Notes

Preface 1 . I am not suggesting that the Afro-Modernist epic is exclusively a male con- struct; on the contrary, a book on women writers’ participation in this genre is waiting to be written. Rather, I am arguing for the particularly strong connec- tion between these three writers (in fact a direct lineage from Tolson through Hughes to Baraka) and their epic poems, a connection that has not previously been recognized by scholars. 2 . In the anthology of twenty-first century women’s poetry she coedited with Claudia Rankine, Juliana Spahr defines “innovative poetry” as follows: “Innovative is a word that is as hard to define as lyric, but for the most part here it means the agrammatical modernist techniques such as fragmentation, parataxis, run-ons, interruption, and disjunction, and at the same time the avoidance of linear narrative development, of meditative confessionalism, and of singular voice” (2). 3 . I wish to thank Lyn Hejinian for a conversation at the Kelly Writers House at the University of Pennsylvania that aided me in clarifying my own thinking on this topic. 4 . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , C a r y N e l s o n f i n d s T o l s o n ’ s Libretto for the Republic of Liberia (1953) to be one of the last great texts of American modernism. Nelson marks the end of American modernism with the publication of Robert Lowell’s Life Studies (1959), a collection that moves autobiography to the forefront (101).

1 Modern, Modernist, Afro-Modernist: Melvin B. Tolson in the 1930s and 1940s 1. I n Crossroads Modernism (2002), Edward M. Pavlić distinguishes between European and American modernist influenced “Afro-modernism” and “diasporic modernism,” seeing the former as more solitary and the latter as more communal. In addition, he describes Afro-modernism as, for example, “foregrounding vertical processes,” while diasporic modernism “emphasizes 190 ● Notes

bringing modernist insights into contact with horizontal social and cultural milieux” (5–6). 2 . A work of more sweeping scope was on Tolson’s mind in his conception of Harlem Gallery as a grand epic in five books representing the black diaspora. The intended sequence was as follows: Book I: The Curator , Book II: Egypt Land, Book III: The Red Sea, Book IV: The Wilderness , and Book V, The Promised Land . Though portions of a possible Book II are in Tolson’s papers in the Library of Congress, he only lived to complete the first book. 3 . See Farnsworth’s 1979 debut of A Gallery of Harlem Portraits from University of Missouri Press 273–275. 4 . To elaborate, Nielsen writes: “Certainly Tolson has been flogged for his later style, and the terms of the critical argument over his corpus seem to have been set by the authors of the prefaces to his two last books, Allen Tate and Karl Shapiro. Just as Shapiro’s preface was a response as much to Tate’s as to Tolson’s verses, critics who have come at Tolson afterwards, Black and White alike, have raged and ranged between the Scylla and Charybdis of Shapiro’s two most provocative praises of Tolson’s poems: that they were ‘outpounding Pound’ (12), and that in them ‘Tolson writes and thinks in Negro’ (13). Indeed, many of Tolson’s earliest reviewers and critics seem to have been as exercised, either favorably or negatively, by Shapiro as by Tolson. This is certainly the case in Sarah Webster Fabio’s 1966 essay ‘Who Speaks Negro?’ and Josephine Jacobsen, reviewing Harlem Gallery for the Baltimore Evening Sun , spends roughly half of her print space arguing with Shapiro” (241–242). 5 . Greenwood Press published The Harlem Group of Negro Writers in 2001. 6 . For a detailed discussion of the periodization of early twentieth-century African American poetry, see James Smethurst’s “Introduction” to The New Red Negro . 7 . Nielsen places Tolson’s modernist emergence chronologically later in his per- suasive account of Tolson’s portrayal of the Africanist roots of modernism in Libretto for the Republic of Liberia : “The ‘suddenness’ of Tolson’s stylis- tic transformation is of course belied by those poems published between the appearance of Rendezvous with America and Libretto for the Republic of Liberia ” (242). 8 . Notable exceptions to this neglect include Keith D. Leonard’s Fettered Genius: The African American Bardic Poet From Slavery to Civil Rights (2006) and James Smethurst’s The New Red Negro: The Literary Left And African American Poetry (1999). 9 . Tolson’s naming of Hughes as “the poet of Lenox Avenue” is indicative that Tolson based the character of Hideho Heights (“the vagabond bard of Lenox Avenue”) from the later Harlem Gallery at least in part on Hughes. In addi- tion, the name of the poet is most certainly borrowed from one of Tolson’s star debate students, R. Henri Heights III (Farnsworth 104). 10 . Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 1989. 11 . Tolson also corresponded with Chicago Renaissance writer Theodore Dreiser. Notes ● 191

1 2 . L a t e r , i n Tendencies in Modern American Poetry (1917), Amy Lowell lists the six rules as part of a larger essay. 13 . The long poem titles in this sentence are in quotation marks, distinguishing them from the section titles. Each section contains multiple poems. 14 . Page numbers for all the poems collected in Rendezvous With America (1944) are taken from “Harlem Gallery” and Other Poems of Melvin B. Tolson (1999). 15 . In “Characteristics of Negro Expression,” (1934) Zora Neale Hurston calls this use of “verbal nouns” one of “the Negro’s greatest contributions to the lan- guage” (1021). 16 . Of Tolson’s World War II sonnets, Mootry writes: “Creative practice unites hyperbolic conventions of American folktales with contemporary propagandist mass-art techniques.” She sees the sonnets as equivalent to “poster art” (134). 17 . This review is cited by Farnsworth as February 24, 1945, a date taken from a hand-dated clipping in Tolson’s archives. 18 . B é rub é cites the influence of Robert A. Davis, whose review of “Dark Symphony” appeared in the Chicago Sunday Bee of September 21, 1941. Citing Tolson’s “use of well worn allusions” that are “coupled with the obvious fault of redundance,” he suggested that some sections were “far short of what the author is capable of and intends” (qtd. in B é rub é 169). Davis contrasts the poem’s “perfect” first six lines with its next six, protesting that “it is almost sacrilege to follow such magnificent lines with others as flat and Pollyannaish” as these (qtd. in B é rub é 169): Men black and strong For Justice and Democracy have stood, Steeled in the faith that Right Will conquer Wrong, And Time will usher in one brotherhood. B é rub é notes that “Davis’s objection is well taken, and apparently Tolson thought so too” (169). The revised stanza that appears in the book Rendezvous with America is as follows: Waifs of the auction block, Men black and strong The juggernauts of despotism withstood, Loin-girt with faith that worms Equate the wrong And dust is purged to create brotherhood. (169) 19 . The other artists and scientists are somewhat more quiet; in this stanza they “teach,” “lead,” and “create.” 20 . In “Count Us In,” Sterling A. Brown writes: “Against the medical authorities who stated there was no such thing as Negro blood, that the blood from the veins of whites and Negroes could not be told apart, the Red Cross officially sided with [Mississippi Congressman John Rankin] who saw in the proposal that Negroes too might contribute much needed blood, a communist plot to ‘mongrelize America’.” (qtd. in Thomas 109). 192 ● Notes

