Art and Politics in China, 1949-1986

Art and Politics in China, 1949-1986 by Maria B. Galikowski Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of East Asian Studies The University of Leeds December 1990 Abstract The objective of this thesis is to examine the complex pattern of the relationship between politics and art in the People’s Republic of China between 1949 and 1986, analysing the three most important aspects of this relationship, namely organisational structures, the ideological framework and political movements. The principal issue addressed in this research is that of how the Communist Party's policies on culture and art have affected the development of art theory and the creative work of artists in China. The thesis consists of four chapters representing the major historical stages of the People's Republic of China. Each chapter focuses on the different manifestations of the relationship between politics and art in a particular social phase. Chapter one deals with the early formation of the organisational structures, the ideological framework and political campaigns in the arena of Chinese culture and art between 1949 and 1956. Chapter two examines the further development and the vacillating nature of the relationship between the state and artists during the years 1957 to 1966. Chapter three looks at the stormy years of the Cultural Revolution during which the political discourse and artistic work were merged. The fourth Chapter discusses the new trends of Chinese art by describing the newly emerging "self" (individual subjectivity) and the search for modernity in the period of 1978 to 1986. The general methodology employed in my thesis is composed of three dimensions - social, historical and comparative. The analysis of the social conditions and the general account of the historical process are closely combined with individual case studies. A comparative perspective is also adopted in order to reveal the extent of foreign influence. The central argument submitted in the thesis is that art in the People's Republic of China should be seen as an image of social reality. The argument is pursued by a method which seeks to relate art to social-political settings, and to explore not only the aesthetic dimension of artistic work, but also the political discourse embodied in it. Acknowledgements I should like to acknowledge all those who, through their help and assistance in various ways, have contributed to the writing of this thesis. In particular, I should like to mention my supervisor, D. Rimmington for his unstinting patience, encouragement and advice during these four years. I would also like to thank Professor W.J.F. Jenner, my previous supervisor, for suggesting the topic and offering advice during the formative stages of my work, and Professor G. Dudbridge who provided useful insights into some chapters of the thesis. I am also indebted to members of staff in the Department of East Asian Studies, Leeds University, and to my colleagues at the Oriental Institute, Oxford University. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude for the support I have received from my husband, Lin Min, my family and friends and Susan Nemes who performed an excellent job in typing this thesis. Table of Contents Page Introduction 1 Chapter One From 'Small Lu Yi' to 'Big Lu Yi' - The Formative Stage 7 (1949-1956) 1 The Creation of Organisational Structures as a Means of Institutionalising Political Control 2 The Ideological Scheme as the Theoretical Framework for Artistic Creation 3 The Political Movement as a Means of Control Chapter Two The Vacillating Years (1956-1966) 49 1 The Hundred Flowers and Anti-Rightist Movements 2 The Great Leap Forward and the Anti-Rightist Deviation Movement 3 The Disastrous Consequences of the Great Leap Forward and the Rise of a More Pragmatic Approach 4 The Socialist Education Movement and the Prelude to the Cultural Revolution Chapter Three The Stormy Years of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) 123 1 Its Origins and Main Features 2 The Movement's Impact on Art Institutions 3 Art During the Cultural Revolution 4 The Utilisation of Art to Re-create History 5 Worker and Peasant Paintings 6 Huxian Peasant Paintings 7 The "Black Painters" 8 The Characteristics of Art and Basic Art Theory During the Cultural Revolution Chapter Four The Discovery of "the Self' - a New Era for Chinese Art 156 (1978-1986) 1 Organisational Changes 2 The Search for Modernity - New Developments in Art Practice and Theory Conclusion Notes Selected Bibliography Illustrations Introduction This research investigates the complex relationship between art and politics in China between 1949 and 1986, emphasising the effects of Communist policies on artists and their work in the People's Republic. Its main objective is to discuss the organisational structures and ideological framework governing Chinese art over the period, rather than to present a detailed critical appraisal of the aesthetic dimension of the art produced. It aims to assess the way in which art has been used since 1949 for propaganda purposes and to elucidate in what ways and to what extent the aesthetic discourse has mirrored its political counterpart. My analysis has explored the three most important aspects of the relationship between politics and art, namely the art institutions, the ideological scheme and the political movements, through which political dominance was asserted over artists. During some periods, organisational and ideological control was regarded by the authorities as sufficient to keep artists in line. At other times, political movements to thwart the re-emergence of 'bourgeois' or 'feudal' thinking were considered necessary. Each chapter of the thesis thus lays different emphasis on the three areas and reflects the fluid nature of the relationship between art and politics. In my analysis I have attempted to examine the subject from social, historical and comparative perspectives in order to look at the main theoretical premises or conceptual foundations for the cultural policies of the Communist Party. I have also investigated the way in which these theoretical premises were practically applied to the creative work of artists. The thesis provides an overview of general developments in art after 1949, as well as individual case studies. It also looks at both the continuing influence of traditional Chinese art and the impact of foreign ideas and styles. The relationship between art and politics in China has not followed a set pattern and is, therefore, approached in the thesis as being characterised by constant changes. These changes have been contingent mainly on social-political considerations, but also on the response of artists to the political constraints imposed upon them. 2 The work is divided into chapters representing four major historical-political stages. During the first formative stage, the Party took steps to consolidate its political position on a national level and to extend its authority in the cultural sphere. Through cooperation with the majority of Chinese artists and intellectuals in general, it strove to establish a high degree of ideological uniformity by setting up institutional structures to mediate the Communists' ideological scheme and by periodically initiating political movements. Once the Party had attained its first goal of gaining political and ideological legitimacy and winning the general cooperation of artists, during the second stage it mobilised artists en masse to participate in socialist construction through a series of large-scale social-political movements including the Great Leap Forward in 1958 and the Socialist Education Movement in the early 1960s. To ensure the active participation of artists in these movements, their ranks were periodically purged, most notably during the Anti-Rightist Movement in 1957 and, to a lesser extent, the Anti-Rightist Deviation movement of 1959. This period is marked by significant fluctuations in the relationship between the authorities and artists, as policies vacillated between liberalisation and radicalisation. It was also during this time that the Party's authority both politically and culturally began to come into question because of the disastrous failure of a series of political and economic policies. The third stage, that of the Cultural Revolution, represented a major attempt by the radicals in the leadership to re-affirm their supremacy over the political and cultural spheres. Cultural policies were taken to radical extremes, with the result that a uniformity in art of a degree unprecedented since 1949 was established as the political and artistic discourses merged. However, this degree of ideological control proved unsustainable and collapsed following the death of Mao in 1976. The period after his death, representing the fourth and final stage, was symbolised by the forging of a new relationship between art and politics, and between artists and the state that functioned in a different way from previously. It saw the emergence of the individual subjectivity of the artist and the search for a new mode of 3 artistic expression within a limited framework of social reform. In a considerably more tolerant political atmosphere, the Party attempted to forge a new ideological consensus, whilst artists tried to establish a new interface with the Party and society by re-defining their functions within the new system. Before I begin a detailed analysis of the relationship between art and politics after 1949, it is necessary first to outline briefly the historical

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