to do with raphers in eastern Canada are working to this end. ocean science and the BIO? As we hope to show in The earliest probings of the Norsemen from their this issue of our Review, the twin issues of Canadian settlements in southwest Greenland certainly covered responsibility for Grand Banks fisheries, and the the northern Grand Banks, on their way to their set- possibility that production from the Grand Banks tlement in northern Newfoundland, and perhaps Hibernia field will finally end our dependence on oil areas further south to Cape Cod and westward to the imports to fuel eastern Canada, both require heavy Great Lakes. These early explorers must have been scientific input, much of which has come from BIO very familiar with the special problems of ice, fog, over the last several years. offshore shoals, and the teeming seabirds, fish, and As for climate research, the subject of BIO Review whales that attracted later voyagers. After Giovanni ‘84, the reader will quickly discover that our work Cabotti’s enthusiastic reports of his landing on on the Grand Banks is not organized into a formal, Newfoundland in 1497, fishermen from England, single project with this title; rather, our individual France, northern Spain, and Portugal poured across research and survey divisions are responsible for the Atlantic for the dried cod and whale oil trades. many individual projects of which some are dedicated This traffic led to several bitter little wars and to the solely to a Grand Banks problem, while some will ‘French Shore’ issue of northern Newfoundland in produce general results applicable everywhere off the 19th century; the matter was only finally resolved eastern Canada, including the Grand Banks. Because in 1977 with the Canadian declaration of our 200-mile what happens on the Grand Banks is driven by fisheries management zone, which covers much of the oceanographic processes and events in the Atlantic Grand Banks. Ocean and Labrador Sea far from the Banks them- As late as the 1960s, Portuguese schooners with selves, we include relevant research of this kind in fleets of tiny wooden dories had been taking cod our review. It is not easy (or useful) to put an with handlines on the Grand Banks, continuing a accurate estimate on the costs of all these projects, centuries-old technology. During all this period, one but they comprise approximately 20% of the DFO of the reasons why European and North American expenditure at BIO, totalling about $7.9 million. It governments stood behind their fishermen on the should be noted that the component of fisheries man- Grand Banks was to support a nursery of seamanship agement scientists housed at BIO does not have to feed sailors to their navies in time of war: the abil- responsibilities for research off Newfoundland: this ity of Newfoundlanders to handle small boats in is done by scientists of DFO’s Northwest Atlantic great seas must have saved countless lives in distant Fisheries Centre at St. John’s, Newfoundland, with oceans over the years. The legendary fog that so whom oceanographers at BIO collaborate in many often shrouds the Grand Banks and the pack-ice projects. To recognize this, we have included in this 1 The historical photographs at left (circa 1911) depict “flying sets “, dories towed astern a schooner then dropped off one by one to fish. This centuries-old method was in use on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland until as late as the 1960s. The work was hard and dangerous, particularly as sudden summer fogs and storms often set down. In angry winds and waters, dories strayed from their parent vessels and, by one estimation, more fishermen were lost in this manner than in shipwreck. (Courtesy of the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic, the F. W. Wallace Collection)

edition a special guest article by Larry Coady and Banks produces results of wide relevance: the struc- Scott Akenhead of St. John’s tural history of the continental margin, and the great As the reader will discover in this Review, our transform fault that forms the southern flank of the research in support of fisheries management and oil Grand Banks. Finally, some are done to back up the exploration on the Grand Banks takes many forms more direct investigations of fisheries biology and and covers all oceanographic disciplines. Some marine pollution done by the St. John’s fisheries projects are done directly at the request of the off- scientists: the influence of Hudson Strait outflow on shore industry who must have the best possible fisheries production, the modelling of the effects of advice and data on conditions in the offshore: pollution on fish stocks, the processes controlling bathymetry of outports and large bays, wave climate, biological production on the Banks. ice behaviour, currents and current surges, sediment As well as discussing some of the ways in which bedload strength and the statistics of continental shelf BIO is addressing these problems, this issue of the earthquakes, the statistics and mechanics of iceberg Review contains our now-familiar guide to BIO scouring, and many other topics. Some projects are organization, projects, voyages, and output of done because only thus can we, or various sectors of papers, reports, and charts. We hope it continues the industry, understand variability of fog, ice, and to be useful to you. currents on the Grand Banks: the between-year variations in the Labrador Current and the interaction - A.R. Longhurst between the Gulf Stream and the topography of the Director-General Grand Banks, for example. Some projects are done Bedford Institute of Oceanography because study of the unique features of the Grand Department of Fisheries and Oceans 2 Contents

REGIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY: THE GRAND BANKS BIO Review is published annu- OF NEWFOUNDLAND (A.R. Longhurst) ...... 1 ally by the Bedford Institute of Oceanography. Change of 1. SCIENCE AND SURVEYS ON THE GRAND BANKS: address notices and other GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY correspondence concerning this (H.B. Nicholls) ...... 4 publication should be sent to: Publication Services 2. GEOSCIENCE (D.I. Ross) ...... 12 Bedford Institute of Oceanography Passive margins: The Grand Banks example (C.E. Keen) . . 13 P.O. Box 1006 Surficial and bedrock geology of the Grand Banks Dartmouth, Nova Scotia (G.B.J. Fader) ...... 16 Canada B2Y 4A2

Iceberg-scour features on the Grand Banks International Standard Serial (D.I. Ross and M. Lewis) ...... 20 Number (ISSN) 0229-8910 Seabed stability on the continental slope adjacent to the Grand Banks (D.J. W. Piper) ...... 23 Cat. No. Fs 75-203/1985E ISBN 0-662-14592-5 3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY (J.A. Elliott) ...... 27 Une version française est aussi disponible. Background levels of petroleum residues and their origin on the Grand Banks 27 (E.M. Levy) ...... @Minister of Supply and Sea ice and iceberg movement (S.D. Smith and Services Canada 1985 G. Symonds) ...... 35 Mean and variable currents on the Grand Banks (B.D. Petrie) ...... 38 4. BIOLOGY (K.H. Mann) ...... 41 Stock assessment and related fisheries research on the Grand Banks (L. W. Coady and S.A. Akenhead) ...... 42 How the Labrador Current and Hudson Bay run-off affect the ecology of the Grand Banks (K.F. Drinkwater) ...... 46 The Grand Banks modelling project (W. Silvert) ...... 49 Microheterotrophic activity on the Grand Banks: The biological submodel (M.A. Paranjape and R.E. Smith) . . . . 53

Seabirds and the Grand Banks (R.G.B. Brown) ...... 56 BIO Review ‘85: 5. CHARTING THE GRAND BANKS AND ADJOINING Editor - AREAS (R. Pietrzak) ...... 58 Michael P. Latremouille Assistant Editor - 6. CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS ...... 62 Brenda Newman Production Co-ordinator - 7. VOYAGES ...... 73 Susan Scale 8. ORGANIZATION AND STAFF ...... 81 Typesetter - Nancy Poirier Typesetting 9. PROJECT LISTING ...... 85 Printer - Kromar Printing Ltd.,

10. EXCERPTS FROM THE BIO LOG ...... 91 Winnipeg 1

3 chapter 1 Science and surveys on the Grand Banks: Government and industry

s a major centre for oceano- hydrography. The level of effort in a single customer. Agraphic research and hydrogra- 1984/85 for applied research pertain- Institute programs have as one of phic surveys in Canada, the Bedford ing to the Grand Banks, including their objectives support for the devel- Institute of Oceanography provides funds from all sources and overhead opment of a stand-alone Canadian services, advice, and research expertise and support costs, is $6.4 million (or ocean industry, both manufacturing in support of a variety of national 16%); for hydrographic surveys and and contract R&D. Such an industry is needs. In keeping with the federal chart production, the corresponding of course not specific to any one geo- government’s economic thrust to pro- figure is $4.8 million (or 30%). How- graphic region, but this article will mote and support technological ever, one should not lose sight of the make reference to some of the firms development in Canada, a key strategy importance of fundamental long-term involved with BIO on the Grand of Institute programs is to undertake research in meeting industry’s needs. Banks. work relevant to industry’s needs. This In science, basic research inevitably paper explains how the Institute becomes the cornerstone of applied Fishing industry endeavours to meet the needs of three research, and what seems lacking in The support of the fisheries of clients in one geographic region, the immediate application today may be Atlantic Canada, including the Grand Grand Banks, and examines the asso- of great importance a decade hence. Banks, has been a longstanding pri- ciated institute-industry interfaces This seems especially true in oceanog- ority of Institute programs. There are and interactions. raphy, and much of the knowledge four main thrusts: BIO has four objectives: now being applied to some of the - providing technical developments to (1) To perform fundamental long-term most urgent problems of the marine assist in fish finding and stock research in all fields of the marine environment stems from the basic assessment; sciences, and to act as a major research of years past. The provision - providing a better understanding of Canadian repository of expertise. of advice to industry today is possible the causes of variability in fish (2) To perform shorter term applied because of the basic research that was stocks; research in response to present undertaken five or ten years - evaluating the consequences of national needs, and to advise on previously. industrial activity on the fisheries; the management of our marine BIO programs provide support to and environment, including its fisheries various industries active on the Grand - investigating how changes in the and offshore hydrocarbon Banks, chief of these being the fishing atmosphere/ocean climate machine resources. industry, shipping, and the offshore affect fishing. (3) To perform necessary surveys and oil industry. It should be noted at the These involve varying degrees of inter- cartographic work to ensure a sup- outset, however, that few of the Insti- action with the industry. Most of the ply of navigation charts of the tute’s programs are focused on a sin- Institute’s research in support of the required accuracy for the region gle geographic region such as the long-term renewal of fish stocks, for from Georges Bank to the high Grand Banks; the majority have a example, is an underpinning in ocean- Canadian Arctic. much wider range of application. ography and ecology for the work (4) To respond with all relevant exper- Thus, while some of the studies of the fisheries laboratories of the tise and assistance to any major described here are specific to the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, marine emergency within the Grand Banks, others are applicable to while the research pertaining to same region. the Canadian east coast offshore atmosphere/ocean climate is fun- Most interaction with industry occurs generally including the Banks. Simi- damental long-term research to address in the areas of applied research and larly, very few projects are directed at a major national issue. In both cases 4 more easily to larger ships. In particular, the way in which radio navigation grids are distorted near coasts and islands has been measured and the resulting correction included in charts that fishermen are likely to use, including the charts referred to above. Physical oceanographers are co- operating with Atmospheric Environ- ment Service meteorologists in a project designed to improve the detailed predictions of conditions within storms at sea; inferior predictions not only risk lives at sea, but also the unneces- sary loss of productive fishing time if the storm proves to be less violent than predicted (refer to the section on the offshore oil industry below for further information on this project, known as the Canadian Atlantic Storm Project, CASP). Research into acoustic fish-finding technology at the Institute has resulted in a much-improved system for groundfish detection by which not only abundance but also individual fish size can be measured. It is intended that this will be available commercially with as little delay as possible and discussions are underway Newfoundland fishing villages such as this one in the Ramea Islands off the with prospective manufacturers. rugged south coast rely exclusively on water transportation. In one example Consequences of industrial activity for of efforts to improve the charts that fishermen use, radio-navigation grids fisheries that are corrected for distortion near coasts are now included. It is the responsibility of the Institute to apply its wide range of expertise in evaluating the consequences of pro- the fishing industry is not the seafloor, are now available for the posed industrial developments. Part of immediate customer. Grand Banks and other regions as a this responsibility is discharged by aid- result of a co-operative arrangement ing the drafting of guidelines for pro- Fishing profitability through technical between BIO and a Newfoundland inputs ponents’ studies needed to back up company, NORDCO. Prior to these Environmental Impact Statements, and charts, information on seafloor geol- The fishing industry itself is not as the subsequent review of the state- large a consumer of scientific products ogy was provided on an ad hoc basis ments within the Environmental as the offshore oil industry; the techni- in answer to requests from individual Assessment and Review and other for- cal problems of industrial fishing have fishermen. NORDCO submitted an (l) mal processes. Another part is the largely been solved by the industry Unsolicited Proposal , which was review of oil industry contingency itself. Nevertheless, this situation is supported by the Institute. This was plans for all exploratory wells, while a continually monitored so that we can followed-up by other contracts and the third aspect requires scientists to per- match potential new ocean data ser- transfer of Institute data. The com- form some related research because vices with what can actually be used pany is now marketing the charts as BIO may be the chief location of rele- by the industry. a commercial venture. vant expertise in Canada, or because it Special navigation charts, tailored to Attention has been paid to the needs is essential for our scientists to be of small fishing vessels for access to meet the needs of fishermen in that fully up-to-speed in the problems on they provide information about the radio navigation systems available which they must pass judgement. The Grand Banks has been an (1)The Unsolicited Proposal (UP) Program is an adjunct to the federal government’s Contracting-out extremely busy region for the Institute Policy in Science and Technology; it provides the Canadian private sector and commercial industry with respect to evaluating the conse- the opportunity to submit, on their own initiative, proposals for scientific work. Its aim is to encourage industry’s contribution to government objectives and to increase government apprecia- quences of industrial activity for fish- tion of Canadian industrial capabilities. The work is funded by the federal government. eries, as well as for other concerns. 5 An example of this activity is illustrated by the Hibernia Environmental Offshore Petroleum and the Fisheries Impact Statement (EIS). With the filing of the EIS on May 15, 1985, hat impact will recovering the hydrocarbon reserves off eastern Canada Mobil Oil Canada started along the W have on offshore fish stocks and fishing operations? Much misinforma- regulatory road that could lead to tion existed when BIO hosted a two-day scientific consultation on this widely production approval for this discovery. discussed subject in October 1980. The objective was to draft a scientific A joint Canada-Newfoundland review opinion on the probable consequences of the additional oil contamination to panel was established; their report is be anticipated as a result of offshore hydrocarbon production at Sable Island due at year-end. At the time of writing and on the Grand Banks. The consultation was organized by the Marine (June/July 1985), Institute staff are Environment and Ecosystems Subcommittee of CAFSAC (the Canadian engaged in the technical review of the Atlantic Fisheries Scientific Advisory Committee), so that a consensus might four-volume EIS and its many sup- be expressed by at least one segment of the scientific community on the most porting documents. Departmental probable consequences. (DEMR and DFO) positions will be Recognizing that the problem is a complex one, it was decided to limit the focus established based in part on the of the two-day consultation. The panel of experts were each given a question in Institute reviews, and Institute staff advance and asked to address it at the consultation prior to in-depth discussion. will attend the public hearings to A very limited set of questions was used: provide expert advice. (1) What are the likely scales and frequency of accidental release of hydrocarbons Researchers of the Marine Ecology from foreseeable developments off the Canadian east coast? Laboratory (MEL) at BIO are engaged (2) What levels of oil contamination may be expected in water and sediments, and in a project to model the possible what would be the physiological consequences for biota? effects of oil spills on the Grand (3) What kind of observational programs would be required to detect the effects Banks ecosystem. The project is on biota? funded by the Department of Energy, (4) What is the likelihood that such effects would impair recruitment and that Mines, and Resources through the such impaired recruitment would be separable from natural variation? Panel on Energy Research and (5) What consequences for offshore fishing operations may be expected? Development, PERD(2). It is hoped (6) What will be the effects, if any, of countermeasures? that this modelling effort will go Discussion did not cover coastal fisheries, recreational beaches, ports, har- beyond traditional methods of impact bours, or wildlife because it was felt that the very important inshore problems assessment and will, in addition, pro- were much better understood than the offshore consequences. Views expressed vide a basis for the consolidation of were personal and not the position of any organization. The Consultation did not information on the Grand Banks eco- consider any program requirements for the future to solve uncertainties that were system. The project is of significance exposed and it was recognized that the output would not represent or substitute because it addresses the requirement for a detailed study of the same problems more formally undertaken over a for an ecosystems approach to longer period. Lastly, no formal recommendations were made, or would they environmental impact assessment as have been appropriate, as a result of the Consultation. recommended in a recent Federal Notwithstanding the caveats noted above, the Consultation achieved its aims. Environmental Assessment and Review For those interested in the details of the consensus replies to the questions, the Office (FEARO) report (Beanlands following report may be consulted: and Duinker, 1983). A major compo- Longhurst, A. (Editor). 1982. Consultation on the consequences of offshore nent of the project is the use of inter- oil production on offshore fish stocks and fishing operations. Canadian active modelling workshops involving Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1096: 95 p. scientists active in the field. Dutch and German scientists who have developed and major trophic pathways of the The first phase of the project was similar models have been consulted. Grand Banks ecosystem; completed in June 1985 and has The interactive modelling system is (b) identification and modelling of the resulted in the preparation of a work- based on a microcomputer system that significant interactions through ing model of the Grand Banks ecosys- has been developed at MEL for the which oil spills could affect the tem and preliminary identification of purpose of this project. The work is biota on the Grand Banks; and ways in which the system is most organized in three phases: (c) elaboration of the model for likely to be impacted by oil in the (a) development of a highly aggregated predictive modelling of the effects event of a spill. To furnish critical model representing the dynamics of oil spills. data, it was necessary to run three major voyages to the Grand Banks to (2)The Panel on Energy R&D (PERD) is an interdepartmental committee of Assistant Deputy investigate the distribution and growth Ministers representing some 23 federal departments, agencies, and crown corporations, who are dynamics of microplankton communi- responsible for reviewing, co-ordinating and recommending on priorities and funding for federal ties. Developmental work is now con- energy research and development. The Office of Energy R&D (OERD) of the Department of tinuing into phase (b), with increased Energy, Mines, and Resources serves as the secretariat. Funding for this program is provided through the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. emphasis on the toxicological aspects.

6 Interaction with industry takes place Large portions of the coast of by contract (Terra Surveys of Ottawa in two ways. Firstly, the periodic Newfoundland are poorly charted. was contracted to survey Lewisporte review by the funding agency (PERD) Knowledge of the bathymetry is scant and its approaches, and also Loon involves a committee comprising both with many parts of the coastline Bay), while part of the work was government and oil company mem- poorly delineated. The geographic undertaken by BIO hydrographers bers. Secondly, much of the work on position is, in places, several miles out working from CSS Baffin. To provide the project (54% of total resources) is of position. This state of affairs detailed shoreline plots for these and contracted out to industry, primarily presents an obvious hazard to ship- associated surveys, and later to facili- in Atlantic Canada. Significant ping, particularly since large vessels tate the construction of the charts, proportions of the majority of PERD- are now venturing into some of the another contract was let for photo- funded projects are contracted out. harbours. As an example (and close to grammetric mapping. The results of In another BIO project directly rele- the Grand Banks), Notre Dame Bay in these various surveys will contribute vant to the consequences of industrial northeast Newfoundland is one such data towards a set of new charts for activity for fisheries on the Canadian area where the existing charts are the Notre Dame Bay area. east coast including the Grand Banks, primarily British Admiralty reproduc- Another field in which there is sig- research is being undertaken into sur- tions dating back to the last century. nificant interaction with the shipping face current prediction, which is rele- Lewisporte, situated within Notre industry is that of radio-navigation vant to a number of applied problems Dame Bay, is but one of several active aids, such as Loran-C. Recently a new such as oil spill trajectory modelling. ports in the area. It is the terminus for Loran-C transmitter was established by The project involves joint participation the Labrador ferry and a receiving Transport Canada at Fox Harbour, of several government agencies, uni- depot for fuel oils for the central Labrador, thereby extending the cover- versities, and the oil industry (Esso, part of Newfoundland. Botwood, near age of this state-of-the-art system to Dome, Petro-Canada, and Mobil). Lewisporte, is the major shipping port include the Grand Banks. A transmit- In the modelling work there is close for the Abitibi-Price paper mill at ter such as this cannot be used effec- co-operation with a Canadian com- Grand Falls and has been used as a tively without the updating of existing pany that is active in this field, supply base for drilling in the charts to include Loran-C technical Meteorological and Environmental Labrador Sea. Not only are existing data (lattices). In response to this Planning Ltd. of Markham, Ontario. charts here very old, but this area of need, CHS at BIO embarked on a Much of the data analysis and field the coast is very rugged and complex major new program. The work, which work is carried out on contract by with numerous islands, rocks, and will take several years to complete, is firms such as MacLaren Plansearch of shoals. In 1984, BIO mounted a major still underway. Much of it is being Halifax, N.S. The work is funded by hydrographic effort in Notre Dame done on contract by such firms as BIO, PERD, the Natural Sciences Bay. Part of the work was undertaken Atlantic Air Surveys of Dartmouth, and Engineering Research Council N.S. and Kenting of Ottawa. Loran-C (NSERC), and Mobil Oil Canada Ltd. provides fishing vessels and supply boats for offshore drilling platforms Shipping on the Grand Banks with an aid that contributes to more According to the Charts and Publi- efficient and safer vessel operations. cations Regulations of the Canada Helicopters servicing drilling platforms Shipping Act, all ships (both Canadian also utilize the revised charts in their and foreign) are required to carry offshore flights. The interaction with Canadian charts in Canadian waters. industry includes the training of vessel It is the responsibility of the Canadian operators in the use of the revised Hydrographic Service (CHS) to pro- charts. vide these charts and associated publi- Services such as the above must be cations such as Tide Tables and responsive to the changing practices Sailing Directions. and demands of the industry. This is In the case of the Grand Banks and ensured through regular interaction its associated coastal waters, the CHS with shipping interests in such fora component at BIO is responsible for as the Newfoundland Shipowners the upkeep of eight existing charts. In Association and the Atlantic Pilotage addition it is currently producing three Authority, the Regional Director of new offshore charts for this region, Hydrography at BIO being a member two of which pertain to St. Pierre of both organizations. Bank off southern Newfoundland at Also relevant to shipping is the the western edge of the Grand Banks. An offshore fishing trawler on the research being undertaken at BIO on All three charts are being produced on Grand Banks of Newfoundland. waves and sea ice (including icebergs). contract (by Terra Surveys Ltd. of (Courtesy of the North west Atlantic This work is considered under the sec- Ottawa), which is in itself a relatively Fisheries Centre) tion on the offshore oil industry since new departure. much of it is funded via the Energy 7 R&D Program (PERD). Of particular interest is the recently established Canadian Atlantic Storm Project (CASP) that will look in detail at the large and small features of severe and unpredictable winter storms that lash the Canadian east coast. Such storms are a threat to ships at sea and can cause millions of dollars of damage to vessels in small harbours, to wharves, and to private property. Oil industry Offshore regions are believed to contain Canada’s largest remaining untapped reserves of oil and gas. Of these, the Hibernia field on the Grand Banks, discovered in 1979, is regarded as one of the best prospects. Mr. Paul Tellier, Deputy Minister, Federal Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, appearing before the Standing Committee of the Senate of Canada on Energy and Natural Resources in April 1984 said of the Moorings about to be deployed from CSS Dawson in November 1985. Hibernia field that it is “a very major These directional wave buoys are being used in the Canadian Atlantic oilfield on a world scale” (Tellier, Storm Project to measure wave height, and the direction of propagation. 1984). Despite the high costs and risks, of surface waters. exploration on the Grand Banks has continued since the first well was the effects of oil and gas developments magnetic survey in an area covering drilled in 1966. In 1984, for example, on the marine environment are consid- the northeastern Grand Banks and the seven exploratory wells and three ered under the section on the fishing Orphan Basin. The objective was to delineation wells were drilled, resulting industry. delineate in greater detail than in one oil discovery, two gas-and-oil presently available a number of discoveries, and one gas-condensate Geoscience considerations sedimentary basins that are potential find. In 1985, as previously stated, The objective of research in this sources of hydrocarbons. AGC will be Mobil released its Environmental field is to provide improved under- playing a major role in this project. Impact Statement for the Hibernia standing of petroleum reservoirs and Field operations are scheduled for the field, and production from this source the geological hazards faced in hydro- summer of 1985. AGC will incor- is now confidently expected during the carbon developments, e.g. seabed porate the data obtained with seismic next five years. As well as requiring instability. information acquired through other new engineering solutions, Hibernia The geological setting of the Grand contracts to establish the deep struc- has been characterized by a great Banks was established by industry and ture of the continental margin across demand for scientific information government scientists in the 1970s, the eastern Grand Banks and delineate about the environment in which it with the Atlantic Geoscience Centre the sedimentary basins that have must operate, while for the Grand (AGC) playing a major role. These developed during its formation. Banks as a whole there is the need to studies, which continue, involve close The continental margin off provide improved understanding of co-operation between AGC and oil Newfoundland is part of one of the petroleum reservoirs. This has meant company scientists; the results make a world’s classic transform-faulted mar- an unprecedented demand for scien- direct contribution to the assessment gins. This region, which includes the tific services from the federal govern- of oil and gas reserves. As an example Grand Banks, is a key target for seis- ment to which BIO has responded by of more recent work, an agreement mic reflection experiments designed to making major changes in its research was struck in 1985 between the Geo- acquire information on the geology and survey programmes. logical Survey of Canada and a group deep within the earth’s crust. The BIO research pertaining to offshore of oil companies headed by Chevron Frontier Geoscience Program(3) is oil and gas may be classified under the to proceed jointly with a major aero- funding the Atlantic Geoscience Centre following categories: geoscience con- (3) siderations; effects of the ocean The Frontier Geoscience Program is designed to gather data, provide analysis, and synthesize and disseminate information relating to the geology of the frontier areas. The focus is on the geology environment on offshore structures; and evolution of sedimentary basins, the processes governing the generation, accumulation, and and offshore geotechnics. Note that preservation of hydrocarbons, and the identification and analysis of constraints to their development. 8 and that the turbidity current gener- and significant parts of the program ated was 300 m thick and sufficiently are undertaken on contract by consul- powerful to sweep seabed gravel into tants (e.g., Dobrocky Seatech has waves. Such information is useful in provided the consulting support for a the preparation of standards by the study of pressure gauges). Funding is Canadian Standards Association on from PERD, the oil industry (who the design of offshore structures. A also provide ship time), and AOL. significant part of this research was The heavy ice conditions experienced funded by PERD. over the Grand Banks in recent years have highlighted the need for better ice Effects of the ocean environment on forecasting. One of the objectives of offshore structures the Atlantic Oceanographic Labora- The objective of research in this tory’s sea ice research program is to field is to improve the safety of improve the models presently being marine hydrocarbon exploration and used for operational forecasting by production systems. Rig operators both the Atmospheric Environment need to know the statistics of wave Service and private industry. A major conditions and currents (including the thrust in the work is to elucidate the probable extreme wave heights and respective roles of meteorological and current surges), the statistics of ice and oceanographic factors in determining freezing spray conditions, and how to the large-scale distribution of pack ice. predict the drift of observed pack ice Icebergs represent one of the major and icebergs approaching a rig. hazards and impediments to Grand In 1981 the Resource Management Banks hydrocarbon development. A Only two semi-submersible oil- Branch of the Department of Energy, major objective of AOL iceberg drilling rigs of this type exist. This Mines and Resources (which subse- research is to develop models that will one was used on the Grand Banks quently became part of the Canada provide accurate predictions of iceberg of Newfoundland. Oil and Gas Lands Administration, drift in the short term (1 to 3 days COGLA) asked the Atlantic Oceano- over a range of 10 to 50 km) in order graphic Laboratory at BIO to provide to assist industry in making decisions to do this. One of the objects of such an overview of oceanographic condi- on the need to tow icebergs and/or to work is to obtain an understanding of tions for the Newfoundland Shelf and vacate the rig. In 1983, 1984, and 1985 the fundamental controls on the the Hibernia area in particular. This AOL organized a voyage to the Grand development of the sedimentary basins was done, and was followed by a Banks to monitor the trajectory of ice- that are known to contain hydrocar- workshop with industry, government, bergs and to measure the associated bon resources. The acquisition of the and university participation. Based on currents and winds. Among the con- deep crustal marine seismic reflection the recommendations of the workshop tractors involved in this project are data along the northeast coast of a steering group was formed involving Ice Engineering Ltd. of St. John’s, Newfoundland and across Orphan the above groups (specifically Mobil, Newfoundland, and Seimac Ltd. of Basin and the adjacent continental Petro-Canada, Dalhousie University, Bedford, N.S. margin was undertaken on contract by and AOL) to arrange and co-ordinate A major thrust of the program of Geophysical Services Incorporated of a joint program of analysis, model- the Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory Calgary in 1984, and further work is ling, and observation of currents on is wave studies. Relevant to shipping currently underway. Results off north- the Grand Banks. As an example of and coastal engineering as well as to east Newfoundland will be made avail- the work undertaken, current meter the offshore oil industry, the AOL able to industry and others as part of data collected by Mobil and satellite- program has two main components. the national Lithoprobe Program.(4) tracked drifting buoy tracks resulting One is the presentation of statistical Seabed instability resulting from from Petro-Canada and International data on ocean wave fields over many earthquakes has been investigated by Ice Patrol work have been analyzed by years in the form of wave climate the Institute in the vicinity of the 1929 AOL and utilized in a statistical charts. The other is research aimed at earthquake on the Grand Banks. The iceberg-drift prediction model devel- understanding how waves form, prop- work has shown that surficial slump- oped by Dalhousie University. Other agate, and eventually decay and at ing is widespread on the continental oil companies, such as Husky-Bow improving numerical wave-hindcast slope within 50 km of the epicentre, Valley and Esso, are also involved, models. One recent example of external interaction with reference to the (4)The Lithoprobe Program is a national, collaborative, multi-year, multidisciplinary, geoscientific Grand Banks is in connection with the research program for investigating fundamental questions concerning the nature and evolution of Ocean Ranger incident. While this the rigid outer shell of the earth (the lithosphere) beneath Canada’s landmass and surrounding oceans. It involves the effective integration of modern geophysical, geological, and geochemical interaction is not on a one-to-one basis concepts and technology to extend knowledge of the lithosphere in various key areas in Canada with the industry, it obviously has into the third dimension - depth. important implications to them. The 9 Ocean Ranger sank during a storm in ment dynamics, and iceberg scouring. ascertain foundation conditions for February 1982, and Institute staff With the step-up in engineering anchoring drilling rigs. Following the provided expert advice on factors such activity and offshore development in discovery of oil at Hibernia in 1980, as waves at the Royal Commission ice-infested waters, it is becoming Mobil investigated the possibility of that was established to investigate the increasingly important to understand transporting oil ashore by pipeline. incident. One example of how the ice scouring processes and to predict The company wanted to know if Institute assisted (in response to a the frequency and depth of seafloor seafloor conditions were such that a specific request of the Commission) disruption by iceberg and sea-ice relatively direct pipeline could be was to develop and build a three- scouring. At risk are seabed compo- constructed between Hibernia and dimensional model of the energies nents of hydrocarbon production sys- St. John’s. AGC was approached. The measured at the Zapata Ugland rig, tems such as wellheads, flowlines, advice provided was that while such a some 30 km north of the Ocean gathering lines, and production direct route was not feasible, a more Ranger site. The model depicted the manifolds. Advice has been provided southerly route might be possible. As period from 1430 h local time on to Mobil, based on surveys undertaken is now (i.e., July 1985) known, Mobil February 14 through 0330 h on by AGC, on the distribution and age subsequently decided against the pipe- February 15 when the storm reached of iceberg scours on the Grand Banks. line option. In the interim, however, its peak and eventually the Ocean Other BIO research in this field is con- AGC provided information pertaining Ranger sank. cerned with iceberg grounding, scour to foundation characteristics for pipe- The Canadian Atlantic Storm formation and degradation, and the lines to contractors working for Project (CASP), referred to previ- development of techniques for predict- Mobil, e.g., Lavalin Ltd. In a some- ously, is a multi-year joint meteorolog- ing scour frequency and depth. Iceberg what related example of the use of this ical and oceanographic research proj- scour is monitored using submersibles type of geological data to industry, ect whose objective is advancing the and side-scan sonar, and other tech- advice was provided to a salvage com- understanding of Canadian east coast niques are being developed. The pany in connection with the recovery storms and the effects of such storms work is funded to a large extent by operation for an expensive anchor on the oceans, e.g. in the generation PERD and the Environmental Studies chain that was lost overboard from a of waves. As such it is of relevance to Revolving Fund (ESRF)(5); much of it supply vessel on the Grand Banks. oil and gas development because such is done on contract by companies such In other geotechnics work in sup- storms are a threat to offshore drilling as Geonautics Ltd. of St. John’s, port of the Hibernia development, platforms. The meteorological aspect Newfoundland. An example of one studies of sediment dynamics, soil is the responsibility of the Atmospheric of the ESRF-funded studies is the properties, and seabed dynamics are Environment Service, while the ocean- Dynamics of Iceberg Grounding and all underway and are funded via ographic component is the responsi- Scouring experiment (DIGS); this proj- PERD or the Frontier Geoscience bility of the Atlantic Oceanographic ect involves the voyage of the charter Program. In connection with the first Laboratory at BIO. Initiated in vessel Polar Circle to offshore type, results suggest that sand ridge 1984/85, the main field work is to be Labrador (where it is somewhat easier bodies near Hibernia are less relict undertaken in 1985/86 off Nova Sco- to study iceberg grounding and scour) than previously thought and appear to tia and on the Grand Banks using in the summer of 1985. have developed during the last 8000 y; buoys and moored instruments. While One of the major programs of the an inventory of offshore geotechnical the oceanographic field work is essen- Atlantic Geoscience Centre is the sys- boreholes, including industry bore- tially confined to the Scotian Shelf, tematic mapping of the sediments and holes, is currently underway, while in the results will be applicable to the bedrock of the seafloor off eastern the seabed stability work a surficial east coast offshore generally. The Canada. Over the years this activity features map has been compiled for project, estimated to cost about has resulted in the accumulation of a the Hibernia area. $3 million, is primarily funded through considerable body of knowledge on PERD. The CASP management com- regions such as the Grand Banks. This Marine information and advice mittee includes oil industry members information is of interest to the oil In addition to the many contracts as well as, of course, BIO and industry. One of the first examples of and joint programs with industry per- Atmospheric Environment Service interaction with industry occurred in taining to the Grand Banks, there is representatives. the 1960s and early 1970s when explo- considerable interaction through the ratory work first got underway on the provision of advice, interpretation, Offshore geotechnics Grand Banks. Industry approached and data. Much of this occurs on an The objective of this area of activity BIO for information on the charac- ad hoc basis through informal chan- is to improve knowledge of seabed teristics of the seafloor in order to nels on a one-to-one basis, but in conditions on the Grand Banks for both development and regulation pur- (5)The Environmental Studies Revolving Fund (ESRF) is administered jointly by COGLA and the poses. The Atlantic Geoscience Centre Northern Affairs Program of the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. It was is conducting various projects, many established to finance environmental and social studies needed to assist decision making on oil and gas activity in the Canada Lands. The studies are financed by means of levies on the oil and gas funded by PERD, on topics such as industry and cover a broad range of scientific disciplines in the physical, biological, and social seabed stability, soil properties, sedi- sciences. 10 addition certain formal mechanisms have been established to facilitate the transfer. An example of the latter is the Institute’s marine advisory and industrial liaison office, BIOMAIL. The functions of this office are: - to facilitate the dissemination and interpretation of information and data on all appropriate aspects of the oceans to industrial users and other government departments; - to encourage the transfer of technology to Canadian industry and the healthy growth of ocean industry especially in Atlantic Canada; - to facilitate contractual relations for all aspects of ocean R & D between Canadian industry and the Bedford Institute of Oceanography; - to co-ordinate the review of unsolicited proposals; and - to advise industry on federal funding for technology transfer (PILP, COPI, IRAP, etc.). Data banks have been established at Brian Nicholls. the Institute for records from current meters, tide gauges, wave measuring buoys, ocean bottom seismometers, and other instruments. Other data are to provide information and advice to and how the priorities of the programs supplied to national data centres such the Coast Guard Control Authority on are influenced by evolving national as MEDS (Marine Environmental Data those aspects of the environment and needs for information about the Service). The Atlantic Geoscience natural resources that may be affected ocean; and BIO Review ‘83, which is Centre maintains an extensive open-file by shipping routes and ship move- devoted to “surveys and services”. system for geoscience data, while ment. Appropriate industry representa- Geological Survey of Canada Paper marine geological samples from tives, e.g. Dome Petroleum in connec- No. 81-6, “Part I, Marine Geoscience regions such as the Grand Banks are tion with the shipping of oil from the in Canada; A Status Report” provides housed in a special Institute Curation Arctic to southern ports, serve on the the background to some of the earlier facility. Bathymetric data, in the form committee. As another example, BIO geological work on the Grand Banks, of digitized field-sheets, are main- staff are active on several of the while the annual reports of the tained to supplement the information Environmental Studies Revolving Fund Canadian Hydrographic Service pro- recorded on published charts. These committees that are relevant to the vide information on surveys and chart- are accessed routinely by industry and Grand Banks. These committees, ing pertaining to the Grand Banks. others working on Grand Banks prob- which comprise government, industry, lems. In addition, the BIO Library and university members, identify maintains a special collection of research priorities, review research References environmental assessment literature proposals, and appoint scientific BEANLANDS, G.E. and DUINKER, P.N. 1983. An ecological framework for environmental covering offshore regions such as the authorities for specific projects. Insti- impact assessment in Canada. Halifax, N.S.; Grand Banks. This collection, proba- tute staff serve (or have served) on the Institute for Resource and Environmental bly the most complete set of such following ESRF committees relevant to Studies, Dalhousie University, and the Federal Environmental Assessment Review Office: p. 8. documents available in Canada in the the Grand Banks: bottom sediment TELLIER, P.M. 1984. Senate of Canada. In public domain, is used extensively by transport; effects monitoring; icebergs; Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee industry. and sea bottom ice scour. on Energy and Natural Resources. First Formal links with industry are also Proceedings on the National Energy Program, Issue No. 1: p. 22. achieved through various committees Further reading and other bodies. One such committee In addition to this issue of the BIO on which the Institute is represented is Review, two earlier issues should be the Environmental Advisory Commit- consulted: BIO Review ‘81, which dis- - H.B. Nicholls tee on Newfoundland and Labrador cusses how Institute programs respond Head Marine Transportation. Its purpose is to the marine issues facing Canada, Ocean Information Division