2 A Poem for the Futurafrique: Tolson’s Libretto for the Republic of Liberia 1 . See, for example, Hughes’s poem “Prelude to Our Age: A Negro History Poem” (1951) in which Hughes finds it impossible to imagine the future. 2 . Farnsworth notes that he could find no instances of Tolson’s writing about his experiences at the inauguration (218), but suggests that Melvin, Jr.’s mem- ory of his father visiting him on a stopover in Paris confirms that a trip took place (220). In any case, this trip would have taken place after Tolson’s book appeared. 3 . All line numbers for Libretto are taken from the original 1953 Twayne edition; the text is not paginated. 4 . Stanley is most well-known as the rescuer of Dr. David Livingstone in 1871, greeting the lost explorer with the famous words: “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” (“Henry Stanley”). 5 . Maria K. Mootry finds this same formal structure in one of Tolson’s war son- nets in Rendezvous With America (1944): “’The Braggart’ while rather simple in its structure of a tale within a tale and its use of character, dialogue, and concluding homily, achieves perhaps inadvertent complexity in its reversal of call-and-response patterns in the premodernist, black oral tradition” (138). 6 . John Cullen Gruesser suggests that Tolson is also punning on the “foot” in “footnote”: “with the words ‘bunioned,’ ‘pedant,’ and ‘ladder,’ thereby contrast- ing a plodding, earth-bound approach to life with the high-flying and mercu- rial sparrow (Liberia).” (124). 7 . “Selah,” a Hebrew word that is repeated throughout the Psalms , is thought to have a range of meanings, both liturgical and musical. It may indicate, for example, a pause for meditation, or a musical instruction. See the Babylon Hebrew-English, English-Hebrew Dictionary (2012). 8 . This poem is discussed in further detail in chapter 3 . 9 . “Tolson’s difficulties send the reader not to dictionaries, atlases, and encyclo- pedias (as Dudley Randall has asserted) but to primary texts, as do the notes in Eliot’s ‘Waste Land’.” (Woodson 34). 10 . In his “Review of Libretto for the Republic of Liberia,” J. Saunders Redding finds that Tolson’s use of endnotes indicates “that the poet found his talents unequal to the full requirements of the particular necessary communication” (2). 11 . See: Ramona Lowe, “Poem ‘Rendezvous With America’ Wins Fame For Melvin Tolson,” The Chicago Defender April 28, 1945 National Edition: 18. Print. 12 . Tolson’s son, Melvin, Jr., concurs with Farnsworth: “The original sponsor of Liberia, the American Colonization Society, had also founded Lincoln University, of which [Tolson’s] friend and schoolmate Horace Mann Bond had recently become president” (398). 13 . Espoused by influential persons, the colonization movement became quite pop- ular. The ACS was founded in Washington, DC, in December 1816–January 1817 and “by 1833, there were 97 local colonization societies in the North and 136 in the South” (Cain 10). Notes ● 193

14 . For a discussion of various responses to the situation in Liberia in the early part of the twentieth century, including critiques written by African American intel- lectuals, see Hart 166–167. 15 . In 2006, the BBC reported: “The country’s most recent troubles can be traced back to the 1980 coup in which a group of army officers of indigenous tribal origin led by Samuel Doe seized power. Doe forged closer ties with the United States, visiting President Reagan in Washington, and received substantial amounts of aid in return for exclusive trade agreements. His authoritarian regime banned newspapers and political parties, and held staged elections. Civil war broke out in 1989. In September 1990, Doe was overthrown and brutally executed by forces loyal to rebel faction leader Yornie Johnson. The war dragged on until 1996, and a year later warlord Charles Taylor . . . was elected president. His autocratic rule saw opposition leaders targeted for assassination. War broke out again in 1999. Taylor was eventually ousted in 2003, and exiled to Nigeria” (“Liberia at-a-Glance”). 16 . Taylor is charged with “instigating murder, mutilation, rape and sexual slavery during intertwined wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone that claimed more than 250,000 victims from 1989 to 2003” (“Charles G. Taylor”). 17 . Over the summer of 2010, Taylor’s trial was highlighted on the international stage with testimonies by actress Mia Farrow and model Naomi Campbell con- cerning Taylor’s possession of the so-called blood diamonds he allegedly used to obtain weapons (Simons and Cowell). 18 . B é rub é argues that Tolson “was convinced that he had broken into the mar- moreal halls, that he had achieved an unprecedented academic recognition of African-American poetry by means of the approbation of a major critic” (141). 19 . The 1953 edition of Libretto has no page numbers. 2 0 . A l s o w r i t i n g f o r Phylon in a review of Harlem Gallery in 1965, Dolphin G. Thompson labels the lack of positive attention to Libretto a result of “artistic jealousy and shame.” Tolson demonstrated a superb poetic talent in Rendezvous with America , his first book. A second work, The Libretto for the Republic of Liberia , struck with a hurricane force in the citadel of letters, and it was promptly consigned to death in a conspiracy of silence. An African proverb says, “To die quickly saves the survivor pain and suffering.” Most poets and critics know Tolson but have exhibited artistic jealousy and shame. (Thompson 409) 21 . The other books reviewed in the article are The Art of Worldly Wisdom by Kenneth Rexroth; The Eye by Harvey Shapiro; Angel of Accidence by Peter Kane Dufault; Animal, Vegetable, Mineral by Babette Deutsch; The Toy Fair by Howard Moss; and The Land of Silence and Other Poems by May Sarton. 22 . Within the context of the discussion it is interesting to consider the notion of “purity” in all its forms: “pure nonsense,” “racial purity,” and so on. For Davis, who prefers “normal conversational speech,” the implication of nonsense being “pure” would not have occurred to him. For Tolson, poets function as purifiers 194 ● Notes

of language: “The poet is not only the purifier of language, as Eliot insists, but the poet is a sort of barometer in his society. The Latin word for poet is ‘seer,’ a ‘prophet’.” (“Interview” 191). 23 . Such consideration is absent in Ramazani’s account of Hughes’s transnation- ality in which he links Hughes with D. H. Lawrence through their common progenitor, Walt Whitman. 24 . Tolson also took care to distinguish himself from Stein: Listen, Black Boy. Did the High Priestess at 27 rue de Fleurus assert, “The Negro suffers from nothingness”? (Harlem Gallery 264) Tolson’s work continued throughout his life to be a rallying cry against Stein’s comment about the “nothingness” of Negro culture. In the 1965 interview, he asserts, “Gertrude Stein’s judgment that the Negro suffers from Nothingness revealed her profound ignorance of African cultures.” (“Interview” 185). 2 5 . S e e : A l e c M a r s h , Money and Modernity: Pound, Williams, and the Spirit of Jefferson (Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 1998). Print.