11 chapter 2 Geoscience

he Grand Banks of Newfoundland of 13 discoveries have now been made origins of sedimentary basins with Textend to the east and southeast in the Jeanne d’Arc Basin located on detailed studies of the internal geology of the Island of Newfoundland and the northeast margin of the Banks. of these basins and the generation, cover an area 2.5 times the size of the The major oil play in this region, esti- accumulation, and entrapment of Island. They are the most extensive mated to contain nearly 75% of the hydrocarbons, and those studies of shallow feature on the continental oil potential, relates to the trans-basin present-day processes that constrain shelf of eastern Canada. Because of its fault zone, which extends from Hiber- the potential development of these geomorphological significance and the nia to Ben Nevis. Currently there are resources. potential resources hidden beneath it, seven significant discoveries on this The program of the Atlantic Geo- the region has been the scene of con- trend. A recent hydrocarbon assess- science Centre covers all facets of tinuous marine geophysical and geo- ment of the East Newfoundland Shelf frontier geoscience research in the east logical investigations since surveys in (Proctor et al., 1984), based on all coast and Arctic offshore areas. Much offshore eastern Canada were initiated available well, seismic, and geochemi- of the research is using state-of-the-art in the mid sixties. In our understand- cal data, indicated a 50% probability technology, either developed in house ing of the formation and development of more than 8.4 billion barrels of oil for specific research, or more often of the North Atlantic Ocean, the mar- and 12.2 trillion cubic feet of gas, through co-operative R&D projects gins of the Grand Banks provide a including the 1.3 billion barrels and with industry. Research into the geol- unique record of the continental more than 2 trillion cubic feet of ogy of the offshore requires scientists break-up of North America, Africa, resources already discovered. Although to be at the forefront of technology in and Europe 100-l80 million years ago. the Hibernia field is in the “giant” both the acquisition and interpretation As the location of significant sedimen- class, the engineering constraints to of new information. This in turn tary basins formed during the break- developing the field are considerable requires close co-operation between up of the ancient continent of Pangea, and must be carefully assessed before government, university, and industry the Grand Banks provide us with a development. scientists. The Atlantic Geoscience record of basin evolution and the The increase in industry activity on Centre is continually seeking opportu- potential for substantial hydrocarbon the Grand Banks since 1979 has nities for more effective co-operative resources. As a shallow bank present- resulted in an acceleration of the programs with these other sectors of ing a physical barrier to the southward activities of the Atlantic Geoscience our society. flow of large icebergs calving off the Centre in the area and the initiation of The papers included in this chapter glaciers of Greenland, the area pro- a number of studies directed specifi- of the BIO Review summarize some of vides a major challenge to the exploi- cally to problems associated with the this research as it applies to the Grand tation of resources beneath the surface development of oil and gas from the Banks and adjacent continental mar- of the Banks. Extension of explora- Hibernia field. Many of these new gins. As well as increasing our fun- tion across the steep margins of the studies are being carried out as short- damental knowledge of this important Banks, and future exploitation of any term research projects funded by the part of Canada’s landmass, the results resources found in these deeper water Office of Energy Research and Devel- of these studies are directly applicable areas, faces the added concerns of sta- opment or the Environmental Studies to the safe exploration and exploita- bility of seabed sediments in these Revolving Fund. Such research studies tion of the mineral and energy deeper water regions and the possibil- build on the Centre’s broad geological resources so important to Canada’s ity of submarine landslides such as understanding of the region and form resource-based economy. those triggered by the 1929 earthquake part of the ongoing research carried on the continental slope off the out at the Atlantic Geoscience Centre. Reference southwestern Grand Banks. This work is now co-ordinated within PROCTOR, R.M., TAYLOR, G.C., and WADE, J.A. 1984. Oil and natural gas The Chevron et al. discovery of oil the East Coast Task of the Frontier resources of Canada - 1983. Geological Survey at Hibernia P-l5 in 1979 provided a Geoscience Program, which provides a of Canada, Paper 83-31: 1-59. new impetus to hydrocarbon explora- unified geoscience approach to the tion at a time when industry interest in study of frontier resource areas such - D.I. Ross the area had waned considerably after as the Grand Banks by integrating Acting Director 38 dry holes had been drilled. A total deep crustal studies relating to the Atlantic Geoscience Centre 12 progressively younger to the southeast. Passive margins: The Grand Banks example The passive margin east of the Grand Banks was formed by the pull- apart motions between the Grand C.E. Keen Banks and the Iberian Peninsula (see first figure), which began about 120 million years ago. This margin is he continental margins encircling Jacobi, 1981). The margin south of therefore primarily a rifted as opposed the Grand Banks were formed by the Grand Banks formed first as T to a transform margin. It is bounded Africa and North America separated. the break-up and drift of the North to the south by the Southeast This margin is one of the world’s best American, African, and European Newfoundland Ridge and to the north examples of a transform margin along continents over a period of about by Flemish Cap. The former feature which the initial continental motions 80 million years. As a result, passive may represent a leaky transform fault margins of varying age border the were strike-slip. Analogues are the in oceanic crust, a seaward prolonga- more common transform faults and southern, eastern, and northeastern tion of the transform margin. In con- Grand Banks. Each of these margin fracture zones in the ocean basins that trast, Flemish Cap is a continental initially offset segments of the mid- segments exhibits characteristics that fragment, pulled away from the conti- depend primarily on the timing of con- ocean ridges. This shearing between nent proper during rifting. The sig- the two continental blocks was not an tinental break-up and the geometry of nificance of these rather striking fea- instantaneous event but started more the initial plate motions between the tures in the evolution of the margins is separating continents. than 175 million years ago and con- unclear and their nature is the subject tinued until complete separation of These plate-tectonic events are illus- of continuing controversy. the continents occurred about 100 mil- trated in the first figure (see also Le The northeastern Grand Banks is lion years ago. The margin becomes Pichon et al., 1977; Haworth and bounded by the Orphan Basin, a wide, deep basin underlain by continental crust. The ocean-continent transition is northeast of Orphan Knoll, a high standing continental remnant similar in some respects to Flemish Cap. This continental margin was formed by rifting between the Grand Banks and western Europe with final continental break-up probably occurring about 90 to 100 million years ago. The margin north of Orphan Basin is another transform margin, the landward prolongation of the Charlie Fracture Zone. In all of these margin segments, the plate tectonic history has been deciphered largely from the record of marine magnetic anomalies, which allows us to date the oldest seafloor and the geometry of the earliest seafloor spreading under certain circumstances. Reconstructions of the positions of the continents that match pre-break-up features are also an important geometrical constraint. Other geophysical data such as gravity anomalies and seismic data define the position of the ocean-continent bound- 1. The various stages of continental break-up around the Grand Banks are ary approximately. Geological data depicted. Dotted regions are areas of oceanic crust formed by seafloor such as the depositional environment spreading as the continents separated: solid lines are the positions of active and stratigraphy of sediments in deep mid-ocean ridges: dashed lines represent the positions of incipient ridges exploratory boreholes indicate the ver- and major fracture zones. Times are given in the upper right hand corner of tical motions that accompany and fol- each panel. (O. K. = Orphan Knoll; F.C. = Flemish Cap; N.R. = South- low break-up. Thus a full understand- east Newfoundland Ridge; C.F.Z. = Charlie Fracture Zone.) ing of the formation of these margins requires the integration of many types 13 panied by the creation of oceanic lithosphere adjacent to the continent, and by the creation of sedimentary basins. The latter are the focus of recent exploration for petroleum. The creation of new oceanic lithosphere and the development of the ocean-continent transition have inevitably led to the search for that often elusive boundary between ocean and continent. The nature and development of this boundary or transition zone could contribute to our understanding of the process of continental break-up. The Grand Banks region provides many opportunities to study this feature across a variety of different margins. Two examples of the results of such studies are shown in the second figure. The southern trans- 2. Two crustal cross-sections across the margins of the Grand Banks; lines form margin exhibits a fairly sharp GHI and JKL are shown in the third figure. The numbers are seismic veloc- break between oceanic and continental ities in kilometres per second. The gravity and magnetic anomalies along crust, as might be expected from a track are shown above each cross-section. Sediments are divided into two sheared margin. In contrast, the mar- groups: post-rift, which were deposited after rifting stopped, and syn-rift, gin northeast of Newfoundland is deposited during rifting. These are shown separated by a wavy line. This characterized by a broad zone over is an unconformity which suggests uplift between the rift and post-rift which the continental crust may have stages of margin development. It is common on many (but not all) passive been stretched and thinned, before margins. Deep exploratory wells are indicated by vertical lines into the oceanic crust is reached. This margin sediments above which are the corresponding well names. may exhibit a fairly sharp transition from thinned continental to oceanic crust just seaward of Orphan Knoll as of information. motions or to extensional forces shown in the second figure. The region So far we have described only the created by uplift of the continental requires more detailed study to confirm timing and geometry of plate motions lithosphere. Extension of the litho- this interpretation. that provides a partial explanation of sphere would be accompanied by An understanding of the develop- where and when the passive margins lithospheric thinning, and possibly ment of sedimentary basins on passive formed. We still do not have a good continental breakup. margins is another area of research understanding of the forces deep in Observations appear to support the currently underway at AGC (see for the mantle that drive the plates and extensional model, but the critical dis- example, Beaumont et al., 1982; cause continental break-up. While tinguishing tests have not yet been Royden and Keen, 1980; Keen, 1979). there is agreement that some form of devised. What is clear, however, is The Grand Banks is an interesting convection probably occurs beneath that extension and thinning do occur region in this respect as well because the plates and provides the ultimate in the crust, even though the underly- of the diverse styles and geometries of driving force, the interaction between ing driving mechanism for this is not the basins that occur there (see third convection and continental break-up is known. Stretching has been docu- figure). These basins are elongate nar- not clear. mented by seismic mapping of exten- row half grabens (from the German Two main theories are currently sional faults in the basement rocks on for ditch) separated from each other being championed (Sengor and Burke, many margins, including those border- by basement highs covered by rela- 1978; McKenzie, 1978; Keen, 1985). ing the Grand Banks. Furthermore, tively little sediment. They trend The first holds that an upwelling limb seismic refraction measurements made roughly northeast across the Grand of a convection cell acts on the bot- by the Atlantic Geoscience Centre Banks and are filled with sediment as tom of the lithosphere or plate, and show that the entire continental crust old as the beginning of rifting between provides thermal and mechanical thins as the ocean-continent boundary the African and North American energy that thins the lithosphere from is approached to less than half its plates, about 200 million years ago. below. If thinning is sufficiently dras- thickness under the continents proper This suggests that their development tic, continental break-up will occur. (Keen and Hyndman, 1979). was concurrent with the development The second theory proposes that the In general terms, the consequences of the transform margin, but their lithosphere itself is stretched, perhaps of continental break-up and the devel- evolution continued after the forma- in response to distant changes in plate opment of passive margins are accom- tion of that margin. We may not have 14 Grand Banks, we have started the collection of deep crustal seismic reflection data. Such data give a detailed cross-section through the earth’s crust, down to depths of 30-40 km or more. Other countries - the U.S., Britain, France, West Germany, and Australia - are involved in similar studies, but until 1984 no studies of this kind had been initiated in Canada. Preliminary results across the Orphan Basin suggest that faulting occurs only in the upper 10 km of the crust; below this depth crustal thinning must occur by ductile deformation (see fourth figure). More data of this kind are currently being collected across the other basins on the Grand Banks for there may be more than one kind of deformational style. Data are also being collected across the ocean-continent boundaries to provide better resolution of these important features. These will provide 3. Location of cross sections shown in the second figure and distribution of us we hope with some clues on how the major sedimentary basins (stippled regions) around the Grand Banks. the Grand Banks basins developed. In turn the information will be relevant to petroleum exploration on the one hand and to an understanding of the defined all of these basins yet: others examine how this thinning occurs. forces driving continental break-up on may occur in deep water, at the foot Two possible models are shown in the the other. of the continental slopes. Flemish Pass fourth figure (after Wernicke, 1985). is an example of such a basin; it has The models differ significantly in the received little sediment and therefore vertical motions they would produce, is partly filled with water instead of and therefore in the history of sediment. sedimentation and basin subsidence. In contrast to the narrow half The subsidence history is closely grabens that occur to the south, the related to the ability of sediments of a References northeastern region of the Grand given age to produce petroleum, so BEAUMONT, C., KEEN, C.E., and Banks is occupied by the deep, broad this is not only of academic interest. BOUTILIER, R. 1982. On the evolution of In order to investigate the validity rifted continental margins: comparisons of Orphan Basin. One interesting ques- models and observations for the Nova Scotian tion, particularly in view of petroleum of these and other models for the margin. Geophysical Journal of the Royal exploration, is whether the Jeanne development of the basins on the Astronomical Society 70: 667-715. d’Arc Basin (that contains the Hibernia oil field) continues into the Orphan Basin region. If not, what is the nature of its northern termination? In co-operation with several oil companies, we are currently conducting high-resolution mapping of magnetic anomalies in the area to answer these questions. How does the crust (and deeper lithosphere) behave beneath these basins? The basins themselves are simply holes into which sediment can be 4. Schematic illustration of two models of extension in the crust and deposited. One must look deeper for lithosphere. The stippled areas are the sediments. Note that the two models clues to the processes that formed produce different basin shapes. The arrows indicate the direction of rift- them. We have shown that the whole stage vertical motions, which also differ in the two examples. After crust thins beneath the basins, but the Wernicke (1985). measurements have not allowed us to 15 HAWORTH, R.T. and JACOBI, R.D. 1983. KEEN, C.E. and HYNDMAN, R.D. 1979. ROYDEN, L. and KEEN, C.E. 1980. Rifting Geophysical correlation between the geological Geophysical review of the continental margins process and thermal evolution of the continental zonation of Newfoundland and the British Isles. of eastern and western Canada. Canadian margin of eastern Canada determined from sub- In Contributions to the Tectonics and Journal of Earth Sciences 16: 712-747. sidence curves: Earth and Planetary Science Geophysics of Mountain Chains; Eds. Letters 51: 343-361. R.D. Hatcher, Jr., et al. Geological Society Le PICHON, X., SIBUET, J.C., and of America Memoir 158: 25-32. FRANCHETEAU, J. 1977. The fit of the SENGOR, A.H.C. and BURKE, K. 1978. Rela- continents around the North Atlantic Ocean. tive timing of rifting and volcanism on earth KEEN, C.E. 1985. The dynamics of rifting: Tectonophysics 38: 169-209. and its tectonic implications. Geophysical deformation of the lithosphere by active and Research Letters 5: 419-421. passive driving forces. Geophysical Journal of MCKENZIE, D.P. 1978. Some remarks on the the Royal Astronomical Society 80: 95-120. development of sedimentary basins. Earth and WERNICKE, B. 1985. Uniform sense normal Planetary Science Letters 40: 25-32. simple shear of the continental lithosphere. KEEN, C.E. 1979. Thermal history and subsi- Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 22: 108-125. dence of rifted continental margins - evidence from wells on the Nova Scotian and Labrador shelves. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 16: 502-522.

Surficial and bedrock geology some heavily channeled areas underlying Green and Whale banks, most of the Grand Banks other areas have only a thin layer of surficial sediment and in many places Tertiary rocks outcrop at the seabed G.B.J. Fader (Fader and King, 1981). This means that suitable stable foundations for offshore exploration and development o geologists, the Grand Banks of immediate needs of government and platforms are available in contrast to T Newfoundland are unique in industry to assess conditions for the Scotian Shelf near Sable Island several ways. They bar the southward hydrocarbon exploration and where thick, dynamic (moving) flow of large icebergs from Greenland development at Hibernia. sediments form the seabed. and their northern flank is in fact rid- Major regional geological voyages to The inner shelf of the Grand Banks dled with furrows or scours, and pits the Grand Banks were conducted in is also unique in that the thickness of formed by grounding icebergs. In the 1972, 1975, 1980, and 1985 to collect overlying glacial materials is very thin subsurface below that northern flank seismic reflection, sidescan sonar, and (less than 2 m on average) over an area lies the Hibernia Oil Field, now esti- magnetic survey data as well as bed- extending from the Avalon Peninsula mated to hold 500 to 800 million bar- rock and surficial samples, and to con- to the inner edge of Grand Bank. rels of recoverable oil (Mobil Oil, duct submersible observations. From Here the bedrock consists of well- 1985). To anchor and fix oil produc- this data base we are preparing indurated Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, tion structures safely in this offshore detailed surficial and bedrock geology which have been extensively sampled region and to construct and operate maps and analyzing major processes with the BIO-designed electric rock flow lines and gathering lines, all while such as iceberg grounding, sediment core drill. This area is also heavily avoiding collision with icebergs, poses dynamics, and seafloor and subsurface scoured by icebergs and the resulting special engineering problems. Yet stability. During this period as well, furrows at the seabed are considered another part of the uniqueness of we have provided advice to industry to be a combination of very old the Banks is their sand and gravel on the suitability and routing of off- (greater than 15,000 y B.P.) and mod- sea beds, which hold promise as a shore pipelines, on the construction of ern furrows. The exposed bedrock and large source of aggregate for the offshore islands, and on geological the density of iceberg furrows has construction industry. hazards in the Grand Banks region. precluded the use of a direct-route The Geological Survey of Canada’s Some of the unique geological charac- pipeline to Newfoundland from the Atlantic Geoscience Centre has been teristics of the Grand Banks that con- Hibernia oil fields (King and Fader, systematically studying the surficial trast it from the Scotian Shelf to the 1981). Existing pipeline-burial technol- and bedrock geology of the east coast southwest and the Labrador Shelf to ogy cannot cross and trench the hard continental shelf for 20 y. Research the north are discussed below. bottom in a cost effective manner. A was extended to the Grand Banks in A most important bedrock geologi- southern “Tertiary bedrock” route, the early seventies, and the Scotian cal characteristic of the Grand Banks although very long, is geologically Shelf to the southwest is now largely is the distribution of Tertiary “semi- more favourable. completed from a reconnaissance per- consolidated” bedrock and the land- The Virgin Rocks - Eastern Shoals spective. Most current efforts on the forms it creates (see first figure, the area of the Banks is very shallow Grand Banks are concentrated on the bedrock map). All of the major banks (about 4 m water depth), elevated, and eastern and northern portions because - St. Pierre, Green, Whale, and rugged. Here, very hard pink and of the complex nature of geological Grand - are underlain by shallow white quartzite, tillite, and volcanic conditions in the area and the more Tertiary rock. With the exception of rock protrude up to 40 m above the 16 1. Generalized regional bedrock geology of the Grand Banks of Newfoundl and interpreted from seismic reflection profiles and analyses of electric rock core drill samples.

surrounding sandy seabed of the Grand Banks. The area has long been considered potentially suitable as a base for construction of platforms for navigation, search and rescue, and hydrocarbon development-related facilities. To the west, south of Newfound- land, the bedrock consists of coal- bearing Pennsylvanian sandstone of the Sydney Basin, which extends from the on-land coalfields of Nova Scotia to within a few kilometres of the southern coast of Newfoundland. These rocks occur beneath Rose Blanche and Burgeo banks and floor the bottom of Placentia Bay. The distribution of the surficial sediments on the Grand Banks of

2. Distribution of boulders larger than approximately 0.5 m, interpreted on the basis of 100 kHz sidescan sonograms. The distribution portrayed is confined to water depths above 150 m on the Grand Banks. The boulders are up to 7 m in diameter.

17 Newfoundland is controlled to a large degree by the glaciers that crossed the Banks and the lowest stand of postglacial sea level and its subsequent rises. From a wide variety of data sources, this lowest sea level is interpreted to be at a present depth of approximately 100 m. Warping of the sea-level ter- race may occur from the southern Tail of the Banks to the nearshore area of the Grand Banks possibly because late glacial ice delayed rebound of the land surface in the Tail of the Banks area. The low sea-level stand and its subsequent rise or transgression gave most of the surficial sediments their present 3. Sidescan sonogram across the Southeast Shoal on the Grand Banks distribution and character. Vast areas showing a light-toned, sandy seabed with numerous dark patches inter- of the Grand Banks were above water preted as “shell beds”. Some of the shell beds appear to be aligned in a as large islands before sea level began bead-like fashion: this may result from control on their distribution by low to rise in early postglacial times. Dur- relief bedforms. ing this phase, the sample data suggest that the Grand Banks supported tun- dra vegetation. Sea-level transgression seep has been found at the seabed. across the area (Fader et al., 1982). very effectively reworked the surface Bottom photographs show mounding This ice advance represents the last or of the Banks: previously deposited gla- and cracking of the sediments with Wisconsinan glaciation of the area. In cial sediments were largely reworked, bubbles escaping from the seabed and contrast, the question of ice extension sorted, and eroded except for deposits much particulate matter suspended in across the eastern Grand Banks is not preserved in buried channels or pro- the water column. In Placentia Bay, a entirely resolved as the late Pleistocene- tected depressions. In this way, the new bedform “megaflute” has been Holocene sea-level transgressions Bank areas developed their “beach” identified and mapped: these very removed most of the glacial evidence. character of sand and gravel. The large current scour features are several However, glaciomarine sediments in largest of the sand bodies are called hundred metres long and up to 10 m buried channels south of Hibernia, sand ridges; they are up to 10 m thick deep. Through the process of mega- together with coarse gravel and boul- and have wavelengths of over 3 km. flute erosion, over 3 km3 of sediment ders (up to 1500 per square kilometre) These features dominate the surface of have been eroded from a narrow 4 x of Newfoundland provenance over Grand Bank. In the troughs of the 75 km zone along the eastern flank of much of Grand Bank were probably sand ridges and also at the seafloor Placentia Bay. deposited by glacial ice. near the Hibernia area are zones of A major question within the geolog- The Grand Banks is the area of gravel seabed with large boulders up ical community studying the Grand transition between modern iceberg fur- to 7 m in diameter (see second figure). Banks is to what extent glaciations rowing by Greenland-generated ice- These have been observed on submer- affected the area. Answering this ques- bergs and a relict population of ice- sible dives across the Grand Banks. tion will tell us what the source of the berg scours on the Scotian Shelf and The glacial and postglacial muddy present day sediment was at the sea- adjacent areas from late Wisconsinan, sediments are confined to the deeper bed, help us understand the processes locally generated icebergs. A detailed areas not transgressed of the inner- that have affected the Grand Banks, discussion of iceberg furrowing is shelf such as Downing Basin, Avalon and shed light on the geotechnical presented elsewhere (see article by D.I. Channel, and Whale Deep whereas the properties of the seabed and subsur- Ross and M. Lewis in this chapter). shallow bank areas consist of vast face that are of concern for hydrocar- Icebergs grounding on the Grand deposits of sorted and clean sand bon development. The western Grand Banks create linear scours and isolated and gravel. Banks was covered by glacial ice (Rose pits (Fader and King, 1981). The A wide variety of other seabed fea- Blanche - Whale Banks) as evidenced largest iceberg furrow (known as tures occur across the Grand Banks. by (1) the presence of till directly superfurrow) occurs in the Avalon Shell beds, localized circular patches deposited from ice and interbedded Channel and is 12.5 m from the top of of dense shells, occur on Southeast glaciomarine sediments, which indicate the berm to the trough (fourth figure). Shoal (see third figure). They are grounded ice-sheet and floating ice- The berms consist of a large pile of acoustically unique and easily identi- shelf environments, (2) the environmen- boulders with numerous sponges on fied on sidescan sonograms: it has not tal indicators of glacial conditions as their surface. Isolated pits, a special been determined whether they are recorded in sediment cores, and (3) the type of iceberg scour, are less com- living or dead accumulations of shell- presence of glacial erratics derived mon. In the Hibernia area some reach fish. In Downing Basin, an active gas from the province of Newfoundland a maximum depth of over 10 m and 18 are 100 m in diameter (fifth figure). the Gulf of Mexico and off Baffin seismic reflection profiles from the These are interpreted to result from Island in areas of active hydrocarbon Tail of the Banks area show large erosion by grounded icebergs together gas or oil seeps (B. MacLean, personal acoustic anomalies (about 300 m with slumping, current scour, and soil communication). The term “white deep), interpreted as gas-charged sedi- failure. slime” has been proposed for these ments. This gas may eventually While surveying the southern Grand type of deposits (Bright and Rezak, migrate through the rocks and be Banks with the submersible Pisces IV, 1977), which are bacteria mats that vented from the seabed. In any case, areas of the seabed were observed to live on the methane or waxy residues the gas-charged sediments represent a be covered with white filamentous from hydrocarbon venting. To further potential shallow hazard to hydrocar- material. These patches also occur off support the gas venting origin for the bon exploration in the Tail of the the east coast of the United States in “white slime” deposits, subsurface Banks area. In the same area, the “shell beds” described earlier are found. From studies of gas venting off the coast of Norway (M. Hovelin, personal communication), large populations of shellfish were found living and feeding on similar bacteria, which in turn fed on the hydrocarbon products escaping from the seabed. Further research on the presumed relationship between venting hydrocarbons, bacteria, and shellfish is necessary to confirm the validity of the idea. If true, this would possibly explain why dense shellfish populations exist on the southern Grand Banks and on other areas of the continental shelf. The systematic mapping of the surficial geology of the Grand Banks will continue producing a suite of maps and reports. Because of an immediate need for this type of information at the Hibernia oil field area of the Grand Banks, the mapping program has been accelerated and a new style of surficial geology map has been prepared (Fader et al., 1985). The map displays surficial sediment distribution, seabed hazards, iceberg furrow densities, bedform distributions, and other relevant geological information to assist geologists, engineers, environ- mentalists, and industry in the safe and timely development of resources in the area. Through this combination of long term systematic regional mapping, together with site specific, detailed, multiparameter mapping, a balanced surficial geological program can respond to the governmental and industrial needs on the Grand Banks. 4. A 70 kHz sidescan sonogram (A) and high-resolution seismic reflection profile (B) of “super furrow”, one of the largest iceberg furrows from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, which occurs in the Avalon Channel east of the Avalon Peninsula. Its height from the top of the berm to the trough is 12.5 m. The iceberg that formed “superfurrow” is believed to have References BRIGHT, T. and REZAK, R. 1977. Reconnais- scoured the seabed through to the bedrock surface, and may be more than sance of reefs and fishing banks of the Texas 20,000 y old. Note the rapid change in direction of the furrow in the upper continental shelf. In Submersibles and Their Use sonogram (A). (Sonogram courtesy of C.F.M. Lewis.) in Oceanography and Ocean Engineering. Neu York; Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.: 134 p.

19 FADER, G.B.J. and KING, L.H. 1981. A reconnaissance study of the surface geology of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 81-1A: 45-56. FADER, G.B.J., KING, L.H., and JOSENHANS, H.W. 1982. Surficial geology of the Laurentian Channel and the western Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Marine Science Paper 21 /Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 81-22: 37 p. FADER, G.B.J., LEWIS, C.F.M., BARRlE, V., PARROTT, R., COLLINS, W., MILLER, R.O., and D’APPALLONIA, S. In press. Quaternary geology of the Hibernia area of northeast Grand Bank, Grand Banks of Newfoundland, map 14968 Q.G. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File Report. KING, L.H. and FADER, G.B. 1981. Seabed conditions east of the Avalon Peninsula to the Virgin Rocks - their relationship to the feasibil- ity of a pipeline from the Hibernia P-15 well site area to Newfoundland. Geological Survey of 5. A 100 kHz sonogram of an iceberg pit located 100 km east-southeast of Canada, Open File Report 723. the Hibernia P-15 well site at a depth of 87 m. The seabed and subsurface MOBIL OIL CANADA, LIMITED. 1985. sediments may have been deformed as much as 100 m from the pit itself as Environmental impact statement, Hibernia indicated by areas of seabed outside the pit berm, which appear as white Development Project. Mobil Oil Canada Ltd., patches (areas of low reflectivity) on the sonogram. Note the smaller pit to No. 1 (Summary): 73 p. the left of the large pit on the upper sonogram.

of discontinuous lineations that are Iceberg-scour features on the believed to represent partially buried Grand Banks iceberg scours beneath a thin sand veneer (Fader and King, 1981). This characteristic pattern is continuous D.I. Ross and M. Lewis with, and grades into, a well-defined intensely scoured seabed in water depths greater than 200 m on the cebergs calved from Greenland’s depressions where they sit on the northeast Newfoundland Shelf (Lewis I glaciers are carried south along the seafloor and exert large forces on the and Barrie, 1981). In water depths Labrador coast by the Labrador Cur- seabed sediments. An understanding of between 60 and 160 m or greater on rent and across the northern margin of the frequency of impact of icebergs the northeast Banks, a second sparse the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. with the seabed and of the forces to population of fresh-looking ice-scour On reaching the Grand Banks, the which the seabed is subjected during marks is superimposed over the older Labrador Current bifurcates carrying impact is needed to design seafloor pattern of partially buried scour marks the icebergs with it along one of two installations for the production of oil (second figure). These well-defined paths. One path follows the Avalon and gas from the Hibernia and adja- scour marks appear as elongated linear Channel along the eastern shore of the cent fields. This understanding starts to curvilinear features that are believed Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland with identification of iceberg-impact to represent the current episode of ice while the other crosses the northern features in the area, evaluation of scouring that began on the Banks after margin of the Banks and travels south these features in the light of present- the rise in sea level approximately along their eastern margin through the day iceberg statistics, measurement 10,000 y ago. Flemish Pass (first figure). The latter of seabed sediment properties, and Using sidescan sonar and high- path carries the icebergs through the accurate modelling of the iceberg- resolution seismic profiler data, the primary exploration area of the seabed interactions that occur. morphology of the scour marks that Hibernia field on the northeastern Two distinct populations of iceberg form the modern Holocene population edge of the Grand Banks. As they scours have been described on the has been well documented and incor- cross the shallower areas of the Banks, northeast Grand Banks (Fader and porated into a regional ice scour data many of these icebergs trail their keels King, 1981; Lewis and Barrie, 1981). base (d’Apollonia and Lewis, 1981; across the seabed, scouring the sea- A late Wisconsinan relict iceberg Geonautics, in preparation). These floor to depths of a few metres. In population in water depths greater geophysical mapping tools, coupled some cases they ground, creating than 110 m appears as a dense pattern with direct observations of scour 20 2. A sidescan sonograph of the Grand Banks seabed (at 133-m water depth) showing two populations of iceberg scour marks: a younger set of narrow continuous features superimposed on a degraded, discontinuous net work of older scour berms (ridges).

width increasing from 24 m in water depths of 60-80 m to 43 m in depths of 140-160 m. Scour depth can be 1. Map showing tidewater glaciers and drift paths of icebergs onto the measured from heave compensated Grand Banks of Newfoundland. (From Mobil Oil Canada Ltd., 1980, after Huntec deep tow seismic records. In Robe 1980.) the northeast Grand Banks, average scour depth varies from 0.5 m in water depths of 60-80 m to 1.2 m in depths of 140-160 m (Lewis and marks from manned submersibles, northeast Grand Banks ranges from Barrie, 1981). Scour orientations on have enabled scientists to develop an 0-4 scours per square kilometre (third the top of the Banks change direction in-depth understanding of the charac- figure) with the highest scour concen- frequently whereas those in deeper teristics of iceberg scours and the trations occurring in water depths of water tend to be more linear. This physical processes creating them. 130 to 160 m (d’Apollonia and Lewis, trend is believed to reflect an increase Regional analyses show that the in preparation). Scours measured from in the control of ocean currents on average density of the observable sidescan sonar records are from 10 to iceberg drift patterns in deeper water Holocene scour population on the 100 m wide with the average maximum (King and Gillespie, in press). The 21 population and the rate of scour addi- tions is therefore required to provide an input into risk analyses leading to the design of oilfield transmission lines and other seabed installations. Such a model should provide statistical information on the number of icebergs impacting a particular area over a period of time and the depth of scour to be expected from these impacts, because it is this information that is of most relevance in the protection of a seafloor system. Two approaches have been used to develop grounding models. The first (Gaskill et al., 1985) assumes a rela- 3. Map of the northeast Grand tionship between scour formation and 4. An example of a modelled output Banks showing the distribution of scour degradation and uses observed showing the number of calculated iceberg-scour mark density in scours iceberg scour data with reasonable iceberg groundings per square per square kilometre (heavy con- values for sediment infilling to relate kilometre (heavy contours) for a tours). Tracks of sidescan sonar are the observed scour parameters to those 1000-y period given the present mean shown by the. . . symbol: bathy- at the time of formation. In this way iceberg flux and draught distribution metry is in metres (the dashed measurements on the scours as they onto the northeast Grands Banks. contours). are now observed on the seabed can Centres of model cells are shown by be used to determine the distribution the . . . symbol: bathymetry is in of initial scour depths (i.e., depth at metres (the dashed contours). deepest measured scour (9 m) occurs time of formation) as well as the fre- on the edge of the Avalon Channel quency at which scouring has occurred (d’Apollonia and Lewis, 1981). The over a particular period. The second modelled or corrected, such as incom- deepest recorded scour feature (5.4 m) model (d’Apollonia and Lewis, in plete scour detection, preferential is in the greater Hibernia area (Lewis press), uses measured information on scour obliterations by waves and cur- and Barrie, 1981), but some circular iceberg flux and draft together with rents, and variations in iceberg depressions now believed to have been bathymetry to calculate directly the draught, flux, or trajectories, etc., formed by icebergs have depths exceed- number of iceberg groundings in each may account for the differences ing 10 m (Barrie et al., in press). of a number of cells in the area. This between the third and fourth figures. Direct observation of iceberg scours model has yielded results (fourth fig- Pits or circular depressions in the as they are preserved on the seafloor ure) in which the spatial pattern of seafloor have a similar density of dis- today gives little indication of their modelled groundings in the northeast tribution to those of modern iceberg age, the number of icebergs that scour Grand Banks is visually similar to the scours and were first defined by Fader the seafloor in any given year, or in pattern of mapped iceberg scour and King (1981) as “iceberg pits” fact the physical parameters of the marks on the seabed (third figure). because of their often close association scours at the time of formation. Infill- Both mapped scour marks (third fig- with linear iceberg scours. King and ing of a scour with sediment or by ure) and modelled groundings (fourth Gillespie (in press) note that short other processes of degradation can sig- figure) are most abundant between the scours and pits are commonly observed nificantly modify scour appearance 100 m and 200 m isobaths and decline in a relatively narrow zone at the over time. Some indication of the rela- in density both upslope and down- Banks’ edge wherever the break in tive age of scours can be obtained in slope. The density ridge of scour slope is sharp. The maximum reported areas of fairly dense scouring when marks (and groundings) between 100 penetration of all measured iceberg cross-cutting of older scours by more and 200 m is interpreted to reflect the pits into the underlying sediments on recent features occurs. Repeat surveys route by which most icebergs pass the Grand Banks of Newfoundland is of a specific area over a period of through the region via the Labrador 8 m (Mobil Oil Canada Ltd., 1985). several years can be used to identify Current. The upslope decrease may (Pits can be up to seven times deeper new scours and to evaluate the rate of signify a lesser flow of water and ice than the deepest iceberg scour within degradation of existing scours. In an onto the Banks relative to the core of the 80 to 120 m bathymetric corridor). area where scour density is low, how- the Current - hence, fewer ground- Depressions or pits in the seabed ever, it may take many years using ings. The downslope decrease in scour have been documented in numerous such a method to obtain a sufficient mark density is interpreted as the site specific and regional geological population of scours for the analysis limiting zone in which even the deepest and geophysical survey lines on the to be statistically significant. iceberg keels contact the seabed infre- Grand Banks of Newfoundland (Amos A method of modelling the scour quently. Other influences, not yet and Barrie, 1980; Fader and King, 22 1981; Lewis and Barrie, 1981; Fader D’APOLLONIA, S.J. and LEWIS, C.F.M. In press. A numerical model for calculating long et al., 1985; Barrie et al., in press). term spatial distribution and mean frequency of These features range in width from iceberg ground events. In Proceedings of the 30 to 350 m and in depth from 0.5 to Environmental Studies Revolving Fund/Office of Energy Research and Development Ice Scour 8.0 m with an average depth of 3.0 m Workshop (February 5-6, 1985: Calgary, (Mobil Oil Canada Ltd., 1985). Based Alberta); Eds. C.F.M. Lewis et al.. Environ- on observations by manned submer- mental Studies Revolving Fund Report. sible, the pits are elliptical to circular FADER, G.B. and KING, L.H. 1981. A recon- in shape. naissance study of the surficial geology of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Geological The origin of these iceberg pits has Survey of Canada, Paper 81-1A: 45-56. been a subject of controversy. The GASKILL, H., NICKS, L., and ROSS, D. profiles show a low amplitude berm, 1985. A non-deterministic model of populations which is commonly associated with of iceberg scour depths. Cold Regions Science iceberg scouring mechanisms. It has 5. Schematic plan view of a 10-m and Technology 11(2): 107-122. also been suggested that these features deep iceberg pit on the northeast GEONAUTICS LIMITED. In press. Regional ice scour data base; Update studies I, Grand could be “pockmarks” originating Grand Banks based on submersible Banks region. Environmental Studies Revolving from the erosion of underlying clays observations. See previous article Fund Report. initiated by the ascension of gas or (fifth figure) for an interpretation of HOVLAND, M. 1981. Characteristics of pock- water (gasturbation) (e.g. King and the same feature. marks in the Norwegian Trench. Marine MacLean, 1970; Josenhans et al., Geology 39: 103-111. 1979; Hovland, 1981). However there JOSENHANS, H.W., KING, L.H., and has been no shallow gas detected in of sediment failure causing the over- FADER, G.B. 1979. A sidescan mosaic of pockmarks on the Scotian Shelf. Canadian Journal the Hibernia area (Mobil Oil Canada deepening are clearly important when of Earth Sciences 15: 1082-1092. considering the design of gravity-based Ltd., 1985). Another possible mecha- KING, E.L. and GILLESPIE, R.T. In press. nism suggested has been related to platforms for the development of the Regional iceberg scour distribution and variabil- thermokarst (Mobil Oil Canada Ltd., Hibernia field. ity - Eastern Canadian Continental Shelf. 1985), but there is no evidence to Environmental Studies Revolving Fund Report. support this interpretation. REFERENCES LEWIS, C.F.M. and BARRIE, J.V. 1981. Geo- logical evidence of iceberg grounding and related AMOS, C.L. and BARRIE, J.V. 1980. Hibernia In October 1984 and August 1985, seafloor processes in the Hibernia discovery area and Ben Nevis seabed study - Polaris V cruise scientists from the Centre for Cold Grand Bank, Newfoundland. In Symposium on report, June 1980. Centre for Cold Ocean Production and Transportation Systems for the Ocean Resources Engineering of Resources Engineering of Memorial University, Hibernia Discovery. Newfoundland Petroleum Data Report 30-17: 40 p. Memorial University, Atlantic Geo- Directorate, St. John’s, Newfoundland: 146-177. science Centre, Mobil Oil Canada BARRIE, J.V., COLLINS, W.T., CLARK, J.I., MOBIL OIL CANADA LIMITED. 1985. Hiber- LEWIS, C.F.M., and PARROTT, D.R. In press. Ltd., and the Biology Department of nia development project environmental impact Submersible observations and origin of an ice- statement; Volume III: a biophysical assessment. Memorial University participated in an berg pit on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. St. John’s, Newfoundland; Mobil Oil Canada investigation of a circular 100-m-wide Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 86-1A. Limited: 258 p. depression located 11 km east-south- D’APOLLONIA, S.J. and LEWIS, C.F.M. ROBE, R.Q. 1980. Iceberg drift and deteriora- 1981. Iceberg scour data maps for the Grand east of the Hibernia P-15 discovery tion. In Dynamics of Snow and Ice Masses; Banks of Newfoundland between 46°N and well. The investigation used the Cana- Ed. S.C. Colbeck. New York; Academic Press: 48°N. Geological Survey of Canada, Open 211-259. dian Navy’s SDL-1 submersible and its File 819: 13 p. support vessel HMCS Cormorant to visually supplement sidescan sonar and subbottom profiler measurements of the pit’s size and shape (Barrie et al., Seabed stability on the continental slope in press). The results of these observations, illustrated in the fifth figure, adjacent to the Grand Banks strongly indicate that the elongated depressions up to 10 m deep found on the northeastern Grand Banks are D.J.W. Piper iceberg-formed pits, where the iceberg loading on the seabed results in a bearing capacity failure and subse- n November 18, 1929, a large within 100 km of the epicentre (Piper quent pit overdeepening. The particu- O (magnitude 7) earthquake occurred et al., 1985) and about 200 km2 of lar depression investigated occurred at on the continental slope off the south- gravel, sand, and mud were trans- a depth of 87 m and was 10 m deep. west Grand Banks. Twenty eight lives ported many hundreds of kilometres in From observations of sediment in the were lost in southern Newfoundland as a powerful turbidity current. Deep-sea pit, it is considered to have been a result of coastal inundation by the telegraph cables were cut almost formed within the last 100 y. The tsunami produced by the earthquake instanteously by landsliding near the recent occurrence of these over- (Doxsee, 1948). Submarine landslides epicentre, and by the turbidity current deepened iceberg pits and the process were triggered on the continental slope at progressively later times away from 23 1. Location of deep water wells and sediment instability features on the eastern continental margin of Canada. Area (1) has abundant surface and subsurface flows: area (2) contains surface features associated with the earthquake 15,000y ago; and area (3) contains surface features associated with the earthquake of 1929.

the epicentre. The last was cut 13 h Energy, Mines, and Resources in new, deep-towed, geophysical tech- after the earthquake. These more dis- Ottawa is the agency responsible for niques such as sidescan sonar and seis- tant cables were presumably cut by this work: its results are available as a mic reflection profiling to try to locate the turbidity current, and allow us to seismic zoning map in the National the sites of large earthquakes that estimate velocities for the turbidity Building Code. Unfortunately, because occurred in the past. This is done by current of up to 65 km/h on the of the distant offshore location of the recognizing landslides and other fea- 2.5° slopes. Grand Banks and the small number of tures similar to those produced in 1929 There are a number of immediate seismographs at adjacent land stations, that formed during earlier earthquakes questions that the 1929 earthquake our knowledge of the distribution of and have subsequently been buried by raises concerning hydrocarbon develop- past earthquakes is inadequate for younger sediment. This younger sediment on the Grand Banks. Is another accurate prediction of earthquake risk ment, if dated, provides an estimate of earthquake likely in the same area or on the outer part of the Grand Banks the age of the earthquake activity. elsewhere on the Grand Banks? What (Basham et al., 1983). This type of work shows that large would be the effect of such an earth- Research at BIO has been contribut- earthquakes of the size of the 1929 quake on engineering structures on the ing in two ways to a better under- event are rare on the eastern Canadian Grand Banks? How stable is seabed standing of earthquake activity in this continental margin: there was probably sediment on the steep continental area. Ocean bottom seismometers one south of Halifax some 15,000 y slope in areas such as Flemish Pass and developed at the Institute have been ago (Piper et al., in press), and one the Scotian Slope where exploration is deployed on the seabed for two twice as old as that in Flemish Pass now taking place? months in the vicinity of the 1929 (Pereira et al., 1985). The 1929 earth- The probability of future earth- earthquake epicentre to try to detect quake was probably the only such quakes of a given magnitude (but not very small modern earthquakes in this event in as many as 100,000 y in that their precise timing) can be estimated area: only two local quakes within the area off the southern Grand Banks. where there is good historic data on detection limits of the equipment were Although our studies are not yet com- past earthquake activity. The Earth monitored. plete, and the data base is still inade- Physics Branch of the Department of The other technique has been to use quate, there is good geological evi- 24 2. Seismic reflection profiles showing shallowing diapirism and faulting on the Scotian Slope.

dence that large earthquakes occur very infrequently around the Grand Banks. It seems likely that for producing hydrocarbon fields on the continental shelf, the forces on structures due to icebergs and waves will be greater than those likely from any earthquake activity. On the steep continental slope, beyond the edge of the continental shelf, there may be a greater risk of seabed landsliding, triggered either by earthquakes or by other geological processes such as slope oversteepening as a result of valley erosion, or over- loading by rapid sediment deposition. The geological conditions on the continental slope off eastern Canada are different from those on most other slopes where hydrocarbon exploration has taken place, such as in the Gulf of Mexico, so that there is a lack of prior experience for analyzing slope stability in the east coast offshore. 3. SeaMARC sidescan sonograph showing results of rotational slumping Our studies of submarine landslides triggered by the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake. around the 1929 earthquake epicentre

25 and on the Scotian Slope show that sediment instability is closely related to sedimentation that occurred 50,000 y ago when large continental ice sheets were grounded across the continental shelf (King and Fader, 1985). In many areas this grounded ice extended to water depths of about 500 m at the top of the continental slope. The fine sand and silty sediments deposited immediately seawards of the glacial terminus are sensitive to liquefaction under conditions of cyclic loading. The finer muds deposited rapidly from suspension further away from the gla- cier margin may in places be under- consolidated and liable to deform either by slow surface creep or by the upward movement of subsurface masses of mud in shallow diapirs. In order to better understand the potential problems posed by sediment instability on the continental slope, a program of geotechnical sampling and testing is being carried out, partly John Hughes Clarke and David Piper in C.S.S. Hudson’s general-purpose under contract and partly in co-opera- laboratory. tion with the Technical University of Nova Scotia and the National Research Council of Canada, and in a new References geotechnical research laboratory at the BASHAM, P.W., ADAMS, J., and ANGLIN, Atlantic Geoscience Centre. This F.M. 1983. Earthquake source models for estimating risk on the Eastern Canadian con- program has required new sampling tinental margin. Fourth Canadian Conference and measurement techniques, which on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C.: are being developed through the inter- 495-508. national Long Coring Facility co- DOXSEE, W.W. 1948. The Grand Banks earth- ordinated by the University of Rhode quake of November 18, 1929. Publications of the Dominion Observatory, Canada 7: 323-336. Island, and through projects under the National Research Council’s PILP KING, L.H. and FADER, G.B. 1985. Wisconsinan glaciation of the continental shelf program with Huntec (Seabed II proj- - southeast Atlantic Canada. Geological Survey ect) and NORDCO (tripod mounted of Canada, Open File 1126. cone penetrometer). PEREIRA, C.P.G., PIPER, D.J.W., and SHOR, A.N. 1985. SeaMarc I midrange sidescan sonar survey of Flemish Pass, east of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 1161. PIPER, D.J.W., FARRE, J.A., and SHOR, A.N. In press. Late Quaternary slumps and debris flows on the Scotian Slope. Geological Society of America Bulletin. PIPER, D.J.W., SHOR, A.N., FARRE, J.A., O’CONNELL, S., and JACOBI, R. 1985. Sedi- 4. Interpretative map of seabed ment slides and turbidity currents on the Laurentian Fan: sidescan sonar observations instability features in Flemish Pass. near the epicentre of the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake. Geology 13: 538-541.