3 “In the Modern Vein”: Tolson’s Harlem Gallery 1 . Page numbers for Harlem Gallery are taken from the University Press of Virginia edition (1999). 2 . Joy Flasch cites this portion of the interview as follows: “Cut B, manuscript of tape made for University of Wisconsin educational radio station, May 23, 1965, p. 10.” It is unclear whether this is part of a larger interview conducted by M. W. King, part of which is included Herbert Hill’s Anger and Beyond . The interviews do, however, have the same date. 3 . Quoted in Nielsen: “Deterritorialization” 247. 4 . Tolson’s poem “E. &. O. E.” was published in Poetry 78 (September 1951). The title is taken from the printer’s abbreviation for “errors and omissions excepted.” 5 . Nelson notes that “the brief excerpts from the poem that are attributed to Hideho Heights in ‘Chi’ are (except for the shift of one article from ‘the’ to ‘a’) verbally identical to Tolson’s ‘E. &. O. E.,’ while the line structure has been adapted to fit the odic prosody of Harlem Gallery.” (451–452) 6 . “In the majority of poetic genres, the unity of the language system and the unity (and uniqueness) of the poet’s individuality as reflected in his language and speech, which is directly realized in this unity, are indispensable prerequisites of poetic style. The novel, however, not only does not require these conditions but . . . even makes of the internal stratification of language, or its social hetero- glossia and the variety of individual voices in it, the prerequisite for authentic novelist prose” (Bakhtin 264). 7 . The interview took place at Langston University on March 10, 1965. Tolson was interviewed by M. W. King, a professor of English at Lincoln University (Jefferson City, Missouri). Notes ● 195

4 Bound By Law—Langston Hughes in/and the 1950s 1 . Jean-Michel Rabat é describes “an ‘ethics of mourning’ identical with an accep- tance of loss in order to go beyond mere repetition. A ‘successful’ mourning is generally thought to lead to incorporation, which merely reproduces another transpersonal and translinguistic ‘phantom,’ as Abraham and Torok have argued. What occurs when mourning generates another text?” (13). 2 . I n The Oxford English Dictionary online, the first definition of the noun form of prelude is, “A preliminary action, or condition, preceding and introducing one of more importance; an introduction, a preface; a precursor.” 3 . Westover argues that in “Prelude” and other poems, including “Drums” and “Danse Africaine,” “Hughes makes the drum his instrument for the recupera- tive work of memory,” (1215). 4 . For an illuminating discussion of the historical development of Afro-diasporic consciousness by participants in the Harlem Renaissance and the Afro- Cubanism (afrocubanismo ) movement, and Hughes’s influence on both, see: Frank Guridy, “Feeling Diaspora in Harlem and Havana.” This essay shows “how Afro-diasporic connections can be established across cultural differences” illustrating “the process of diasporization, or the complex social, political, and cultural interactions between people of African descent across national, cultural, and linguistic boundaries that are based on a perceived commonality” (116). 5 . Begun by legal scholars in the 1970s, “critical race theory builds on the insights of two previous movements, critical legal studies and radical feminism . . . It also draws from certain European philosophers and theorists, such as Antonio Gramsci, Michel Foucalt, and Jacques Derrida, as well as from the American radical tradition exemplified by such figures as Sojourner Truth, Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. Du Bois, César Chávez, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Black Power and Chicano movements of the sixties and early seventies.” (Delgado and Stefancic, Critical Race 4–5). 6 . Hughes’s identification with African Americans is evident in his use of the pronouns “we” and “our” throughout the poem, naming America as “our land,” for example: “Meanwhile Jamestown links its chains / Between the Gold Coast and our land” (380). 7 . Renamed the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in 1972. 8 . Esther Sanchez-Pardo theorizes “cultures of the death drive” through a Kleinian perspective. 9 . I n The Philosophy of History (1837), Hegel writes: “At this point we leave Africa, not to mention it again. For it is no historical part of the World; it has no move- ment or development to exhibit . . . . What we properly understand by Africa, is the Unhistorical, Undeveloped Spirit, still involved in the conditions of mere nature, and which had to be presented here only as on the threshold of the World’s History” (99). 10 . See also Rachel Blau DuPlessis’s reading of Wallace Stevens’s 1916 play Three Travelers Watch a Sunrise, in which the two black characters “only serve; they are completely silent or gestural” (DuPlessis 57). 196 ● Notes

11 . The five cases are as follows: Oliver Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, Shawnee County, Kansas, et al.; Harry Briggs, Jr., et al. v. R.W. Elliott, et al.; Dorothy E. Davis et al. v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, Virginia, et al.; Spottswood Thomas Bolling et al. v. C. Melvin Sharpe et al.; Francis B. Gebhart et al. v. Ethel Louise Belton et al ., (“Teaching With Documents”). 12 . In December 2010, the Memphis City School Board, whose schools have an 85 percent black student population, voted to surrender its charter, attempting to put into motion an eventual, forced consolidation with majority-white Shelby County Schools. “Memphis schools began integrating in 1961 without the vio- lence other Southern cities endured. White parents instead left the city for the suburbs or put their children in private schools, effectively re-segregating educa- tion into a mostly black city system and a largely white suburban system” (Sainz). 13 . Hughes announced the completion of the book, Montage of a Dream Deferred , in a letter to Arna Bontemps dated September 14, 1948 (Rampersad, Life Vol. II 151). It was published by Henry Holt in 1951.

5 Toward An Afro-Modernist Future: Langston’s Hughes’s ASK YOUR MAMA: 12 MOODS FOR JAZZ 1 . Quotations and page numbers taken from the first edition of ASK YOUR MAMA: 12 MOODS FOR JAZZ , New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1961. 2 . Patricia Jane Roylance explains: “As critics accused Longfellow of plagiariz- ing the Finnish epic Kalevala , they overwrote [“The Song of Hiawatha”’s] sig- nificant debt to aboriginal imagination. Though Longfellow himself resisted this trend toward cultural oversimplification and privileging Scandinavia over Native America, his poetry nonetheless participated in and even helped to encourage that practice” (436). 3 . King Leopold II’s agents terrorized the native Africans, chopping off the right hands of, or killing, men who failed to meet their quota for rubber production. 4 . The correct spelling is “Emeka.” Emeka’s full name was Nnaemeka Ndedi Azikiwe. He died on March 15, 2011. 5 . Fourteen-year-old Emmett Till of Chicago, Illinois, was murdered by white racists in Mississippi on August 28, 1955. 6 . Scott Saul repeats this error in Freedom Is, Freedom Ain’t: Jazz and the Making of the Sixties . 7 . Faubus called out the National Guard to block the admission of nine black pupils to Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957. Eastland vig- orously supported school segregation in public schools in Mississippi, and John Patterson interfered with the Freedom Riders’ attempts to integrate buses and interstate transportation. 8 . An article by Obiwu, “The Pan-African Brotherhood of Langston Hughes and Nnamdi Azikiwe” (2007) begins to lay out details of Hughes and Azikiwe’s long friendship. Notes ● 197