26 chapter 3 Physical and chemical oceanography

he Grand Banks is the most popu- and with the estuarine waters of the indicated above, these major current T larly known of the Canadian con- Gulf of St. Lawrence to the west. The systems can influence water motion tinental shelves due to its important meeting and mixing of these various and properties (temperature) over the economic role in Canadian history waters in and around the Banks create area of the Banks and each of these from the early activities of European a relatively complex and challenging may be influenced by larger-scale fishermen through to the present day area for physical and chemical oceanic or global processes. As such, interest in the Hibernia oil field. From oceanographic research. this ice program is heavily dependent an oceanographic perspective, it is part The Atlantic Oceanographic upon the measurements and models of of the continuous complex of promi- Laboratory (AOL) with its expertise in currents, winds, and water properties nent continental shelves found along physics, chemistry, and metrology, has throughout the east coast system. To the east coast of Canada, shelves that over the past two decades made a sig- monitor ice extent and movement because of their extent have physical nificant effort to improve the descrip- we utilize recently available satellite and chemical processes and water tion and understanding of the Banks. imagery and analysis systems and characteristics of their own. In this As will be apparent in the following location beacons that communicate via respect the Grand Banks is no excep- articles, the majority of these studies satellite. Our numerical modelling tion. It is the meeting ground of the are multidisciplinary for success in one requires the power of our largest com- major surface currents of the western discipline today is often critically puters. Without the broad-based North Atlantic: the Labrador Current, dependent upon results or technology expertise and technology available the Gulf Stream, and the Gulf of available from another. An excellent within the Laboratory, tackling this St. Lawrence outflow. It is also the example of this is our recent enhance- difficult problem and many of the southern boundary of the Labrador ice ment of sea ice and iceberg studies. others described in this section would sheet and melting ground for most We have undertaken to develop not be possible. east-coast icebergs. The Labrador Cur- models suitable for routine seasonal rent with its various branches follow- and interannual forecasting of ice ing through the Strait of Belle Isle, the extent near the Hibernia oil field. The Avalon Channel, and the eastern con- models of ice distribution require both tinental slope interacts and mingles a prediction of growth and decay - J.A. Elliott with the waters of the Gulf Stream locally and of advection under the Director along the southern edges of the Banks influence of wind and currents. As Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory

Background levels of petroleum residues and their origin on the Grand Banks

E.M. Levy

he Grand Banks region, long one tained within the 200-mile territorial Tof the most important fisheries of limit, Canada has been confronted the North Atlantic, has recently been with the dilemma of obtaining the shown to hold one of the largest maximum benefit from the petroleum reserves of petroleum in the western resource without unduly jeopardizing Eric Levy. world. As most of the area is con- the fishery. The most obvious threat 27 to living resources is, of course, a major spill associated with blowouts such as those that have occurred in the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea. The Ocean Ranger disaster has already emphasized the hazard inherent in petroleum exploration and production in the very hostile environment of the Grand Banks. Less dramatic, but no less damaging environmentally, are the cumulative effects of the day-to-day losses that are incurred during normal operations. To maximize the benefits from the resources of the region, it is clear that an “early warning” is needed to signal when damage to renewable living resources is imminent and corrective action must be taken. Because an essential first component of the required monitoring program is an assessment of the background levels of volatile hydrocarbons and petroleum residues in the region before any production of crude oil com- mences, a study of the region was 1. General bathymetry of Grand Banks area and the locations of stations at carried out from CSS Dawson in which sampling was carried out (April 7- 17, 1981). April 1981 (Levy, 1983). The study included examination of background along the continental slope occasion- the observed distribution of petroleum- levels of particulate petroleum residues ally intrudes onto the Banks in response related substances. floating on the sea surface, of volatile to meteorological conditions. Mixing The hydrochemistry of the Grand hydrocarbons and of dissolved/dispersed of these waters in conjunction with Banks region at the time of the study petroleum residues in the sea-surface seasonal warming accounts for the is illustrated by the second figure. microlayer and throughout the water chemical and physical properties of the Slope water (>5.0°, >34.5°/oo, column, and of petroleum residues in water in each of the areas studied and 5.1 ml/l) was present below about the surficial bottom sediments along a is a major consideration in interpreting 150 m in the Laurentian Channel and line of stations extending from the Laurentian Channel across the Grand Banks to Flemish Pass and at the Hibernia and South Tempest sites where exploratory drilling was in progress. In addition, ancillary chemical analyses were carried out to identify the origin of the material responsible for the existing background level. Hydrochemistry and general circulation The waters of the Grand Banks are dominated by the inshore portion of the Labrador Current, which flows onto the northern portion of the Banks and then spreads southward in a complex system of seasonally and locally variable currents. In spring, the upper layers of this water are modified by the annual influx of cold, low salinity water from melting sea ice and of freshwater from run-off along the 2. Cross-sections showing (a) temperature, (b) salinity, (c) dissolved Newfoundland and Labrador coasts. oxygen, and (d) along the southern line. Warmer and more saline water present

28 along the western slope of the Banks whereas a core of Labrador Current water, which gave rise to the low temperatures throughout the water column at stations 10 and 11 and near the bottom at station 8, was found along the seaward slope of the Banks. Over the Grand Bank (stations 5-8), temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen concentrations were very uniform (1.5 ± 0.5°C, 32 ± 0.25°/oo, 8.0 ml/l, while the small differences in the properties of the water east to west over Grand, Green, and St. Pierre banks reflected the admixture of differing proportions of modified Labrador Current water and slope water. For example, at station 4, which was directly in the flow of modified Labrador Current water through the Avalon and Haddock channels, temperatures were lower and salinities and dissolved oxygen concentrations higher than at the neighbour- ing stations on the slope of Green Bank (station 3) and on the slope of Whale Bank (station 5). Conversely, the higher temperatures at station 7 indicate an intrusion of slope water onto the bank. Throughout the region, vertical mixing from the storms of late winter and early spring resulted in temperatures and salinities that were almost uniform, concentrations of dis- 3. Representative cross-sections 4. Representative cross-sections solved oxygen that exceeded the satu- showing (a) temperature, (b) salin- showing (a) temperature, (b) salin- ration value, and densities that were ity, and (c) dissolved oxygen data for ity, and (c) dissolved oxygen data for almost invariant throughout the upper the South Tempest grid. the Hibernia grid. 50-60 m at each station. Below this homogeneous layer, the density of the water over the Banks increased to the slight seasonal warming; the water depths at the South Tempest grid, bottom because of the increasing salin- below the layer was relatively unmodi- although there was no indication of a ity and decreasing temperature, and fied Labrador Current water. At the temperature minimum layer. In both there was a slight decrease in density Hibernia grid (fourth figure), which areas, the upper 50 m was homogene- in the east to west direction across the was farther from the edge of the con- ously mixed by the stormy conditions Banks. tinental shelf and where water depths that prevailed at the time. At the South Tempest grid (third were considerably less, the unmodified figure), temperatures throughout the Labrador Current water was less Volatile hydrocarbons water column were below 0°C except prominent. The general temperature Water Column - Methane was the at the bottom, and a temperature level was appreciably higher because only volatile hydrocarbon present minimum layer with values as low as of the more advanced seasonal warm- (detection limit 0.02 nmol/l) in all but - 1.32°C was present at 80-120 m. ing at the lower latitude, and tempera- only a very few of the 234 water sam- Dissolved oxygen concentrations were tures increased in the north to south ples collected on the Grand Banks. In 7.5 - 8.2 ml/l within the layer, and east to west directions. Negative the rare cases when ethane, propane, >8 ml/l above it, and <7 ml/l below temperatures were present near the and higher molecular weight volatile it. The temperature-minimum layer bottom on the two northern lines but, hydrocarbons were detected, their con- presumably was a remnant of the with the exception of station 25, not centrations were never more than a previous winter’s cooling, while the on the two southern lines. The proper- few per cent of that of methane, water above this was Labrador Cur- ties of the deeper water in this area which suggests that the methane was rent water modified by meltwater and were very similar to those at the same predominatly of recent biological

29 origin rather than from natural seep- in surficial bottom sediments along the age or other escape of volatile southern line and on the Hibernia grid hydrocarbons from the seabed. ranged from 0.05 to 0.41 mmol/l and Concentrations of methane ranged from 0.81 to 3.2 mmol/l while those from 0.41 to 1.8 nmol/l, with the vast of methane ranged from 0.45 to majority of the values in the 0.45 to 2.19 nmol/l (sixth figure). Sediments 0.90 nmol/l range. Such highly from the former area varied widely in skewed data sets are best analyzed by grain size and texture and, at some lognormal statistics, and the geometric locations, were devoid of volatile mean of 0.74 nmol/l is an appropriate hydrocarbons. Those collected at the measure of the general background Hibernia grid were much more uni- level for the region as a whole. When form and the contour plots indicated sorted geographically, the backgrounds that the highest concentratons were on for the Southern Banks, Hibernia, the western portion of the grid. It is South Tempest, Flemish Pass, and tempting to surmise that this might be Laurentian Channel areas were 0.70, indicative of underlying gas and oil, 0.68, 0.86, 0.90, and 0.65 nmol/l, and some credence to this hypothesis respectively. At the Hibernia area, is provided by the presence of appre- methane concentrations were remarka- ciable amounts of ethane, propane, bly uniform, with 92% of the values and butane. Indeed, the ratios of the in the range of 0.69 ± 0.09 nmol/l concentrations of methane to the com- (fifth figure, part A), reflecting the bined concentrations of ethane and high degree of mixing that was occur- propane were well within the range ring throughout the water column at (0- 10) commonly accepted as indicative the time. All the values exceeding this of gas of fossil origin as opposed to interval were encountered at the east- gases of recent biogenic origin, which ern and southeastern portion of the typically have ratios of 10-3 to 10-4 grid and seem to be a feature of the (Bernard et al., 1977). relatively unmodified component of Labrador Current water. This was also Petroleum residues suggested by the higher general back- 5. Representative cross-sections Surface Slicks - Visual observa- ground level of methane at the South showing methane concentrations at tions of the sea surface failed to detect Tempest grid (fifth figure, part B) the (a) Hibernia grid, (b) South any oil in the form of slicks along the where the Labrador Current water Tempest grid, and (c) southern line. southern line (stations 1-12), although modified by the meltwater dominated meteorological and oceanographic con- and by the higher concentrations of ditions were favourable for their for- methane at stations 8-11 on the south- Again, it would seem that the slightly mation and detection. During the ern line (fifth figure, part C) where higher methane concentrations in the remainder of the cruise, high winds there was a strong component of water over the edges of the banks were and rough seas would have prevented Labrador Current water. At the South the consequence of enhanced biologi- the formation of slicks even if oil had Tempest grid, the methane distribution cal processes. been present. The background level of volatile in the water column was more com- Floating Particulate Petroleum - hydrocarbons in the water of the plex in keeping with the more heter- Samples for the estimation of floating Grand Banks at this time was only ogeneous character of the water. At particulate petroleum residues were 25% of the concentrations reported by this site the range of concentrations collected at the first 27 stations after Lamontagne et al. (1973) in the sur- was greater (0.59-1.75 nmol/l), and which it became too rough to deploy face waters of the Norwegian Sea concentrations increased with depth. the sampler. Concentrations of float- (2.3-3.5 nmol/l) and the Greenland 2 Along the southern line (fifth figure, ing tar ranged from 0 to 85 µg/m Sea (3.3-5.1 nmol/l) and of those part C), concentrations of methane in (seventh figure), although almost two- reported by Scranton and Brewer (1977) the upper 100 m were, for the most thirds of the samples contained no in the western subtropical North part, between 0.45 and 0.90 nmol/l. evidence of tar. Analysis by gas chro- Atlantic (1.5-5.7 nmol/l. This, At stations 8-11, however, a patch of matography suggested that all samples presumably, was a reflection of low water contained concentrations of were the weathered remains of oil rates of biological activity on the 0.90-1.35 nmol/l. This was in the core discharged from ships. of Labrador Current water, and there- Grand Banks during early spring when Although there were too few data to fore, its methane concentration was water temperatures and light levels estimate the background level, data more in keeping with that at the South were low. collected for the northwest Atlantic Tempest grid than those elsewhere on Surficial Bottom Sediments - Total between 1971 and 1974 suggested that the Southern Banks and Hibernia grid. concentrations of volatile hydrocarbons the background level at that time was

30 less than 10 µg/m2 (Levy and Walton, 1976). Since tar concentrations increased abruptly in waters dominated by the Gulf Stream and were virtually zero to the north, it would seem that the tar found at stations 4, 5, and 6 had been carried there from the south. Thus, the values for the other stations were probably more representative of the general conditions on the Grand Banks and indicated that the southward flow of unpolluted Labrador Current Water was continuing to maintain relatively pristine conditions insofar as floating tar was concerned. Dissolved/Dispersed Petroleum Residues - Concentrations of dissolved/dispersed petroleum residues in the sea surface microlayer of the Grand Banks during April 1981 ranged from 14 to 440 µg/l, although most of the values were in the range of 25-50 µg/l. The general level of contamination as indicated by the geometric mean was 28.9 µg/l, considerably higher than the level of 7.5 µg/l observed in Baffin Bay in 1977 (Levy, 1980). This was probably a direct consequence of the higher level of human activity in the area. Further, as shown by the contour plot (eighth figure), a contaminated area was present at the Hibernia site “downstream” from the drill rig Ocean Ranger and within the zone of its support vessels. Thus, there was a strong implication that the elevated concentrations (up to 440 µg/l) in this area were a direct consequence of their activities and, with this as the main source, the observed distribution of the surface contamination was readily attributable to the south- southwesterly flow of surface water. It is apparent, therefore, that the oil industry, even at the level of its operations in April 1981 was already having a detectable effect on the concentration of dissolved/dispersed petroleum residues in the surface microlayer. 6. Area plots showing concentrations (millimolesper litre) of (a) total Concentrations of dissolved/dispersed volatile hydrocarbons and (b) methane in surficial sediments from the Grand Banks area. petroleum residues in the water column ranged from 0.05 (detection limit 0.01) to 4.05 µg/l with most of the values near the lower end of the ground levels calculated for the vari- nificance in terms of environmental range (only 10 of the 234 values ous areas suggested that that for the quality. Thus, the overall background exceeded 1 µg/l. Most of the higher southern Banks was somewhat higher level for the water column of the values were encountered along the than those at the Hibernia and South Grand Banks was 0.18 µg/l. This is southern line and most, but not all, Tempest areas, but the differences the lowest level found so far in the were in the upper 20 m. The back- were so small as to be of no sig- waters of any region of eastern 31 Canada; for example, the general background level for the Gulf of St. Lawrence is presently about 0.35 µg/l (Levy, 1985), for the Labrador Shelf about 0.50 µg/l (Levy, In press), for Hudson Bay about 0.45 µg/l (Levy, In press), and for the Baffin Island Shelf, 0.48 µg/l (Levy, 1980). Because the background levels over such a broad geographical region are so similar, it is currently thought that the major input to the remote areas is a diffuse source, most probably fallout from the atmosphere of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons derived from the high- temperature combustion of organic materials. In more accessible areas, localized inputs of oily substances from shipping and other human activities may be superimposed on this diffuse background and give rise to greater variability in the data. Thus, the existing background level of dissolved/dispersed petroleum residues in the water column of the Grand Banks 7. Area plot showing concentrations (micrograms per square metre) of appears to be derived primarily from floating particulate petroleum residues in the Grand Banks area. diffuse sources such as atmospheric fallout, and the oil industry’s activities have not, as yet, had sufficient impact on the background level to be detected. Surficial Bottom Sediments - Con- centrations of petroleum residues in the surficial bottom sediments ranged from 0 to 5.5 µg/g along the southern line and from 0 to 7.25 µg/g on the Hibernia grid (ninth figure). By way of comparison, concentrations in sediments from the continental shelf and the deep areas of Baffin Bay in 1978 were 0-2.5 and 0-7.5 µg/g (Levy, 1980) and 0-7.5 and 0-40 µg/g in sediments from Hudson Strait and the Labrador Shelf (Levy, In press). Although sediment types varied so widely along the southern line that comparisons were not meaningful, those at the Hibernia area were much less varied. Concentrations were highest at stations 23 and 21, decreasing outwards from this area, and in the northwest and southwest portions of the area petroleum residues were not detected. Since the Ocean Ranger was operating just north of station 21 and the prevailing current was southwest- 8. Area plot showing concentrations (micrograms per litre) of dissolved/ ward, this distribution pattern was a dispersed petroleum residues in the sea surface microlayer in the Grand strong implication that the sediments Banks area. in this area were receiving oily substances from this exploratory activity. 32 residues” is not possible. For this purpose, the composition of the aliphatic fraction of the non-polar substances extracted from marine samples often contains useful information. Capillary-gas chromatographic analyses were done (Gassman and Pocklington, 1984) of the aliphatic hydrocarbons present in water samples collected at 1 m depth in the Lauren- tian Channel (station 1) and at the Hibernia site (station 13). In both cases, the chromatograms (tenth fig-

ure) show the virtual absence of n-C15 and n-Cl7 alkanes, which are characteristic of marine algae, indicating that there was little direct input of hydrocarbons from recent primary

production. In the n-C21 to n-C42 range, the distribution of peaks resem- bled those typical of “petroleum residues”; that is, all members of the series were present and there was no prominent odd to even preference in 9. Area plot showing concentrations (micrograms per gram) of petroleum the carbon numbers. residues in the surficial bottom sediments of the Grand Banks area. A particularly useful feature for the purpose of source identification is the nature of the peaks corresponding to the isoprenoid hydrocarbons (i.e., nor- Identity of background material and heterocyclic compounds containing pristane, pristane, and phytane). These Hydrocarbons in marine waters and sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen. In addi- compounds are derived from phytol sediments are of two general categor- tion, there are hydrocarbons derived which, in turn, is derived from chloro- ies; namely, those of “recent” origin, from the combustion of fossil fuels phyll. Because of the high specificity which have only recently been synthe- and other organic materials. These of biosynthetic pathways, the chro- sized by naturally occurring biochemi- contain polynuclear aromatic com- matograms of the recently biosynthe- cal processes, and those of “fossil” pounds with 2 to 6 rings, and the sized compounds contain a single peak origin, which were synthesized by unsubstituted compounds are far more corresponding to a single isomer of biochemical processes occurring in the abundant than the alkylated deriva- each of the substances. However, this geological past and have since under- tives. Hydrocarbons from all these stereospecificity is lost through geo- gone substantial change in chemical sources contribute in varying relative logic maturation and the various composition. Recently biosynthesized proportions to the mixture that is pres- diastereoisomers (i.e., compounds hav- hydrocarbons comprise a relatively ent in the marine environment, and its ing the same structural formulae but narrow range of n-alkanes, generally composition is further complicated with the atoms arranged somewhat between n-Cl5 to n-C21, in which the through chemical alteration by differently in space) of the compounds concentrations of compounds having weathering processes. Since the analy- are formed. Although these isomers an odd number of carbon atoms tical procedure used to measure back- have very slightly different physical greatly exceed those with an even ground levels of “petroleum residues” properties, even with the best gas number. Pristane, an isoprenoid is based on the total concentration of chromatographic techniques only par- hydrocarbon, is common and abun- non-polar aromatic material and be- tial separation is possible, and each of dant and there are usually significant cause these, rather than the n-alkanes, the isoprenoid peaks displays a dou- amounts of olefinic but virtually no are the compounds of environmental blet corresponding to two groups of aromatic compounds. Fossil or importance, the procedure provides a the partially separated diastereoiso- petroleum-related hydrocarbons, on good measure of environmental qual- mers. In this case (tenth and eleventh the other hand, contain a very broad ity. However, except for deductions figures), the peaks corresponding to homologous series of n-alkanes extend based on the interpretation of excita- norpristane and phytane at both the ing beyond n-C40 without an odd to tion and emission spectra and on the Laurentian Channel and Hibernia even carbon preference, homologous distributions of the total concentra- locations displayed the doublets typical series of isoprenoid and naphthenic tions of aromatic materials and their of fossil isoprenoid hydrocarbons. hydrocarbons, series of alkylated aro- variability, unequivocal identification Since the heights of the doublets are matic and polyaromatic compounds, of the source of the “petroleum the same, the norpristane and phytane 33 10. Gas chromatograph (GC) trace of Laurentian Channel saturated hydrocarbons. Insert shows stereoisomers of (a) norpristane and (c) phytane. ST1 and ST2 are two internal standards (1-chlorohexadecane and methyl tricosanoate). GC conditions were the following: 20-m column (0.14 mm i.d., 0.125 µm film thickness of 0V T3) of Duran glass. Injection splitless with a splitless period of 2 minutes. Temperature program was 50°C at 1°C/minute to 160°C and then 2°C/minute to 340°C.

11. Gas chromatographic (GC) trace of Hibernia-site saturated hydrocarbons. Inserts show stereoisomers of (a) norpristane, (b) pristane, and (c) phytane. GC conditions as for tenth figure.

are considered to have been derived of contamination from fossil hydrocar- samples according to their definite and solely from the diagenesis of the bons at both the Laurentian Channel probable fossil fuel or biogenic source. biogenic precursor material with no and Hibernia sites, and the “excess” Although the total concentration of detectable contribution from recently pristane indicates the contribution of hydrocarbons at the Hibernia site was synthesized biogenic material. How- biogenic hydrocarbons to the total about twice that at the Laurentian ever, in the case of pristane, the height hydrocarbon “pool” in both locations. Channel, slightly more than one third of the second member of the doublet By considering the total concentra- of the total at the former and slightly greatly exceeded that of the first. This tions of branched and cyclic alkanes less than one third at the latter was excess is interpreted as representing the (represented by the small peaks inter- thought to be of fossil origin. The recent biogenic component as derived spersed between those of the n-alkane), “definite” fossil component, however, from the secretion from herbivorous the total concentration of n-C15 - n-C20 greatly exceeded the “definite” bio- zooplankton (i.e., the digestive by- and n-C21, - n-C34 alkanes, the isopre- genic component at the Hibernia site product of the chlorophyll molecules noids, and polyunsaturated hydrocar- whereas the reverse was the case at the contained in phytoplankton). Thus, bons, Gassman and Pocklington (1984) Laurentian Channel site. there is clear evidence of the presence attributed the hydrocarbons in these 34 Concluding remarks exploration and eventual production, LAMONTAGNE, R.A., SWINNERTON, J.W., even in the absence of the inevitable LINNENBOOM, B.J., and SMITH, W.D. 1973. The results of this study demon- Methane concentrations in various marine strated that the background level of mishap, can only lead to future environments. Journal of Geophysical Research petroleum-related substances, both increases in the level of contamination 78: 5317-5323. low-molecular weight volatile hydro- in this area. This poses no small chal- LEVY, E.M. 1980. Background levels of lenge to governments, regulatory agen- petroleum residues in Baffin Bay and the East- carbons and the higher molecular ern Canadian Arctic: role of natural seepage. weight aliphatic and aromatic cies, and the oil industry if recovery of In Petroleum and the Marine Environment. hydrocarbons, in the waters and sedi- the petroleum resources of the Grand London; Graham and Trotman Ltd.: 345-362. ments of the Grand Banks area in Banks is to proceed in such a manner LEVY, E.M. 1983. Background levels of volatile 1981 were among the lowest found that the environment is not altered to hydrocarbons and petroleum residues in the the extent that the fishery is eventually waters and sediments of the Grand Banks. anywhere in eastern Canada including Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic remote regions of the Arctic. How- placed in jeopardy. Sciences 40 (Supplement 2): 23-33. ever, the results also provided clear LEVY, E.M. 1985. Background levels of dis- evidence, both qualitative and quan- solved/dispersed petroleum residues in the Gulf titative, that the petroleum industry of St. Lawrence 1970-1979. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42: 544-555. was already having a detectable, albeit References small, impact on the existing low BERNARD, B., BROOKS, J.M., and LEVY, E.M. In press. Background levels of SACKETT, W.M. 1977. A geochemical model petroleum residues in the waters and surficial background levels of petroleum for characterization of hydrocarbon gas sources bottom sediments of the Labrador Shelf and residues in the surface microlayer, in marine sediments. In Proceedings of the Hudson Strait/Foxe Basin regions. Canadian water column, and bottom sediments Ninth Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 42. of the area. Although this is, as yet, May 2-5, 1977, Houston, Texas: 435-488. LEVY, E.M. and WALTON, A. 1976. High seas oil pollution: Particulate petroleum residues no cause for environmental alarm, it is GASSMANN, G. and POCKLINGTON, R. 1984. Hydrocarbons in waters adjacent to an oil in the North Atlantic. Journal of the Fisheries a portent of what can be expected in exploratory site in the western North Atlantic, Research Board of Canada 33: 2781-2971. the future. In view of the existing pris- Environmental Science and Technology 18: tine nature of the area, continued 869-872.

Sea ice and iceberg movement iceberg is assumed to follow the current plus a certain fraction of the wind speed, with a Coriolis deflection to the S.D. Smith and G. Symonds right of the wind direction. The results equal those of dynamic models if the iceberg’s response to changes in cur- he past three years (1983-1985) knowledge of the drift characteristics rents and winds is fast enough to T have been heavy ice years. Ice and of icebergs in the area; the dynamic make the transient response to these icebergs have impeded the progress of approach calculates the balance of changes insignificant. The computation petroleum exploration on the Grand forces acting on an iceberg and the time required to estimate equilibrium Banks and Newfoundland continental acceleration, which is integrated twice drift rates is much less than for shelf and highlighted the need for to obtain the velocity and position. dynamic modelling. Therefore, in improved forecasts to make offshore However, each of these approaches dynamic modelling it is instructive to operations in these waters safer and has its limitations. The statistical investigate response times to identify more efficient. A broad range of fore- approach (e.g., Garrett, 1984) does the range of circumstances in which casts is needed covering periods from not attempt to forecast variations in using an equilibrium drift model a few hours to several months with currents and winds, and so the effects would suffice. applications ranging from an individ- of these variations are not included in A dynamic iceberg drift model ual iceberg and its projected path to the model output except as statistically (Smith and Banke, 1983) has been the formation, movement, and defor- predictable uncertainty in the drift rate developed at BIO and tested in a hind- mation of sea ice over the entire and position. Dynamic models, how- cast mode (i.e., on known events) northeast Newfoundland shelf. Numer- ever, rely on a detailed knowledge of using currents, winds, and iceberg-drift ical models being developed by the the variations of winds and currents tracks reported from Canadian east Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory and of the draft and cross-sectional coast drilling rigs. This model calcu- will play an important role in meeting area of an iceberg, information lates water and wind drag, applies a these forecasting needs. not available in most operational Coriolis force and a gravitational force Iceberg drift models can follow two situations. due to geostrophic sea-surface tilt, and possible approaches: the statistical Equilibrium drift models might be adjusts the air-drag and water-drag approach applies a general (statistical) considered to be a third category. An coefficients to obtain a best (least- 35 squares) fit of the modelled track to it will be possible to apply this model the observed drift track. Banke and in a forecast mode. Eventually a Smith (1984) have applied this model hybrid dynamic/statistical model may to a large quantity of drilling rig data be developed, in which those terms not and have reached conclusions regard- amenable to dynamic modelling can be ing the time of response to changes in handled statistically. wind (less than one hour in most Whereas iceberg forecasting focuses cases) and the values of drag coeffi- on predicting the motion of individual 1. Observed and modelled hourly cients required to obtain a best fit of icebergs, sea-ice forecasts are con- positions of a small, pinnacled ice- the modelled and observed tracks. The cerned with a field of pack ice com- berg in the Strait of Belle Isle from consequences of not towing icebergs posed of a large number of ice floes 0500 to 1700 GMT on June 24, 1983. were investigated by first modelling of various shapes and sizes. The Iceberg travelledfrom left to right the tracks of 12 icebergs towed during motion of an individual floe is only (i.e., to the east). part of their tracking periods, and important insomuch as it reflects the then removing towing forces from the motion of the entire pack. For this model to simulate the track that the reason, modelling the motion of sea iceberg would have followed with- inadequacy of using measured currents ice differs from iceberg modelling in out towing. In two of the cases, it taken at only one or two levels. two ways. Firstly, in addition to winds appeared that the drill rig would have A multilayer version of our dynamic and currents, sea ice motion is modi- had to move to avoid a collision, but iceberg model has been developed and fied by stresses within the ice pack in nearly half of the cases it appeared tested using some of the data obtained itself due to floe-floe interactions. For that the iceberg would have approached in 1983. The first figure shows an example, sea ice resists compression less closely had it not been towed. observed and modelled track for a through the process of ridging, which The data on currents taken at a drill small iceberg; the iceberg is shown in creates thicker, stronger ice that will rig have two major deficiencies for the second figure. The iceberg drifted resist further compression. Alterna- modelling of iceberg tracks. Firstly, 15 km during this period and the tively, open water leads may form simultaneous tracks of more than one model was able to reproduce the when ice diverges. Secondly, thermo- iceberg show significant differences, observed track with a root-mean- dynamic forcing is an important factor presumably due to variations in cur- square error of 0.5 km. The 1984 and in determining the mass balance and rents, when separations are greater 1985 voyage data are now being anal- thickness distribution of the pack-ice than about 10 km (Garrett et al., yzed (September 1985), and further field. Atmospheric cooling in winter 1985). Secondly, the available data development of the drift hindcast creates new ice in leads between floes were taken at only one or two levels model is in progress. When site- or on the underside of existing floes, and the variation of currents with specific current forecasts are available, while oceanic heat flux and atmos- depth could not be properly accounted for in computing water-drag forces. The lack of high-quality data on current profiles in the vicinity of icebergs has limited the development of dynamic iceberg drift models, although Sodhi and El-Tahan (1980) successfully modelled an iceberg trajectory using current profiles based on data from a nearby current-meter mooring. With support from the Office of Energy Research and Development (OERD), an experimental program has been carried out during three voyages (83-018, 84-023, and 85-008) of CSS Dawson. We have gathered data on the drift of ten icebergs of widely different shapes and sizes. Current profiles were measured in detail using newly acquired Ametek doppler acoustic current-profilers, with CSS Dawson holding station 1 to 2 km from the iceberg. This process provides unprecedented detail about variation of cur- 2. A small iceberg tracked in the Strait of Belle Isle, June 24, 1983. Mass is rent with depth, and a preliminary 85,000 tonnes, height 19 m above waterline, length 66 m, draft 54 m. look at the data clearly shows the 36 pheric warming in spring and summer mates of the growth and decay rates provide heat to melt the ice. of sea ice due to atmospheric cooling Both statistical and dynamical and heating. In our study area, the approaches to sea ice modelling are thermodynamic processes are com- being pursued within the sea-ice pro- plicated by spatial variations in ther- gram of the Atlantic Oceanographic mal forcing and by advection of ice Laboratory (AOL). A statistical model between regions with greatly differing of sea ice motion was described by heat and mass budgets. Of the trajec- Colony and Thorndike (1985) in which tories shown in the first figure, two the trajectory of an individual floe was were advected into the Labrador Sea modelled as a “random walk”. The where warmer ocean temperatures ensemble of all possible trajectories rapidly melted the ice. Finally, ice allows one to answer variations of the growth and heat exchange are strongly question: “If a particle occupies influenced by ice thickness, which is region R at time t, what is the proba- affected by strain due to spatial variability that it will occupy region R ‘at tions in the ice velocity field that in This same model was turn forms ridges and leads. time t’ “? 3. Sea ice trajectories from January To provide reliable forecasts, a cou- applied to modelling sea ice trajecto- to April 1985. Solid circles show the ries through the Greenland Sea pled atmosphere-ice-ocean model is starting locations and arrows indi- required and, as with iceberg model- (Colony et al., 1985), a situation cate direction of motion at the end which in many respects is similar to ling, a dynamic/statistical model may of each trajectory. Plotted lines the northeast Newfoundland shelf provide the optimum forecasting tool. indicate ice extent on January 1 and Much more data on the formation, where too few data presently exist to March 1. provide the necessary input for the movement, and deformation of sea ice model. The model has an advantage are required both for model verifica- over dynamic models in that medium- statistically reliable estimates of tion and also to provide input for to long-range forecasts can be given in the mean and variance of ice drift forecasting models. The reliability of terms of a probability with a known throughout the region shown in the any forecast is often only as good as error. A disadvantage, in terms of figure. the input data, and a detailed monitor- operational forecasts, is that the natu- The spreading of the probability dis- ing network will have to be maintained ral variability of the trajectories leads tribution can be reduced by introduc- to provide the necessary atmosphere, to a spreading of the probability distri- ing a known component of the varia- ice, and ocean information. bution over a broad region after only bility that may be predicted in a a few time steps (1 month). deterministic manner. For example, References Shown in the third figure are the the tidal component of the variability BANKE, E.G. and SMITH, S.D. 1984. A hind- trajectories of satellite-tracked buoys could be predicted and removed from cast study of iceberg drift on the Labrador placed on the ice off Nain and the random fluctuations. Over a two- coast. Canadian Technical Report of Makkovik, Labrador, during January day period, deterministic models of ice Hydrography and Ocean Sciences No. 49. and February 1985. The positions of motion can provide forecasts that are COLONY, R. and THORNDIKE, A.S. 1985. Sea ice motion as a drunkard’s walk. Journal these buoys are obtained via satellite at best as good as the data input to of Geophysical Research 90: 965-914. approximately ten times per day. Dur- obtain them. Over longer periods of COLONY, R., MORITZ, R.E., and ing the course of the winter the buoys time, the deterministic models can be SYMONDS, G. 1985. Random ice trajectories in show a mean longshore drift of used in a hindcast mode to aid in the Greenland Sea. In Proceedings of the 8th 20 cm/s. Of the 11 buoys deployed, identifying the major factors con- International Conference on Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions, POAC 85, 2 drifted out of the main pack into tributing to the variability in ice Narssavssuaq, Greenland, 1985. the Labrador Sea where the ice would motion. A dynamic/thermodynamic GARRETT, C.J.R. 1984. Statistical prediction melt rapidly, one went through the model described by Hibler (1979) of iceberg trajectories. Iceberg Research l(7): Strait of Belle Isle into the Gulf of has been applied to the northeast 3-7. St. Lawrence, one grounded on an Newfoundland shelf with the aim of GARRETT, C.J.R., MIDDLETON, J., island off Nain, and the remainder modelling the seasonal advance and HAZEN, M., and MAJAESS, F. 1985. Tidal currents and eddy statistics from iceberg trajec- drifted south toward the Grand Banks retreat cycles of sea ice. In particular, tories offlabrador. Science 227: 1333-1335. and eventually into open water east we would like to be able to identify HIBLER, W.D., III. 1979. A dynamic- and northeast of the Grand Banks. the major factors that determine thermodynamic sea ice model. Journal of Although these data are insufficient to whether any given year will experience Physical Oceanography 9:815-846. obtain statistically reliable estimates, a heavy or light ice season. Thermo- SMITH, S.D. and BANKE, E.G. 1983. The they do serve to illustrate the mean dynamic forcing is particularly impor- influence of winds, currents, and towing force on the drift of icebergs. Cold Regions Science and variability of ice-floe trajectories tant since in our study area all of the and Technology 6(3): 241-255. over the northeast Newfoundland ice eventually melts each year. Models SODHI, D.S. and EL-TAHAN, M. 1980. shelf. This program is expected to con- of the radiation balance at the Prediction of an iceberg drift trajectory during tinue over the next few years to obtain atmosphere-ice interface provide esti- a storm. Annals of Glaciology 1: 77-82. 37 Labrador Current and equal transports Mean and variable currents over the of 2 x 106 m3/s through Flemish Pass Grand Banks and north of Flemish Cap. All flows were subject to considerable variability. B.D. Petrie The work of Smith et al. remains the standard reference frame for any programs to collect physical oceano- n April 14, 1912, the ocean liner graphic data in the area. It is particu- 0 Titanic struck an iceberg south of larly useful for studies addressing the the Grand Banks of Newfoundland mean circulation of the Grand Banks, and sank with the loss of 1513 lives. less useful for programs dealing with This incident prompted the formation variable currents. of the International Ice Patrol to provide better protection for trans- Atlantic steamers against the menace Recent measurements of the mean of Arctic ice and icebergs. This was to circulation be accomplished through iceberg Since 1937 the International Ice observation reports and studies of the Patrol has continued to gather hydro- oceanography and meteorology of graphic data in the Grand Banks Baffin Bay, the Labrador Sea, and the region with particular emphasis on the continental shelves off the Canadian offshore Labrador Current. Their east coast. Of particular interest was recent efforts as well as those of oil the Labrador Current in the vicinity of companies, universities, and govern- the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. ment agencies have involved the use of D.J. Matthews, on the steamship satellite-tracked drifting buoys and Scotia, carried out the first systematic 1. Primary circulation over the current meters (Petrie and Anderson, investigation of the waters of the Grand Banks as depicted by Smith 1983). The buoys are fitted with a Grand Banks and adjacent areas in et al. (1937). large drogue so that they will move 1913. Some of the main results of with the currents in the upper 20 m of Matthew’s study were: (1) the the water column. The current meters Labrador current splits into three parts ward then west along the shelf break are moored at fixed locations and can on the northern edge of the Grand creating a clockwise gyre over the measure current speed, direction, tem- Banks: the westerly branch flows southeast Grand Banks centered at perature, and salinity. However, the through Avalon Channel and around 44°30’N, 50°W. Smith et al. estimated Grand Banks are so large that, to Cape Race; the middle and most a water transport of 0.4 x 106 m3/s for date, only a small portion of them has important arm follows the eastern the inshore (western) branch of the been surveyed with these instruments. edge of the Grand Banks; the eastern arm flows eastward to the north of Flemish Cap; (2) the Grand Banks themselves are not dominated by a single definite current, the general tendency of the circulation appearing to be a slow southeastwardly drift; and (3) the velocities of the Labrador Current are as a rule relatively weak. Smith et al. (1937) expanded and quantified this earlier work and produced a map (first figure) of the primary circulation over the Grand Banks based on an interpretation of temperature and salinity observations. The western branch of the current moves through Avalon Cannel and turns westward following the coastline. 2. Contours of the current through Flemish Cap and the Avalon Channel In the vicinity of 55° W, the flow turns derived from archived current meter and drifting buoy data. The dot within eastward moving toward the stronger a circle represents flows toward the reader (i.e., out of the page) while the x branch along the eastern edge of the within a circle represents currents away from the reader (i.e., into shelf. On meeting this branch, the cur- the page). rent over the shelf first moves south- 38 The major deployment of moorings so far has taken place roughly along 47°N in Flemish Pass and off St. John’s in the Avalon Channel. The over 200 km in between have not been sampled nor has much of the rest of the Banks. The second figure shows a compos- ite picture of current-meter observations and drifting-buoy-derived currents for the branches of the Labrador Current in Flemish Pass (offshore) and Avalon Channel (inshore). The former branch obviously transports significantly more water than does the latter. The core of the offshore branch is located above the steep topography of the continental slope and not over the 100 m isobath as depicted by Smith et al. Countless hydrographic surveys and numerous drifting-buoy tracks help to confirm this. Another mooring to the south on the 490-m isobath showed a mean velocity of 46 cm/s at the 110 m depth over 80 days. Fur- thermore, while the average speed calculated from all drifter tracks of the near surface flow along the eastern outer edge of the Grand Banks is about 30 cm/s, individual buoys have averaged 85 cm/s along this length. This would not be considered a relatively weak flow as described by Matthews. The figure also shows a northward flow on the western side of Flemish Pass - a feature of the 3. The curves correspond to the path of nine satellite-tracked drifting buoys region that has become known since on the Grand Banks. Smith et al. did their work. The inshore branch of the Labrador Cur- rent appears to be confined tightly to that have moved westwards after that could contribute to the variability the coast. reaching the Tail of the Banks; most include changes of the circulation due A large number of fixed-point are deflected to the east. However, to the freshwater run-off cycle, sea- moorings would be necessary to show there does not appear to be a well sonal changes in weather, storms, the circulation patterns on the Grand defined inshore branch of the Current instabilities in the various branches of Banks. On the other hand, we can get and the details of the movement of the Labrador Current, and tides. Per- an idea of the spatial variability by drifters on the Banks often oppose the haps several of these processes acted plotting the paths taken by satellite- Smith et al. view. In general, the mean together to produce the complex tem- tracked drifting buoys. They might currents on the Banks are quite small, perature structure seen in the infrared describe the routes followed by parcels amounting to a few centimetres per picture shown in the fourth figure. of water. In the third figure, selected second. Drifters tend to remain in the This image from April 1983 shows an buoy tracks from 1984-85 are shown. area for a long time; one lasted for offshore Labrador Current with some They do point out some of the fea- 205 days before being entrained in the evident splitting around Flemish Cap. tures noted by Smith et al. For exam- offshore branch of the Labrador The Current also has smaller scale spa- ple, the branches of the Labrador Cur- Current. tial variability (eddies), which could be rent through Flemish Pass and north associated with instabilities in the of the Cap are depicted by tracks B-E, Variable flows mean flow. The inshore branch also H, and I. Perhaps drifter F captures Some of the complexity of the possesses evident variability similar to some of the clockwise flow around the movement of drifting buoys on the that of the offshore branch. The two southeastern Grand Banks. It is also Grand Banks can be accounted for by branches appear to surround the one of the few examples of drifters the time-varying currents. Processes Grand Banks. Perhaps these eddies 39 These allow for model verification and examination of worst-case storms that can be applied to offshore development problems. Tidal currents are generated by the action of well-known gravitational forces on the ocean and so can be predicted more confidently. The efforts of oil companies and the BIO in the past several years have produced accurate tidal models for the waters of the Grand Banks. The variability considered so far has been of the short-term variety. There is convincing evidence that seasonal and interannual variability significantly affect the water properties of the Grand Banks. One manifestation of this is in the low-frequency fluctuations of sea level at St. John’s shown in the fifth figure. Over the 9-y span in the diagram, the eye can easily pick out the consistent variation over a year and changes from one year to another. These variations have been linked to the annual freshwater discharge mainly 4. This satellite infrared image of the Grand Banks region depicts the sea from Labrador and the Canadian Arc- surface temperature with lighter areas corresponding to cooler tic. Measurements in Avalon Channel temperatures. (see second figure for the mean) have shown that the transport changes from about 0.3 x 106 m3/s in July and flows over the Banks based on satellite 6 3 are one of the mechanisms whereby August to about 0.6 x 10 m/s after drifting buoy data indicates that the water is exchanged between the shelf the arrival of the main part of the dis- variable currents generally exceed the and the slope areas. In fact, a recent charge in September and October. mean by a factor of three. At the study of the salinity budget and ice- These measurements were made for Hibernia oil exploration site, the fac- berg populations of the Grand Banks only one cycle however and do show tor can be as great as 10. Thus, if for and the Labrador Current does point significant variability; consequently the example you need to predict the path to eddy-induced exchange as an impor- transport increase must be taken with of an iceberg for the next several days, tant process contributing to the a grain of salt. it may be more important to be able distribution of those properties. The mean and time-varying currents to predict the time-varying flow than Wind can also have a marked effect over the Grand Banks are the result of to know the mean. However, to fore- on the currents over the Grand Banks many processes acting together to pro- cast wind driven currents there first through direct forcing in the energetic duce a complicated spatial and tem- must be a good prediction of winds, a 3-10 day “storm” band and through poral structure. In recent years the the generation of inertial-period (about difficult and at times uncertain task in deployment of new oceanographic itself. At present, hindcast wind-driven 16 h on the Grand Banks) motions. A instruments has led to an improved comparison of the mean and variable current models are being considered. picture of the mean flow and an appreciation of the processes responsible for the variable currents. Consider- able progress has been made in the understanding of the latter and efforts to improve the state of understanding are continuing. References PETRIE, B. and ANDERSON, C. 1983. Circu- lation on the Newfoundland continental shelf. Atmosphere-Ocean 21 (2): 207-226. 5. The figure shows annual and interannual variability of adjusted sea level SMITH, E., SOULE, F., and MOSBY, O. 1937. The Marion and General Greene expeditions to at St. John’s, Newfoundland. Davis Strait and the Labrador Sea. Bulletin of the United States Coast Guard 19: 259 p. 40 chapter 4 Biology

t is clear that the Grand Banks are would be the effect of oil on its Early in the attempt to model the I a rich source of both renewable and functioning? Grand Banks ecosystem, it became non-renewable resources. The richness As the article by K.F. Drinkwater apparent that there were serious of the fishery has long been a matter shows, it is necessary to look far doubts whether the conventional wis- of comment, and the potential for beyond the boundaries of the Grand dom of biological oceanography (that extraction of fossil fuel has recently Banks to understand what makes them primary production is mainly by dia- been convincingly demonstrated. All so productive. They are strongly under toms and secondary production is are concerned that Canadians should the influence of the Labrador Current mainly by copepods) could be applied be able to extract maximum benefit from the north, and the chemical and to the Grand Banks. With assistance from both types of resource, while biological constituents of this Current from OERD a second project was managing the fishery effectively and are in turn strongly influenced by the launched to investigate the biological extracting the hydrocarbons without amount of fresh water entering and submodel. The results of several major damage to the environment. leaving Hudson’s Bay. Surprising as it voyages to the Grand Banks clearly Direct investigation of the details of may seem, fish production on the showed that the diatom-copepod para- the fish stocks, their sizes, seasonal Grand Banks is influenced by the digm applies only to a short period in migrations, and interactions with each amount of precipitation in the north- spring. For the remainder of the year other is the responsibility of the ern regions of Manitoba, Ontario, and production is dominated by small Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre in Quebec. The unravelling of this story phytoplankton cells, which in turn are St. John’s, Newfoundland, and we are requires expertise in physical, chemi- grazed by microzooplankton. Large pleased to include in this chapter an cal, and biological oceanography, and amounts of phytoplankton production account of that work by two scientists integration of all three disciplines is are released into the water in soluble from the Centre. The particular con- the hallmark of the work of the form and taken up by bacteria that cern of the Marine Ecology Labora- Marine Ecology Laboratory. The abil- are in turn consumed by small animals tory at BIO is with the interacting web ity to make long-term predictions and used to support the food web of natural events that leads to fish about trends in the fish stocks would leading to fish. production: the utilization of solar undoubtedly benefit the fishing indus- This new understanding of the energy by the phytoplankton, the try, and it is now clear that an impor- Grand Banks ecosystem permits MEL transport of fertilizing nutrients to the tant term in the equation is year-to- scientists to proceed with more confi- surface waters, and the passage of year variability in the freshwater run- dence to the construction and testing energy-rich organic compounds off of the Hudson Bay catchment of an ecosystem model. Meantime, through all the steps in the food web area, although more work is needed to those whose job it is to make environ- until they arrive at fish, birds, and fill in the details. mental impact assessments have shown mammals of economic importance. One way of finding out whether we a keen interest in ecosystem modelling With financial assistance from the have sufficient understanding of an as a technique for integrating the Office of Energy Research and Devel- ecosystem is to attempt to reproduce diverse and disparate evidence brought opment (OERD), the Marine Ecology its chief features in a computer model. forward during environmental impact Laboratory undertook to examine Not only can the performance of the hearings, and for considering whether closely the question of how oil natural system be modelled, but exist- a number of small impacts on differ- accidentally released into the marine ing knowledge of the effect of oil on ent parts of an ecosystem might environment might affect this complex bacteria, phytoplankton, zooplankton, amount to a significant perturbation natural fish-producing mechanism. or benthos can be incorporated as per- of the total fish-producing system. Others had already examined the turbations of the natural system, giv- R.G.B. Brown of the Seabird direct effects of oil on fish, but MEL ing at least an indication of probable Research Unit (DOE at BIO) has con- staff now wished to look more deeply effects in nature. The section on tributed yet another biological per- at indirect effects of oil on the total modelling by W. Silvert should be spective on the Grand Banks ecosys- ecosystem. Viewing the food web as a read in conjunction with that on heter- tem. Not only does he report the basic complex mechanism, they asked: How otrophic activity on the Grand Banks data about what species of birds are does this mechanism work, and what by M.A. Paranjape and R.E.H. Smith. present, and what are their seasonal 41 migrations, so that we may understand chain, or does the upwelling simply the problem we come across areas of the risks to the bird flocks of a poten- force the zooplankton from deeper very fundamental uncertainty. Answer- tial oil spill, but he suggests interesting water to congregate near the surface? ing outstanding questions involves the- ways in which bird distributions may In this chapter we are reminded oretical modelling, field investigations, give us clues to ecosystem functioning. once again that while we may frame and a thorough familiarity with the For example, oceanographic zones simple questions like “Is hydrocarbon latest ideas and techniques in the characterized by upwelling of nutrient- extraction harmful to Grand Banks worldwide scientific community. rich water tend to be frequented by fisheries?“, the answers are never sim- flocks of dovekies. These birds feed ple and straightforward. We can test - K.H. Mann on zooplankton. Is the zooplankton the toxicity of oil for fish and come Director there because the nutrient upwelling up with an answer of sorts, but as Marine Ecology Laboratory sets off a highly productive food soon as we dig beneath the surface of

Stock assessment and Regular stock inventories are taken to produce the best current estimates related fisheries research on the Grand Banks of stock abundance for prediction of yields and for annual quota adjustments. L. W. Coady and S. A. Akenhead Fisheries management is an actively developing field and the stock assessment procedures of 1985 are much more sophisticated than those of ten We are very pleased to include this guest article in our issue of years ago. Recent analyses consider BIO Review devoted to the Grand Banks. Within our Department of mixed-species catches and species inter- Fisheries and Oceans, the mandate to provide effective management of actions. Fishing-effort and catch-rate the fisheries resources of Atlantic Canada is handled by various decen- indices are now derived from mixtures tralized establishments with specific regional responsibilities. It is the of boat sizes and gear types and con- Newfoundland Region of the Atlantic Fisheries Service that is responsible sider a wide variety of fish abundance for those resources on the Grand Banks. BIO regularly undertakes scien- estimates, all of them ‘noisy’ from a tific investigations in co-operation with the Newfoundland Region as it statistical standpoint. does in other locations with the Quebec, Gulf, and Scotia-Fundy regions The development of statistical models of the Fisheries Service. Part of the latter region is, in fact, housed at underlying stock assessment analyses BIO and is routinely represented in the pages of the Review. presently involves, at St. John’s, The Newfoundland Region’s research facilities are at the North west exploring predictors of recruitment dis- Atlantic Fisheries Centre on the White Hills overlooking St. John's. With tributions that avoid parameter-fitting a professional and technical staff of about 160 and access to three DFO approaches. In addition, life history- research vessels (Wilfred Templeman, Shamook, and Marinus) as well as strategy theory is being used to esti- the chartered Gadus Atlantica, they conduct a diverse program of mate the natural mortality rate of research. Here, the authors have provided an overview of their Centre’s fishes (an important input to manage- current efforts that demonstrates the diversity of biological problems ment models) from the schedules of faced by fisheries scientists in the Grand Banks area. growth and reproduction through the life of a fish species. isheries research on the Grand Newfoundland Region are tied to the In evaluating a total allowable F Banks addresses several related population dynamics of commercial catch, an accurate assessment is questions: How large are the fish fish stocks and the effects of present needed of the number of young fish populations? Where do they spawn? and projected exploitation rates. that will recruit to the fishery in the Where do they migrate? How do they Detailed observations on ground- year for which the TAC is being set. interact with other species? What fac- fish stocks and their environment are Juvenile flatfish, for instance, pose tors affect their growth and survival? recorded during regular research-vessel special sampling problems and a #41.5 The fundamental aim of the research trawling surveys that utilize commer- Yankee shrimp trawl has been selected is the provision of advice for use in cial gear modified to sample pre-recruit to evaluate their distribution and the development of fishing plans, abundance. These are supplemented by abundance. An attempt is now being quotas, and other management strate- regular studies at principal landing made to develop an index of year-class gies that will ensure the conservation ports of catches by commercial fisher- strength (from research surveys) at of marine resources. For that reason, ies as well as commercial sampling of some age before recruitment to the 80% of research activities in the foreign and Canadian vessels at sea. fishery occurs. In the course of these 42 on the Flemish Cap have been put to and, in the past, Russian trawlers, good use in production studies of the which came to exploit the large schools Southeast Shoal. Present work is de- of capelin that spawn in the area. signed to reveal the processes deter- Pelagic researchers mount two hydro- mining the early-life history of the acoustic voyages for capelin over the larval yellowtail flounder (Limanda Grand Banks each year: one in April ferruginea) and the stock’s subsequent covers the northern Grand Banks year-class strength. This involves deter- (Div. 3L) and another in June covers mining growth, feeding, distribution, the entire area (i.e., Div. 3LNO). and abundance relative to biological These voyages provide a reliable basis and physical oceanographic conditions. from which we can identify and pre- The patterns of nutrients and water dict fluctuations in population abun- density revealed in the Southeast Shoal dance and predict relative distributions. cruises provided several surprises. A modified dual-beam transducer is Nutrient levels were much higher than now being prepared to generate data Capelin in fish tanks. (Courtesy of the predicted by early versions of a Grand on in-situ fish target strength and Centre) Banks model (see article by Silvert, thus dramatically improve our ability this chapter). It also seems that to estimate fish abundance reliably. chlorophyll levels near the shelf break The success of capelin studies has studies, valuable information is being are high year round due to the buoy- led to research on recruitment predic- collected on the general biology and ancy and turbulence of the Labrador tion. In a collaborative effort with dynamics of juvenile flat fish: length- Current. Patterns of community ecol- McGill University, the ecology of at-age, weight-at-age, distribution as it ogy are clearly organized by the strik- capelin early-life history on the Grand relates to the adult population, matu- ing frontal features of the area. And Bank is being investigated by consider- rity, feeding behaviour, and predation . . . yes, the production is sustaining ing, among other hypotheses, how by other species. larval fish! large waves might mix the shallow The general question of how many The Southeast Shoal is visited by Southeast Shoal waters to the bottom, fish? is being considered in the context spectacular hordes of whales, seabirds, resuspending the sediments and freeing of seasonal distributions. In the past, capelin larvae that hatched in those all fish stocks under quota control sediments. In co-operation with BIO, were subject to a stratified random the submersible Pisces was deployed in trawl-survey once a year and such the area in 1985 to investigate larval snapshots provided little information capelin dynamics and examine tilt on seasonal variability. A project was angles of adult capelin (an important mounted in 1984 to quantify the effect consideration in hydroacoustic of seasonal variability (in distribution research). and abundance) on biomass estimates While biologists are aware that cod of the major groundfish species in the concentrate on offshore spawning northern Grand Bank area (Div. 3L). grounds in the spring, very little is The project will also address temporal known about how they disperse after variability in biological parameters. To spawning and how they move inshore. ensure adequate survey coverage and Commencing in 1983, cod schools to encompass all important groundfish were followed inshore from offshore species in the area, approximately spawning sites on the northern Grand 300 random-stratified stations are sur- Banks. Research vessels equipped with veyed over a 6-week period in each high-powered sonar are able to locate quarter of the year. cod and capelin and follow them for Understanding year-class strength several days (see first figure). While and recruitment processes in marine the picture is not completely clear, it fishes remains the outstanding research seems that cod move inshore along the priority in fisheries science. The physi- bottom. The cod move shoreward at cal transport of nutrients from the depths between 250 m and the shal- deeps east of the Grand Bank up onto lower cold (0 to - 1.7°C) waters of the shallow sunlit waters of the South- the Labrador Current. These migrating east Shoal controls the production of cod tend to remain where the tempera- food and planktonic predators of lar- Technicians from the North west ture is around 0°C to 3°C although val fish, and ultimately controls the Atlantic Fisheries Centre sample a occasionally they may be found in survival of fish eggs into demersal trawl catch of fish aboard a research waters as cold as -0.5°C. juveniles. Lessons learned from early- vessel. (Courtesy of the Centre) Cod-tagging studies conducted since life history studies of cod and redfish the late seventies have answered 43 in even large cod suggests high productivity in this area. Previous studies (Lear, 1976) indicated the presence of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the area of the Grand Bank of Newfoundland and their possible relationship to inshore fisheries in Canada. In the spring of 1979 and again in 1980, locations thought suitable for salmon were fished. In total, 341 salmon were caught over the southern end of the Grand Bank and to the east of the Bank beyond the 200 m isobath. The distribution of tag returns indicated that some of these salmon were from rivers in the Mari- times and Maine, USA. The condition of gonads indicated that some of the fish would have matured as grilse hav- 1. Acoustic tracing of cod migrating inshore to reach the warmer ing spent only one winter at sea. This bottom waters of the Grand Banks. (Courtesy of W.H. Lear, unpublished data) is the first recorded capture in the Northwest Atlantic (other than in coastal fisheries) of l-sea-winter several key questions dealing with the snow crab, there is an interest in the salmon that would eventually mature seasonal movements of cod. Adult cod effect increasing numbers of one will as grilse. More work is planned. The tagged on spawning grounds on the have on the other. Cod feeding is biology, ecology, and population northern slope of the Grand Banks are studied by examining stomach con- dynamics of snow crab on the Grand sometimes recaptured in the inshore tents, whose interpretation requires an Banks is being studied. Crab fisher- fishery in the same year, and provide understanding of selection, digestion, men have extended operations out to estimates of the proportions of cod and the partitioning of food energy 60-120 miles eastward and northward taken in the inshore fishery. Tagging into growth, activity, and reproduc- to southern Labrador. Since 1982, efforts, concentrated on the northern tion. Very few measurements of fish snow crab landings on the northern Grand Bank component of the north- bioenergetics have been carried out at Grand Bank (Div. 3L) have declined ern cod stock complex, have revealed the - 1.0 to 3.0°C temperatures that precipitously. Size-frequency and shell- that only 2-3% of this component is are typical of the Grand Banks cod condition analyses from spring actually harvested inshore. The cod habitat. Feeding studies using modern research cruises have shown that inhabiting the southern slopes of the computers and analyses can be very recruitment into the crab fishery virtu- Grand Bank (Div. 3NO) in winter are revealing. A statistical clustering ally ceased after 1981. Bottom temper- considered a separate stock. Generally, approach has been developed to ana- atures from Station 27, near the com- these cod remain on the bank through- lyze stomach contents and identify mercial crab grounds, show a severe out the year and, while they disperse diet types more accurately than old- lowering of water temperatures begin- northward across the surface of the fashioned groupings by length or trawl ning in 1982 and continuing to the Bank in spring, there is very little sample could. Cod-diet preferences can present. It appears that these cold tem- movement westward and the 3NO now be sorted out and prey abun- peratures (below - 1.0°C) interrupted stock does not contribute significantly dance, as perceived by cod, mapped the moult cycle of snow crab causing to the Newfoundland inshore cod for the Grand Bank area. the failure of the fishery after the fishery. Predators can also be viewed as col- standing stock of legal-sized animals In the summer and fall, adult and lecting tools. Although the view they was depleted. juvenile cod have also been tagged in provide is distorted the information The short-finned squid (Illex inshore areas. Recaptures by the off- that can be gained about the distribu- illecebrosus) is a seasonal migrant to shore fleet provide information on the tion, relative abundance, and sizes of the Newfoundland area. Incidental migrations of cod returning to spawn- prey can be very useful, especially in catches have been made during May- ing areas. Cod clearly home to nearly an area as poorly studied as the Grand July groundfish surveys on the Grand the same areas as they were spawned, Banks. For example, large quantities Bank. In July to November, squid much like salmon returning to home of euphausiids were found in cod may support a lucrative inshore fish- rivers. stomachs in the area of the Virgin ery. Some years, squid are numerous Predatory fishes compete with Rocks in the spring of 1979. Concen- and profitable; other years they are fishermen! When one commercial spe- trations of euphausiids have not previ- scarce. Over the past few years the cies such as cod eats other commercial ously been reported in this area, and inshore abundance of squid at species such as capelin, shrimp, or their presence in large quantities Newfoundland has been successfully 44 forecast for the fishing industry. 2. The 10-m mean salinity and Midwater trawl and plankton surveys temperature for each month at (February-March) were undertaken Station 27 (St. John’s) is compared within the Gulf Stream System in the to the long term mean (centre of 5 area between the Grand Bank and solid lines). Plus and minus 1 and 25 Scotian Shelf, as an index of the rela- standard deviation lines indicate tive abundance of pre-recruit (larval how unusual each month‘s departure and juvenile) Illex. In June, stratified from the mean is. About 16% of random surveys on the southwest slope observations will be more than one of the Grand Bank provide further standard deviation higher than the information on the relationships mean, but only 2.3% of monthly between catch rate, hydrography, and means are expected to be more than inshore squid abundance in the com- two standard deviations from the ing months. long- term mean. The ocean climate for the region north of the Laurentian Channel is known mainly from Station 27, an oceanographic station near Cape marine biologists (ocean physicists are ity to map regions of high primary Spear, the most easterly point of better served), sea-surface-colour data productivity would be a valuable step North America. Attempts to start a are slowly becoming available from forward in understanding the biology time series for ocean climate correla- NASA archives. Researchers studying of the Grand Banks. As an example, tions in the thirties (following Hjort’s the Grand Bank are fortunate that a the satellite coverage will refine the advice) were unsuccessful but, since large ground-truth data base exists current estimates of annual primary Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949, from the expeditions that Mobil Oil production on the Grand Bank voluntary occupation of Station 27 by Corporation supported in 1980. In a (175 g C/m2/year), and thus set research vessels entering and leaving co-operative project with the Institute important constraints upon the expec- St. John’s has provided 20 to 40 obser- of Ocean Sciences in British Columbia, tations of maximal yield for the vations each year, more than enough we are comparing the chlorophyll and fisheries there. to track the interannual swings in primary production data from 1980 to Some research is aimed at theo- salt and heat content of the the digital data of nine sea-surface retical multispecies or ecosystem con- Labrador Current (see second figure). colour images from the Nimbus 7 siderations. Two examples are the Among the fisheries ecology projects satellite. examination of trophic dynamics in that have used the Station 27 data set It may be that satellite images can multispecies marine systems, and the are a successful analysis of the north- be analyzed to reveal relative primary relationship of the structure of marine ern cod year-class strength (Sutcliffe production in spite of being unable to trophic webs to the relative degree of et al., 1983), of inshore cod catches map subsurface chlorophyll. The abil- stability or chaotic behaviour of the (Akenhead et al., 1981; Lear et al., In press), and of the collapse of the snow crab fishery on the Grand Bank (Taylor et al., In press). Ocean climate information is particularly useful in this region, because many Grand Bank species are at the edge of their temperature range in this transition zone from boreal to arctic conditions. Had- dock, yellowtail flounder, cod, and other resident species survive through the winter off Newfoundland only by avoiding the freezing waters. Many commercially important species (squid, mackerel) temporarily migrate into the region in summer, in abundances that vary according to ocean climate conditions as well as absolute abundance. High technology offers new tools to make exploring the marine biology of the vast Grand Banks less costly and time-consuming, especially remote sensing through satellite sensors. While Larry Coady and Scott Akenhead. few satellites offer data valuable to 45 systems. A more practical approach Fisheries scientists have been Atlantic Fisheries Organization, Scientific uses the extensive research vessel data involved in the Hibernia Development Council Report 811 (Series N264): 18 p. base, obtained since the mid-forties, to Project’s environmental impact assess- COADY, L.W. and MAIDMENT, J.M. 1985. document changes in fish distribution ment and in the review of the many Publications of the Fisheries Research Branch, Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre, St. John’s, and community structure on the supporting documents. Evaluating the Newfoundland - 1931 to 1984. Canadian Man- Grand Bank. effects of hydrocarbon development uscript Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Scientists at the Northwest Atlantic on the fisheries is one of the chief 1790: v + 159 p. Fisheries Centre and BIO have aims of fish habitat research at the LEAR, W.H. 1976. Migrating Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) caught by otter trawl on the New- pioneered the development of a Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Center. foundland continental shelf. Journal of the Fish- biochemical technique - the so-called For example, a mixed-function oxidase eries Research Board of Canada 33: 1202- 1205. mixed function oxygenase (MFO) enzyme may indicate exposure to LEAR, W.H., BAIRD, J.W., RICE, J.C., enzyme system - which can be used hydrocarbons of fish at the Hibernia CARSCADDEN, J.E., LILLY, G.R., and as a sensitive monitoring tool for site. Researchers are also exploring the AKENHEAD, S.A. In press. An examination of factors affecting catch in the inshore cod fishery petroleum pollution when development suite of hydrocarbon metabolites in of Labrador and eastern Newfoundland. begins on the Grand Banks of New- fish gall bladders as an indicator Canadian Atlantic Fisheries Scientific Advisory foundland (see article by Paranjape of exposure of wild stocks of Committee, Research Document. and Smith). The earliest field studies hydrocarbons. LILLY, G.R. and RICE, J.C. 1983. Food of demonstrating an association between Future research, in keeping with the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) on the northern Grand Bank in spring. Northwest Atlantic MFO enzyme induction in fish and trend toward ecosystem management, Fisheries Organization Scientific Council Report hydrocarbon pollution were carried will emphasize co-ordination among 8387 (Series N753): 35 p. out in Newfoundland in the early specializations. Efforts will be acceler- PINHORN, A.T. (Editor). 1976. Living marine 1970s. During the last decade other ated to improve the precision of esti- resources of Newfoundland-Labrador: status and potential. Bulletin of the Fisheries Research field studies investigating the relation- mates of total allowable catch, catch Board of Canada 194: 64 p. ship between MFO enzyme induction rates, stock forecasts, and other out- SUTCLIFFE, W.H., JR., LOUCKS, R.H., and sources of petroleum or mixed- puts from stock assessment. The DRINKWATER, K.F., and COOTE, A.R. organic pollution have been carried expected development of the Hibernia 1983. Nutrient flux onto the Labrador Shelf out in the North Sea, the mid- oil field will create added pressures to from Hudson Strait, and its biological consequences. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Atlantic, the Pacific, the Adriatic Sea, examine baseline environmental condi- A quatic Sciences 40: 1692- 1701. and the Great Lakes. In addition to tions and to ensure that the interests TAYLOR, D.M., O’KEEFE, P.G., and such supporting field studies, inves- of the fishing industry are protected. FITZPATRICK, C. In press. A snow crab tigators from laboratories both in (Chionoecetes opilio) recruitment failure off the St. John’s and Dartmouth have stud- Selected Bibliography northeast coast of the Avalon Peninsula and a possible cause. Canadian Atlantic Fisheries AKENHEAD, S.A., CARSCADDEN, J., ied induction potentials in a variety of Scientific Advisory Committee, Research LEAR, H., LILLY, G.R., and WELLS, R. Document. fish species common to this area of 1981. 0n the cod-capelin interaction off north- the Northwest Atlantic. east Newfoundland and Labrador. Northwest

How the Labrador Current and Hudson Bay and on the biological consequences of these effects on the Grand Banks. run-off affect the ecology The journey begins over 1000 km of the Grand Banks north of the Grand Banks in the Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay area (see first figure). Owing to the size, K.F. Drinkwater shape, and bathymetry of Ungava Bay, resonance occurs there at tidal frequencies and creates high tidal he Labrador Current has a pro- Banks. Studies conducted by Soviet ranges, strong tidal currents, and T found influence on the Grand scientists in the early sixties show intense vertical mixing. The latter Banks of Newfoundland. Entering this clearly that cod larvae spawned on the process produces a water mass that is region from the north, the current car- southern Labrador Shelf are trans- an admixture of three water masses ries cold, low salinity water. The ported by the Current into the Grand entering the area: (1) cold (less than chilled and often ice-infested waters Banks region. Recent studies by scien- 0°C) water of polar origin, which off Newfoundland are strong tes- tists from the Marine Ecology Labo- flows southward along eastern Baffin timony to the Current’s influence on ratory have probed further into the Island; (2) relatively warm (approxi- the physical environment. Less known effects of the Labrador Current on the mately 4°C) water from the Labrador and understood is the effect of the biological production of the Labrador Sea; and (3) low salinity water flowing Current on the biology of the Grand Shelf and the distribution of fish there, out from Hudson Bay (Dunbar, 1951; 46 months necessary for water to travel from Hudson Strait to the Grand Banks would be sufficient for development from phytoplankton to large zooplankton and small fish. The tran- sit speed of approximately 20 km per day is consistent with measured currents over the shelf. If the Sutcliffe et al. (1983) hypothesis is correct and the primary source of new nutrients to the Labrador shelf enters from the north, a southward decrease in primary production can be expected. Available surface-production data from Irwin et al. (1978), although limited in both spatial and temporal coverage, do show decreased production towards the south (see second figure). The hypothesis also predicts increasing abundance of zooplankton and fish to the south. Qualitative zooplankton data with which to test the hypothesis are unavailable; however, fisheries data do exist. The mean catch of the major commercial species, expressed as either weight or weight per unit area, increases dramatically in southern Labrador with catches remaining high through to the Grand Banks (see third figure). The dominant commercial species is Atlantic cod. It is possible that such a representation using catch statistics is misleading because it may reflect only fishing 1. The Grand Banks and Labrador Shelf showing the North west Atlantic effort. This is especially true in the Fisheries Organization (NAFO) Subarea boundaries. The insert shows the northern Labrador regions where the major surface ocean currents in the northern region. local population is small and the distance to the home port of any commercial fishing fleet is long. For this Kollmeyer et al., 1967). The resultant ate latitudes, depletion of the available reason Sutcliffe et al. (1983) examined mixture is transported by the residual nutrients by phytoplankton during the seabird abundance along the coast. circulation onto the northern end of spring or early summer bloom usually the Labrador Shelf and then south- limits algal growth through the sum- ward by the Labrador Current. The mer and fall unless new sources of temperature and salinity characteristics nutrients arise. Sutcliffe et al. (1983) undergo only slight modifications en argued that the high surface nutrients route to the southern Labrador con- from Hudson Strait are advected onto tinental shelf (Lazier, 1982), which the Labrador shelf and represent the suggests that mixing is weak over the primary source of new nutrients onto shelf. Hudson Strait, therefore, has the shelf in summer. The nutrient flux been termed the birthplace of the from Hudson Strait to the Labrador Labrador shelf waters (Dunbar, 1951). shelf is relatively continuous. Sutcliffe The intense mixing in the vicinity of and his co-workers also formed the eastern Hudson Strait also has impor- hypothesis that a food chain develops tant biological effects, because it on the Labrador shelf progressively produces nutrient-enriched surface ‘downstream’ from this nutrient source waters (Kollmeyer et al., 1967). The during the time required for develop- 2. Surface production rate as a func- uptake of nutrients from sea water is ment, and with the southward advection of longitudinal distance along an essential requirement for primary tion by the Labrador Current. They the Labrador Shelf. production. At most Arctic or temper- suggested that the estimated two 47 are not available over a long time- water to travel from Hudson Bay to series. However, more-abundant eastern Newfoundland. Assuming a nutrients are associated with high similar inverse relationship exists salinity water and salinity records are between Hudson Bay run-off and available. Data have been collected salinity at interannual time scales, at Station 27, 4 km off St. John’s, decreased cod catches will follow years Newfoundland, on a regular basis of high run-off (that is low salinity since the early fifties. While the sta- and low nutrients). This is consistent tion is located further south than with the salinity-cod relationship noted desired, no long-term salinity measure- above. The proposed mechanism is ments are available on the Labrador that, in high discharge years, the Shelf. Comparison of Station 27 increased stratification suppresses mix- 3. Fish catch, fish catch per unit upper-layer salinities with annual esti- ing of deeper water into the surface area, and bird abundance as a func- mates of age-four cod abundance in euphotic zone and thereby lowers tion of longitudinal distance along the offshore of southern Labrador nutrient concentrations. This reduces the Labrador-Newfoundland Shelf. and northern Newfoundland and the primary production and eventually Grand Banks is revealing (see fourth lowers the amount of food available figure). Eighty per cent of the variance to the cod. Unfortunately, sufficient The seabirds nest at the shore and in cod abundance from 1958-1976 can hydrological, meteorological, and feed upon small fish, thereby, requir- be explained by the summer-time salin- oceanographic data are as yet ing for at least a short time a depend- ity levels during the first three years of unavailable to test this hypothesis. able supply of food. The parallel a cod’s life. In years of higher salinity In the late summer of 1985, a voy- between the abundance of bird and (and therefore higher nutrients), cod age on CSS Hudson was conducted to fish catch is striking (see third figure). abundance increases. further test the validity of the Sutcliffe It is not a reflection of available nest- et al. (1983) hypothesis that a food ing sites, inclement weather, or exist- chain develops downstream from ing ice conditions. The interpretation Hudson Strait. Abundance and size is that there is a scarcity of small fish data on the bacteria, phytoplankton, in the northern Labrador shelf for the zooplankton, and fish over the birds to feed upon. Labrador shelf were collected and will The hypothesis of Sutcliffe et al. be used to investigate the predicted (1983) further suggests that the size of longitudinal gradients. Comparisons zooplankton increases to the south. will be made to determine the relative Again, qualitative zooplankton data importance of the longitudinal grad- are lacking, but indirect evidence is ients to the cross-shelf gradients and available. Prey size is known to be a the difference between topographic key factor in determining the maxi- features, such as those on the banks, mum size attained by fish (Kerr, in troughs, and along the continental 1979). On the Labrador shelf and slopes. Analysis of the data will be Grand Banks, cod length (at ‘largest completed in the near future and size’) increases to the south, with cod should provide significant new insights on the northern Labrador shelf being into the impact of the Hudson Strait little more than 60% of the size of outflow and the Labrador Current on those on the southern shelf and on the 4. Measured abundance of Atlantic the biology of the Labrador shelf, and Grand Banks (May et al., 1965). cod in the southern Labrador- their possible effects on the Grand Phytoplankton production, fish northern Newfoundland Shelf area Banks. abundance, fish size, and bird abun- and abundance calculated from dance along the Labrador shelf all correlations with salinities. support the hypothesis that nutrients from Hudson Strait initiate a chain of References events that culminates in higher fish The low salinity outflow from DUNBAR, M.J. 1951. Eastern Arctic waters. Bulletin of the Fisheries Research Board of production on the southern shelf and Hudson Bay, one of the three main Canada 88: 131 p. off northern Newfoundland. Extending constituents of the Labrador shelf IRWIN, B., EVANS, P., and PLATT, T. 1978. the hypothesis further one might water, also affects the biology of the Phytoplankton productivity experiments and expect that interannual fluctuations in Labrador shelf. Monthly mean fresh- nutrient measurements in the Labrador Sea from 15 Oct. to 31 Oct. 1977. Canada Fisheries and nutrient supply may produce year-to- water discharge into the Bay shows an Marine Service Data Report 83: 40 p. year changes in fish production. inverse relationship with the seasonal KERR, S.R. 1979. Prey availability, metaphoete- Unfortunately, nutrient data for upper layer salinities off St. John’s, sis, and the size structure of lake trout stocks. Hudson Strait and the Labrador Shelf given an appropriate lag time for the Investigation Pesquera 43: 187- 198. 48 KOLLMEYER, R.C., MCGILL, D.A., and Current. Journal of Marine Research 40 SUTCLIFFE, W.H., Jr., LOUCKS, R.H., CORWIN, N. 1967. Oceanography of the (Supplement): 341-356. DRINKWATER, K.F., and COOTE, A.R. Labrador Sea in the vicinity of Hudson Strait in 1983. Nutrient flux onto the Labrador Shelf MAY, A.W., PINHORN, A.T., WELLS, R., 1965. U.S. Coast Guard Oceanographic Report from Hudson Strait, and its biological conse- and FLEMING, A.M. 1965. Cod growth and No. CG373-12: 92 p. quences. Canadian Journal of Fisheries Aquatic temperature in the Newfoundland area. ICNAF Sciences 40: 1692- 1701. LAZIER, J.R.N. 1982. Seasonal variability of Special Publication 6: 545-555. temperature and salinity in the Labrador

The Grand Banks modelling project

W. Silvert

n 1983 the Marine Ecology Labora- communication between specialists; I tory undertook to develop a model consequently, discussions were largely of the Grand Banks ecosystem that carried out in plenary sessions rather would assist in the evaluation of possi- than in specialist working groups. ble ecological risks associated with oil This planning workshop was fol- production on the Grand Banks, par- lowed by a full modelling workshop at ticularly at the Hibernia site. This Acadia University in July 1984. The project was funded by OERD and is main objective here was to develop a one of several initiated at MEL to preliminary working model of the improve our understanding of the eco- Grand Banks ecosystem that incorpo- logical implications of offshore energy rated the concepts put forward by the developments on the Grand Banks and participants and represented a realistic Bill Silvert. other shelf systems. picture of the processes that govern The Grand Banks modelling project the system. This included the identifi- is organized in three phases: (1) devel- cation of the major interactions, par- address. One category consists of fish, opment of a highly aggregated model ticularly nutrient flows (mainly carbon macrobenthos, and their predators, representing the dynamics and major and nitrogen). It was also decided to including mammals, birds, and fisher- trophic pathways of the Grand Banks use the model at an early stage for men: another includes zooplankton ecosystem; (2) identification and sensitivity analysis in order to identify (except for ichthyoplankton, which modelling of the significant interac- the most critical parameter values for were grouped with fish) and meioben- tions through which oil spills could determining model performance. thos: the third category consists of affect the biota on the Grand Banks; phytoplankton and bacteria. and (3) elaboration of the model for General description Within each of these three general predictive modelling of the effects of It was agreed at the April workshop groups, the organisms are further clas- oil spills, given uncertainties in the to work with a highly aggregated sified by size. For the preliminary parameter estimates and the possibility model at the outset, and to adopt a modelling stage we decided to use that available data may not be suffi- more detailed structure only for those large size groupings covering a factor cient to resolve the structure of all of parts of the model for which it was of 10 in linear dimension. Most parti- the submodels. Phase (1) of the proj- clearly needed and supported by ade- cle size studies use a factor of 2 in ect was completed in 1985, and phase quate data. This “top down” equivalent spherical volume, which is (2) should be completed in 1986. approach has been used for much of an order of magnitude finer on a loga- the ecosystem modelling work at rithmic scale: however, this would Model development MEL, and the workshop participants have meant using 20 to 30 size classes The basic model structure was agreed that the data available on the for the model, which was felt to be defined at a workshop at the North- Grand Banks ecosystem are such that impractical. The decade scale cor- west Atlantic Fisheries Centre in April a more detailed approach would responds roughly to functional group- 1984. At this and later workshops, an probably not be fruitful. ings. For example, within the “fish” effort was made to include individuals In keeping with this philosophy, the grouping, the size range from 1 mm to from many different areas of marine model structure is built around three 1 cm consists mainly of ichthyoplank- ecology, as well as physical oceanog- broad biological categories arrived at ton, from 1 cm to 10 cm of small raphers familiar with the transport through a compromise between ecosys- pelagic fish, and from 10 cm to 1 m properties of the area. A major func- tem considerations and the practical of groundfish; (these are equivalent tion of a model like this is to facilitate needs that a model of this type must spherical diameters, not lengths). The 49 1. Size classes used in the workshop model. scheme used is shown in the first figure. Feeding behaviour is assumed to depend only on size, with each predator consuming organisms between 2 and 3 orders of magnitude smaller than itself. For example, pelagic fish feed on herbivores, microplankton, and large phytoplankton according to the size categories shown in the first figure. These descriptive terms are used only in a crude sense of course. Many trophic interactions do not fit into this simple scheme. It was decided at the April workshop to use four spatial compartments, three on the Grand Bank itself and one corresponding to the eastern branch of the Labrador Current. The four main compartments are shown in the second figure, with the location of the boundary regions indicated. The boundary conditions actually correspond to water masses rather than 2. Compartments (1-4) and boundaries (5-7) for the model as agreed on at specific geographic regions. the July 1984 workshop. The structure of the model is as follows: the main subroutine calls a total of nine lower level subroutines, the remineralization of equivalent spherical diameters): listed below: nitrogen. BACT - Microbes. INIT - Initialization routines SRPHYT - Biological subroutine PHYT2 - Small phytoplankton, called only at start of for microbes and 1-10 µm. simulation. phytoplankton. PHYT3 - Larger phytoplankton, PHYS - Calculation of water tem- SRZOOP - Biological subroutine for 10-100 µm. perature and solar radia- zooplankton and meio- ZOOPl - Microzooplankton, tion at each time step. benthos. 10-100 µm. SPILL - Calculation of oil distri- SRFISH - Biological subroutine for ZOOP2 - Mostly herbivorous butions, based on differ- fish and marine zooplankton, ent oil spill scenarios. mammals. 100 µm-1 mm. BOUNDS - Compute values of state EXPORT - Loss of fish to the com- ZOOP3 - Mostly carnivorous variables in boundary mercial fishing fleet, zooplankton, compartments. birds, etc. 1 mm-l cm. VERTMX - Compute vertical distri- We have tried to keep the number FISH1 - Ichthyoplankton. bution of nitrate due to of state variables in the model as small FISH2 - Small fish, mostly vertical mixing. as possible. As mentioned above, the pelagic. EXCHG - Compute advective and size classes are much broader than is FISH3 - Large fish (mostly diffusive transport usual in size-spectrum analysis. The demersal) and resident between compartments. model includes only 11 state variables, marine mammals. RECYCL - This subroutine handles defined as follows (sizes refer to ANTGN - Nitrogen in the mixed