9 . “Test on Street Language Says It’s Not Grant in That Tomb,” New York Times April 17, 1983: 30. The eight McGraw-Hill employees who took the test all scored C’s and D’s. 10 . I thank Rachel Blau DuPlessis for her suggestions for elaboration on this metaphor. 11 . Nathaniel “Marvelous” Montague is an African American DJ and collector of African American historical artifacts. His on-air catchphrase “Burn, Baby! Burn!” was transformed into a slogan for the 1965 Watts uprising in Los Angeles. His life is the subject of autobiography written with journalist Bob Baker (Champaign: U of Illinois P, 2003). 12 . A transcription of this introduction is printed on the front flap of the reissued version of the book published in 2009. Although Hughes’s comments are in quotes, there is no citation of the source. 13 . In his introductory comments for the 2009 reissue of ASK YOUR MAMA , Arnold Rampersad also provides an account of Hughes beginning the composi- tion of the poem at Newport. 14 . Shulman also mentions Muriel Rukeyser’s use of documentary and Kenneth Fearing’s use of the movies. 15 . For a more detailed account of Hughes’s relationship with Taylor, see Bruce Kellner, “Working Friendship: A Harlem Renaissance Footnote,” The Lithographs of Prentiss Taylor: A Catalogue Raisonn é , New York : Fordham UP, 1996, 11–18. Print. 16 . All sources quoted here concerning Taylor and Hughes’s work together have been digitized from microfilm by the Archives of American Art. The physical location of the Hughes material in the Archive is as follows: Prentiss Taylor Papers Box 9, Reel 5921. The online summary of the Prentiss Taylor Papers, 1885–1991 is available at http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/prentiss-taylor -papers-9232. The original Hughes letters are housed at the Yale University Library.

6 Amiri Baraka’s Wise Why’s Y’s: Lineages of the Afro-Modernist Epic 1 . In an email, William J. Harris reveals that “(t)here was always music with the poems” but goes on to add that “(t)hey [the song titles] were handwritten and just looked like add-ons.” This statement raises additional interesting questions about what constitutes the “actual text” of “Wise Why’s Y’s.” The fact that Harris, in preparing his 1985 monograph, did not include the song titles and that Baraka published additional poems without the song titles printed on the page demonstrates that the shape of the poem, and the configuration of the page of the “score,” was still evolving (“Re : Wise”). 2 . The “Wise Why’s Y’s” typescript currently is located in Box J056 Folder 2, Amiri Baraka Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University. Because this collection is currently being processed, the box and folder numbers 198 ● Notes

may change in the future. I offer special appreciation to Professor Brent Hayes Edwards and Archivist Susan G. Hamson for giving me access to these materials. 3 . Harris explains: “I start the first period with 1957, because it is the year that Baraka arrived in Greenwich Village. I begin the second with 1963, because that year marks the approximate beginning of his serious doubts about white bohemia. I start the third with 1965, since that was the year Malcolm X was killed, and marked the beginning of a period when Baraka declared his opposi- tion to white society and moved uptown to Harlem, where he declared himself a black cultural nationalist. I begin the last with 1974, because that is the year Baraka pronounced himself a Marxist-Leninist” (Reader xv). 4 . The final book version is abbreviated hereafter as Wise. 5 . No song is included in this publication of section 18. In the larger “Wise Why’s Wise” typescript, Baraka has handwritten: “Ma Rainey / Explainin the Blues (T. Dorsey)” on a photocopy of page 109 from Forward , indicating how Baraka began to conceive of the poem as a multimedia jazz performance. 6 . These charges, which resurfaced in relation to Baraka’s removal from the posi- tion of Poet Laureate of New Jersey, do not escape his attention. New Jersey governor Jim McGreevey demanded that Baraka apologize for the content of “Somebody Blew Up America” and resign his position as poet laureate, and “when he refused to do either, the governor took the extraordinary step of abolishing the post.” (Campbell 139). The poem had been published widely on the Internet before Baraka was appointed. In a recent interview with James Campbell, Baraka expresses concern: “See, I have to carry that with me. Forty years from now, some fool will say, ‘Baraka, the anti-Semite’” (140). In an arti- cle updated in July 2003, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) asserts: “Amiri Baraka, the former Leroi Jones, has a long history of hostility to Jews and Jewish concerns” (“Amiri Baraka: In His Own Words”). The following lines in “Somebody Blew Up America” drew criticism from the ADL: Who knew the World Trade Center was gonna get bombed Who told 4000 Israeli workers at the Twin Towers To stay away that day Why did Sharon stay away? (203) Campbell comments: “The prominent theme of the poem is the ruthless instinct of the powerful for political advantage and the blindness of the public at large to ‘terrorists’ in their own midst” (138), of which the following stanza is illustrative: Who killed the most niggers Who killed the most Jews Who killed the most Italians Who killed the most Irish Who killed the most Africans Who killed the most Japanese Who killed the most Latinos Who/Who/Who (200) Notes ● 199

Campbell also notes that the poem is not literal (which readers might have guessed already); there were not 4,000 Israeli workers at the Twin Towers. The poem, which repeats the interrogative “Who” throughout, contains a num- ber of provocations, including those that condemn the perpetrators of the Holocaust: Who put the Jews in ovens, and who helped them do it Who said “America First” and ok’d the yellow stars WHO/ WHO/ (202) However, as William J. Harris and Aldon Lynn Nielsen note in their nuanced discussion, “Somebody Blew Off Baraka,” the four offending lines of the poem cited above are not easily explicated. 7 . I thank Robin Tremblay-McGaw for suggesting that I elaborate on this difference. 8 . James Smethurst also suggests a comparison between Paterson and Hughes’s Montage of a Dream Deferred (“Adventures” 159). 9 . Baraka had this poem printed privately in 1982, in pamphlet form, with a cover by painter Vincent Smith (Reader 302). 10 . Olson, “Projective Verse.”