50 layer (available to no effort has yet been made to opti- be provided by interannual time series phytoplankton). mize the parameter estimates, quan- on primary production; thus, much of BNTGN - Nitrogen below the titative assessment of these results is the information needed for validation mixed layer, which is not meaningful now. Except for the of the predicted sensitivities must made available to nutrient curves, which are expressed in come from indirect evidence. phytoplankton only microgram-atoms of nitrogen per litre, In the present version of the model through vertical mixing. all of the results are expressed as there is no nutrient limitation during The ZOOP and FISH variables also grams of carbon per cubic metre. the winter, and the initiation of the include benthic fauna. An additional Sizes are all expressed as equivalent spring bloom is caused by a combina- state variable is currently being spherical diameters (ESD). tion of enhanced light and rising tem- introduced to describe non-living peratures, both of which increase the organic material, which is a major Primary production and nutrients growth rate. This means that the onset source of carbon in marine ecosys- Primary production, nutrients, and of the spring bloom is determined by tems. There are of course many other the benthic component appear to be the difference between gradually variables used in the simulation, but the most critical parts of the model at changing factors, so that the timing is these are the only ones modelled present. The current submodel is very very sensitive to small changes in dynamically. sensitive to environmental parameters, environmental factors or grazing. which makes the “tuning” of this part Thus, in the simulations shown in the Results from the current model very important in determining the fourth figure, the bloom occurs too The simulations shown in the third overall behaviour of the complete early. This can be corrected easily by figure constitute a typical set of runs. model. Examining the reasons for this making small changes in these driving Each plot covers one year, starting on has proven instructive, and we are variables or by tuning physiological March 1, with a standard set of initial pursuing this problem further in the parameters such as the dark respira- conditions. Much of the behaviour of coming year. Unfortunately there is tion rate of phytoplankton, but we the system as described by these runs little independent evidence on how feel that it is important to determine can easily be changed by small param- robust the algal component of the sea- whether the timing of the spring eter changes in the model and, because sonal cycle is, information that would bloom really is so sensitive to these

3. Simulated results.

51 factors, or whether it is governed by several control features of this type The phytoplankton biomass curves, changes more directly associated with will be incorporated into the model PHYT2 and PHYT3, show a small stratification of the water column or during the coming year, but because autumn bloom. Because there was no some other dominant driving force. of the lack of detailed information October voyage in the Mobil study, it This determination is especially critical about threshold behaviour in nature is not certain whether this bloom com- for a model that is to be used for pre- and doubts that such behaviour can be monly occurs. However, the existence dicting the effects of oil spills, because reliably duplicated under laboratory of the bloom in the model depends on the effects of a spill, if it affects phys- conditions, we feel that it is necessary the timing of the breakdown of strati- iological parameters to which the sys- to study the behaviour of the system fication in the fall, as a rapid break- tem is very sensitive, could be greatly without this regulatory feature first. down quickly introduces a large quan- magnified. Thresholds may also be especially sen- tity of nutrients into the surface water, It is commonly accepted that the sitive to the effects of oil contamina- which causes a strong bloom, while a spring bloom is associated with stabili- tion, which would weaken the predic- slow breakdown gives the smaller zation of the water column due to tive power of any model in which they herbivores time to consume the bloom stratification. Detailed models of played a major role. as it develops. phytoplankton growth usually treat According to the Mobil Oil Canada In the simulation shown in the primary production as a balance study and work on similar ecosystems, fourth figure, the ANTGN levels do between net growth in parts of the the end of the spring bloom cor- not fall below about 0.5 µg-at N/l, water column where both light and responds with the exhaustion of avail- owing mainly to the use of uptake nutrient supplies are adequate, and able nitrate in the water column, and thresholds to stabilize the runs. The losses due to grazing and respiration in during the summer the levels in the phytoplankton biomass tends to die the light- and nutrient-limited parts. surface waters fall below the minimum off too early in the summer, and there This work involves modelling the verti- measurable value of about 0.1 µg-at are spurious oscillations in the cal structure of the plankton in more N/l. Field data show that there is still ANTGN and BNTGN levels for Com- detail than seemed feasible in the con- some nitrate present at depth, and at partment 3 in late winter due to the text of our present work, given the the July workshop it was agreed to fact that the BNTGN variable is very limited data base and the lack of divide the nitrogen variable into two small and turns over in less than a detailed physical oceanographic infor- components: ANTGN available for day. These numerical problems further mation on vertical mixing processes plant growth, and a bottom compo- complicate the analysis, but it appears throughout the year. At the July nent, BNTGN, which cannot be uti- that the modelling of nutrients and workshop, it was assumed that the lized by algae but can be converted primary production is central to reduction in vertical mixing in spring into ANTGN by vertical mixing. It understanding the workings of the would increase the mean amount of was assumed that the dividing line Grand Banks ecosystem and will have light to which phytoplankters are between these strata was at the to receive very careful attention before exposed, but field measurements of pycnocline, and again the problem this part of the ecosystem can be chlorophyll concentrations suggest that arises that the chlorophyll maximum adequately incorporated in the model. the opposite occurs: in many parts of in summer frequently falls below the the Grand Banks the chlorophyll con- pycnocline: except for the southern Zooplankton and fish centrations are found at depths greater transect (44°N) there is generally As should be expected in a size- than the mean mid-winter mixing enough nitrate available at depths structured model, the three zooplank- depth. Various ways of relating the where chlorophyll is available to sup- ton classes differ in their rates of spring bloom to stratification in terms port primary production. This indi- response to the dominant forcing of aggregated variables have not con- cates that the cells found at depth may effect during the year, which is the vincingly resolved this problem, and it be moribund, and that production is spring bloom. Only the smallest size is likely that a more detailed submodel occurring only in the surface waters. If class exhibits any structure in this of algal growth and respiration so, then the producing cells may have response. It is however noteworthy throughout the diurnal cycle may be to be more efficient at scavenging that the middle class, ZOOP2, has a required to understand the processes nutrients from the water column than biomass 4-5 times higher than each of involved. the Michaelis-Menton kinetics now the other two classes. This probably The model does not include several used in the model predict. It has been reflects a feeding advantage, since of the threshold effects commonly hypothesized that, under oligotrophic ZOOP2 can eat both size classes of used in models of this type, but for conditions, algae can exploit small phytoplankton. which empirical evidence is weak. pockets of excreta in the wake of The adult fish classes, FISH2 and Some of the workshop participants swimming zooplankters even when the FISH3, are the only components of recommended that various thresholds mean nutrient concentrations in the the model that have not come close to on nutrient uptake and grazing rates water are effectively zero, and it may equilibrating during the second year be incorporated, and it has been estab- be that nutrient uptake should be simulation shown in the fourth figure. lished that these could stabilize the modelled in this way, rather than While the values in Compartment 4 model and could also be used effec- in terms of the observed nutrient (Labrador Current) remain fairly high, tively for tuning it. It is likely that concentrations. the other values continue to drop 52 rapidly. It appears that the Grand between the pelagic component of the the accuracy with which they must be Bank itself does not produce enough ecosystem and benthic organisms is defined, thus providing direction to energy to support fish populations another area where much information future research in the area. We hope at observed levels of abundance, is lacking, and this is reflected in that the model will eventually be although the relative ordering of the uncertainty on how best to model the adapted to other continental shelf eco- levels is consistent with observation: interaction. A third critical area is the systems as a means of collating and Compartment 2 (SW slope) is least modelling of feeding rates: while these synthesizing existing data and planning productive, and FISH2, which is have been extensively studied in the new fisheries related research. mostly small pelagic fish like capelin, laboratory and some in situ studies Other federal government depart- is fairly high in Compartment 3 have been carried out, the role of ments, who are responsible for the (Southeast Shoal). However, this simu- patchiness in enhancing feeding effi- assessment of environmental impacts, lation does not include migration, and ciencies has received very little atten- have demonstrated an interest in the it has been suggested that some of the tion. One problem faced in dealing application of ecosystem modelling to fish and zooplankton populations on with these uncertainties is that all of the impact assessment process. Present the Grand Banks overwinter in the these concerns could involve interac- methods of assessment are largely richer waters of the Labrador Current. tions that are potentially vulnerable to unstructured and do not consider These simulation results, while tenta- oil-spill impacts, and if they are incor- impacts on the whole ecosystem result- tive and not quantitatively reliable, rectly modelled one could arrive at ing from a measurable impact on a may lend support to this hypothesis, incorrect conclusions about the vulner- small part of the ecosystem. The a factor to be considered in future ability of the ecosystem, even if the modelling approach is capable of model development. resulting model gave good results integrating all of the potential impacts. If migration between Compart- when calibrated against existing time It also provides a structure that can be ment 4 and the other compartments series. built upon as understanding of the plays a significant role in determining ecosystem grows and as the type and Future research and applications the productivity of the Grand Banks, magnitude of perturbations caused by then the potential impact of an oil Bringing the model to its present the development change. Assessment spill at the Hibernia site, located as it stage of development has resulted in a of the applicability of this ecosystem is close to the centre of the hypothe- greater understanding of the complex- modelling approach to environmental sized migrations, could be increased. ity of the forcing functions on con- impact assessment will begin in 1986. tinental shelf ecosystems. While it was Perturbations will be input to the Summary of model results apparent before this project started model based on the pollutant-input Several areas of the present model that data on the Grand Banks were scenarios described in Mobil Oil must be analyzed before appropriate scarce and incomplete, the modelling Canada Ltd.‘s Hibernia Development submodels can be constructed. The process has identified those gaps in the Project Environmental Impact State- interplay between nutrient dynamics data most critical to our understanding ment. Information obtained from the and primary production, particularly of how the Grand Banks ecosystem modelling process on potential impacts the role played by microbes, is not functions. Further work with the will be compared with the impact well understood and will be a major model will help to identify more of predictions. focus for attention. The linking these critical parameters and determine

Microheterotrophic activity on the may consume one half or even more of the primary production in many Grand Banks: The biological submodel areas. Similarly, the microzooplankton, by virtue of their small size, would be expected to have high rates M.A. Paranjape and R.E.H. Smith of consumption to support their dis- proportionately high specific rates of growth and metabolism. If this is rimary production by phytoplank- large crustacean herbivores were con- generally true, the activity of small P ton forms the basis of all major sidered to be the major producers and consumers or microheterotrophs in the pelagic food webs. Organic carbon consumers of organic carbon, but pelagic zone, with the apparent inser- produced by the photosynthetic recent studies of the role played by tion of additional steps or side activity of phytoplankton is used by bacteria and microzooplankton as con- branches in the food chain, raises pelagic herbivores as a source of sumers of organic carbon no longer important questions about the overall energy for growth and metabolism. support this traditional view. Scientists trophodynamic efficiency of plankton Until lately, large phytoplankton and now believe that planktonic bacteria production. 53 The microheterotrophic community ton biomass in the inshore as well as mitted us to measure oxygen consump- includes bacteria and microzooplank- in the oceanic areas and at times can tion rates for the Grand Banks micro- ton. Bacteria are usually less than exceed it by an order of magnitude. plankton in incubations of 24 h or 1 µm in size while microzooplankton Despite their obvious importance, less, at the ambient temperature. are defined as animals that pass microzooplankton have been little We were able to separate bacterial through a 200 µm mesh opening. studied experimentally. Unfortunately, from phytoplankton metabolism These latter include a variety of ciliates, most are inconspicuous and too deli- clearly on many occasions. The first nanoflagellates, sarcodines, and larval cate to be manipulated successfully for figure, for example, shows that virtu- stages of many metazoan phyla. laboratory experimentation. At any ally all metabolism during the late In the last 15 y, using new tech- rate, they are so diverse in size, feed- stages of the spring phytoplankton niques of microscopy, combined with ing habits, and reproductive patterns bloom was accomplished by organisms fluorescent stains to aid identification, that the few laboratory-derived experi- smaller than a 5 µm nominal dimen- estimates of bacterial abundance from mental results cannot be successfully sion. This size range includes virtually many coastal and shelf waters have applied to natural situations. As a all the bacterial activity, as evidenced become much more precise. One mil- result, the impact of the total by assimilation of glucose and amino lion cells or more per millilitre of microzooplankton community as acids in the dark, but very little of the water are commonly measured. If nat- potential grazers on small primary phytoplankton activity, as evidenced ural bacterial populations as abundant producers is usually estimated by photosynthetic carbon assimilation. as this have comparable metabolic indirectly. It is accordingly reasonable to attrib- activity to those observed in the In our study of microheterotrophic ute most of the community metabo- laboratory cultures, then bacteria may activity on the Grand Banks, we used lism to bacteria rather than to well be a significant component of different approaches to separate the phytoplankton or other relatively large plankton secondary production. How- activities of the two components of the organisms. Additional measurements ever, it has often been suggested that community. From our earlier measure- in spring, summer, and fall showed the metabolic rates of bacteria in ments, we found that phytoplankton that bacterial metabolism probably nature are low because substrates for in the bacterial size-range are often averaged about one half or more of growth are scarce, and therefore most active on the Grand Banks. We also total microplankton metabolism in the bacteria in the sea are metabolically found that active bacterial cells able to surface mixed layer, and a similar dormant. This is still a much debated assimilate glucose and/or amino acids share of primary production appeared issue. may comprise only a small fraction of to be consumed by bacteria. Many new techniques to measure the total bacterial population. Thus, The other component of the micro- bacterial activity have been developed we separated the bacteria from the rest heterotrophic community is the micro- in the last ten years. Some depend on of the plankton by screening water zooplankton, which feeds primarily measuring the rate of assimilation of a through filters of different defined on the small-sized phytoplankton. major constituent of the bacterial cell porosities, and measured the rate of By feeding on that part of the such as the DNA precursor, thymidine, oxygen consumption in different size biomass spectrum not utilized effi- or the substrate of dissolved organic fractions. We simultaneously measured ciently by the larger crustacean carbon derived from algal cells. Other the photosynthetic activity as well as grazers, they make the production of methods depend on measuring the fre- assimilation of glucose and amino nanoplankton (and probably pico- quency of division of bacterial cells or acids in different size-fractions. In this plankton as well) accessible to the the specific measure of some metabolic way, we were able to discriminate the larger grazers such as copepods and index such as respiration. In many contribution of bacteria and other larval fish. cases, the resulting estimates of bac- phytoplankton to the total community To estimate the grazing impact of terial activity are much larger than has metabolism. the total microzooplankton community been assumed historically. The oxygen uptake approach obvi- on phytoplankton, we used a recently The microzooplankton community ates the need to assume values for developed dilution method, which is even more heterogeneous than the bacterial growth efficiency, the involved minimum handling of the bacteria. As early as 1908, Hans proportion of the population which is prey and the predator components in Lohmann pointed out that microzoo- physiologically active, and the meta- the sea water. The method is elegant plankton are often dominant in the bolic efficiencies of the bacteria. It in its simplicity. Several dilutions of animal plankton, but for many returns an answer directly on the natural sea water prepared with fil- decades his work was not followed up proportion of community metabolism tered sea water are incubated at the anywhere. Recently, however, more due to bacteria. However, great ana- ambient temperature and light-level, careful methods of collection, preser- lytical precision is required to measure and changes in chlorophyll, as an vation, and enumeration have been the small oxygen changes caused by index of phytoplankton biomass, are employed to study the patterns of dis- natural plankton communities. We monitored. The dilution series reduces tribution and abundance. In the tem- solved this problem at BIO by con- chances of predator-prey encounters perate waters, we now know that the structing an advanced oxygen analysis between microzooplankton and phyto- microzooplankton often make up as system capable of delivering state-of- plankton populations as well as reduc- much as 40% of the macrozooplank- the-art precision. This instrument per- ing competition for nutrients in the 54 20 µm size. Nevertheless, the grazing impact on the total phytoplankton community was only about 3% and 15% of the standing stock and production, respectively. In summer and fall the situation was reversed. The phytoplankton biomass was generally less than one microgram of chlorophyll per litre, and the flagel- lates of less than 20 µm size were pre- dominant. This is the preferred size range of food particles for microzooplankton. As a result, during these seasons, they consumed about 15% of the standing stock and 35% of the primary production daily. Thus it appears that bacteria and

1. Cumulative size distributions of plankton biomass and activity in samples collected in April 1985 near the Southeast Shoal on the Grand Banks. Sizes are defined by the size of mesh through which the water was filtered before measurement of biomass of activity. By definition, the largest class (< 200 µm) contains 100% and the smaller classes (< 5, < 10, < 20 µm) some fraction of the total microplankton. The properties shown are dark O2 consumption rates (x, with bars showing 95 % confidence inter- 14 val), chlorophyll a concentrations (closed circles), C - CO2 assimilation (open circles), and bacterial biomass (triangles). When most of a property is due to the smallest organisms, then random statistical error can cause the amount in small-size fractions to appear greater than 100% at times (e.g., O2 consumption for April 12).

phytoplankton population. Rates of The results of the experiments per- phytoplankton growth and grazing formed on the Grand Banks are shown mortality can then be calculated from in the second figure. In spring, water- the observed changes in the chloro- column stratification and increased phyll a, because the rates of change in light levels lead to an intense flowering chlorophyll at different dilutions are of phytoplankton. Chlorophyll levels linearly related to the dilution factors. reach greater than 10 µg/l in the The negative slope of this relationship mixed layer. Boreal and arctic species is the grazing coefficient for the of chain-forming diatoms dominate 2. The relationship between the microzooplankton and the y-axis inter- the phytoplankton. Almost 85% of the apparent growth rate of chlorophyll cept, where no grazing occurs, is the chlorophyll is found in the species and the dilution factor is depicted. instantaneous growth rate of phyto- greater than 20 µm in size. Most of it The experiments were performed in plankton (see second figure). Both of is not useful to microzooplankton three different seasons. The negative these coefficients can be used further because they cannot usually eat such slope defines the grazing coefficient to calculate the grazing by the micro- large cells. However, they daily con- for microzooplankton and the inter- zooplankton community on the initial sumed about 25% of the standing cept gives the doubling time of the standing stock and potential primary stock and 60 to 80% of the produc- chlorophyll. production of phytoplankton. tion of phytoplankton of less than 55 microzooplankton together could easily seasons. Consequently, their grazing weeks of the spring months, small remove about one half of the standing impact on phytoplankton can probably phytoplankters are the dominant stock and almost 60 to 70% of the be assumed to be low as well. It is producers and microheterotrophs are production in spring and another 15 to now clear that the classical linear the major consumers. The pathway by 20% more in summer and fall. food-chain concept where large phyto- which the secondary production of We do not have estimates of what plankton are the major producers and microheterotrophs becomes available larger crustacean grazers on the Grand large grazers are the major consumers to the higher trophic levels on the Banks might consume. Their biomass, does not seem to apply to the Grand Grand Banks is not yet clear. however, appears to be low in most Banks ecosystem. Except in the few

Seabirds and the Grand Banks and the competition between birds and fishermen for a common prey, the capelin Mallotus villosus. R.G.B. Brown The shortest distance between the western edge of the Grand Banks and the closest point of land is about he abundant seabirds of the Grand are seen there in great quantities, but 60 km, and this is probably outside TBanks have been known to seamen none are to be minded so much as the the foraging range of most of the sea- and fishermen for centuries. The 1728 Pengwin, for these never go without birds that breed in the very large colo- edition of the English Pilot, describing |i.e. away from| the Bank as the nies in eastern Newfoundland. The “Some Directions which ought to be others do, for they are always on it, majority of the birds we see on the taken Notice of by those sailing to or within it, several of them Banks are either non-breeding sub- Newfoundland,” says: “There is also together . . .” The Great Auk has adults, or adults outside the breeding another thing to be taken Notice of by been extinct since 1844, but everything season. Recoveries of banded birds, which you may know when you are else still holds good today. combined with taxonomic evidence, upon the | Grand | Bank. I have read The fishermen of that period used show that it is a catchment area not an Author that says, in treating of this to put the Grand Banks seabirds to a only for the colonies in Atlantic Coast, that you may know this by the more immediate practical use, killing Canada, but also for populations great quantities of Fowls upon the them for bait or for their own food. breeding as far away as Greenland, Bank, viz. Sheer-waters | greater and Captain J.W. Collins, a redoubtable Russia, and Antarctica. The greater sooty shearwaters Puffinus gravis and Gloucester skipper, vividly describes and sooty shearwaters’ and Wilson’s P. griseus |, Willocks | common and the Banks schooners of the mid storm-petrels Oceanites oceanicus, thick-billed murres Uria aalge and U. 19th century, their shrouds hung with which swarm on the Grand Banks in lomvia |, Noddies | northern fulmars row upon row of dead shearwaters, summer, are emigrants from the Fulmarus glacialis |, Gulls | probably ready for the pot. (Discriminating southern hemisphere winter; they black-legged kittiwakes Rissa tridac- Newfoundland gourmets, he says, pre- breed, respectively, in Tristan da tyla | and Pengwins | great auks ferred sooty to greater shearwaters.) Cunha, the Falklands, and Antarctica. Pinguinus impennis |, &c. without Nowadays our concerns are more Banding suggests that most of the making any Exceptions; which is a humane. We worry about the actual or newly fledged juvenile Atlantic puffins mistake, for I have seen these Fowls potential effects of such man-made Fratercula arctica from southwest 100 Leag. off this Bank, the Pengwins hazards as offshore oil spills, the mas- Iceland, the largest breeding centre excepted. It’s true that all these Fowls sive drownings of alcids in gill-nets, for the species, migrate directly to Newfoundland waters. They presumably mingle there with puffins from the colonies in southeast Newfoundland. The kittiwakes that winter on the Banks include birds from west Green- land, Britain, Spitsbergen, and the western Russian Arctic. The dovekies Alle alle come from northwest Green- land and the thick-billed murres from colonies in Lancaster Sound, Hudson Great Auks, which became extinct in 1844. (Sketchesfrom the English Pilot; Strait, and west and east Greenland. The Fourth Book; Describing the West India Navigation, from Hudson’s Bay to the River These complex and far-ranging migra- Amazones; London; 1767 or earlier.) tions have clear implications for seabird conservation and management in 56 Balaenoptera physalus and harp fish as a superabundant food supply seals Pagophilus groenlandicus in while they moult and build up the Newfoundland waters, and of the peak energy reserves depleted during their catch in the offshore capelin fishery of breeding season and their long migra- the 1970s. It is an order of magnitude tion up from the South Atlantic. less than the annual total taken by Murres, by contrast, are proficient Atlantic cod Gadus morhua. divers, able to reach depths of more Seabirds occur everywhere on the than 100 m - the maximum depth of Grand Banks, as the English Pilot water over most of the ‘plateau’. In pointed out. However, modern quan- theory, therefore, they are able to titative observations made from BIO hunt for fish throughout the waters of and other research vessels show that the Grand Banks. their distributions are often very The ultimate aim of the Canadian patchy. Dovekies, for example, are Wildlife Service’s research on the sea- commonest along the eastern and birds of the Grand Banks is to under- southwest slopes, and are relatively stand their place in the Grand Banks A Humpback whale on the Grand scarce over the main ‘plateau’ of the ecosystem as a whole. We have been Banks; in the background are two of Bank. When the greater shearwaters accumulating quantitative data on the many vessels that were in the first arrive at the end of May, they their distributions there since 1969, area fishing capelin at that time. form very large, local flocks on the and we may reasonably claim to know Southeast Shoal, near the southern tip. roughly where the birds are at any On the other hand, murres, outside given season. But, as the essentially the breeding season, are spread fairly qualitative nature of the interpreta- Canadian waters. Any man-induced evenly across the whole ‘plateau’. tions of these distributions shows, we changes in the marine environment of Evidently, so also were Great Auks. have barely begun to understand their the Grand Banks may affect popula- As one might expect, this patchiness pelagic ecology. However, we can at tions that breed thousands of reflects the distributions of the birds’ least make some preliminary, testable kilometres away. prey and, at one or more removes, the predictions, and define problems for Seabirds may only reliably be cen- underlying oceanographic and other future research. There is, for example, sused at their breeding sites, and it is factors that control them. At the sim- the suggested association between hard to estimate the numbers of these plest level, the distributions of the dovekies and shelf-edge upwelling. non-breeding birds on the Banks. We more generalized feeders, such as ful- These upwelling zones can be located can, however, make some order-of- mars and kittiwakes, are largely deter- by satellite imagery. Do they have magnitude guesses. The world popula- mined by the operations of the fishing quantitative or qualitative biological tion of greater shearwaters’ and the fleets from which they scavenge offal. properties in common, such as a high northwest Greenland population of Dovekies are more specialized sea- local density of copepods, or a distinc- dovekies exceed, respectively, 5 million birds; they feed on zooplankton fairly tive zooplankton species community? and 14 million birds; all of these prob- close to the surface. Their prey not If so, how do these fit in with the ably visit the Grand Banks at one sea- only occurs at high densities at the quantitative and qualitative food son or another. So do some 4 million edge of the Banks, but is apparently requirements of the dovekies? Are thick-billed murres from colonies in forced up into the surface layers, and dovekies invariably associated with the Arctic, as well as a proportion of concentrated there, by upwelling along these zones? It would be informative the 1.5 million common murres and the slope. The dovekies are presuma- to compare the physical and biological 0.8 million puffins from eastern bly able to maximize their foraging characteristics of an upwelling that is Newfoundland. To judge from these efficiency by feeding in this zone. used by dovekies, with one that is not. incomplete figures, the total biomass Shearwaters feed on fish, squid, and To what extent do seasonal variations of seabirds on the Grand Banks is at the larger zooplankton, but they are in zooplankton distribution and bio- least 10,000 t. A preliminary calcula- poorly adapted to diving; they can mass influence the timing of the birds’ tion suggests that the fish-eating spe- probably reach the bottom only in arrival on, and departure from, the cies take an annual total of 250,000 t, such shallow parts of the Bank as the Banks? We hope that the Grand mainly capelin, from the Grand Banks Virgin Rocks and the Southeast Shoal. Banks Ecosystems Modelling Project and eastern Newfoundland waters Specifically, their arrival at the Shoal described earlier in this chapter and combined. This is the same order appears timed to coincide with that of with which our seabird research is of magnitude as the annual capelin the very large schools of capelin that integrated will provide some of the consumption by both fin whales spawn there. The birds seem to use the answers to these questions.

57 chapter 5 Charting the Grand Banks and adjoining areas

anada’s history of hydrographic the Second World War, the island Canada. The charting of Newfound- C surveying and charting of the and its surrounding waters were not land prior to this was done mostly by Grand Banks of Newfoundland and included in the Service’s mandate until the British Admiralty. The coast was the island of Newfoundland is not 1949 when Newfoundland became a surveyed adequately enough to meet very long. Apart from the Canadian province and its territorial waters the needs of the commerce of the Hydrographic Service’s efforts during became the eastern boundary of island, which was mostly waterborne

1. Charts of Newfoundland waters that were prepared by other countries and reproduced by the Canadian Hydrographic Service are denoted.

58 and supported by vessels much smaller during World War II included surveys The development of the Hibernia oil than those of today. Although the and charts of Bay Bulls (on the east fields will once again affect shipping Admiralty charts are remarkably coast of the Avalon Peninsula), where patterns along the southeast coast of accurate for their time, they do not a marine slip had been built to serve Newfoundland. St. John’s has served meet the needs of today’s marine com- Canadian warships, and of the active as a focal point in the exploration for munity. During the 1950s, the CHS ports of St. John’s, Harbour Grace, natural resources on the Grand Banks. assumed responsibility to maintain and Holyrood. During this time, its waterfront, which these charts, which are now published Newfoundland has undergone many traditionally has supported foreign as Canadian reproductions (see first changes since 1949. The fleets of fish- fishing fleets, has expanded to serve figure). ing schooners known as saltbankers and supply drilling platforms and The first Canadian chart of have been replaced by a modern seismic survey vessels. During the Newfoundland - Mortier Bay - was trawler fleet, outports have been development and production of the produced in 1941 from quickly col- closed and roads built, and the econ- Hibernia fields, St. John’s will remain lected survey results. At that time, the omy has developed into a resource- at the centre of the activity. harbour was tentatively chosen as a export based one that has changed the A number of other natural ports in meeting place for Prime Minister pattern of shipping around the prov- Placentia Bay have been proposed Churchill and President Roosevelt, and ince. These and other changes have because of their location, deep water, the Admiralty was concerned that the created a need to provide new, more and year-round access for use in the previous survey of 1876 was not ade- accurate nautical charts that are based pre-production phase of the Hibernia quate to allow for the entry of war- on recent hydrographic survey work fields. The Marystown Shipyard, ships there. Other work by the CHS (see second figure). located in Mortier Bay on the west

2. Charts published by the Canadian Hydrographic Service based on a new scheme are available as indicated for the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.

59 side of Placentia Bay, has already con- completed, the total number of charts shoreline or sea bottom must first be tributed to the exploration phase with that cover the area will be reduced surveyed and CHS Atlantic maintains the construction of supply vessels and from the present ones. Depths are por- a revisory survey program for this pur- the outfitting of oil rigs anchored trayed using contour lines and, where pose. The oil-rig repair facility at nearby. Presently, an oil-rig repair soundings are shown, they are in Mortier Bay, a new synchrolift, and facility is under construction at the metres and decimetres. Also, in com- changes to depths along the waterfront eastern end of Mortier Bay. plying with Canadian government in St. John’s Harbour are changes Arnold’s Cove, close to Come By policy, all information is printed in typical of the work involved in the Chance near the head of Placentia both English and French. revisory survey program. Bay, has been suggested as a location Once a chart is produced, relevant Canada’s charting of the Grand for the fabrication of a fixed- information must be constantly Banks began in 1957. Prior to this, production platform. The site of the reviewed so that the marine commu- Admiralty charts from surveys dated former U.S. naval base at Argentia nity may be informed of any changes to the 19th Century were widely used. will likely see more activity in years to to it. Such information may include The development of conventional follow. The port already serves as an marine hazards such as wrecks, Decca as a shipboard navigation sys- alternate supply base and drilling plat- reported shoals, or Canadian Coast tem in the 1950s allowed for the first forms usually anchor off Argentia Guard changes to the aids to naviga- survey of the Grand Banks using a during the spring ice invasions on the tion (buoys, lights, fog horns, etc.). land-based, horizontal positioning sys- Grand Banks. Other information may include new tem. The results of the survey, pub- In 1980, the Atlantic Region of the marine terminals, drydock facilities, or lished by CHS in 1959, included the Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS dredged channels. Charts are updated most accurate positions to date of the Atlantic) embarked on a program to by a program known as chart main- Virgin Rocks and Eastern Shoals, produce new charts of the Grand tenance and relevant changes are which are the greatest hazards to Banks and coastal Newfoundland. advertised weekly in Notices to marine navigation on the Banks. Sub- These have been newly schemed such Mariners, which are published by the sequent surveys from 1963 to 1966 that adjacent charts show coverage at federal Department of Transport. were performed using Decca/Lambda, the same scale; when the program is Significant physical changes to the an unconventional but more accurate navigation system. These surveys provided sufficient information for the first Canadian chart of the Grand Banks, published in 1969. As Loran C, Hi-Fix, and MRS became superior positioning systems in the early 1970s, a more detailed survey of the Virgin Rocks and Eastern Shoals soon followed. Under an agreement with the federal Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources in 1975, CHS and the Atlantic Geoscience Centre at BIO became jointly responsible for offshore multiparameter surveys. Such surveys gather bathymetric, gravimetric, and magnetic profiles simultaneously. The resulting data serve many users with information in the form of nautical and fisheries charts, natural resource maps, maps in the Natural Earth Science Series, and the international General Bathymetric Charts of the Oceans (GEBCO). Multiparameter surveys involve the running of parallel survey lines at spacings of 1 to 20 nautical miles. Fol- lowing detailed surveys of the waters surrounding Sable Island, multiparameter surveys were extended in 1984 at The lighthouse at Cape Spear, Newfoundland, is the most easterly such 10-mile line-spacings in the offshore guide for navigators in North America. from Sable Island to the Grand Banks.

60 In 1985, more detailed bathymetric and the Canadian East Coast Chain, ence the correct position of the soundings on the St. Pierre Bank to for which Fox Harbour is a Slave Loran C lines of position. These data, the south of Newfoundland were Station, was improved along the south together with calibration points meas- obtained. Further work will involve and west coasts of Newfoundland. ured along the coastline, will produce gathering bathymetry to delineate the For CHS to meet its mandate, chart lattices that have a maximum edge of the juridical shelf beyond Loran C lattices must be drawn on lattice error of less than 3 mm at chart Canada’s 200 mile resource manage- some 20 large-scale coastal charts and scale. ment zone, as defined in Article 76 of about half that number of smaller The first of the new charts, Cape the Law of the Sea Treaty. scale offshore and fisheries charts. Off- Pine to Cape St. Mary’s, was pro- The federal Department of Trans- shore charts at scales of 350,000:l or duced in 1982. Adjoining charts from port commissioned the installation of smaller show lattices based on pre- Cape Pine through to Bay Bulls have a Loran C transmitter at Fox Harbour, dicted receiver values. However, when subsequently been released, and Labrador, at the end of December latticing large scale charts, the land- general charts extending the same 1983. This created the Labrador Sea path correction cannot be predicted coverage to the Virgin Rocks will be chain (replacing the North Atlantic with enough accuracy. available by mid-1986 (third figure). Chain) with the Master Station at Fox During July 1984, three weeks of Harbour and Slave Station transmit- calibration work was done aboard the ters at Angissoq, Greenland, and Cape Canadian Coast Guard Ship Bernier in - R. Pietrzak Race, Newfoundland. Loran C cover- the area of Cape Race-Cape Freels- Atlantic Region age was thus extended from eastern Virgin Rocks. The NAVSTAR Global Canadian Hydrographic Service Newfoundland to the Grand Banks, Positioning System was used to refer-

3. The status of surveys by the Canadian Hydrographic Service in and around the Grand Banks area is summarized.

61 chapter 6 Charts and publications

CHART PRODUCTION New Editions (Loran C) The Atlantic Region of the Canadian 4128 Approaches to Saint John Harbour Hydrographic Service has a cartographic 4340 Grand Manan staff of 27 and responsibility for 424 nauti- 4385 Osborne Head to Betty Island cal charts covering Canada’s east coast 4486 Chaleur Bay from Georges Bank to Prince of Wales 4574 Approaches to St. John’s Strait in the Arctic. The charts produced can be divided into three types. A New Chart is the first chart PUBLICATIONS to show an area at that scale or to cover We present below an alphabetical listing by an area different from any existing chart. author of BIO publications for 1984, These charts are now constructed to the including some earlier publications not metric contour style in bilingual form using listed in previous editions. Articles pub- new formats. A New Edition is a new issue lished in scientific and hydrographic jour- of an existing chart showing new naviga- nals, books, conference proceedings, and tional information and including amend- various series of technical reports are ments previously issued in Notices to included. For further information on any Mariners. New navigational information publication listed here please contact: Foredeck operations aboard C.S.S. may include new Loran C lattices from a Publication Services, Bedford Institute of recent extension in coverage, new shipping Hudson at a station off the coast of Oceanography, P.O. Box 1006, Labrador. terminals, or a new International Boundary Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada such as the one through Georges Bank. A B2Y 4A2. Reprint is a new print of a current edition that incorporates amendments previously ADDISON, R.F. 1984. Hepatic mixed function oxidase (MFO) induction in fish ADDISON, R.F. 1984. River input of pol- issued in Notices to Mariners. lutants to the western North Atlantic. In CHS Atlantic completed another success- as a possible biological monitoring system. In Contaminant Effects on Fisheries; Eds. Health of the Northwest Atlantic [A report ful year of chart production in 1984. In V. W. Cairns et al. New York; John Wiley to the Interdepartmental Committee on addition to those New Charts and New and Sons, Inc.: 51-60. Environmental Issues ]; Eds., R.C.H. Editions listed below, 93 chart amendments Wilson and R.F. Addison. Department of and 15 paste-on patches were issued ADDISON, R.F., DOE, K., and the Environment/Department of Fisheries EDWARDS, A. 1984. Effects of oil based through Notices to Mariners from the and Oceans/Department of Energy, Mines drilling mud cuttings on winter flounder and Resources: 42-43. review of some 10,000 chart related items. (Pseudopleuronectes americanus): Absence of acute toxicity or mixed function oxidase ADDISON, R.F., and BRODIE, P.F. New Charts induction. Canadian Technical Report of 1984. Characterization of ethoxyresorufin 4098 Sable Island (Eastern Portion) Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1307. O-De-Ethylase in grey seals (Halichoerus 4099 Sable Island (Western Portion) grypus). Comparative Biochemistry and ADDISON, R.F. 1984. Marine ecotoxico- Physiology 79C(2): 26l-263. 4844 Cape Pine to Renews Harbour logical testing in Canada - a personal 4845 Renews Harbour to Motion Bay assessment. In Ecotoxicological Testing ADDISON, R.F., BRODIE, P.F., ZINCK, 5042 Cutthroat to Quaker Hat for the Marine Environment; Eds. M.E., and SERGEANT, D.E. 1984. DDT 5043 Quaker Hat to Cape Chidley G. Persoone et al. State University of has declined more than PCBs in eastern 5047 Hopedale Ghent and Institute for Marine Scientific Canadian seals during the 1970’s. Environ- 5373 Approaches to George River Research, Bredene, Belgium: 163-177. mental Science and Technology 18(12): 935-937. New Editions ADDISON, R.F. 1984. Organohalogen compounds. In Health of the the North- ALAM, M., PIPER, D.J.W., and 4315 Sydney Harbour west Atlantic [ A report to the Inter- COOKE, H.B.S. 1983. Late Quaternary 4316 Halifax Harbour departmental Committee on Environmental stratigraphy and paleo-oceanography on 4364 Beaver Harbour Issues]; Eds. R.C.H. Wilson and R.F. the Grand Banks continental margin, 4391 LaHave River Addison. Department of the Environment/ eastern Canada. Boreas 12: 253-261. 4392 Sydney Harbour (South Arm) Department of Fisheries and Oceans/ AMOS, C.L. and KING, E.L. 1984. Bed- 4447 Pomquet and Tracadie Harbours Department of Energy, Mines and forms of the Canadian Eastern Seaboard: 4614 Argentia Harbour Resources: 77-84. A comparison with global occurrences. In

62 Sedimentation On High-Latitude Continen- BENOIT, J., EL-SAHB, M.I., and California Continental Borderland. tal Shelves; Eds. B.D. Bornhold and TANG, C.L. 1985. Structure and seasonal Sedimentology 31(2): 169-185. A. Guilcher. Marine Geology 57(14): characteristics of the Gaspe current. BRANDON, E.W. and YEATS P.A. 1984. 167-208. Journal of Geophysical Research 90(C2): Contaminant transport through the marine ANDERSEN, F.O. and HARGRAVE, 3225-3236. environment. In Health of the Northwest B.T. 1984. Effects of Spartina detritus BEZANSON, D. and VANDALL, P.E., Atlantic [A report to the Interdepartmental enrichment on aerobicanaerobic benthic Jr. 1984. An investigation of surface drift Committee on Environmental Issues]; Eds. metabolism in an intertidal sediment. on the Labrador Coast. Canadian Techni- R.C.H. Wilson and R.F. Addison. Depart- Marine Ecology - Progress Series 16(12): cal Report of Hydrography and Ocean ment of the Environment/Department of 161-171. Sciences No. 51. Fisheries and Oceans/Department of Energy, Mines and Resources: 44-55. ANDREWS, D. and HARGRAVE, B.T. BIRKHEAD, T.R., GREENE, E., 1984. Close interval sampling of interstitial BIGGINS, J.D., and NETTLESHIP, D.N. BRODIE, P.F. 1984. A surface area or silicate and porosity in marine sediments. 1984. Breeding site characteristics and thermal index for marine mammal ener- Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48: reproductive success in Thick-billed Murres getic studies. Acta Zoologica Fennica 172: 711-722. (Uris lomvia). Canadian Wildlife Service 153-155. ASCOLI, P. 1984. Epistominid biostrati- Studies on Northern Seabirds, Manuscript BRODIE, P.F. 1984. Review of status of graphy across the Jurassic-Cretaceous Report 178. knowledge of marine mammal energetics. boundary on the northwestern Atlantic BIRKHEAD, T.R., KAY, R., and University of Alaska, Alaska Sea Grant Shelf. In Benthos ‘83: International Sym- NETTLESHIP, D.N. 1985. A new method Report 84- 1. posium on Benthic Foraminifera (2nd: for estimating the survival rates of the BRODIE, P.F. 1984. White Whales. In 1983: Pau, France); Ed. H.J. Oertli. Pau Common Murre. Journal of Wildlife The Encyclopedia of Mammals; Ed. et Bordeaux; The Conference: 27-34. Management 49: 496-502. D. Macdonald. New York; Facts on File ASPREY, K.W. and JOHNSTON, B.L. BIRKHEAD, T.R. and NETTLESHIP, Publications: 200-203. 1984. Report on CSS Hudson Cruise D.N. 1984. Alloparental care in the BROWN, R.G.B. 1984. Seabirds in the 83-028, Baffin Island Fjords. Geological Common Murre (Uris aalge). Canadian Greenland, Barents and Norwegian Seas, Survey of Canada, Open File Report 1004. Journal of Zoology 62: 2121-2124. February-April 1982. Polar Research 2: AUFFRET, G., BUCKLEY, D., LAINE, BIRKHEAD, T.R. and NETTLESHIP, 1-18. E., SCHUTTENHELM, R., SEARLE, R., D.N. 1984. Egg size, composition and off- BROWN, R.G.B. and NETTLESHIP, and SHEPHARD, L. 1984. NEA seabed spring quality in some Alcidae (Aves: D.N. 1984. The seabirds of northeastern working group status on site qualification Charadriiformes). Journal of Zoology North America: Their present status and for nuclear waste disposal within deep-sea 202(2): 177-194. conservation requirements. In Status and sediment. Alburquerque, N.M.; Sandia BIRKHEAD, T.R. and NETTLESHIP, Conservation of the World’s Seabirds; National Laboratories, SAND 83-2037: Eds. J.P. Croxall et al. International 64 p. D.N. 1984. Plumage variation in young razorbills (Alca torda) and murres (Uris Council for Bird Preservation, Technical AUFFRET, G., BUCKLEY, D., LAINE, species) in eastern Canada. Canadian Wild- Publication 2: 85-100. E., SCHUTTENHELM, R., SEARLE, R., life Service Studies on Northern Seabirds, BROWN, R.G.B. and NETTLESHIP, and SHEPHARD, L. 1984. Site qualifica- Manuscript Report 175. D.N. 1984. Capelin and seabirds in the tion studies. 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Analysis of east- SCHAFER, C.T., VILKS, G., and ern Scotian Shelf haddock (4VW). Cana- Fisheries Scientific Advisory Committee, Research Document 84/77. HARDY, I.A. 1984. Standard methods for dian Atlantic Fisheries Scientific Advisory collecting, describing and sampling Quater- Committee, Research Document 84/81. McKEOWN, D.L. 1984. O.R.E. trackpoint nary sediments at the Atlantic Geoscience MAHON, R., SMITH, R.W., acoustic rangebearing receiver evaluation. Centre. Geological Survey of Canada, BERNSTEIN, B.B., and SCOTT, J.S. Canadian Technical Report of Hydrography Open File 1044. and Ocean Sciences No. 47. 68 NEEDLER, G.T. 1985. The absolute PE-PIPER, G. and PIPER, D.J.W. 1984. PLATT, T., LEWIS, M., and GEIDER, velocity as a function of conserved Tectonic setting of the Mesozoic Pindos R. 1984. Thermodynamics of the pelagic measurable quantities. Progress in Basin of the Peloponnese, Greece. Geologi- ecosystem: Elementary closure conditions Oceanography 14(1-4): 421-429. cal Society of London, Special Publication for biological production in the open ocean. In Flows of Energy and Materials NEEDLER, G.T. 1985. The dumping of 17: 563-567. in Marine Ecosystems; Theory and wastes at sea. Book review of Vols. 1-3 of PERROTTE, R. 1984. A methodological Practice; Ed. M.J.R. Fasham. (NATO Wastes in the Ocean. Science 227(4682): approach to nautical chart design. Interna- Conference Series; IV. Marine Sciences 49-50. tional Hydrographic Review 61(1): 111-119. 13). New York; Plenum Press: 49-84. NEILSON, J.D. and DALE, C.E. 1984. A PETERSON, I. and WROBLEWSKI, J.S. POCKLINGTON, R. and KEMPE, S. review of the status of the 4VWX flatfish 1984. Mortality rate of fishes in the pelagic 1983. A comparison of methods for POC stocks. Canadian Atlantic Fisheries ecosystem. Canadian Journal of Fisheries determination in the St. Lawrence River. Scientific Advisory Committee, Research and Aquatic Science 41(7): 1117-1120. Mitteilungen aus dem Geologisch - Document 84/54. PETRIE, B. and ISENOR, A. 1984. An Palaeontologischen Institut der Univer- NETTLESHIP, D.N., SANGER, G.A., analysis of satellite-tracked drifter observa- sitaet, Hamburg, SCOPE/UNEP and SPRINGER, P.F. (Editors). 1984. tions collected in the Grand Banks region. Sonderband, Heft 55: 145-151. Marine birds: Their feeding ecology and Canadian Technical Report of Hydrogra- POCKLINGTON, R. and PEMPKOWIAK, commercial fisheries relationships. Ottawa; phy and Ocean Sciences No. 39. J. 1983. Contribution of humic substances Canadian Wildlife Service: 220 p. PIATT, J.F. and NETTLESHIP, D.N. by the Vistula River to the Baltic Sea. NEU, H. J.A. Interannual variations and 1985. Diving depths of four alcids. Auk Mitteilungen aus dem Geologisch - longer-term changes in the sea state of the 102: 293-297. Palaeontologischen Institut der North Atlantic from 1970 to 1982. Journal PIATT, J.F., NETTLESHIP, D.N., and Universitaet, Hamburg, SCOPE/UNEP of Geophysical Research 89(C4): THRELFALL, W. 1984. Net-mortality of Sonderband, Heft 55: 365-370. 6397-6402. common Murres and Atlantic Puffins in PRINSENBERG, S.J. 1983. Effects of the NORMARK, W.R. and PIPER, D.J.W. Newfoundland, 1951-81. In Marine Birds: hydroelectric developments on the oceano- 1984. Navy Fan, California Borderland: Their Feeding Ecology and Commercial graphic surface parameters of Hudson Growth pattern and depositional processes. Fisheries Relationships; Eds. D.N. Bay. Atmosphere-Ocean 21(4): 418-430. Geo-Marine Letters 3(24): 101-108. Nettleship et al. Ottawa; Canadian Wildlife PRINSENBERG, S.J. 1984. Freshwater Service: 196-207. OAKEY, G.N., SHIH, K.G., contents and heat budgets of James Bay GIROUARD, P., and MACNAB, R. 1984. PINHORN, A.T. and HALLIDAY, R.G. and Hudson Bay. Continental Shelf Marine magnetometer data in southern 1984. A framework for identifying fisheries Research 3(2): 191-200. Davis Strait. Geological Survey of Canada, management problems associated with the PROCTER, R.M., TAYLOR, G.C., and Open File 1009. influence of environmental factors on the WADE, J.A. 1984. Oil and natural gas distribution, movements and migration of O’BOYLE, R.N., McMILLAN, J., and marine species. Northwest Atlantic Fisher- resources of Canada 1983. Geological Sur- WHITE, G., III. 1984. The 4X haddock ies Organization, Scientific Council Report vey of Canada, Paper 83-3 1: 59 p. (Also resource: A problem in supply and issued as Geological Survey of Canada, Document 84/VI/72. demand. Canadian Atlantic Fisheries Open File Report 966.) Scientific Advisory Committee, Research PIPER, D.J.W. 1984. Geological processes QUINLAN, G.M. and BEAUMONT, C. Document 84/100. and factors. In Health of the Northwest 1984. Appalachian thrusting, lithospheric O’BOYLE, R.N., SINCLAIR, M., Atlantic, [A Report to the Interdepartmen- tal Committee on Environmental Issues]; flexure, and the Paleozoic stratigraphy of CONOVER, R.J., MANN, K.H., and the eastern interior of North America. Eds. R.C.H. Wilson and R.F. Addison. KOHLER, A.C. 1984. Temporal and spa- Department of the Environment/Depart- Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 21(9): tial distribution of ichthyoplankton comment of Fisheries and Oceans/Department 973-996. munities of the Scotian Shelf in relation to RAY, S. and BEWERS, J.M. 1984. Distri- biological, hydrological, and physiographic of Energy, Mines, and Resources: 31-41. bution and bioavailability of heavy metals features. In The Biological Productivity of PIPER, D.J.W. 1983. 4. University. In in the marine environment. In Health of the North Atlantic Shelf Areas: A Sympo- Marine Geoscience in Canada; A status the Northwest Atlantic [A Report of the sium (1982: Kiel, Germany); Ed. J.J. report. Geological Survey of Canada Interdepartmental Committee on Environ- Zijlstra. Rapports et Procès- Verbaux des Paper 81-6: 60-67. mental Issues]; Eds. R.C.H. Wilson and reunions, Counseil International pour PIPER, D.J.W., LETSON, J.R.J., DE R.E. Addison. Department of the Environ- l’Exploration de la Mer 183: 27-40. IURE, A.M., and BARRIE, C.Q. 1983. ment/Department of Fisheries and PARSONS, T.R., TAKAHASHI, M., and Sediment accumulation in low sedimenta- Oceans/Department of Energy, Mines and HARGRAVE, B. 1984. Biological Oceano- tion, wave dominated glaciated inlets. Resources: 121-137. graphic Processes. Oxford and Toronto; Sedimentary Geology 36: 195-215. ROBERTSON, A.I. and MANN, K.H. Pergamon Press, 3rd Ed.: 30 p. PIPER, D.J.W., STOW, D.A.V., and 1984. Disturbance by ice and life-history PEABODY, C.H., SINCLAIR, R., and NORMARK, W.R. 1984. The Laurentian adaptations of the seagrass Zostera LAWRENCE, D.J. 1984. Offshore disper- Fan: Sohm Abyssal Plain. Geo-Marine marina. Marine Biology 80(2): 131-141. sant trials: Trajectory modelling. In Letters 3(24): 141-146. ROOTS, W.D. and SRIVASTAVA, S.P. Proceedings of the Annual Arctic Marine PIPER, D.J.W., WILSON, E., VILKS, 1984. Origin of the marine magnetic quiet Oilspill Program Technical Seminar (7th: G., MUDIE, P.J., and WAGNER, F.J.E. zones in the Labrador and Greenland seas. 1984: Edmonton, Alberta). [S.L.]: The 1984. Surficial geology of the upper Marine Geophysical Researches 6(4): Seminar: 526-548. Scotian Slope west of Verrill Canyon. 395-408. PENCZAK, T., MAHON, R., and Geological Survey of Canada, Open File ROSS, C.K. 1984. Temperature-salinity BALON, E.K. 1984. The effect of an Report 939. characteristics of the “Overflow” water in impoundment on the upstream and down- PLATT, T. 1984. Primary productivity in Denmark Strait during “Overflow ‘73”. In stream fish tacocenes (Speed River, the central North Pacific: Comparison to Hydrobiological Variability in the North Ontario, Canada). Archiv fur oxygen and carbon fluxes. Deep-Sea Atlantic and Adjacent Seas; Eds., J. Hydrobiologie 99(2): 220-227. Research 31(11A): 1311-1319. Meincke et al. Rapports et Procès- Verbaux 69 tic Fisheries Organization, Scientific Council Summary Document 84/VI/15. SCOTT, J.S. 1984. Program of research by Canada (Scotia-Fundy) in the NAFO area for 1984. Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization, Circular Letter 84/037. SCOTT, J.S. 1984. Juvenile haddock abundance and water temperature on the Scotian Shelf in 1983. Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization, Scientific Council Research Document 84/VI/64. SCOTT, J.S. 1984. Short-term changes in distribution, size, and availability of juvenile haddock around Sable Island, Nova Scotia. Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Sciences 5(2): 109-112. SHELDON, R.W. 1984. Phytoplankton growth rates in the tropical ocean. Limnology and Oceanography 29(6): 1342-1346. SHERIDAN, R.E., GRADSTEIN, F., Aerial view of the North west Atlantic Fisheries Centre on the White Hills et al. (Editors). 1983. Site 534: Blake- Bahama Basin. In Initial Reports of the overlooking St. John’s, Newfoundland. (Courtesy of the Centre) Deep Sea Drilling Project. Washing- ton:U.S. Government Printing Office, v. 76. des reunions, Conseil International pour Scotian Shelf - a nutrient pump at work. SHOTTON, R. and BAZIGOS, G.P. 1984. I’Exploration de la Mer 185: 111-119. Journal of Geophysical Research 89(C4): Techniques and considerations in the 6415-6425. ROSENBERG, G., PROBYN, T.A., and design of acoustic surveys. Rapports et MANN, K.H. 1984. Nutrient uptake and SCHAFER, C.T. 1984. The Newfoundland Proés- Verbaux des reunions, Conseil growth kinetics in brown seaweeds: slope at 49-50°N: Nature and magnitude of International pour l’Exploration de la Mer Response to continuous and single addi- contemporary marine geological processes. 184: 34-57. tions of ammonium. Journal of Geological Survey of Canada, Paper SILVERT, W. 1982. The theory of power Experimental Marine Biology and 84-1 A: 563-566. and efficiency in ecology. Ecological Ecology 80: 125-146. SCHAFER, C.T. and BLAKENEY, C.P. Modelling 15: 159-164. ROWELL, T.W., TRITES, R.W., and 1984. Baffin Islands fjords. Sea Frontiers SILVERT, W. 1983. Amplification of DAWE, E.G. 2984. Larval and juvenile 30(2): 94-105. environmental fluctuations by marine distribution of the short-finned squid (Illex SCHAFER, C.T. and COLE, F.E. 1984. ecosystems. Oceanologica Acta (Proceed- illecebrosus) in relation to the Gulf Stream The Baffin Island fiords: Modern calcare- ings of the 17th European Marine Biologi- frontal zone in the Blake Plateau and Cape ous foraminiferal assemblages. In Annual cal Symposium): 183-186. Hatteras area. Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Arctic Workshop (13th: 1984: Institute of SILVERT, W. 1984. Particle size spectra Organization, Scientific Council Report Arctic and Alpine Research, Boulder, Co). Document 84/IX/111. in ecology. In Mathematical Ecology; Eds. Boulder, Co; The Workshop: 60-61. S.A. Levin and T.C. Hallam. Springer- RYALL, P.J.C. and HARGRAVE, B.T. SCHAFER, C.T., SMITH, J.N., and Verlag Lecture Notes in Biomathematics 1984. Attraction of the Atlantic wreckfish SEIBERT, G. 1983. Significance of natural 54: 154-162. (Polyprion americanus) to an unbaited and anthropogenic sediment inputs to the SILVERT, W. and POWLES, H. 1983. camera on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Saguenay Fjord, Quebec. Sedimentary Deep-Sea Research 31(1A): 79-83. Applications of operations research to the Geology 36: 172-194. design of field sampling programs. In Sam- RYDER, R.A. and KERR, S.R. 1984. SCHEIBLING, R.E. and STEPHENSON, pling Commercial Catches of Marine Fish Reducing the risk of fish introductions - R.L. 1984. Mass mortality of Stron- and Invertebrates; Eds. W.G. Doubleday a rational approach to the management of gylocentrotus droebachiensis (Echinoder- and D. Rivard. Canadian Special Publica- cold water communities. European Inland mata: Echinoidea) off Nova Scotia, tion of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 66: Fisheries Advisory Council Technical paper Canada. Marine Biology 78: 153-164. 268-278. No. 42, Supplement, Vol. 1, United Nations Food and Agricultural SCOTT, D.B. and GREENBERG, D.A. SIMON, J. and CAMPANA, S. 1984. The Organization, Rome: 510-533. 1983. Relative sea-level rise and tidal 1983-84 4Vn herring biological update. development in the Fundy Tidal System. Canadian Atlantic Fisheries Scientific SAMEOTO, D.D. 1984. Environmental Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 20(10): Advisory Committee, Research Document factors influencing diurnal distribution of 1554-1564. 84/66. zooplankton and ichthyoplankton. Journal of Plankton Research 6(5): 767-792. SCOTT, D.B., MUDIE, P.J., VILKS, G., SINCLAIR, A. 1984. Catch rate variations and YOUNGER, D.C. 1984. Latest in the French winter cod fishery. North- SAMEOTO, D.D. 1984. Vertical distribu- Pleistocene-Holocene paleoceanographic west Atlantic Fisheries Organization, tion of zooplankton biomass and species in trends on the continental margin of eastern Scientific Council Report SCR 84/VI/83. northeastern Baffin Bay related to temper- Canada: Foraminiferal, dinoflagellate and SINCLAIR, A.F. and SMITH, S.J. 1984. ature and salinity. Polar Biology 2(4): pollen evidence. Marine Micropaleontology 213-224. A review of the 4VN (May-December) cod 9(3): 181-218. fishery in 1983. Canadian Atlantic SANDSTROM, H. and ELLIOTT, J.A. SCOTT, J.S. 1984. Canadian Research Fisheries Scientific Advisory Committee, 1984. Internal tides and solitons on the Report 1983, Section 11. Northwest Atlan- Research Document 84/75. 70 SINCLAIR, M., MAGUIRE, J.J., KOELLER, P., and SCOTT, J.S. 1984. Trophic dynamic models in light of current resource inventory data and stock assessment results. Rapports et Procès- Verbaux des réunions, Conseil International pour l’Exploration de la Mer 183: 269-284. SMITH, J.N. 1984. Radioactivity in the marine environment. In Health of the Northwest Atlantic; a report to the Inter- departmental Committee on Environmental Issues; Eds. R.C.H. Wilson and R.F. Addison. Department of the Environ- ment/Department of Fisheries and Oceans/Department of Energy, Mines and Resources: 56-69. SMITH, J.N. and SCHAFER, C.T. 1984. Bioturbation processes in continental rise sediments delineated by Pb-210, micro- fossil, and textural indicators. Journal of Marine Research 42(4): 1117-1145. SMITH, P.C., LIVELY, R.R., and BROWN, K.C. 1984. An intercomparison of near-surface measurements with Aanderaa and AMF VACM current meters in strong tidal currents. Canadian Techni- cal Report of Hydrography and Ocean Sciences No. 48. A juvenile Black-legged Kittiwake and a Northern Fulmar. SMITH, R.E.H., GEIDER, R.J., and PLATT, T. 1984. Microplankton productivity in the oligotrophic ocean. Nature variability in marine macrophytes and its the Geological Society by Blackwell (London) 311(5983): 252-254. implications for food web studies. Marine Scientific Publications: 3-14. Biology 81(3): 223-230. SMITH, R.E.H. and PLATT, T. 1984. SUBBA RAO, D.V. and PLATT, T. 1984. Carbon exchange and 14C tracer methods STOFFYN, M. 1984. Vertical distribution Primary production of Arctic waters. Polar in a nitrogen-limited diatom, Thalassiosira of trace elements in the surface waters off- Biology 3(4): 191-201. pseudonana. Marine Ecology - Progress shore Nova Scotia. Estuarine, Coastal and SUBBA RAO, D.V. and YEATS, P.A. Series 16(1/2): 75-87. Shelf Science 18(4): 433-445. 1984. Effect of iron on phytoplankton SMITH, S.D. and ANDERSON, R.J. STOFFYN-EGLI, P. and MACKENZIE, production in the Sargasso Sea. Journal of 1984. Spectra of humidity, temperature, F.T. 1984. Mass balance of dissolved Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology and wind over the sea at Sable Island, lithium in the oceans. Geochimica et 81: 281-289. Nova Scotia. Journal of Geophysical Cosmochimica Acta 48(4): 859-872. SYMONDS, G. 1984. Bedford Institute of Research 89(C2): 2029-2040. STOW, D.A.V., ALAM, M., and PIPER, Oceanography buoy program. In MIZEX: SMITH, S.D. and DOBSON, F.W. 1984. D.J.W. 1984. Sedimentology of the A Program for Mesoscale Air-Ice-Ocean The heat budget at ocean weather station Halifax Formation, Nova Scotia: Lower Interaction Experiments in Arctic Marginal Bravo. Atmosphere-Ocean 22(1): 1-22. Palaeozoic fine-grained turbidites. In Fine- Ice Zones: V: MIZEX 84 Summer Experi- grained Sediments: Deep-Water Processes ment PI Preliminary Reports; Eds. O.M. SMITH, S.D. and JONES, E.P. 1985. and Facies; Eds. D.A.V. Stow and Johannessen and D.A. Horn. U.S. Army Evidence for wind-pumping of air-sea gas D.J.W. Piper. Oxford; Published for the Cold Regions Research and Engineering exchange based on direct measurements of Geological Society by Blackwell Scientific Laboratory, Special Report 84-29: 63-65. CO2 fluxes. Journal of Geophysical Publications: 127-144. Research 90(C1): 869-875. SYMONDS, G. and BOWEN, A.J. 1984. STOW, D.A.V. and PIPER, D.J.W. Interactions of nearshore bars with incom- SMITH, S.J. 1984. Comment on Optimiz- (Editors). 1984. Fine-grained sediments: ing wave groups. Journal of Geophysical ing survey design for determining age Deep-water processes and facies. Oxford; Research 89(C2): 1953-1959. structure of fish stocks. Canadian Journal Published for the Geological Society by SYMONDS, G. and PETERSON, I.K. of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 41(5): Blackwell Scientific Publications: 659 p. 826-827. 1984. MIZEX 83 - BIO buoy data sum- STOW, D.A.V. and PIPER, D.J.W. 1984. mary. In MIZEX: A Program for SMITH, S.J. 1984. Statistical consulting in Deep-water fine-grained sediments: Facies Mesoscale Air-Ice-Ocean interaction fisheries science. Fisheries 9(5): 16-18. models. In Fine-grained Sediments: Deep- Experiments in Arctic Marginal Ice Zones: STEIGER, T. and JANSA, L.F. 1984. Water Processes and Facies; Eds. D.A.V. IV: Initial results and analysis from Jurassic limestones of the seaward edge of Stow and D.J.W. Piper. Oxford; Pub- MIZEX 83; Eds. O.M. Johannessen and the Mazagan carbonate platform, north- lished for the Geological Society by D.A. Horn. U.S. Army Cold Regions west African continental margin, Morocco. Blackwell Scientific Publications: 611-646. Research and Engineering Laboratory, Special Report 84-28: 13-17. In Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling STOW, D.A.V. and PIPER, D.J.W. 1984. Project; Eds. K. Hinz, E.L. Winterer, Deep-water fine-grained sediments: SYMONDS, G. and PETERSON, I.K. et al. Washington, D.C.; U.S. Government History, methodology and terminology. In 1984. MIZEX - Ice floe trajectories Printing Office 79: 449-477. Fine-Grained Sediments: Deep-water through the Greenland Sea. Canadian Data STEPHENSON, R.J., TAN, F.C., and Processes and Facies, Eds. D.A.V. Stow Report of Hydrography and Ocean MANN, K.H. 1984. Stable carbon isotope and D.J.W. Piper. Oxford; Published for Sciences No. 33. 71 SYVITSKI, J.P.M. 1984. Q-mode factor try: New Opportunities and Restraints; analysis of grain size distributions. Geolog- Eds. D.M. Johnston and N.G. Letalik. ical Survey of Canada, Open File 965. Law of the Sea Institute, University of SYVITSKI, J.P.M. (Compiler). 1984. Hawaii: 270-281. Sedimentology of Arctic fjords experiment: VANDERMEULEN, J.H. and HU 83-028 data report, Vol. 2. Canadian GILFILLAN, ES. 1984. Petroleum Data Report of Hydrography and Ocean pollution, corals and mangroves. Marine Sciences No. 28. Technology Society Journal 18(3): 62-72. TANG, C.L. 1983. Cross-front mixing and VARMA, H. 1984. An interactive graphics frontal upwelling in a controlled quasi- editor for hydrography. Lighthouse 30: permanent density front in the Gulf of 20-23. St. Lawrence. Journal of Physical VILKS, G. 1983. Marine geology, by J.P. Oceanography 13(8): 1468-1481. Kennett [ Book Review ]. Geoscience The 1985 summer program of the TAYLOR, R.B. and FROBEL, D. 1984. Canada 10(4): 222-223. International Ocean Institute of Coastal surveys - Jones Sound, District VILKS, G. 1984. Pleistocene-Holocene Dalhousie University attracted par- of Franklin. Geological Survey of Canada, basin sedimentation, east coast of Canada. Paper 84-1 B: 25-32. ticipants from 20 different develop- Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 84- ing countries. This group was photo- TAYLOR, R.B. and KELLY, B.J. 1984. 1A: 643-646. graphed during their visit to BIO. Beach observations along the east coast of VILKS, G., HARDY, I., and Cape Breton Highlands National Park, JOSENHANS, H.W. 1984. Late Quater- Dartmouth, N.S.; Department of the Nova Scotia. Geological Survey of nary stratigraphy of the inner Labrador Canada, Open File Report 1119. Environment/Department of Fisheries and Shelf. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper Oceans/Department of Energy, Mines and TAYLOR, R.B. and MCCANN, S.B. 1983. 84-1A: 57-65. Resources: 174 p. Coastal depositional landforms in northern WAGNER, F. J.E. 1984. Illustrated cata- Canada. In Shorelines and Isostacy; Eds. WINTERS, G.V., BUCKLEY, D.E., logue of the Mollusca (Gastropoda and CRANSTON, R.E., FITZGERALD, R.A., D.E. Smith and A.G. Dawson. London; Bivalvia) in the Atlantic Geoscience Centre Academic Press: 53-75. and STOFFYN, M. 1984. Geological and index collection. Ottawa; Geological geochemical data for sediment and pore THOMPSON, K.R., MARSDEN, R.F., Survey of Canada: 76 p. water samples from the northeastern and WRIGHT, D.G. 1983. Estimation of WAIWOOD, K. and MAJKOWSKI, J. Pacific Ocean off the coast of Cape low-frequency wind stress fluctuations over 1984. Food consumption and diet composi- Mendocino, California. Geological Survey the open ocean. Journal of Physical tion of cod, Gadus morhua, inhabiting the of Canada, Open File Report 1034. Oceanography 13(6): 1003-1011. southwestern Gulf of St. Lawrence. WINTERS, G.V., BUCKLEY, D.E., TOPLISS, B.J. 1984. Aircraft multispec- Environmental Biology of Fishes 11(1): CRANSTON, R.E., FITZGERALD, R.A., tral remote sensing of suspended sediments 63-78. STOFFYN, M., and STOFFYN-EGLI, P. in a turbid macrotidal environment. Jour- WALDRON, D.E. and HARRIS, C. 1984. 1984. Geological and geochemical data for nal of the International Association for Assessment of the Scotian Shelf silver hake sediment and pore water samples from the Mathematical Geology 16(7): 719-735. population size in 1983. Northwest Atlantic Sohm abyssal plain, North Western Atlan- TOPLISS, B.J. 1984. An application of Fisheries Organization, Scientific Council tic Ocean. Geological Survey of Canada, eigenvector analysis methods to water Report 84/VI/85. Open File Report 1082. colour data. Canadian Technical Report of WALDRON, D.E. and SINCLAIR, A.F. WINTERS, G.V., BUCKLEY, D.E., Hydrography and Ocean Sciences No. 41. 1984. Analysis of by-catches observed in CRANSTON, R.E., FITZGERALD, R.A., TOPLISS, B.J. 1984. Remote sensing of the Scotian Shelf foreign fishery and their STOFFYN, M., and STOFFYN-EGLI, P. bathymetry: An investigation into the impact on domestic fisheries. Canadian 1984. 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Malpeque barrier system, Prince Edward WRIGHT, D.G. and LODER, J.W. 1985. TRITES, R.W. and DRINKWATER, K.F. Island, Canada. In Technical papers of the A depth-dependent study of the topo- 1984. Overview of environmental condi- American Society of Photogrammetry graphic rectification of tidal currents. tions in the Northwest Atlantic in 1983. Annual Meeting (50th : 1984: Washington, Geophysical and Astrophysical Fluid Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization, DC). Falls Church, Va.: The Society: Dynamics 31(3): 169-220. Scientific Council Report 84/VI/70. 21-32. WRIGHT, J.A., KEEN, C.E., and KEEN, TRITES, R.W., MCLAIN, D.R., and WILLIAMSON, M.A., KEEN, C.E., and M.J. 1984. Marine heat from along the INGHAM, M.C. 1984. Sea surface temper- MUDIE, P.J. 1984. Foraminiferal distribu- northeast coast of Newfoundland. atures along the continental shelf - tion on the continental margin off Nova Geological Survey of Canada, Paper Hamilton Bank to Cape Hatteras. North- Scotia. Marine Micropaleontology 9(3): 84-1B: 93-100. west Atlantic Fisheries Organization, 219-239. ZWANENBURG, K. 1984. An assessment Scientific Council Report 84/VI/67. WILSON, R.C.H. and ADDISON, R.F. of the Northwest Atlantic grey seal (Hali- VANDERMEULEN, J.H. 1984. Effects of (Editors). 1984. Health of the Northwest choerus grypus) population for 1983. Cana- chemical contaminants in the coastal zone. Atlantic; A Report to the Interdepartmen- dian Atlantic Fisheries Scientific Advisory In The Law of the Sea and Ocean Indus- tal Committee on Environmental Issues. Committee, Research Document 84/9. 72 chapter 7 Voyages

C.S.S. HUDSON

= The C.S.S. Hudson is a diesel-electric driven ship designed and used for multidisciplinary oceanographic research. The ship is owned by the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

= Principal Statistics - Lloyds Ice Class I hull . . . built in 1963 . . . 90.4 m overall length . . . 15.3 m overall beam . . . 6.3 m maximum draft . . . 4870 tonne displacement . . . 3721 gross registered tons . . . 17 knot full speed . . . 13 knot cruising speed in Sea State 3 . . . 80 day endurance and 23,000 n. mile range at cruising speed . . . scientific complement of 26 . . . 205 m2 of space in four laboratories . . . two HP1000 computer systems . . . heliport and hangar . . . twin screws and bow thruster for position holding . . . four survey launches

= 225 days at sea and 30,978 n. miles steamed in 1984

VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE IN OF YEAR - DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

84-001 Jan. 24 to Feb. 8 G.L. Bugden, AOL Gulf of St. Lawrence Reoccupy standard grid of ice forecast stations; recover satellite buoys; sampling and data collection 84-010 Apr. 9 to 19 T. Platt, MEL Grand Banks of Biological survey Newfoundland 84-012 Apr. 27 to May 15 R.M. Hendry, AOL Gulf Stream south of Recover and redeploy current Nova Scotia meter moorings; CTD survey 84-021 May 25 to Jun. 15 C.E. Keen, AGC Continental Margin Heat flow measurements; seismic survey 84-024 Jun. 18 to 22 C.F.M. Lewis, AGC Avalon Channel area; Geophysical mapping and Western Banks of geological sampling; test shallow Newfoundland refraction seismic system and deep-sea video system 84-026 Jun. 22 to Jul. 7 J.R.N. Lazier, AOL Hamilton Bank, Replace moorings; CTD/Batfish Southern Labrador survey; biological sampling Shelf

73 84-029 Jul. 18 to 25 G.B. Fader, AGC Bedford Basin; Scotian Test Seabed II deep ocean Shelf and slope mapping system; evaluate Hydrostar range bearing receiver; collect shallow water sidescan sonograms, seabed samples, and bottom photographs from Sable Island Bank 84-030 Jul. 27 to Aug. 26 S.P. Srivastava, Labrador Sea Seismic reflection and refraction AGC surveys; collect sediment cores; heat flow measurements; magnetic measurements 84-035 Aug. 28 to Sep. 11 C.T. Schafer, AGC Flemish Pass; Sackville Study surficial geology and (Phase I) Spur; Hamilton Spur; morphology of slope and rise Labrador Slope; using SeaMARC I deep-tow side Eastern Edge of scan sonar system Makkovic Bank 84-035 Sep. 11 to 28 B. MacLean, AGC Labrador - southeast Study continental shelf and (Phase II) Baffin Shelf and Slope slope using SeaMARC I deep- tow system 84-038 Sep. 28 to Oct. 4 J.R.N. Lazier, AOL Hamilton Bank, Replace moorings; CTD survey; Southern Labrador collect cores in Lake Melville Shelf 84-040 Oct. 6 to 23 D.J.W. Piper, AGC Eastern Valley of Study sediment deposition Laurentian Fan; processes; collect data to Scotian Slope improve acoustic stratigraphy using SeaMARC I deep-tow system 84-045 Oct. 30 to Nov. 9 P.J.C. Ryall, St. Georges, Bermuda Test rock-core drill and towed Dalhousie University T.V. camera; box coring

84-046 Nov. 10 to 29 D.E. Buckley, AGC Southern Nares Abyssal Study deep sea sediments and Plain, Barbados benthic biology 84-049 Dec. 1 to 18 T. Platt, MEL Caribbean and U.S. Plankton biology; squid larval continental shelf survey

C.S.S. BAFFIN

= The C.S.S. Baffin is a diesel driven ship designed for hydrographic surveying but also used for general oceanography. The ship is owned by the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

= Principal Statistics - Lloyds Ice Class I hull . . . built in 1956 . . . 87 m overall length . . . 15 m moulded beam . . . 5.7 m maximum draft . . . 4986 tonne displacement . . . 15.5 knot full speed . . . 10 knot cruising speed in Sea State 3 . . . 76 day endurance and 18,000 n. mile range at cruising speed . . . complement of 29 hydrographic staff . . . drafting, plotting, and laboratory spaces provided . . . two HP1000 computer systems . . . heliport and hangar . . . twin screws and bow thruster for position holding . . . six survey launches

= 231 days at sea and 29,870 n. miles steamed in 1984 VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE YEAR - IN OF DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

84-004 Mar. 13 to 30 D. Bowen, DFO, Southeast Labrador Collect data on harp and St. John’s, Nfld. hooded seals 84-015 May. 1 to 31 V.J. Gaudet, CHS Sable Island Standard navigational charting (Phase I) Jun. 4 to 15 V.J. Gaudet, CHS Scotian Shelf Standard navigational charting (Phase II) Jun. 19 to Jul. 26 V.J. Gaudet, CHS Notre Dame Bay, Nfld. Hydrographic survey (Phase III) Aug. 14 to Sep. 25 V.J. Gaudet, CHS; Jones Sound Standard navigational charting (Phase IV) A.R. Ruffman Surficial geology survey (Geomarine Associates Ltd.) 84-031 Jul. 29 to Aug. 14 J.N. Smith, AOL Baffin Bay; Thule Collect water samples, sediment Harbour cores, and biota for radionuclide analysis 84-039 Sep. 25 to Oct. 12 C.K. Ross, AOL Baffin Bay Recover and deploy moorings; CTD survey 84-044 Oct. 19 to Nov. 30 G. Henderson, CHS Green Bank, St. Pierre Multidisciplinary survey to Bank, and Laurentian collect bathymetry, gravity, and Channel magnetics data

C.S.S. DAWSON

= The C.S.S. Dawson is a diesel driven ship designed and used for multidisciplinary oceanographic research, hydrographic surveying, and handling of moorings in deep and shallow water. The ship is owned by the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1967 . . . 64.5 m overall length . . . 12 m moulded beam . . . 4.9 m maximum draft . . . 1940 tonne displacement . . . 1311 gross registered tons . . . 14 knot full speed . . . 10 knot cruising speed in Sea state 3 . . . 45 day endurance and 11,000 n. mile range at cruising speed . . . scientific complement of 13 . . . 87.3 m2 of space in four laboratories . . . computer suite provided . . . twin screws and bow thruster for position holding . . . one survey launch.

= 244 days at sea and 25,809 n. miles steamed in 1984

VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE YEAR - IN OF DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

84-002 Feb. 16 to 22 G. Fowler, AOL Bedford Basin Test Dalhousie Deep TV System and Nordco Drill 84-003 Feb. 17 to Mar. 6 D. Bidgood, NSRF St. Pierre Bank Piston coring and high- resolution seismic reflection profiling; sidescan system testing 84-005 Mar. 8 to 16 C. Amos, AGC Sable Island Bank; High resolution shallow seismic Banquereau Bank and sidescan sonar survey 84-006 Mar. 19 to 24 B. Johnson, Sable Island Bank; Seismic site surveying for oil/gas Dalhousie University Banquereau Bank development; equipment evaluation; zooplankton sampling

75 84-007 Mar. 27 to Apr. 4 N.S. Oakey, AOL Laurentian Fan Study mixing processes, and turbulence in the mixed layer; test and evaluate EPSONDE II 84-008 May 22 to 29 P.C. Smith, AOL Browns Bank Recover and redeploy moorings; hydrographic survey; biological sampling in the surface layer; track and recover surface drifters 84-009 Apr. 6 to 19 A.W. Herman, AOL Laurentian Channel, Zooplankton and phytoplankton Scotian Shelf surveying; equipment trials; tests of optical plankton counter and servo-controller 84-011 Apr. 24 to Mar. 1 D. Scott, Dalhousie Northern Scotian Shelf Seismic surveying and piston coring 84-016 May 2 to 8 K.T. Frank, MEL Brown’s Bank, Measure production processes southwest Nova Scotia related to fishery by intensive biological and physical sampling using mini-BIONESS and Ametek Doppler current profiler 84-017 May 10 to 16 D.L. McKeown, Scotian Shelf/Slope Evaluate acoustic positioning AOL equipment; conduct mooring engineering experiments; test an in-situ particle sampler 84-020 Jun. 21 to Jul. 7 H. Miller, Memorial Newfoundland’s south Underwater gravity survey; heat University coast; Placentia Bay flow measurements and and Bay St. George deployment of current meters 84-023 Jun. 5 to 20 S.D. Smith, AOL Newfoundland Shelf Obtain data for iceberg drift computer model; recover tide gauge mooring and weather buoy 84-025 Jun. 10 to 16 J.N. Smith, AOL Pt. Lepreau area, Environmental monitoring Bay of Fundy 84-027 Jul. 16 to 22 K.T. Frank, MEL Browns Bank, Mini-BIONESS sampling; southwest Nova Scotia Ametek profiling; plankton tows; test high frequency acoustic equipment 84-028 Sep. 29 to Oct. 12 T. Platt, MEL Southern Grand Banks Study distribution and growth dynamics of microplankton 84-033 Jul. 24 to 31 T. Chriss and Emerald Basin region Test and gather bottom (Phase I) D. Huntley, turbulence data using tripod- Dalhousie University based instrumentation system; obtain stereo bottom photographs; CTD and rosette casts Jul. 31 to Aug. 2 R. Boyd, Dalhousie Eastern Shore, N.S. Sidescan and seismic subbottom (Phase II) University profiling 84-034 Aug. 15 to Sep. 1 J.A. Elliott, AOL Scotian Shelf Edge Study the current surges resulting from high amplitude internal waves 84-036 Sep. 5 to 19 R.M. Hendry, AOL Gulf Stream at Study Gulf Stream variability; 39°30’N, 59°W CTD/XBT survey; recover engineering mooring; water sampling - 84-037 Oct. 15 to 29 D.D. Sameoto, Eastern Scotian Shelf Study the distribution of MEL and western Grand chlorophyll and zooplankton Banks 84-041 Nov. 1 to 7 J.K. McRuer, MEL Southwest Nova Scotia Measure production processes related to fisheries 84-042 Sep. 20 to 27 T. Chriss, Dalhousie Emerald Basin and Collect bottom turbulence data University Sable Island Bank and data on seabed conditions 84-043 Nov. 14 to 27 P.C. Smith, AOL Southwest Nova Scotia Recover and deploy short-term and long-term surface moorings; drift experiments; CTD survey 84-048 Nov. 29 to Dec. 7 G.L. Bugden, AOL Scotian Shelf, Gulf of Recover tide gauges; CTD St. Lawrence survey; moor satellite buoys 84-050 Dec. 7 to 15 G. Gartner and Baie d’Espoir, Fortune Biological sampling; CTD and A. Hay, Memorial Bay, and Hermitage photographic surveys; seismic University Bay, Newfoundland surveys 76 C.S.S. MAXWELL

= The C.S.S. Maxwell is a diesel-driven ship designed and used for inshore hydrographic surveying. The ship is owned by the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1962 . . . 35 m overall length . . . 7.6 m moulded beam . . . 2.1 m maximum draft . . . 270 tonne displacement . . . 262 gross registered tons . . . 12.2 knot full speed . . . 10 knot cruising speed in Sea State 2 . . . 10 day endurance and 2400 n. mile range at cruising speed . . . scientific complement of 7 . . . drafting and plotting facilities . . . two survey launches

= 167 days at sea and 5,683 n. miles steamed in 1984

VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE YEAR - IN OF DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

84-013 Jun. 12 to 26 M. Eaton, CHS Halifax/Sydney Loran-C calibration; NAVSTAR testing 84-018 May 1 to Jun. 8 D. Blaney, CHS Bay of Fundy Standard navigational charting (Phase I) Jun. 26 to Aug. 2 D. Blaney, CHS Bay of Fundy Standard navigational charting (Phase II) Aug. 7 to Nov. 2 D. Blaney, CHS Strait of Belle Isle; Standard navigational charting (Phase III) Argentia, Nfld.