Works Cited

“12 Years of Progress.” Liberia Today 5.1 (1956): 2. Melvin B. Tolson’s Papers. Library of Congress Manuscripts Division. Container 3. Print. “Amiri Baraka: In His Own Words.” Anti-Defamation League. Jul. 2003. Web. Jul. 15, 2010. “The Artist: Tom Feelings.” The Middle Passage: Tom Feelings . n.d. Web. Aug. 25, 2013. Baker, Houston A., Jr. Turning South Again: Re-thinking Modernism/Re-reading Booker T. Durham, NC: Duke UP, 2001. Print. Bakhtin, M. M. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Ed. Michael Holquist. Austin: U of Texas P, 1981. Print. Baraka, Amiri. “Amiri Baraka Analyzes How He Writes.” Interview by Kalamu ya Salaam. African American Review 37.2–3 (2003): 211–236. Print. ———. The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1997. Print. ———. “Black Art.” The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 219–220. Print. ———. Blues People . New York: Perennial, 2002. Print. ———. “Error Farce.” The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka. The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 340–367. Print. ———. “Griot/Djali: Poetry, Music, History, Message.” Jali Kunda: Griots of West Africa and Beyond. Ed. Matthew Kopka and Iris Brooks. Roslyn, NY: Ellipsis Arts, 1996. 78–82. Print. ———. “How You Sound??” The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 16–17. Print. ———. “In the Tradition.” The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 302–310. Print. ———. The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. Print. ———. “Somebody Blew Up America.” African American Review 37.2–3 (2003): 198–203. Print. ———. “What About Literature? W-15.” Southern Review 21 (1985): 801–804. Print. 202 ● Works Cited

———. “Why’s/Wise.” The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. 480–493. Print. Baraka, Amiri. Wise Why’s Y’s: The Griot’s Song Djeli Ya. Chicago: Third World Press, 1995. Print. ———. “Wise Why’s Y’s” typescript, Box J056 Folder 2, Amiri Baraka Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University. Print. ———. “YYYYYYY (18).” Forward: Journal of Socialist Thought 18 (1985): 109–116. Print. Baraka, Imamu Amiri. (LeRoi Jones), ed. The Moderns, An Anthology of New Writing in America . New York: Corinth Books, 1963. Print. Bell, Jr. Derrick A. “Brown v . Board of Education and the Interest-Convergence Dilemma.” 93 Harv. L. Rev. 518 (1979–1980). Berry, Faith. Langston Hughes, Before and Beyond Harlem . New York: Citadel Press, 1992. Print. B é rub é , Michael. Marginal Forces/Cultural Centers: Tolson, Pynchon, and the Politics of the Canon. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1992. Print. Bickham, Jack M. “Langston Poet May Signal New Era.” Sunday Oklahoman, May 23, 1965: 10. Print. Billitteri, Carla. “William Carlos Williams and the Politics of Form.” Journal of Modern Literature 30.2: (2007): 42–63. Print. Bishop, Rudine Sims. “Tom Feelings and the Middle Passage.” The Horn Book Magazine. Media Source Co. Jul.–Aug. 1996. n.p. Web. Jul. 23, 2009. Brooks, Gwendolyn. “Books Noted.” Negro Digest 14.11 (1965): 51–52. Print. Brown, Cynthia Stokes. Refusing Racism: White Allies and the Struggle for Civil Rights. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 2002. Print. Burke, Arthur E. “Book Review: Lyrico-Dramatic.” The Crisis 52.2 (1945): 61. Print. Cain, William E. “Introduction.” William Lloyd Garrison and the Fight Against Slavery. Ed. William E. Cain. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 1995. 1–57. Print. Calmore, John. “Critical Race Theory, Archie Shepp, and Fire Music: Securing an Authentic Intellectual Life in a Multicultural World,” 65 S. Cal. L. Rev. 2129. 2160. (1992). Campbell, James. Syncopations: Beats, New Yorkers, and Writers in the Dark . Berkeley, CA: U of California P, 2008. Print. Cansler, Ronald Lee. “‘The White and not-White Dichotomy’ of Melvin B. Tolson’s Poetry.” Negro American Literature Forum 7.4 (1974): 115–118. Print. “Charles G. Taylor.” The New York Times. Jul. 2, 2010. Web. Sep. 7, 2010. Ciardi, John. “Dialogue with an Audience.” Saturday Review . Nov. 22, 1958: 10–12, 42. Print. ———. “Recent Verse.” The Nation 178.7 (1954): 183. Print. “Colonialization: The African-American Mosaic (Library of Congress Exhibition).” A Library of Congress Resource Guide for the Study of Black History & Culture . Library of Congress. Jul. 5, 2005. Web. May 5, 2006. Dace, Leticia, and M. Thomas Inge, eds. Langston Hughes: The Contemporary Reviews . New York: Cambridge UP, 2009. Print. Davis, Arthur P. “Negro Poetry.” Midwest Journal 6.2 (1954): 74–77. Print. Works Cited ● 203

Delancey, Rose Mary. “Tolson Hailed as a Great Poet.” Fort Wayne News-Sentinel, Apr. 24, 1965: 4-A. Print. Delgado, Richard. “Storytelling for Oppositionists and Others: A Plea For Narrative,” 87 Mich. L. Rev. 2411, 2413 (1989). Print. Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefancic. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. 2nd edn. New York: New York University Press, 2012. Print. “Democracy At Work.” Liberia Today 3.7 (1954): 3. Melvin B. Tolson Papers. Library of Congress Manuscripts Division. Container 3. Print. Derrida, Jacques. Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression. Trans. Eric Prenowitz. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Print. ———. Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, The Work of Mourning, and the New International . Trans. Peggy Kamuf. New York: Routledge, 1994. Print. Diagne, Souleymane. “N é gritude.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Ed. Edward N. Zalta. Summer 2010. Web. Jun. 13, 2012. “Digest Of Jim-Crow Laws Affecting Passengers in Interstate Travel.” History Matters. American Social History Project/Center for Media & Learning, City University of New York and the Center for History and New Media, George Mason University. Jul. 22, 2013 Web. Aug. 21, 2013. Douglass, Frederick. “Colonization.” The North Star. Jan. 26, 1849. Uncle Tom’s Cabin & American Culture. Ed. Steven Railton. The University of Virginia. Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities; Electronic Text Center. 2006. Web. May 7, 2009. ———. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. 1845. Ed. Houston A. Baker, Jr. New York: Penguin Books, 1986. Print. Du Bois, W. E. B. “Criteria of Negro Art.” The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader . Ed. David Levering Lewis. New York: Penguin Books, 1995. 100–105. Print. ———. The Souls of Black Folk . 1903. New York: Penguin Classics, 1996. Print. Dummett, Mark. “King Leopold’s Legacy of DR Congo Violence.” BBC News: Africa, Feb. 24, 2004. Web. Oct. 26, 2011. Dunbar, Paul Laurence. “We Wear the Mask.” The Collected Poetry of Paul Laurence Dunbar. Ed. Joanne M. Braxton. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1996. 71. Print. DuPlessis, Rachel Blau. “‘Darken Your Speech’: Racialized Cultural Work of Modernist Poets.” Reading Race in American Poetry: “An Area of Act.” Ed. Aldon Lynn Nielsen. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 2000. 43–83. Print. “Dr. Melvin B. Tolson, Poet Dies.” New York Amsterdam News, Sep. 3, 1966: 6. Print. Earnest, Ernest. “ Spoon River Revisited.” Western Humanities Review 21 (1967): 59–65. Print. Edwards, Brent Hayes. The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism . Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2003. Print. ———. “The Uses of Diaspora.” Social Text 66 19.1 (Spring 2001): 45–73. Print. Emanuel, James A., and Theodore L. Gross, eds. Dark Symphony: Negro Literature in America . New York: The Free Press 1968. Print. 204 ● Works Cited