C.S.S. NAVICULA

= The C.S.S. Navicula is a wooden-hulled fishing vessel owned and operated by the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans and used for research in biological oceanography.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1968 . . . 19.8 m overall length . . . 5.5 m moulded beam . . . 110 ton displacement . . . 78 gross registered tons

= 142 days at sea and 3,580 n. miles steamed in 1984

VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE YEAR - IN OF DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

84-014 May 7 to 29 G. Rockwell, CHS Northumberland Strait Navigational chart revisions (Phase I) 84-014 Sep. 8 to Oct. 26 G. Rockwell, CHS Northumberland Strait Navigational chart revisions (Phase II) 84-022 Jun. 1 to Jul. 31 T. Lambert, MEL St. Georges Bay Ichthyoplankton sampling

77 LADY HAMMOND

= The Lady Hammond, a converted fishing trawler, is chartered by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans from Northlake Shipping Ltd. and used specifically for fisheries research. The ship is operated by DFO’s Atlantic Fisheries Service (Scotia-Fundy Region): its main user is the Marine Fish Division, which has components at BIO and in St. Andrews, N.B. Except as otherwise noted below and in the remainder of this chapter, “officers in charge” are affiliated with the Atlantic Fisheries Service’s Scotia-Fundy Region. Staff of other regions (Quebec, Gulf, or Newfoundland) are identified separately.

= Principal Statistics - built in 1972 . . . 54 m overall length . . . 11 m overall beam . . . 5.5 m maximum draft . . . 306 gross registered tons . . . 13.5 knot maximum speed . . . 12 knot cruising speed.

VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE YEAR - IN OF DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

Hlll Jan. I5 to 17 T. Rowe11 NAFO 4X, SA5 to Squid survey, Gulf Stream Florida H112 Feb. 7 to 24 P. Hurley NAFO 4X, 5Ze Ichthyoplankton survey H113 Mar. 2 to 6 G. McClelland NAFO 4X Collections of parasite study H114 Mar. 22 to 30 P. Hurley NAFO 4X, 5Ze Ichthyoplankton survey Hll5 Apr. 2 to 13 K. Zwanenburg NAFO 4VWX, 5Ze Redfish survey H116 Apr. 17 to 26 P. Hurley NAFO 4X, 5Ze Ichthyoplankton survey H117 May 2 to 11 W. Hickey NAFO 4VWX Square/diamond mesh comparisons H118 May 14 to 24 P. Hurley NAFO 4X, 5Ze Ichthyoplankton survey H119 May 28 to Jun. 8 A. Gascon, AFS NAFO 4s Cod tagging QUEBEC H120 Jun. 12 to 22 P. Hurley NAFO 4X, 5Ze Ichthyoplankton survey H121 Jun. 25 to Jul. 18 P. Rubec, AFS NAFO 4T Redfish survey GULF H122 Jul. 20 to Aug., 10 S. Akenhead, AFS NAFO 2J, 3KLMNOP Oceanographic survey NFLD. H123 Aug. 15 to 31 G. Sharp NAFO 4X Lobster larval survey and gear trials H124 Sep. 4 to 16 L. Savard, AFS NAFO 4RST Shrimp survey QUEBEC H125 Sep. 18 to 27 A. Frechette, AFS NAFO 4RST Stomach collection, QUEBEC ichthyoplankton H126 Oct. 6 to 22 D. Waldron NAFO 4X, 5Z, Y Silver hake trawl survey H127 Oct. 10 to Nov. 5 R. Halliday NAFO 4VWX Deep sea trawling H128 Nov. 8 to 19 P. Hurley NAFO 4X Gear trials H129 Nov. 22 to Dec. 10 J. McGlade NAFO 4WX, 5Z, Y Pollock trawl survey

78 E.E. PRINCE = The E.E. Prince is a steel stern trawler used for fisheries research, and experimental and exploratory fishing. The ship is owned by the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and it is operated by DFO’s Atlantic Fisheries Service (Scotia-Fundy Region).

= Principal Statistics - built in 1966 . . . 39.9 m overall length . . . 8.2 m overall beam . . . 3.6 m maximum draft . . . 421 ton displacement . . . 406 gross registered tons.

VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE YEAR - IN OF DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

P300 Jan. 21 to Feb. 21 U. Buerkle NAFO 4VW Herring acoustic survey, Chedabucto Bay P301 Feb. 27 to Mar. 16 J. Sochasky NAFO 4X Larval herring survey P302 Mar. 21 to 29 L. Dickie, MEL NAFO 4X Acoustic experiment with MEL ecology P303 Apr. 2 to 9 W. Hickey NAFO 4W Square/diamond mesh comparative study P304 Apr. 16 to 27 J. Worms, AFS NAFO 4T Crab survey GULF P305 Apr. 4 to May 12 R. Mohn NAFO 4VM Shrimp survey P306 May 15 to 26 W. Lundy NAFO 4VWX Scallop survey P307 May 30 to Jun. 8 W. Hickey NAFO 4VM Square/diamond mesh comparative study P308 Jun. 15 to 29 J. Dawe, AFS NAFO 3PsLNO Squid survey NFLD. P309 Jul. 3 to 20 C. Taylor, AFS NAFO 3KL Snow crab survey NFLD. P310 Jul. 23 to 27 R. Mohn NAFO 4VM Shrimp survey P311 Jul. 31 to Aug. 22 J. Robert NAFO 5Ze, 4X Scallop survey P312 Sep. 5 to Oct. 4 D. Clay, AFS GC LF NAFO 4T (inshore) White hake survey P313 Oct. 9 to 16 J. Tremblay NAFO 4X Scallop larvae survey P314 Oct. 19 to 27 M. Etter NAFO 4VM Shrimp survey P315 Nov. 1 to 15 M. Power NAFO 4X Larval herring survey P316 Nov. 19 to 28 D. Wildish NAFO 4X Benthic survey

M. V. ALFRED NEEDLER

= The M. V. Alfred W.H. NEEDLER is a diesel- driven ship owned by the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and used for fisheries research. It is operated by the DFO’s Atlantic Fisheries Service (Scotia-Fundy Region).

= Principal Statistics - built in 1982 . . . 50.3 m overall length . . . 10.9 m beam . . . 925.03 gross registered tons . . . complement of 10 scientific staff . . . equipped with up-to-date communication systems, electronics, navigational aids, research equipment, and fishing gear.

79 VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE YEAR - IN OF DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

N021 Jan. 16 to 22 L. Dickie, MEL NAFO 4WX Acoustic experiment with ECOLOG N022 Jan. 27 to Feb. 5 M. Ahrens, AFS NAFO 4VN Herring Survey GULF N023 Feb. 13 to 28 W. Smith NAFO 4X, 5Ze Cod and haddock tagging N024-25 Mar. 2 to 27 J. Neilson / J. Scott NAFO 4VW Groundfish trawl survey N026 Apr. 9 to 18 J.W. Baird, AFS NAFO 3Ps Groundfish survey NFLD. N027 Apr. 26 to May 10 C.A. Rose, AFS NAFO 3NO Groundfish survey NFLD. N028 May 17 to 21 G.H. Kean, AFS NAFO 3L Groundfish survey NFLD. N029 Jun. 4 to 14 J. Neilson NAFO 5X, 5Ze Juvenile haddock survey N030 Jun. 18 to Jul. 7 J.J. Maguire, AFS NAFO 4T Mackerel larvae survey GULF N031-32 Jul. 10 to Aug. 2 S. Smith / J. Hunt NAFO 4WX, 5Ze Groundfish trawl survey N033 Aug. 7 to 18 M. Ahrens, ASF NAFO 4T Juvenile herring survey GULF N034 Sep. 6 to 13 L.M. Dickie, MEL NAFO 4X Acoustic experimental survey (MEL) N035 Sep. 17 to Oct. 10 J. Young NAFO 4VWX, 5Ze Squid abundance trawling survey, tagging and gear trials. N036 Oct. 9 to 18 S. Smith NAFO 4VM Groundfish trawl survey N037 Oct. 22 to Nov. 2 M. Strong NAFO 4WX Groundfish trawl survey N038 Nov. 5 to 30 M. Ahrens, AFS NAFO 4T Herring acoustics survey GULF

GADUS ATLANTICA* *The Gadus Atlantica is a vessel chartered by the Newfoundland Region of DFO’s Atlantic Fisheries Service.

VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE YEAR - IN OF DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

GA92 Feb. 16 to 28 W.D. Smith NAFO 4X and 5Z Tag, measure, and release spawning cod

CO-OPERATIVE VOYAGES During 1984, the Marine Fish Division participated in co-operative voyages aboard the USSR’s research vessel Let Kievu (abbreviated as LK below)

VOYAGE OFFICER AREA VOYAGE VOYAGE YEAR - IN OF DATES OBJECTIVES NUMBER CHARGE OPERATION

LK03/04 Sep. 17 to Oct. 26 B. Wood, NAFO 4VWX Determine the abundance of P. Perley O-group silver hake on the Scotian Shelf

80 chapter 8 Organization and staff

BIO is a research institute of the Government of Canada oper- Gas Lands Administration of the Department of Energy, Mines ated by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), both on and Resources (DEMR). In leased accommodation at BIO are the its own behalf and for the other federal departments that main- following marine-science related private companies: Huntec Ltd., tain laboratories and groups at the Institute. Research, facilities, Wycove Systems Ltd., and Franklin Computers Ltd. and services are co-ordinated by a series of special and general We present below the major groups at BIO together with their committees. managers and a list of Institute staff as at July 1985. Telephone BIO also houses the office of the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries numbers are included in the first list: note that Nova Scotia’s Organization (Executive Secretary - Captain J.C.E. Cardoso); area code is 902 and the BIO exchange is 426. In the staff list, the analytical laboratories of the Department of the Environ- the group or division for which an individual works is given in ment’s (DOE) Environmental Protection Service (Dr. H.S. abbreviated form following his/her name: the abbreviations used Samant); and the Atlantic regional office of the Canada Oil and are defined in the list of major groups immediately below.

CHS - Canadian Hydrographic Service MFD - Marine Fish Division (Atlantic Region) W.D. Bowen, Chief ...... 8390 A.J. Kerr, Director ...... 3497 CAFSAC - Canadian Atlantic Fisheries T.B. Smith, Assistant Director . . . . 2432 ScientiJtc Advisory Committee - CHS - 1. Field Surveys R.C. Lewis, A/Head ...... 2411 Secretariat D. Geddes ...... 8486 A.R. Longhurst CHS - 2. Chart Production DG - Director-General ...... 3492 T.B. Smith, A/Head ...... 2432 CHS - 3. Hydrographic Development OID - Ocean Information Division R.G. Burke, Head ...... 3657 H.B. Nicholls, Head ...... 3246 CHS - 4. Navigation Public Relations R.M. Eaton, Head ...... 2572 C.E. Murray, Manager ...... 3251 CHS - 5. Planning and Records SRU - Seabird Research Unit (Canadian R.C. Lewis, Head ...... 2411 MS - Management Services CHS - 6. Tidal Wildlife Service) D.N. Nettleship, Head ...... 3274 G.C. Bowdridge, Manager ...... 6166 S.T. Grant, Head ...... 3846 Administrative Services J. Broussard, A/Chief ...... 7037 MEL - Marine Ecology Laboratory Financial Services K.H. Mann, Director ...... 3696 E. Pottie, Chief ...... 7060 MEL - 1. Biological Oceanography Materiel Management Services T.C. Platt, Head ...... 3793 R.J. Stacey, Chief ...... 3487 MEL - 2. Environmental Quality B.T. Hargrave, Head ...... , 3188 AGC - Atlantic Geoscience Centre P - Personnel Services MEL - 3. Fisheries Oceanography (Geological Survey of Canada) J.G. Feetham, Manager ...... 2366 D.C. Gordon, Head ...... 3278 M.J. Keen, Director ...... 2367 D.I. Ross, Assistant Director ...... 3448 AOL - Atlantic Oceanographic IF - Institute Facilities AGC - 1. Administration C. Racine, Head ...... 2111 Laboratory R.L.G. Gilbert, Manager ...... 3681 J.A. Elliott, Director ...... 7456 IF - 1. Ships AGC - 2. Eastern Petroleum Geology J.S. Bell, Head ...... 2730 AOL - 1. Chemical Oceanography J. Parsons, Head ...... 7292 J.M. Bewers, Head ...... 2371 IF - 2. Engineering Services AGC - 3. Environmental Marine Geology D.J.W. Piper, Head ...... 7730 AOL - 2. Coastal Oceanography D.F. Dinn, Head ...... 3700 C.S. Mason, Head ...... 3857 IF - 3. Computing Services AGC - 4. Program Support K.S. Manchester, Head ...... 3411 AOL - 3. Metrology D.M. Porteous, Head ...... 2452 D.L. McKeown, Head ...... 3489 IF - 4. Library Services AGC - 5. Regional Reconnaissance C.E. Keen, Head ...... 3413 AOL - 4. Ocean Circulation J.E. Sutherland, Head ...... 3675 R.A. Clarke, Head ...... 2502 IF - 5. Publication Services M.P. Latremouille, Head ...... 5947 81 CAMPANA, Steve MFD DANEAU, Joan IF-1 STAFF LISTING CARMICHAEL, Fred CHS-6 DEARNLEY-DAVISON, Jack IF-2 ABRIEL, James AOL-1 CARR, Judy MFD DEASE, Ann MS ACKER, Queenie MS CARSON, Bruce AOL-4 DEASE, Gerry IF-2 ADAMS, Al IF-l CASEY, Deborah IF-3 DeLONG, Bob IF-2 ADDISON, Richard MEL-2 CASHIN, Elmo IF-1 DEMONT, Leaman IF-2 AHERN, Patrick MEL-2 CASSIVI, Roger AOL-3 DENMAN, Dick IF-2 ALLEN, Lorraine MEL-3 CAVERHILL, Carla MEL-1 DENNIS. Pat AGC-1 AMIRAULT, Byron AOL-1 CHAMBERLAIN, Duncan IF-1 D’ENTREMONT, Paul AOL-2 AMOS, Carl AGC-3 CHAPMAN, Borden AGC-4 DEONARINE, Bhan, AGC-3 ANDERSON, Bob AOL-4 CHARLTON, Beverly MFD DESCHENES, Mary Jean IF-3 ANDERSON, Debbie MS CHASE, Barry IF-1 DESSUREAULT, Jean-Guy AOL-3 ANDERSON, George MS CHENIER, Marcel CHS-2 DICKIE, Lloyd MEL-3 ANNAND, Christine MFD CHIN-YEE, Mark IF-2 DICKIE, Paul MEL-1 ANNING, Jeff MEL-1 CHRISTIAN, Harold AGC-3 DICKINSON, Ross Dawson ARCHER, Barbara OID CLARKE, Allyn AOL-4 DINN, Donald IF-2 ARCHIBALD, Chris MS CLARKE, Tom IF-2 DOBSON, Des AOL-2 ARMITAGE, Fred IF-2 CLATTENBURG, Donald AGC-3 DOBSON, Fred AOL-4 ARNOLD, Russell Dawson CLIFF, John Baffin DOWD, Dick MEL-3 ASCOLI, Piero AGC-2 CLOTHIER, Rodney Baffin DRINKWATER, Ken MEL-3 ASPREY, Ken AGC-3 CLUNEY, Fred IF-2 DUFFEY, Sean CHS-1 ATKINSON, Karen AOL-2 COADY, Vernon AGC-4 DUGAS, Theresa CAFSAC ATKINSON, Tony AGC-4 COCHRANE, Norman AOL-3 DUNBRACK, Stu CHS-1 AVERY, Mike AGC-2 COLE, Flona AGC-3 DUNPHY, Paul AOL-4 AVEY, David Hudson COLEMAN, Don Hudson DURVASULA, Rao MEL-1 AWALT, Garon IF-2 EATON, Mike CHS-4 BAKER, Lloyd IF-1 EDMONDS, Roy MEL BARSS, Sedley AGC-2 Mchel Goguen. EDWARDS, Bob P BATES, Steve MEL-1 EDWARDSON, Greg Dawson BEALS, Carol CHS CONNOLLY, Gerald AOL-3 EISENER, Don IF-2 BEANLANDS, Brian AOL-3 CONOVER, Bob MEL-1 ELLIOTT, Jim AOL BEANLANDS, Diane MFD CONRAD, Bruce Hudson ELLIS, Kathy AOL-1 BEAVER, Darrell AGC-4 CONRAD, David AOL-1 ETTER, Jim IF-2 BECK, Brian MFD COOK, Gary AGC-2 FADER, Gordon AGC-3 BECK, Vince IF-3 COOKE, Gary IF-2 FAHIE, Ted IF-2 BELANGER, Roger IF-5 COSGROVE, Art IF-5 FANNING, Paul MFD BELL, Bill Dawson COSTELLO, Gerard CHS-1 FAULKNER, Pat MS BELL, Sebastian AGC-2 COTA, Glenn MEL-1 FEETHAM, Jim P BELLEFONTAINE, Larry AOL-2 COTTLE, Wayne IF-1 FENERTY, Norman IF-5 BELLEFONTAINE, Linda MS COURNOYER, Jean IF-2 FENN, Guy AGC-4 BELLIVEAU, Don AOL-3 COX, Brian Hudson FENSOME, Rob AGC-2 BENNETT, Andrew AOL-3 CRANFORD, Peter MEL-2 FERGUSON, Carol IF-1 BENNETT, Bert OID CRANSTON, Ray AGC-3 FERGUSON, John CHS-1 BERKELEY, Tom CHS-3 CRAWFORD, Keith CHS-2 FINDLEY, Bill IF-1 BEST, Neville Hudson CREWE, Norman AOL-1 FISHER, Carmelita AGC-3 BETLEM, Jan AOL-3 CRILLEY, Bernard AGC-2 FITZGERALD, Bob AGC-3 BEWERS Michael AOL-1 CRUX, Elizabeth CHS-2 FLEMING, Dave CHS-2 BLAKENEY, Claudia AGC-3 CUNNINGHAM, Carl AOL-1 FLYNN, Rhonda IF-4 BLANCHARD, Elaine MS CUNNINGHAM, John CHS-2 Mary Lewis FODA, Azmeralda MEL-2 BLANEY. Dave CHS-1 CURRIE, Randy IF-3 FOOTE, Tom AOL-2 BLASCO, Steve AGC-3 CUTHBERT, Jim IF-3 BONANG, Faye MS FORBES, Donald AGC-3 BONANG, Linda MS COLFORD, Brian MS DABROS, Jean AGC-3 FORBES, Steve CHS-3 BOND, Murray MS COLLIER, Kathie AOL-3 DALE, Carla MFD FOWLER, George AOL-3 BOUDREAU, Gerry AOL-4 COLLINS, Gary IF-3 DALE, Jackie MEL FRANK, Ken MEL-3 BOUDREAU, Henri CHS-1 COLLINS, Mike CHS-1 DALEY, Bob Baffin FRASER, Brian MEL-1 BOUDREAU, Paul MEL-3 COMEAU, Ernest CHS-1 DALZIEL, John AOL-1 FRASER, Jack Maxwell BOWDRIDGE, Gordon MS COMEAU, George Maxwell DANIELS, Marilyn IF-4 FRASER, Sharalyn P BOWEN, Don MFD FREEMAN, Burton MFD BOWEN, Eileen MS FREEMAN, Ken MEL-3 BOWMAN, Garnet CHS-1 FRICKER, Aubrey AGC-2 BOWSER, Mike IF-2 FRIIS, Mike MS BOYCE, Rick AOL-2 FRIZZLE, Doug CHS-2 BOYCE, William AGC-4 FROBEL, David AGC-3 BRANTON, Bob MFD FROST, Jim MEL-1 BRINE, Doug IF-3 FULLERTON, Anne MEL-3 BRODIE, Paul MEL-3 GALLANT, Celesta MS BROUSSARD, Joan MS GALLANT, Roger IF-2 BROWN, Carolyn AGC-1 GALLIOTT, Jim AOL-2 BROWN, Dick SRU GAMMON, Gary MS BUCKLEY, Dale AGC-3 GAUDET, Victor CHS-1 BUGDEN, Gary AOL-2 GEDDES, Dianne CAFSAC BURGESS, Frank CHS-1 GIDNEY, Betty CHS-2 BURHOE, Meg MS GILBERT, Reg IF BURKE, Robert CHS-3 GILROY, Dave IF-2 BURKE, Walter CHS-1 GIROUARD, Paul AGC-5 CALDWELL, Glen IF-2 Peter Vass. GLAZEBROOK, Sherman AOL-4 CAMERON, Rose MS GODSELL. Janet MFD 82 GOODWIN, Winston IF-2 LAKE, Diana MS MacLAREN, Oswald AOL-3 GOODYEAR, Julian CHS-1 LAKE, Paul AGC-2 MacLAUGHLIN, John IF-2 GORDON, Don MEL-3 LAMBERT, Tim MEL-3 MacLEAN, Bernie AGC-2 GORVEATT, Mike AGC-4 LAMPLUGH, Mike CHS-1 MacLEAN, Brian AGC-3 GRADSTEIN, Felix AGC-2 LANDRY, Marilyn MEL-1 MacLEAN, Carleton Baffin GRANT, Al AGC-2 LANGDON, Deb AGC-4 MacLEOD, Grant CHS-2 GRANT, Gary AGC-2 LANGILLE, Neil Navicula MacMILLAN, Bill AGC-2 GRANT, Steve CHS-6 LAPIERRE, Mike IF-2 MACE, Pamela MFD GREENBERG, David AOL-2 LAPIERRE, Richard IF-1 MACFARLANE, Andrew SRU GREGORY, Don AOL-4 LAROSE, Jim CHS-2 MACNAB, Ron AGC-5 GREGORY, Doug AOL-2 LARSEN, Ejnar MEL-1 MAHON, Robin MFD GREIFENEDER, Bruno AOL-4 LATREMOUILLE, Michael IF-5 MALLET, Andre MEL-3 GUILDERSON, Joan DG LAWRENCE, Don AOL-2 MALONE, Kent CHS-1 LAZIER, John AOL-4 MANCHESTER, Keith AGC-4 HAASE, Bob CHS-1 LeBLANC, Bill AGC-3 MANN, Ken MEL HACQUEBARD, Peter AGC-2 LeBLANC, Cliff Maxwell MARTELL, Jim MS HACKETT, Dave AGC-4 LeBLANC, Paul IF-2 MARTIN, Bud MS HACKETT, Jennifer AOL-4 LEJAWA, Adam Baffin MARTIN, Harold Dawson HALE, Ken IF-5 LEJEUNE, Diane MS MASON, Clive AOL-2 HALLIDAY, James IF-1 LEJEUNE, Hans MS MATTHEWS, Bennny Dawson HALLIDAY, Ralph MFD LEONARD, Jim AOL-1 MATTHEWS, Gordon Hudson HALVERSON, George IF-2 LEVAC, Carol IF-3 MAUGER, Fred Hudson HAMILTON, Jim AOL-3 LEVY, Eric AOL-I MAZERALL, Anne, IF-4 HANTZIS, Alex CHS-2 McALLISTER, Archie Baffin HARDING, Gareth MEL-2 Don Chandler. McALPINE, Don AGC-2 HARDY, Iris AGC-4 MCCARTHY, Paul CHS-1 HARGRAVE, Barry MEL-2 McCORRISTON, Bert CHS-2 HARMES, Bob AGC-3 KARG, Marlene IF-3 McGINN, Pete CHS-6 HARRIS, Cynthia MFD KAVANAUGH, Anita IF-4 McGLADE, Jacquie MFD HARRIS, Jerry Dawson KAY, William AGC-5 McKEOWN, Dave AOL-3 HARRIS, Leslie MEL-l KEDDY, Lil MS McKINNON, Bill AGC-4 HARRISON, Glen MEL-I KEEN, Charlotte AGC-5 McKlNNON, Terry Baffin HARTLING, Bert AOL-2 KEEN, Mike AGC McMILLAN, Jim MFD HARVEY, David AOL-3 KEENAN, Pat AOL-2 McNEIL, Beverley CHS HAYDEN, Helen AOL-2 KEIZER, Paul MEL-2 McRUER, Jeff MEL-3 HAYES, Terry AGC-1 KELLY, Bruce IF-2 MEHLMAN, Rick CHS-1 HEAD, Erica MEL-1 KEPKAY, Paul MEL-2 MEISNER, Patsy CHS-2 HEATH, Robin Baffin KERR, Adam CHS MELBOURNE, Ron CHS-2 HEFFLER, Dave AGC-4 KERR, Steve MEL-3 MERCHANT, Susan AGC-4 HENDERSON, Gary CHS-1 KING, Donna MFD MILLER, Bob AGC-3 HENDERSON, Terry AGC-1 KING, Graeme CHS-5 MILLER, Frank CHS-2 HENDRY, Ross AOL-4 KING, Rollie IF-1 MILLET, David Baffin HENDSBEE, Dave AOL-4 KOELLER, Peter MFD MILLIGAN, Tim AOL-2 HENNEBERRY, Andy MEL-2 KOZIEL, Nellie AGC-2 MILNE, Mary AGC-2 HEPWORTH, Deborah CHS-2 KNOX, Don AOL-3 MITCHELL, Michel AOL-3 HERMAN, Alex AOL-3 KRANCK, Kate AOL-2 Tom Foote. MOEN, Jon AOL-2 HILL, Phil AGC-3 MOFFATT, John AOL-1 HILLIER, Blair AGC-4 MOIR, Philip AGC-2 HILTZ, Ray AOL-1 LEWIS, Mary MEL-1 MOORE, Bill IF-1 HILTZ, Sharon MS LEWIS, Mike AGC-3 MORAN, Kate AGC-3 HINDS, Jim Hudson LEWIS, Reg CHS-5 MORGAN, Peter AGC-3 HODGSON, Mark MEL-1 LI, Bill MEL-1 MUDFORD, Bret AGC-5 HOGANSON, Joan HS LISCHENSKI, Ed CHS-2 MUDIE, Peta AGC-3 HOLMES, Wayne IF-2 LITTLE, Betty P MUISE, Fred IF-2 HOLT, Donna AGC-4 LIVELY, Bob AOL-2 MUISE, Laura MS HORNE, Ed MEL-1 LOCK, Stan Baffin MURPHY, Bob AGC-4 HORNE, Jack IF-2 LOCK, Tony SRU MURRAY, Ed OID HOWIE, Bob AGC-2 LOCKE, Don AGC-4 MURRAY, Judith IF-3 HUGHES, Mike AGC-4 LOCKHART, Judy CHS-2 MYRA, Valerie MFD HURLEY, Peter MFD LODER, John AOL-4 MYERS, Steven IF-1 LONCAREVIC, Bosko AGC-5 IKEDA, Motoyoshi AOL-4 LONGHURST, Alan DG NEILSEN, Judith P IRWIN, Brian MEL-1 LORING, Douglas AOL-1 NELSON, Rick AOL-1 JACKSON, Art AGC-2 LUTWICK, Graham CHS-6 NETTLESHIP, David SRU JACKSON, Ruth AGC-5 NICHOLLS, Brian OID MacDONALD, Al MEL-1 JAMAEL, Mike Hudson NICHOLS, Brian AGC-5 MacDONALD, Barry MS JAMIESON, Steve P NICHOLSON, Dale CHS-1 MacDONALD, Gerry IF-2 JANSA, Lubomir AGC-2 NICKERSON, Bruce, AOL-3 MacDONALD, Judy MS JARVIS, Lawrence Hudson NICKERSON, Carol MS MacDONALD, Kirk CHS-5 JAY, Malcolm CHS-2 NICOLL, Michael IF-1 MacDONALD, Linda CHS-6 JENNEX, Rita MS NIELSEN, Jes AGC-4 MacDONALD, Rose CHS-2 JODREY, Fred AGC-4 NOADE, Gerry IF-2 MacGOWAN, Bruce CHS-1 JOHNSON, Sue SRU NORTON, Neil Baffin MacGREGOR. Robert IF-2 JOHNSTON, Larry AGC-4 NOSEWORTHY, Karen MS MacHATTIE, George IF-2 JOLLIMORE, Shirley IF-4 MacHATTIE, Sheila P OAKEY, Neil AOL-4 JONES, Peter AOL-1 MaclSAAC, Mary MFD O’BOYLE, Bob MFD JONES, Roger CHS-2 MacKAY, Bob Hudson O’NEILL, John AOL-4 JORDAN, Francis AOL-2 Joe Howlett. MacKINNON, Bill AGC-4 O’REILLY, Charles CHS-6 JOSENHANS, Heiner AGC-3 MacLAREN, Florence P 83 O’ROURKE, Mike IF-2 SEIBERT, Gerald OID TOULANY, Bechara AOL-2 ORR, Ann MEL-3 SELIG, Byron Hudson TRITES, Ron MEL-3 SHATFORD, Lester AOL-3 VANDERMEULEN, John MEL-2 PALMER, Nick CHS-2 SHAY, Juanita IF-2 PALMER, Richard CHS-1 VARBEFF, Boris IF-2 SHELDON, Ray MEL-3 VARMA, Herman CHS-1 PARANJAPE, Madhu MEL-1 SHERIN, Andy AGC-4 VASS, Peter MEL-2 PARNELL, Cheryl AGC-1 SHIH, Keh-Gong AGC-5 PARROTT, Russell AGC-3 VAUGHAN, Betty IF-2 SHOTTON, Ross MEL-3 VAUTOUR, Jean-Claude CHS-1 PARSONS, Art IF-2 SILVERT, Bill MEL-3 PARSONS, John IF-1 VERGE, Ed AOL-2 SIMMONS, Carol MEL-2 VETESE, Barb AGC-1 PATON, Jim MS SIMMS, Judy AOL-1 PAYZANT, Linda AOL-2 VEZINA, Guy IF-2 SIMON, Jim MFD VILKS, Gus AGC-3 PEER, Don MEL-2 SIMPSON, Pat MFD PENNELL, Charles Hudson VINE, Dick IF-2 SINCLAIR, Alan MFD VIOLETTE-HARVEY, Claire IF-2 PERRIE, William AOL-2 SLADE, Harvey IF-5 PERROTTE, Roland CHS-2 SMITH, Alan CHS-2 WADE, John AGC-2 PERRY, Steve AGC-5 SMITH, Burt CHS-l WALDRON, Don MFD PETERSON, Ingrid AOL-4 SMITH, Bill MFD WALKER, Bob AOL-2 PETRIE, Brian AOL-2 SMITH, Don Dawson WALSH, Carl IF-1 PETRIE, Liam MEL-3 SMITH, Fred IF-1 WARD, Brian IF-2 PHILLIPS, Georgina MEL-2 SMITH, John AOL-1 WARDROPE, Dick IF-2 PHILLIPS, Ted AOL-3 SMITH, John MEL-1 Gerry Connolly. WARNELL, Margaret IF-3 PIETRZAK, Robert CHS-5 SMITH, Marion AOL-2 WATSON, Nelson MEL-1 PINSENT, Bruce AOL-2 SMITH, Michelle SRU WEBBER, Shirley MS PIPER, David AGC-3 SMITH, Peter AOL-2 STEELE, Trudi AOL-4 WELLS, Richard CAFSAC PLATT, Trevor MEL-1 SMITH, Steve MFD STEEVES, George IF-2 WENTZELL, Cathy MS POCKLINGTON, Roger AOL-1 SMITH, Stu AOL-4 STEPANCZAK, Mike AOL-3 WESTHAVER, Don IF-2 POLSON, Carl IF-2 SMITH, Sylvia MEL STILO, Carlos Baffin WESTON, Sandra CHS-2 PORTEOUS, Dave IF-3 STIRLING, Charles CHS-1 WHITE, George MFD POTTIE, Dennis AOL-1 STOBO, Nancy MFD WHITE, Joe, MS POTTIE, Ed MS STOBO, Wayne MFD WHITE, Keith CHS-3 POZDNEKOFF, Peter AOL-4 STOCKMAL, Glen AGC-5 WHITEWAY, Bill AOL-3 PRIME, Wayne AGC-5 STODDART, Stan Hudson WHITMAN, John AOL-3 PRINSENBERG, Simon AOL-2 STOLL, Hartmut IF-2 WIECHULA, Marek IF-3 PRITCHARD, John AOL-2 STRAIN, Peter AOL-1 WIELE, Heinz IF-5 PROCTOR, Wally AOL-3 STRUM, Loran Hudson WILE, Bruce AOL-4 PROUSE, Nick MEL-2 STUART, Al IF-2 WILLIAMS, Doug MS PURDY, Phil MS STUIFBERGEN, Nick CHS-4 WILLIAMS, Graham AGC-2 QUON, Charlie AOL-4 SUTHERLAND, Betty IF-4 WILLIAMS, Pat AOL SWIM, Minard CHS-1 WILLIS, Doug MEL-2 RACINE, Carol AGC-1 SYMES, Jane P WILSON, George Hudson RAFUSE, Phil Baffin SY MONDS, Graham AOL-4 WILSON, Jim IF-2 RAIT, Sue MS SYVITSKI, James AGC-3 WINTER, Danny IF-2 RANTALA, Reijo AOL-1 WINTERS, Gary AGC-3 RASHID, Mohammed AGC-3 TAN, Francis AOL-1 WOOD, Rick Baffin REID, Ian AGC-5 TANG, Charles AOL-2 WOODSIDE, John AGC-5 REID, Jim MFD TAYLOR, Bob AGC-3 WRIGHT, Dan AOL-4 REIMER, Dwight MEL-3 Bill Findley. TAYLOR, George MEL-3 WRIGHT, Morley IF-2 REINHARD, Harry MS TEE, Kim-Tai AOL-4 REINIGER, Bob AOL-4 TEMPLEMAN-KLUIT, Dirk AGC YEATS, Phil AOL-1 RICHARD, Wayne IF-3 SONNICHSEN, Gary AGC-3 THOMAS, Frank AGC-2 YOULE, Gordon AOL-3 RIPPEY, Jim Hudson SPARKES, Roy AGC-3 TILLMAN, Betty P YOUNG, Gerry MFD RITCEY, Jack Baffin SPENCER, Florence AGC-4 TINSLEY, Beth AGC-1 YOUNG, Scott AOL-3 ROBERTSON, Kevin AGC-3 SPENCER, Sid IF-2 TOLLIVER, Deloros AGC-1 ZEMLYAK, Frank AOL-1 ROCKWELL, Gary CHS-1 SRIVASTAVA, Shiri AGC-5 TOMS, Elaine IF-4 ZINCK, Maurice MEL-2 RODGER, Glen CHS-1 STACEY, Russ MS TOPLISS, Brenda AOL-2 ZWANENBURG, Kees MFD ROOP. David CHS-1 STEAD, Gordon CHS-2 TOTTEN, Gary IF-1 ROSE, Charlie IF-2 ROSS, Charles AOL-4 ROSS, David AGC-1 ROSS, Jim CHS-2 ROSSE, Ray MS ROZON, Chris CHS-1 RUDDERHAM, Dave MEL-1 RUMLEY, Betty AOL-2 RUSHTON, Laurie MEL-1 RUSHTON, Terry IF-2 RUXTON, Michael CHS-1 RYAN, Anne CHS-1 SABOWITZ, Norman IF-4 SADI, Jorge Dawson SAMEOTO, Doug MEL-1 SANDSTROM, Hal AOL-4 SAUNDERS, Jo-Anne IF-4 SCHAFER, Charles AGC-3 SCHIPILOW, Cathy CHS-2 SCHWARTZ, Bernie IF-2 SCHWINGHAMER, Peter MEL-2 SCOTNEY, Murray AOL-2 Phil Rafuse. SCOTT, Ray IF-1 84 chapter 9 Project listing

We present below a current listing of the 13. Ship of opportunity expendable projects (A,B,C, etc.) and individual inves- bathythermography programme for the tigations (1,2,3, etc.) being undertaken by study of heat storage in the North Atlantic Ocean (F. W. Dobson) the four major components of the Bedford 14. /Gulf Stream extension experiment Institute of Oceanography: the Atlantic (R . M. Hendry) Oceanographic Laboratory, Marine Ecology Laboratory, Atlantic Geoscience C. CONTINENTAL SHELF AND Centre, and Atlantic Region of the PASSAGE DYNAMICS Canadian Hydrographic Service. For more 1. Circulation off southwest Nova information on these projects and those of Scotia: The Cape Sable Experiment other BIO components, feel free to write (P.C. Smith. D. Lefaivre (OSS to Publication Services, Bedford Institute The Gadus Atlantica under steam. Quebec), K.T. Tee, R. W. Trites) of Oceanography, P.O. Box 1006, 2. The Shelf Break Experiment: A study (Courtesy of the Norrhwest Atlantic of low-frequency dynamics and mixing Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 4A2. Fisheries Centre) at the edge of the Scotian Shelf (P.C. Smith, B.D. Petrie) ATLANTIC 3. Flow through the Strait of Belle Isle (B.D. Petrie, C. J. R. Garrett (Dalhousie OCEANOGRAPHIC 15. Current measurements near the ocean University), B. Toulany, D. Greenberg) LABORATORY surface (P.C. Smith, D.J. Lawrence, 4. Shelf dynamics - Avalon Channel J.A. Elliott, D.L. McKeown) experiment (B.D. Petrie, C. Anderson) A. SURFACE AND MIXED-LAYER 5. Current surges and mixing on the OCEANOGRAPHY B. LARGE-SCALE DEEP-SEA continental shelf induced by large 1. Humidity exchange over the sea OCEANOGRAPHY amplitude internal waves (HEXOS) programme (S.D. Smith, 1. Labrador sea water formation (H. Sandstrom, J.A. Elliott) R.J. Anderson) (R.A. Clarke, N.S. Oakey, 6. Batfish internal waves (A.S. Bennett) 2. Studies of the growth of wind waves in J. -C. Gascard (France)) 7. Theoretical investigations into the open sea (F. W. Dobson) Modelling the Labrador Sea (C. Quon) circulation and mixing on Georges 3. Wave climate studies (W. Perrie, Labrador current variability Bank: Dynamics of tidal rectification B. Toulany) (R . A. Clarke) over submarine topography 4. Oil trajectory analysis (D. J. Lawrence, Age determinations in Baffin Bay (J. W. Loder, D. Wright) J.A. Elliott) bottom water (E.P. Jones) 8 Numerical models of residual 5. Iceberg drift track modelling Moored measurements of Gulf Stream circulation and mixing in the Gulf of (S.D. Smith) variability: A statistical and mapping Maine (D.A. Greenberg, J. W. Loder, 6. Microstructure studies in the ocean experiment (R.M. Hendry) P.C. Smith, D. Wright) (N.S. Oakey) 6. Newfoundland basin experiment 9. Theoretical investigations into 7. Near-surface velocity measurements (R.A. Clarke, R.M. Hendry) circulation and mixing on Georges (N. S. Oakey) 7. Problems in geophysical fluid dynamics Bank: Mixing and circulation on 8. Investigations of air-sea fluxes of heat (C. Quon) Georges Bank (J. W. Loder, D. Wright) and momentum on large space and 8. Northwest Atlantic atlases 10. Circulation and dispersion on Browns time scales using newly calibrated bulk (R.F. Reiniger, D. Gregory, Bank: The physical oceanographic formulae (F. W. Dobson, S.D. Smith) R.A. Clarke, R.M. Hendry) component of the Fisheries Ecology 9 . Labrador coast ice (G. Symonds) 9. Norwegian/Greenland sea experiment Program (P.C. Smith) 10. Gulf of St. Lawrence ice studies (R.A. Clarke, J.A. Swift (Scripps (G. L. Bugden) Institution of Oceanography), J. Reid, D. CONTINENTAL SHELF AND 11. Marginal ice zone experiment (Scripps Institution of Oceanography), PASSAGE WATER-MASS AND (MIZEX): Wind stress and heat flux N.S Oakey, E.P. Jones, R. Weiss TRANSPORT STUDIES in the ice margin (S.D. Smith, (Scripps Institution of Oceanography)) 1. Analyses of the physical oceanographic R.J. Anderson) 10. Baseline hydrography: North Atlantic data from the Labrador Current 12. Small-scale structure in a Gulf Stream at 48°N (R.M. Hendry) (J.R.N. Lazier) warm core ring (C.L. Tang, 11. Studies of the North Atlantic current 2. Flemish Cap Experiment (C.K. Ross) A.S. Bennett, D.J. Lawrence) and the seaward flow of Labrador 3. Long-term monitoring of the Labrador 13. Sea ice dynamics - MIZEX current waters (J.R.N. Lazier, Current at Hamilton Bank (G. Symonds) D. Wright) (J.R.N. Lazier) 14. Wind sea dynamics (W. Perrie, 12. Geochemical tracer studies 4. Long-term temperature monitoring B. Toulany) (G. T. Needler, D. Wright) (D. Dobson, B.D. Petrie)

85 12. Modelling historical tides (D. A. Greenberg, D. Scott (Dalhousie University), D. Grant (GSC Ottawa)) 13. Storm surges (D.A. Greenberg, T.S. Murty (OSS Pacific)) 14. Circulation and air/sea fluxes of Hudson Bay and James Bay (S. J. Prinsenberg) 15. Foxe Basin mooring observation program to study tidal current, mean circulation, and water mass formation and transport (S.J. Prinsenberg) 16. Tidally induced residual current - Studies of mean current-tidal current interaction (Y. Tang, K.T. Tee)