Eskilson, Stephen J. Graphic Design: A New History. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 2007. Print. Fabio, Sarah Webster. “Who Speaks Negro?” Negro Digest 16.2 (1966): 54–58. Print. Farnsworth, Robert M. Melvin B. Tolson, 1898–1966: Plain Talk and Poetic Prophecy . Columbia: U of Missouri P, 1984. Print. “Federico Garc í a Lorca.” Poets.org . The Academy of American Poets. 2011. Web. Mar. 19, 2011. Fitzgerald, Sharon. “Vincent Smith.” American Visions . Jun. 1999. Web. Jul. 23, 2009. Flasch, Joy. Melvin B. Tolson . New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972. Print. Flint, F. S. “Imagisme.” Poetry 1.6 (1913): 198–200. Print. Flug, Michael. “Introduction.” Chicago Renaissance 1932–1950: A Flowering of Afro-American Culture, Images and Documents from the Vivian G. Harsh Research Collection. Chicago Public Library. n.d. Web. Sep. 11, 2005. “Foreign Missionaries.” Lincoln University Herald . Feb. 1928: 5. Print. “Frederico Garcí a Lorca (1895–1936).” Columbia Granger’s World of Poetry Online . Columbia University Press. 2011. Web. Mar. 19, 2011. Freud, Sigmund. “Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego.” The Freud Reader. Ed. Peter Gay. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1989. 626–628. Print. Gardiner, Michael. Critiques of Everyday Life: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print. Gardner, J. W. “Blameless Ethiopians and Others.” Greece and Rome 24.2 (1977): 185–193. Print. Garrison, William Lloyd. “Exposure of the American Colonization Society.” 1852. Uncle Tom’s Cabin & American Culture. Ed. Steven Railton. The University of Virginia. Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities; Electronic Text Center. 2006. Web. May 7, 2009. Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. Figures in Black: Words, Signs and the “Racial” Self. New York: Oxford UP, 1987. Print. ———. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. New York: Oxford UP, 1988. Print. Graziosi, Barbara. Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic. New York: Cambridge UP, 2002. Print. Gruesser, John Cullen. Black on Black: Twentieth-Century African American Writing About Africa . Lexington: UP of Kentucky, 2000. Print. Guridy, Frank. “Feeling Diaspora in Harlem and Havana.” Social Text 27.1 (2009): 115–140. Print. Hale, Thomas A. “From the Griot of Roots to the Roots of Griot : A New Look at the Origins of a Controversial African Term for Bard.” Oral Tradition 12.2 (1997): 249–278. Print. ———. Griots and Griottes . Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2007. Print. Hansell, William H. “Three Artists in Melvin B. Tolson’s Harlem Gallery .” Black American Literature Forum 8.3 (1984): 122–127. Print. Harris, William J. “Introduction.” The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader. Ed. William J. Harris. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1991. xvii–xxx. Print. Works Cited ● 205

———. “Re : Wise : Article.” Message to the author. July 20, 2012. Email. ———. The Poetry and Poetics of Amiri Baraka: The Jazz Aesthetic . Columbia: U of Missouri P, 1985. Print. Harris, William J., and Aldon Lynn Nielsen. “Somebody Blew Off Baraka.” African American Review 37.2/3 (2003): 183–187. Print. Hart, Matthew. Nations of Nothing But Poetry: Modernism, Transnationalism, and Synthetic Vernacular Writing . New York: Oxford UP, 2010. Print. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. The Philosophy of History. Trans. J. Sibree. New York: Dover Publications, 1956. Print. “Henry Stanley (1841–1904).” BBC History. 2012. Web. Jun. 8, 2012. Hilyer, Robert. “Among the New Volumes of Verse.” New York Times Book Review, Dec. 10, 1944: 29. Print. Hochschild, Adam: King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Print. Homer. The Iliad of Homer. Trans. Richard Lattimore. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1961. Print. ———. The Odyssey of Homer . Trans. Richard Lattimore. New York: Harper Colophone Books, 1975. Print. Hughes, Langston. Ask Your Mama: 12 Moods for Jazz. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961. Print. ———. The Big Sea . New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. Print. ———. The Collected Poems of Langston Hughe s. Ed. Arnold Rampersad. New York: Vintage Classics, 1995. Print. ———. “Consider Me.” The Collected Poems of Langston Hughe s. Ed. Arnold Rampersad. New York: Vintage Classics, 1995. 385–386. Print. ———. “Gloomy Day at Newport.” Chicago Defender, Jul. 23,1960: 10. Print. ———. “My Adventures as a Social Poet.” Phylon 8.3 (1947): 205–212. Print. ———. “The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain.” The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, 2nd edn. Ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Nellie Y. McKay. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2004. 1311–1314. Print. ———. “Prelude to Our Age: A Negro History Poem.” The Collected Poems of Langston Hughe s. Ed. Arnold Rampersad. New York: Vintage Classics, 1995. 379–384. Print. ———. “Volume 5: The Black Verse.” Buddah Records, 1961. LP. ———. “Young Prostitute.” The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes. Ed. Arnold Rampersad. New York: Vintage Classics, 1995. 33. Print. Hurston, Zora Neale. “Characteristics of Negro Expression.” The Norton Anthology of African American Literature, 2nd edn. Ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Nellie Y. McKay. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2004. 1041–1053. Print. Hutchinson, George. The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 1995. Print. Jackson, Laura (Riding). A Selection of the Poems of Laura Riding . Ed. Robert Nye. New York: Persea Books, 1996. Print. Jacobsen, Josephine. “Two Volumes of Contemporary Poetry.” Baltimore Evening Sun, Nov. 2, 1965: A20. Print. 206 ● Works Cited

Jaffe, Aaron. Modernism and the Culture of Celebrity. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005. Print. Ja ř ab, Josef. “Introduction: Modernity, Modernism, and the American Ethnic Minority Artist.” Race and the Modern Artist . Ed. Heather Hathaway, Josef Ja ř ab, and Jeffrey Melnick. New York: Oxford UP, 2003. 3–15. Print. Johnson, James Weldon. “Preface.” The Book of American Negro Poetry: Chosen and Edited with an Essay on the Negro’s Creative Genius . Ed. James Weldon Johnson. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1922. vii–xlviii. Print. Jones, Meta DuEwa. The Muse is Music: Jazz Poetry from the Harlem Renaissance to Spoken Word. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 2011. Print. ———. “Politics, Process & (Jazz) Performance: Amiri Baraka’s ‘It’s Nation Time.’” African American Review 37.2/3 (2003): 245–252. Print. Kellner, Bruce. “Working Friendship: A Harlem Renaissance Footnote.” The Lithographs of Prentiss Taylor: A Catalogue Raisonn é . New York : Fordham UP, 1996. 11–18. Print. Kemp, Roy Z. “Poetry Volume.” Greensboro News, Dec. 24, 1961: D3. Print. Kelley, Robin D. G. “A Poetics of Anticolonialism.” Monthly Review 51.06 (1999). Web. Jul. 30, 2012. Kiel, Daniel. “Exploded Dream: Desegregation in the Memphis City Schools.” Law and Inequality 26 (2008): 261. Print. Kim, Daniel Won-gu. “‘We, Too, Rise With You’: Recovering Langston Hughes’s African (Re)Turn 1954–1960 in An African Treasury , the Chicago Defender , and Black Orpheus.” African American Review 41.3 (2007): 419–441. Print. Komunyakaa, Yusef. “Langston Hughes + Poetry = the Blues.” Callaloo 25.4 (2002): 1140–1143. Print. Kopka, Matthew, and Iris Brooks, eds. Jali Kunda: Griots of West Africa and Beyond. Roslyn, NY: Ellipsis Arts, 1996. Print. Leonard, Keith D. Fettered Genius: The African American Bardic Poet from Slavery to Civil Rights . Charlottesville: U of Virginia P, 2006. Print. “Liberia.” World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency, Apr. 20, 2006. Web. May 5, 2006. “Liberia at-a-Glance.” BBC News, Jan. 20, 2006. Web. May 5, 2006. “The Liberian Centennial.” The Black Dispatch . [Oklahoma City, OK]. Dec. 28, 1946. Reprinted by Washington, DC: Centennial Commission of the Republic of Liberia. Melvin B. Tolson Papers. Library of Congress Manuscripts Division. Container 3. Print. “Liberian Laureate.” Evening Star. [Washington, DC]. Melvin B. Tolson Papers. Library of Congress Manuscripts Division. Container 3. Print. “Liberian Progress in Agriculture.” Liberia Today 4.2 (1955): 3. Melvin B. Tolson Papers. Library of Congress Manuscripts Division. Container 3. Print. Locke, Alain. “Foreword.” The New Negro . Ed. Alain Locke. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. xxxv–xxvii. Print. Lowe, Ramona. “Poem ‘Rendezvous With America’ Wins Fame For Melvin Tolson.” The Chicago Defender Apr. 28, 1945 National Edition: 18. Print. Works Cited ● 207

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. “Hiawatha.” Chicago: The Reilly and Britton Co., 1909. Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library. n.d. Web. Oct. 14, 2011. Lopez, Ian F. Haney. White By Law: The Legal Construction of Race. New York: New York University Press, 1996. Print. Lowell, Amy. “Preface.” Some Imagist Poets: An Anthology. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1915. v–viii. Print. ———. Tendencies in Modern American Poetry. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1917. Print. Mackey, Nathaniel. “The Changing Same: Black Music in the Poetry of Amiri Baraka.” Boundary 2 : A Journal of Postmodern Literature and Culture 6.2 (1978): 355–386. Print. Marable, Manning, and Leith Mullings, eds. Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000. Print. Marsh, Alec. Money and Modernity: Pound, Williams, and the Spirit of Jefferson . Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 1998. Print. Masters, Edgar Lee. “The Genesis of Spoon River .” American Mercury 28 (1933): 38–55. Print. McCall, Dan. “The Quicksilver Sparrow of M. B. Tolson.” American Quarterly 18 (1966): 538–542. Print. McElrath, K. J. “Musical Analysis of ‘Billie’s Bounce.’” Billie’s Bounce (1945)—Jazz Standards Songs and Instrumentals . 2005–2008. Web. Jun. 24, 2009. Miner, Virginia Scott. “A ‘Great Poet’ Unknown in Our Own Mid-West.” Kansas City Star, Jul. 25, 1965: 5D. Print. Monson, Ingrid. Freedom Sounds: Civil Rights Call Out to Jazz and Africa . NY: Oxford UP, 2007. Print. Mootry, Maria K. “‘The Steps of Iron Feet’: Creative Practice in the War Sonnets of Melvin B. Tolson and Gwendolyn Brooks.” Reading Race in American Poetry: “An Area of Act. ” Ed. Aldon Lynn Nielsen. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 2000, 133–147. Print. Morgan, Joyce. “Trombone Master and Living legend Granchan Monchur III- Biography.” Granchan Monchur III. n.d. Web. Jul. 27, 2009. Morrisson, Mark. “Nationalism and the Modern American Canon.” The Cambridge Companion to American Modernism . Ed. Walter Kalaidjian. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005. 12–35. Print. Moten, Fred. In The Break: The Aesthetics Of The Black Radical Tradition . Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 2003. Print. Mullen, Edward J. “Introduction.” The Harlem Group of Negro Writers. Ed. Edward J. Mullen. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001, 1–27. Print. Mullen, Harryette. Muse and Drudge. Philadelphia, PA: Singing Horse Press, 1995. Print. ———. Trimmings. New York: Tender Buttons, 1991. Print. Murray, Albert. “Improvisation and the Creative Process.” The Jazz Cadence of American Culture. Ed. Robert G. O’Meally. New York: Columbia UP, 1998. 111–113. Print. 208 ● Works Cited