F. SENSOR DEVELOPMENT Anemometers for drifting buoys (J.-G. Dessureault, D. Harvey) CTDs and associated sensors (A. S. Bennett) Thermistor chains on drifting buoys (G.A. Fowler, J.A. Elliott) Towed biological sensors (A. W. Herman, M.R. Mitchell, S. W. Young, E.F. Phillips, D. Knox) 5. The dynamics of primary and secondary production on the Scotian Shelf (A. W. Herman, D.D. Sameoto, T. Platt) 6. Vertical profiling biological sensors (A. W. Herman, M.R. Mitchell, S. W. Young, E.F. Phillips) 7. Zooplankton grazing and phytoplankton production dynamics (A. W. Herman, A.R. Longhurst, D.D. Sameoto, T. Platt) 8. Real-time data acquisition (A.S. Bennett) 9. CTD sensor time constant measurements (A.S. Bennett) 10. Moored biological sensors (A. W. Herman, M. R. Mitchell, S. W. Young, E.F. Phillips) Collecting water samples from C.S.S. Hudson’s sampling platform on a 11. Satellite estimations of primary winter’s night. productivity (B.J. Topliss, T.C. Platt) 12. Optical properties of Canadian waters (B.J. Topliss) 5. Data management and archival 3. Seasonal and interannual variability (D. N. Gregory) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence G. SURVEY AND POSITIONING 6. Development of a remote sensing (G. L. Bugden) SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT facility in the Atlantic Oceanographic 4. Laurentian Channel current 1. Bottom-referenced acoustic Laboratory (C.S. Mason, B. Topliss, measurements (G.L. Bugden) positioning systems (D. L. McKeown) L. Payzant) 5. The Gulf of St. Lawrence - 2. Ship-referenced acoustic positioning 7. Oceanography of the Newfoundland Numerical modelling studies systems (D. L. McKeown) continental shelf (B.D. Petrie, (K. T. Tee) 3. Multifrequency acoustic scanning of J. Moen) 6. Tidal and residual currents 3-D the water column (N.A. Cochrane) 8. Eastern Arctic physical oceanography modelling studies (K.T. Tee, 4. Doppler current profiler (C.K. Ross) D. Lefaivre) (N.A. Cochrane) 9. Water transport through and in the 7. Bay of Fundy tidal power - Studies Northwest Passage (S.J. Prinsenberg, in physical oceanography H. OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENT B. Bennett) (D. A. Greenberg) DEVELOPMENT 10. Heat and salt budget studies for the 8. Physical dynamics of particulate 1. Mooring system development Grand Banks Program (J. W.Loder, matter (K. Kranck) (G.A. Fowler, A.J. Hartling, K.F. Drinkwater, B.D. Petrie) 9. Bottom and surface drifters R.F. Reiniger, J. Hamilton) (D. Gregory, F. Jordan, L. Petrie) 2. Handling and operational techniques E. OCEANOGRAPHY OF ESTUARIES 10. Suspended sediment modelling for instrument/cable systems AND EMBAYMENTS (D. A. Greenberg, C. L. Amos) (J. -G. Dessureault, R.F. Reiniger, 1. Saguenay Fjord study (G.H. Seibert) 11. Winter processes in the Gulf of D.R. Harvey) 2. Gulf of St. Lawrence frontal study St. Lawrence (G.L. Bugden) 3. In-situ sampling of suspended (C. Tang, A.S. Bennett) particulate matter (D. L. McKeown, B. Beanlands, P.A. Yeats) 86 1. NEARSHORE AND ESTUARINE GEOCHEMISTRY MARINE 1. Estuarine and coastal trace metal ECOLOGY geochemistry (P.A. Yeats, D.H. Loring) LABORATORY 2. Atmospheric input into the ocean (P.A. Yeats, J.A. Dalziel) 3. Sediment geochronology and A. PRIMARY PRODUCTION geochemistry in the Saguenay Fjord PROCESSES (J.N. Smith, K. Ellis, R. Nelson, 1. Biotropical properties of the pelagic D. Nelson) ocean (T. Platt) 4. Organic carbon transport in major 2. Physiology and biochemistry of world rivers: The St. Lawrence River, photosynthesis, respiration, and Canada (R. Pocklington, F.C. Tan) growth in marine phytoplankton 5. Physical-chemical controls of A conference in progress in BIO’s (J.C. Smith, T. Platt) particulate heavy metals in a turbid main auditorium. 3. Respiration, nutrient uptake, and tidal estuary (D.H. Loring) regeneration in natural plankton 6. Organic carbon sinks in shelf and populations (W.G. Harrison, slope sediments (R. Pocklington, J.C. Smith, T. Platt) E. Premuzic) 4. Physical oceanography of selected 7. Arctic and west coast fjords K. MARINE POLLUTION features in connection with marine (J.N. Smith, K. Ellis, C. T. Schafer, CHEMISTRY ecological studies (E.P. W. Horne) J.P.M. Syvitski) 1. Petroleum hydrocarbon components Physiology of marine micro- 8. Chemical pathways of environmental (E.M. Levy) organisms (W.K. W. Li) degradation of oil (P.M. Strain, 2. Point Lepreau environmental Picoplankton in the marine ecosystem E.M. Levy) monitoring program (J.N. Smith, (D. V. Subba Rao) 9. Climate variability recorded in marine K. Ellis, R. Nelson, J. Abriel) Biological oceanography of the Grand sediments (J.N. Smith, K. Ellis, 3. Canadian marine analytical chemistry Banks (E.P. W. Horne and others) C.T. Schafer) standards program (J.M. Bewers, 10. Isotope geochemistry of major world P.A. Yeats, J.A. Dalziel) B. SECONDARY PRODUCTION estuaries (J.M. Edmond 4. International activities (J.M. Bewers, PROCESSES (Massachusetts Institute of E.M. Levy, D.H. Loring, J. N.Smith) 1. Carbon and nitrogen utilization by Technology), F.C. Tan) 5. Joint Canada/FRG Caisson zooplankton and factors controlling 11. Review of chemical oceanography in experiments (D.H. Loring, secondary production (R.J. Conover) the Gulf of St. Lawrence R. Rantala, F. Prosi) 2. Ecology of microzooplankton in the (J.M. Bewers, C. Cosper, E.M. Levy, 6. Marine emergencies (E.M. Levy) Bedford Basin, Nova Scotia D.H. Loring, R. Pocklington, 7. Heavy metal contamination in a (M.A. Paranjape) J.N. Smith, F.C. Tan, P.A. Yeats) Greenland fjord (D.H. Loring) 3. Development of profiling equipment 12. Radioecological investigations of 8. Intercalibration of petroleum residues (BIONESS) and LHPR for plankton plutonium in an arctic marine in the water column and sea-surface and microplankton (D.D. Sameoto) environment (J.N. Smith, K.M. Ellis, microlayer (E.M. Levy) 4. Secondary production and the A. Aarkrog) 9. ICES intercalibration for trace metals dynamic distribution of micronekton in sediments (D.H. Loring) and zooplankton on the Scotian Shelf J. DEEP OCEAN MARINE 10. Petroleum residues in the eastern (D.D. Sameoto, A.W. Herman, CHEMISTRY Canadian Arctic (E.M. Levy) N. Cochrane) 1. Nutrient regeneration processes in 5. Nature and significance of vertical Baffin Bay (E.P. Jones) variability in zooplankton profiles 2. The carbonate system and nutrients in (A.R. Longhurst) Arctic regions (E.P. Jones) 6. Nutrition and biochemistry in marine 3. Distribution of sea-ice meltwater in zooplankton (E.J.H. Head) the Arctic (F.C. Tan, P.M. Strain) 7. BIOSTAT program: Zooplankton and 4. Trace metal geochemistry in the micronekton (D.D. Sameoto) North Atlantic (P.A. Yeats, 8. Feeding studies on zooplankton J.A. Dalziel) grown in an algal chemostat 5. Natural marine organic constituents (E.J.H. Head, R.J. Conover) (R. Pocklington, J.D. Leonard) 6. Paleoclimatological studies of Lake C. ATLANTIC CONSHELF ECOLOGY Melville sediment cores (F.C. Tan, 1. Scotian Shelf resources and the Shelf G. Vilks) ichthyoplankton program: Data 7. Comparison of vertical distribution of acquisition over large spatial and long trace metals in the North Atlantic and temporal scales (R.J. Conover) North Pacific oceans (P.A. Yeats) 2. Seasonal cycles of abundance and 8. Radionuclide measurements in the distribution of microzooplankton on Arctic (J.N. Smith, K. Ellis, the Scotian Shelf (M.A. Paranjape) E.P. Jones) Brian Petrie and Linda Payzant dis- 3. Comparison of methods used for 9. Carbon isotope studies on particulate calculation of secondary production and dissolved organic carbon in deep cuss a satellite image in BIO’s image from zooplankton population data sea and coastal environments analysis centre. (R.J. Conover) (F.C. Tan, P.M. Strain) 4. Comparative studies of functional structure of pelagic ecosystems (A.R. Longhurst) D. EASTERN ARCTIC ECOLOGICAL 13. Recruitment of larval lobsters along STUDIES southwest Nova Scotia, Bay of 1. Shore-based studies of under-ice Fundy, and Gulf of Maine distribution of zooplankton, their (G.C.H. Harding and others) reproduction and growth, and the 14. Fine-scale measurements of larval relative importance of epontic and survival (K.T. Frank) pelagic primary production in their 15. Dispersal strategies of marine fish preparation (R.J. Conover) larvae (K.T. Frank) 2. Summertime shipboard studies in the 16. Broad-scale spatial coherence of eastern Canadian Arctic reproductive success among discrete (E.J.H. Head) stocks of capelin (K.T. Frank, 3. Feeding dynamics of zooplankton and W. Leggett, J. Carscadden) micronekton of the eastern Arctic 17. Southwest Nova Scotia fisheries (D.D. Sameoto) ecology-benthic production processes 4. Distribution and abundance of (P. Schwinghamer, D.L. Peer, microzooplankton in the Arctic Troubleshooting electronic instru- J. Grant) (M.A. Paranjape) 5. Ecophysiological aspects of marine ments - Alex Herman and Scott H. SUBLETHAL CONTAMINATION microbial processes (W.K.W. Li) Young. AND EFFECTS 6. Field and laboratory studies of 1. MFO induction by PCBs and PCB diapause in copepods replacements (R.F. Addison) (N. H. F. Watson) of the KURDISTAN (D.J. Lawrence, 2. Organochlorines in seals R.W. Trites, J.H. Vandermeulen) (R.F. Addison) E. ECOLOGY OF FISHERIES 6. Environmental variability- 3. Fate, metabolism, and the effects of PRODUCTION Correlations and response scales petroleum hydrocarbons in the marine 1. Acoustic analysis of fish populations (R.W. Trites) environment (J.H. Vandermeulen) and development of survey methods 7. Climatic variability in the NAFO 4. Organochlorine dynamics in the (L.M. Dickie and others) areas (R.W. Trites, K.F. Drinkwater) marine pelagic ecosystem 2. Genetics of production parameters. 8. Baffin Island fjords (R. W. Trites) (G.C.H. Harding, R.F. Addison) I. Information from breeding 5. Transfer of metalloids through the experiments and electrophoretic G. FISHERIES RECRUITMENT marine food chain (J.H. Vandermeulen) analyses (L.M. Dickie, A. Mallet) VARIABILITY 6. Hazard assessment of “new” 3. Genetics of production patterns. 1. Steady state model and transient environment contaminants II. Variations in genotypes among features of the circulation of (R.F. Addison) marine environments and year-classes St. Georges Bay (K.F. Drinkwater) 7. “Calibration” of MFO system in (L.M. Dickie, A. Mallet) 2. The decline of lobster stocks off the winter flounder as an effects 4. Metabolism and growth of fishes Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia monitoring tool (R.F. Addison) (S.R. Kerr, K. Waiwood) (G.C.H. Harding and others) 5. Mathematical analysis of fish 3. Nutrition and growth of micro-, I. BAY OF FUNDY ECOLOGICAL production systems (W. Silvert) macro-, and ichthyoplankton STUDIES 6. Size-structure spectrum of fish (R.W. Sheldon) 1. Ice dynamics in the upper reaches of production (S.R. Kerr and others) 4. Vertical movement of plankton, the Bay of Fundy (D.C. Gordon) 7. Plankton growth rates in relation to suspended matter, and dissolved 2. Primary production in the Bay of size and temperature (R.W. Sheldon) nutrients in the water column of Fundy (D.C. Gordon, P.D. Keizer, 8. Bioenergetics: Marine mammals coastal embayments (G.C.H. Harding N. Prouse) (P.F. Brodie) and others) 3. Concentration, distribution, seasonal 9. Feeding strategies and ecological 5. Characterization of water masses by variation, and flux of inorganic impact of bivalve larvae (C. Abou particle spectra as a means of nutrients and organic matter in Debs) predicting larval fish survival shallow waters and intertidal 10. Mathematical analysis of fish (R.W. Sheldon) sediments in the upper reaches of the population interactions (S.R. Kerr, 6. Langmuir circulation and small-scale Bay of Fundy (D.C. Gordon and L.M. Dickie) distribution of the plankton others) 11. Marine mammal - Fisheries (T. Lambert and others) 4. Intertidal primary production and interaction (P.F. Brodie) 7. Primary production dynamics respiration and the availability of 12. Grand Banks ecosystem models (K.F. Drinkwater) sediment organic matter (W. Silvert and others) 8. Coupling of pelagic and benthic (B. T. Hargrave, P. Schwinghamer, production systems C. Hawkins) F. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABILITY (P. Schwinghamer, R.W. Sheldon, 5. Microbial ecology of the Bay of EFFECTS S. R. Kerr) Fundy (L. Cammen, P. Schwinghamer) 1. Residual current patterns on the 9. Instrument development for surveys 6. Subtidal benthic ecology of the Bay Canadian Atlantic Continental Shelf of particle size distributions of Fundy (P. Schwinghamer, as revealed by drift bottles and (R.W. Trites) D. L. Peer) seabed drifters (R.W. Trites) 10. Trophic relations in nearshore kelp 7. Intertidal benthic ecology of the 2. Water-type analyses for NAFO areas communities (K.H. Mann) upper reaches of the Bay of Fundy (R.W. Trites, K.F. Drinkwater) 11. Mixing and the temperature-salinity (P. Schwinghamer and others) 3. Effects of Hudson Bay outflow on characteristics of the water in the 8. Zooplankton studies in Cumberland the Labrador Shelf (K.F. Drinkwater) southeastern Magdalen Shallows Basin (N. Prouse) 4. Larval transport and diffusion studies (K.F. Drinkwater) 9. Production, export, and ecological (R.W. Trites, T. Rowell, E. Dawe) 12. Fish reproductive strategies importance of Bay of Fundy 5. Oil distribution in relation to winds (T. Lambert) saltmarshes (D.C. Gordon and others) and currents following the break-up

88 10. Modelling of Bay of Fundy 7. Marine geotechnical study of the 4. Seismicity studies of the eastern ecosystems (D.C. Gordon and others) Canadian eastern and Arctic Canadian margins (I. Reid) continental shelves and slopes 5. Ocean Drilling Program site survey, J. DEEP OCEAN ECOLOGY (K. Moran) Labrador Sea (S.P. Srivastava) 1. Deep ocean benthic community studies (P. Schwinghamer) D. EASTERN ARCTIC AND I. THEORETICAL MODELLING 2. Mobility of radionuclides and trace SUBARCTIC 1. Rift processes and the development of metals in sediments (P.E. Kepkay) 1. Eastern Baffin Island shelf bedrock passive continental margins 3. Activity of scavenging amphipods in and surficial geology mapping (C.E. Keen) transfer of material in the deep ocean program (B.C. MacLean) (B.T. Hargrave) 2. Surficial geology, geomorphology, J. BASIN ANALYSIS AND 4. Vertical fluxes under the Arctic ice and glaciology of the Labrador Sea PETROLEUM GEOLOGY cap (B.T. Hargrave, D.C. Gordon, (H.W. Josenhans) 1. Regional subsurface geology of the G. C. H. Harding) 3. Quaternary methods in marine Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks of the 5. Microbial metabolism at interfaces paleontology (G. Vilks) Atlantic continental margin (P.E. Kepkay) 4. Near-surface geology of the Arctic (J.A. Wade) island channels (B.C. MacLean) 2. Geological interpretation of 5. Quantitative Quaternary geophysical data as an aid to basin paleoecology, eastern Canada synthesis and hydrocarbon inventory ATLANTIC (P.J. Mudie) (A.C. Grant) GEOSCIENCE 6. Temporal and spatial variation of 3. Compilation of geoscientific data in deep ocean currents in the western The Upper Paleozoic basins of south- CENTRE Labrador Sea (C.T. Schafer) eastern Canada (R.D. Howie) 7. Ice-island sampling and investigation 4. Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the of sediments (ISIS) (P.J. Mudie) Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks of the A. COASTAL PROGRAM Atlantic continental margin 1. Consulting advice on physical E. WESTERN ARCTIC (L. F. Jansa) environmental problems in the coastal 1. Surficial geology and geomorphology, 5. Reconnaissance field study of the zone (R.B. Taylor) Beaufort Sea (S.M. Blasco) Mesozoic sequences outcropping on 2. Morphology, sedimentology, and 2. Beaufort Sea boundary dispute the Iberian Peninsula (L.F. Jansa) ,dynamics of Newfoundland coast studies (P.R. Hill) 6. Evolution of east coast Paleozoic (D.L. Forbes) Basins (J.S. Bell) 3. Coastal environments and processes F. GEOCHEMISTRY 7. Sedimentary basin evolution of the in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago 1. Environmental geology of the deep continental margin of Newfoundland, (R.B. Taylor) ocean (D.E. Buckley) Labrador, and Baffin Bay 4. Sediment dynamics and depositional (D. McAlpine) processes in the coastal zone G. REGIONAL GEOPHYSICAL 8. Geology of the eastern margin of (D.L. Forbes) SURVEYS Canada and other parts of the 5. Beaufort Sea coast (P.R. Hill) 1. East coast offshore surveys Canadian offshore (G.L. Williams) 6. Permafrost processes in Arctic (R.F. Macnab) beaches (R.B. Taylor) 2. Evaluation of Kss-30 gravimeter K. RESOURCE APPRAISAL (B.D. Loncarevic) 1. Hydrocarbon inventory of the B. COASTAL INLETS 3. An earth science atlas of the sedimentary basins of eastern Canada 1. The physical behaviour of suspended continental margins of eastern (J.S. Bell) particulate matter in natural aqueous Canada (S.P. Srivastava) 2 Rank and petrographic studies of coal environments (J.P.M. Syvitski) 4. Arctic Ocean seismic refraction and and organic matter dispersed in 2. Sedimentology of fjords related geophysical measurements sediments (P.A. Hacquebard) (J.P.M. Syvitski) (H.R. Jackson) 3 Maturation studies (J.S. Bell) 3. Sediment dynamics - Head of the Potential fields data base operation 4 Interpretation of geophysical data Bay of Fundy (C.L. Amos) (J.M. Woodside) from the Scotian margin and adjacent 4. The Recent paleoclimatic and Seismic refraction along the Canadian areas as an aid to basin synthesis and paleoecologic records in fjord Polar margin (H.R. Jackson) to estimation of hydrocarbon sediments (C.T. Schafer) Satellite altimetry applications for potential (B.C. MacLean) 5. Satellite calibration for suspended marine gravity (J.M. Woodside) 5 Sedimentological and geochemical sediment concentration in marine Regional geophysics of the Mesozoic- studies of hydrocarbon reservoirs, coastal environments (C.L. Amos) Cenozoic of Baffin Bay and Labrador offshore eastern Canada Margin C. SOUTHEASTERN CANADIAN L. BIOSTRATIGRAPHY MARGIN H. DEEP STRUCTURAL 1. Identification and biostratigraphic 1. Bedrock and surficial geology, Grand INVESTIGATIONS interpretation of referred fossils Banks and Scotian Shelf (G.B. Fader) 1. Comparative studies of the (S.M. Barss) 2. Ice scouring of continental shelves continental margins of the Labrador 2. Palynological zonation of the (C.F.M. Lewis) Sea and the North Atlantic Carboniferous and Permian rocks of 3. Stability and transport of sediments (S.P. Srivastava) the Atlantic provinces, Gulf of on continental shelves (C.L. Amos) 2. Seismic studies of continental margins St. Lawrence, and northern Canada 4. Quaternary geologic processes on and ocean basins of the North (S.M. Barss) continental slopes (D.J.W. Piper) Atlantic (LASE) (I. Reid) 3. Biostratigraphy of the Atlantic and 5. Facies models of modern turbidites 3 Surficial geology and crustal structure relevant areas (R.A. Fensome) (D.J.W. Piper) of the Alpha Ridge, Arctic Ocean 4. Taxonomy, phylogeny, and ecology 6. Engineering geology of the Atlantic (H.R. Jackson) of palynomorphs (R.A. Fensome) , shelf (C.F.M. Lewis) 5. DSDP dinoflagellates (G.L. Williams) 89 6. Biostratigraphic zonation ATLANTIC REGION, - Tidal and current survey of Hudson (Foraminifera, Ostracoda) of the Strait/Ungava Bay (under contract Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks of the CANADIAN to Terra Surveys Ltd.) Atlantic shelf (P. Ascoli) - Co-tidal study of Miramichi 7. Biostratigraphic data-processing HYDROGRAPHIC River/Estuary (under contract to development (S.M. Barss) SERVICE Discovery Consultants Ltd.) 8. Quaternary biostratigraphic methods - Tidal Survey of Miramichi for marine sediments (G. Vilks) River/Estuary (under contract to Marinav Ltd.) 9 Quantitative stratigraphy in paleo- A. FIELD SURVEYS 5. ICo-tidal Chart Study of Yarmouth oceanography and petroleum basin Coastal and Harbour Surveys: Harbour (C. O’Reilly) analysis (F.M. Gradstein) St. Mary’s Bay, N.S. (D.A. Blaney) 6. P.I.L.P program to transfer tidal Saint John Harbour, N.B. survey technology to MacAuley M DATA BASES (D.A. Blaney) 1 Geological Survey of Canada Strait of Belle Isle, Nfld. Surveys, Moncton, N.B. (S.T. Grant, C.P. McGinn) representative on steering committee (D.A. Blaney) for the Kremp palynologic computer Argentia, Nfld. (D.A. Blaney) C. NAVIGATION research project (M.S. Barss) St. John’s Harbour, Nfld. 2. Information base-offshore east coast (D.A. Blaney) 1. Loran-C calibrations in Atlantic Canada for large-scale charts wells (G.L. Williams) Halifax Harbour, N.S. (C. Stirling) (R.M. Eaton) 3. Data inventory (I. Hardy) Goose Bay, Labrador (K. Malone) 2. Loran-C error accuracy-enhancement 4. Coastal information system Yarmouth Harbour, N.S. for Atlantic Canada (N. Stuifbergen) development (D. Forbes) (S. Dunbrack, D.A. Blaney, 3. Navstar evaluations (R.M. Eaton) J. Ferguson) 4. Upgrading BIONAV (H. Boudreau) N. TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT Notre Dame Bay, Nfld. (V. Gaudet) 5. Development of electronic charting 1. Sediment dynamics monitor - Jones Sound, N.W.T. (V. Gaudet) (R.M. Eaton) RALPH (D.E Heffler) New Brunswick - North Shore 2. Development of Vibracorer/drill for Harbours (E.J. Comeau) D. CHART PRODUCTION geotechnical, geological, and Offshore Scotian Shelf (V. Gaudet) 1. Production of 8 New Charts, engineering studies (K.S. Manchester) 3. St. Pierre Bank (G.W. Henderson) 7 Standard New Editions, and 5 New 3. Development and implementation of 4. Revisory Survey of Pictou, N.S., to Editions for Loran-C (T.B. Smith, cable handling and maintenance Chaleur Bay, N.B. (G. Rockwell) S. Weston) procedures (K.S. Manchester) 5. Miramichi River (G. Rockwell) 4. Seabed II (G.B. Fader) 6. Nachvak Fiord, Labrador 5. Digital single channel seismic data (E.J. Comeau) E. SAILING DIRECTIONS (B. Nichols) 7. Longstaff Bluff, Foxe Basin 1. Publication of the Small Craft Guide, Saint John River, Third Edition 6. CIGAL - Computer Integrated (E.J. Comeau) (R. Pietrzak) Geophysical Acquisition and Logging 8 Navy Board Inlet, N.W.T. (B.D. Loncarevic) (C. Stirling) 2. Revisions to Sailing Directions, Nova Scotia (SE Coast), and Bay of 9 Contract survey of Notre Dame Bay, 0. SPECIAL PROJECTS Nfld. (K. Malone) Fundy (R. Pietrzak) 1. Ocean Drilling Program planning 10 Contract survey of Roche Bay and F. HYDROGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT (D.I. Ross) Approaches, N.W.T. 1. Implementation of a portable 2. Boundary disputes: St. Pierre and (G.W. Henderson) Miquelon; Beaufort Sea (D.I. Ross) Navitronic vertical acoustic sweep system (R.G. Burke, S.R. Forbes) B. TIDES, CURRENTS, AND WATER 2. Design specifications for a dedicated LEVELS sweep vessel (R.G.Burke, S.R. Forbes) 1. Ongoing support to CHS Field 3. DOLPHIN Trials - Sable Island Surveys and Chart Production Bank (R.G. Burke, K. Malone) (S.T. Grant, C. O‘Reilly, 4. Enhancing automated field surveys L. MacDonald, C. P. McGinn, (H. Varma, K.T. White) G.B. Lutwick, F. Carmichael) 5. Enhancing computer-assisted chart 2. Operation of the Permanent Tides production (S.R. Forbes) and Water Levels Gauging Network (S.T. Grant, C. P. McGinn, G. B. G. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Lutwick, F. Carmichael, 1. ARCS - Development of an L. MacDonald) Autonomous Remotely Controlled 3. Review and update of 1986 Tide Submersible for use in the Arctic Tables and Sailing Directions under ice cover (under contract to (S.T. Grant, C. O‘Reilly) International Submarine Engineering 4. Tidal and Current Surveys and Ltd.) Numerical Modelling Projects Gordon Fader and Bob Miller (S.T. Grant) aboard C.S.S. Hudson. - Numerical tidal model of Hudson Strait/Ungava Bay (under contract to Martec Ltd.)

90 chapter 10 Excerpts from the BIO log

= 1984 at BIO began with triple honours for the Marine = Using the icebreaker CCGS Labrador, the Atlantic Region Ecology Laboratory (MEL): papers published in the sixties by of CHS completed field sheets for a new route connecting Bob Conover, Lloyd Dickie, and Ken Mann were selected as Davis Inlet to Nain, Labrador, which cuts 6 hours from the Citation Classics, the most cited papers in their particular steaming time between these two northern communities and disciplines over decades. provides a sheltered navigation corridor expected to be ice- free earlier in the shipping season than was the previously = Early in the year, Felix Gradstein of the Atlantic Geo- used route. science Centre (AGC) taught a course on new concepts and methods in stratigraphy at the University of Kharagpur in = A team of 5 biologists from the Marine Fish Division India: Trevor Platt of MEL, together with American and (MFD) spent February on Sable Island counting and tagging Chilean colleagues, taught a course on pelagic ecology at the the year’s crop of grey seal pups: 5824 pups were produced of Catholic University of Chile. At the invitation of the People’s which 5188 were tagged. Of the total produced, 700 died Republic of China, Francis Tan and Charles Quon of the from natural causes before they could begin their lives at sea. Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory (AOL) conducted = During March, CSS Baffin worked the front in the ice separate lecture tours at various Chinese institutions and fields off southern Labrador. Two parties conducted inde- universities. pendent studies from the ship: scientists from MEL, DFO’s = Based on work done by BIO staff, the Canadian Hydro- Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Centre, and the Smithsonian graphic Service (CHS) published the 3rd edition of the Small Institution (USA) collected data on harp and hooded seals Craft Guide for the Saint John River in New Brunswick: this while other MEL oceanographers investigated the physiology supplement to the Small Craft Chart included, for the first of phytoplankton below the late-winter ice cover just as solar time, oblique aerial photographs and historical notes on the radiation increased and growth of plant life was imminent. River. = From March 17-22, a major international meeting was = CSS Hudson began her 1984 voyages [voyage 84-001, held at Lava1 University: organized by Ken Mann and Trevor January 24 through February 8] with a 2-week multidisciplin- Platt of MEL at the request of the Scientific Committee on ary survey of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Under AOL senior Oceanic Research, it brought together leading theoreticians scientist Gary Bugden, 6 scientific parties made a variety of from many disciplines. Some of the potential applications of measurements, many the first of their kind taken in the Gulf thermodynamics, information theory, flow analysis, and during winter, that permitted scientists to compare seasonal statistical mechanics to biological oceanography were variations in the biological, physical, and chemical processes outlined for the audience of mainly biological specialists. at work in the Gulf.

Ken Mann, Lloyd Dickie, and Bob Conover. C.S.S. Hudson, the largest vessel in our fleet.

91 AOL‘s Bruce Pinsent advises Korean engineer Ho Michael Latremouille, editor of the BIO Review. Kyung Jun. AOL is helping Korean Ocean Research and Development Institute develop its ocean study capabilities under a UN. Development Program. = Each year, CHS at BIO conducts courses on navigation = A major new edition of Chart 4910 (Miramichi River, using Loran C and Satnav and on surveying of tides and cur- New Brunswick) was released in May depicting the new rents for both BIO staff and external users. This year, 43 per- navigational channel and associated navigational aids. This sons from as far east as St. John’s and as far west as Quebec publication capped a 3-year, multimillion dollar program by City attended February’s navigation courses and 27 mostly the departments of Public Works, Transport, and Fisheries external participants enrolled in March’s tidal/current and Oceans to provide a safer and deeper navigational surveying course. channel for marine interests in the area.

= In April, AGC geologists collected some 500 m of = A comprehensive review was completed by AGC staff of continuous rotary-core samples for various geological studies all geological data pertinent to the Labrador Continental from the Hibernia I-46 oil well. All hydrocarbon maturation Shelf: these data will form the basis for a 1:2,000,000 Quater- data from the East Newfoundland Basin’s 9 wells are being nary sediment-map to be published in a new edition of the analysed to allow a hydrocarbon generation model for the Geology of Canada, a multivolume work now being prepared area to be constructed. as a periodic review of Canada’s geology and as a Canadian contribution to the Geological Survey of America’s centen- = In late May, it was learned that BIO Review ‘82 and its nial project known as “The Decade of North American editor, Michael Latremouille, had won the 1983 Distin- Geology”. guished Technical Communication Award from the Society for Technical Communication’s Eastern Ontario Chapter. = Ray Sheldon of MEL, in recognition of his outstanding research on the linear biomass spectrum of the ocean, was

Aerial view of the Saint John River, New Brunswick. The transportable “‘sweep” system provides total bathy- 92 metric survey coverage for charting of harbours. awarded the degree of Doctor of Science by the University of = Using Office of Energy Research and Development funds, Manchester. AOL engineers completed development of technology to increase the operating depth of the Batfish towed vehicle = BIO’s quadrennial Open House Days were held May 30th from 200 to 425 m at a towing speed of 8 knots. This through June 3rd. Over 30,000 visitors came to view the many enhancement permits much deeper and more detailed surveys exhibits, tour research vessels, witness equipment demonstra- of the ocean’s surface layers to be made. tions, and attend a popular series of lectures by scientists on topics of interest to the public such as offshore oil and gas = During the summer of 1984, AOL installed an in-house potential and Bay of Fundy tidal power and its environmental image-analysis system as a research tool for oceanographic implications. applications. The cover illustration for this edition of BIO Review was prepared on this system, which comprises a = The 2nd joint annual congress of the Canadian VAX-750 computer and Adage colour image terminal Meteorological and Oceanographic Society and the Canadian together with software developed by Perceptron Computing Geophysical Union was attended by over 400 people from Ltd. of Toronto. BIO scientists have now been trained May 29th through June 1st at Dalhousie University in on the system and University of Miami software containing Halifax. BIO staff contributed to and benefitted from the oceanography-specific image analysis routines is being congress’s success in many ways: over 45 papers were brought in. presented or co-authored by BIO staff, over 60 BIO scientists participated including 9 who served on organizing commit- = A BIO “total coverage” bathymetric survey system devel- tees, and delegates were given a special preview tour of BIO’s oped through Arctic Transportation R&D funds was given its open house days. first operational Arctic trials in August. The transportable sweep system functioned well under Arctic conditions and = In a very successful test voyage aboard CSS Hudson in valuable experience was gained on deploying it from a ship’s June, the prototype Seabed II deep ocean mapping system launch. first described in BIO Review ‘83 was put through its paces. It returned high-quality data and yielded new scientific findings = In August, AGC staff completed aerial video coverage of on the Verrill Canyon. Seabed II, the first totally Canadian almost the entire coast from Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula to the deep-ocean technology, was developed in a special Alaska border and collected other data that will provide government-industry project by Huntec ‘70 Ltd. information on the long-term rates of coastal erosion for the Beaufort Sea. = Since the late 70s, AOL has been working to develop current meter moorings that can be deployed and safely recov- = The Marine Fish Division reviews the annual fish stock ered after one year or longer. Safe mooring-exposure times assessments it has conducted through the Canadian Atlantic were less than 3 months but, in June, five 470-m long moor- Fisheries Scientific Advisory Committee each year to identify ings of 4 current meters each were recovered after an exposure and resolve problems. At a workshop in late August, they of 1 year in the Gulf Stream off eastern Canada. completed the most comprehensive and generalized review of their methods and programs to date. As a result, significant = In July, visiting scholar Rong Wang of the Institute of improvements were made to the 1985 assessments. Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, completed a l-year project with MEL’s Bob Conover that resulted in dis- = Scientists from AOL participated in the international mar- covery of an improved method for determining zooplankton ginal Ice Zone Experiment (MIZEX) aboard the German grazing rates in the oceans. icebreaker Polarstern in Fram Strait between Spitzbergen and

Grey seals on Sable Island during breeding season. The German (F. D.R.) research vessel Polarstern was used during the international Marginal Ice Zone Experiment.

93 Greenland through June and July. The experiment was designed to study the meteorology and oceanography of areas near the edges of large ice-fields.

= In early September, a special session on the biology and ecology of squids in the Northwest Atlantic was held at BIO. Organized by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization, it brought together 45 specialists from Canada, Cuba, Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Japan, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States to review the many advances of recent years in cephalopod biology and to discuss directions for future research.

= In early October, BIO hosted the annual meeting of the Madrid-based International Commission for the Conserva- tion of Atlantic Tunas. This was followed by a special scientific session on the status of the bluefin tuna of the Northwest Atlantic, a topic of great interest to us here in the Maritimes.

= The 686-page report “Update on the marine environmen- The Seabed II deep ocean mapping system during its sea tal consequences of tidal power development in the upper trials. reaches of the Bay of Fundy” was published in October [see Chapter 6, Gordon and Dadswell, 1984]. The report, expected to be referred to for years to come, summarizes all the Fundy research projects conducted since 1976 that were co-ordinated by the Atlantic Provinces Council on the Sciences and in which many MEL staff participated.

= The fourth Offshore Technology Exposition (CORE) was held in Halifax in mid-October. Both AGC and DFO at BIO exhibited. One AGC display was a diode-lit oil and gas map of offshore eastern Canada depicting the locations of all exploratory wells drilled and their status. DFO at BIO displays included the prototype ARCS vehicles for under-ice surveys and a model of the storm that sank the Ocean Ranger.

= Trevor Platt of MEL and Farooq Azam of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography were joint winners of the 1984 Rosenstiel Award in Oceanographic Science presented by the University of Miami and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences. They were cited for having "spearheaded" the most significant advances in biological oceanography over the past ten years”.

= By late November, CSS Baffin had completed a 33-day combined hydrographic-geophysical survey south of Newfoundland in which over 6600 nautical miles of track data were collected at 10-mile line spacings. The project was jointly undertaken by the Gravity, Geothermics, and Geodynamics Division of DEMR’s Earth Physics Branch, AGC, and the Atlantic Region of CHS.

= This year, for the first time, BIO scientists had direct access to a Cray ‘super-computer’ through the DOE/AES facility in Dorval, Quebec. BIO use of the facility was much Space walker Kathy Sullivan visited BIO in 1984. heavier than forecast for studies such as modelling of large- scale ocean circulation and baroclinic wave structure and numerical solving of a finite difference equation related to lithospheric deformation.

94 Dr. Wally Broecker, a geochemist at the Lamont- Doherty Geological Observatory, was the ninth recipi- ent of the A. G. Huntsman silver medal for excellence in the marine sciences. He received the medal for his wide ranging research into the chemical processes operating in the oceans, particularly his use of radioisotopes in dating minerals, ocean sediments, and sea water. His work eventually led to investigations tracing the slow deep flow within the oceans and estimating the rates at which the ocean exchanges its waters over the entire globe.

= During the year, AOL continued its assistance, begun in which comprised some 20 senior officers from both countries; 1981, in the development of Korean ocean study capabilities. Mr. Christopher Trump, Vice President of SPAR Aerospace; Under a United Nations Development Program, 5 AOL tech- participants in the fourth summer training camp in ocean nologists will spend about 34 weeks over the next 3 years at management conducted this year in Halifax by the Interna- KORDI, the Korean Ocean Research and Development Insti- tional Ocean Institute of Malta in co-operation with the tute, and 4 KORDI engineers will spend a total 50 weeks over Centre for Foreign Policy Studies at Dalhousie University; that period at AOL and at the DFO Marine Environmental Professor Wolfgang Krauss of the Institut fur Meereskunde, Data Services Branch in Ottawa. FRG; Captain A. Civetta, Chief Hydrographer of the Italian Navy with his staff and the Italian military attache; = AOL was a major participant in the Pilot Experiment of Dr. Warren Godson, Senior Science Advisor with the the Humidity Exchange Over the Sea (HEXOS) program that Atmospheric Environment Service (DOE) in Downsview, was carried out in November at an offshore research platform Ontario; Dr. Andrew Y. Carey, Jr., Professor of Oceanog- in the North Sea, 10 km off the coast of the Netherlands. raphy at the College of Oceanography, Oregon State = Among the visitors to BIO during 1984 were: University; Professor Yoshiaki Toba of the Geophysical Dr. Terence Armstrong of the Scott Polar Research Institute; Institute of Tohoku University in Japan; and Dr. Kathryn President Eanes of Portugal and senior members of his staff; Sullivan, a mission specialist on NASA’s 1984 shuttle flight the Canada-United States Military Co-operation Committee, 41G and a graduate of Dalhousie University.

95 BIOMAIL

BIO’s Marine Advisory and Industrial Liaison office, or BIOMAIL for short, is there to: l assist in obtaining oceanographic information for you l help you solve your problems with any aspect of oceanography l smooth the transfer of our know-how to your company l facilitate joint projects with BIO and industry l bring the right people together for an expansion of oceanographic industry.

BIOMAIL’s scope is not limited to local or Canadian aspects; we have access to global ocean information and expertise. The office is here to serve the interests of Canadian industry for the benefit of Canadian citizens. CONTACT: BIOMAIL Bedford Institute of Oceanography P.O. Box 1006 Dartmouth, Nova Scotia CANADA B2Y 4A2 Phone: (902) 426-3698 Telex: 019-31552 THE BEDFORD INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY (2) To perform shorter-term applied research in response to (BIO) is the principal oceanographic institution in Canada; present national needs, and to advise on the manage- it is operated within the framework of several federal ment of our marine environment including its fisheries government departments; its staff, therefore. are public and offshore hydrocarbon resources. servants. (3) To perform necessary surveys and cartographic work to BIO facilities (buildings, ships, computers, library, work- ensure a supply of suitable navigational charts for the shops, etc.) are operated by the Department of Fisheries region from George’s Bank to the Northwest Passage in and Oceans. The principal laboratories and departments are: the Canadian Arctic. Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) (4) To respond with all relevant expertise and assistance to = Canadian Hydrographic Service (Atlantic Region) any major marine emergency within the same region. = Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratory = Marine Ecology Laboratory = Marine Fish Division Department of Energy. Mines and Resources (DEMR) = Atlantic Geoscience Centre W.D. Bowen - Chief, Marine Fish Division, Department of the Environment (DOE) DFO = Seabird Research Unit M.J Keen - Director. Atlantic Geoscience BIO operates a fleet of three research vessels, together Centre. DEMR with several smaller crafts. The two larger scientific ships, A.J. Kerr - Director, Atlantic Region. Canadian Hudson and Baffin, have global capability, extremely long Hydrographic Service, DFO endurance. and are Lloyds Ice Class I vessels able to work K.H. Mann - Director, Marine Ecology throughout the Canadian Arctic. Laboratory, DFO BIO has four objectives: J.A. Elliott - Director, .Atlantic Oceanographic (1) To perform fundamental long-term research in all fields Laboratory. DFO of the marine sciences (and to act as the principal Cana- D.N. Nettlehip - Seabird Research Unit. Canadian dian repository of expertise). Wildlife Service, DOE Fisheries Pêches and Oceans et Oceans

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