Nagy, Gregory. “Early Greek Views of Poets and Poetry.” Classical Criticism . Ed. George Kennedy. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989. Cambridge Histories Online. Web. Mar. 17, 2011. Nelson, Cary. “Modern American Poetry.” The Cambridge Companion to American Modernism. Ed. Walter Kalaidjian. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005. 68–101. Print. Nelson, Raymond. “Editorial Statement.” “Harlem Gallery” and Other Poems of Melvin B. Tolson . Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1999. xxvii–xxviii. Print. “New Classical Releases.” Billboard . May 3, 1969. 54. Print. Newcomb, John Timberman. “Poetry’s Opening Door: Harriet Monroe and American Modernism.” American Periodicals: A Journal of History, Criticism, and Bibliography 15.1 (2005): 6–22. Print. Newman, J. K. “Epic.” The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Ed. Alex Preminger and T. V. F. Brogan. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1993. 361–375. Print. Nielsen, Aldon. L. “Melvin B. Tolson and the Deterritorialization of Modernism.” African American Review 26.2 (1992): 241–255. Print. North, Michael. The Dialect of Modernism: Race, Language, and Twentieth-Century Literature . New York: Oxford UP, 1994. Print. ———. “The Harlem Renaissance.” The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism, Vol. 7. Ed. A. Walton Litz, Louis Menand, and Lawrence Rainey. New York: Cambridge UP, 2000. Print. Obiwu. “The Pan-African Brotherhood of Langston Hughes and Nnamdi Azikiwe.” Dialectical Anthropology 31.1–3 (2007): 143–165. Print. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. “Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons.” Sep. 28, 1954. Web. Jun. 15, 2012. Olson, Charles. “Projective Verse.” Human Universe and Other Essays. New York: Grove Press, 1967. 53. Print. O’Meally, Robert G. “Romare Bearden A Black Odyssey Exhibition Prospectus.” The Smithsonian Institution. n.d. Web. Jun. 3, 2013. “Overview.” Liberia Country Profile. BBC News. Jul. 20, 2010. Web. Sep. 20, 2010. Palmer, Robert. “Griots of West Africa: An Introductory Essay.” Jali Kunda: Griots of West Africa and Beyond. Ed. Matthew Kopka and Iris Brooks. Roslyn, NY: Ellipsis Arts, 1996. 8–15. Print. Pavli ć , Edward M. Crossroads Modernism: Descent and Emergence in African- American Literary Culture . Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P. 2002. Perelman, Bob. “Dawn of Dusk of Dawn: Harlem Gallery in History.” National Poetry Foundation Conference on North American Poetry in the 1960s, 2000, University of Maine at Orono, Unpublished Conference Paper, 2000. Perloff, Marjorie. 21st-Century Modernism: The “New” Poetics . Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002. Print. Pinkerton, Jan, and Randolph H. Hudson. Encyclopedia of the Chicago Literary Renaissance . New York: Facts on File, 2004. Print. Pound, Ezra. “Date Line.” Literary Essays of Ezra Pound. New York: New Directions, 1968. Print. ———. “A Few Don’ts by an Imagiste.” Poetry 1.6 (1913): 200–206. Print. Works Cited ● 209

“Preface.” Matthew Kopka and Iris Brooks, eds. Jali Kunda: Griots of West Africa and Beyond. Roslyn, NY: Ellipsis Arts, 1996. 6. Print. “Preface.” Some Imagist Poets: An Anthology . New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1915. v–viii. “Prelude, n.” Def. 1. OED Online. Oxford UP, Nov. 2010. Web. Feb. 13, 2011. “Programme of Ceremonies.” Melvin B. Tolson Papers. Library of Congress Manuscripts Division. Container 3. Print. Quint, David. Epic and Empire: Politics and Generic Form from Virgil to Milton . Princeton UP, 1993. Print. Rabat é , Jean-Michel. The Ghosts of Modernity. Gainesville, FL: U of Florida P, 1996. Print. Rainey, Lawrence. Institutions of Modernism: Literary Elites and Public Culture . New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 1998. Print. Ramazani, Jahan. “A Transnational Poetics.” American Literary History 18.2 (2006): 332–359. Print. Rampersad, Arnold. “Introduction.” ASK YOUR MAMA: 12 MOODS FOR JAZZ . New York: Knopf, 2009. Print. ———. The Life of Langston Hughes. Volume II: 1941–1967. I Dream a World . New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Print. Ramsey, Guthrie. Race Music: Black Cultures from Bebop to Hip-Hop. Berkeley, CA: U of California P, 2003. Print. Redding, J. Saunders. “Review of Libretto for the Republic of Liberia .” Baltimore Afro-American (magazine section ) Jan. 23, 1954: 2. Print. Reed, Brian M. “Carl Sandburg’s The People, Yes, Thirties Modernism, and the Problem of Bad Political Poetry.” Texas Studies in Literature and Language 46.2 (2004): 181–212. Print. Rodman, Selden. “On Vistas Undreamt.” New York Times Book Review, Jan. 24, 1954: 10. Print. Rosenthal, M. L. “Some Thoughts on American Poetry Today.” Salmagundi 22–23 (1973): 57–70. Print. Rotella, Carlo. “Chicago Literary Renaissance.” Encyclopedia of Chicago . Ed. Janice L. Reiff, Ann Durkin Keating, and James R. Grossman. Chicago Historical Society, The Newberry Library, and Northwestern University. 2005. Web. Jul. 31, 2012. Roylance, Patricia Jane. “Northmen and Native Americans: The Politics of Landscape in the Age of Longfellow.” The New England Quarterly 80.3 (2007): 435–458. Print. Ryan, William, and Theodore Conover. Graphic Communications Today . 4th edn. Clifton Park, New York: Delmar Learning, 2004. Print. Sainz, Adrian. “Memphis City Schools System Merger Ignites Racial Tensions.” Huffington Post 2/21/11. Web. Dec. 15, 2012. Sanchez-Pardo, Esther. Cultures of the Death Drive: Melanie Klein and Modernist Melancholia . Durham, NC: Duke UP, 2003. Print. Sanders, Mark A. “American Modernism and the New Negro Renaissance.” The Cambridge Companion to American Modernism. Ed. Walter Kalaidjian. New York: Cambridge UP, 2005. 129–156. Print. 210 ● Works Cited

Saul, Scott. Freedom Is, Freedom Ain’t: Jazz and the Making of the Sixties . Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2003. Print. Scanlon, Larry. “News from Heaven: Vernacular Time in Langston Hughes’s Ask Your Mama .” Callaloo 25.1 (2002): 45–65. Print. “Schomburg Center Past Programs and Performances on Videotape.” New York Public Library. 1994. Web. Jul. 31, 2012. Schultz, Kathy Lou. “‘In the Modern Vein’: Afro-Modernism and Literary History.” Diss. U of Pennsylvania, 2006. Print. Shapiro, Karl. “Introduction.” Harlem Gallery . By Melvin B. Tolson. New York: Twayne. 11–15. Print. Sherwood, John. “‘Architect of Poetry’: Harlem Poet’s Epic out 30 Years Later.” Washington Evening Star, Mar. 31, 1965: E-2. Print. Shulman, Robert. The Power of Political Art: The 1930s Literary Left Reconsidered . Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina Press, 2000. Print. Sidran, Ben. “Liner Notes.” Blue Note Records. 1967. “Jackie McLean—Hipnosis (1967) with Grachan Moncur.” Avaxhome . Jul. 28, 2007. Web. Jul. 27, 2009. Simons, Marlise, and Alan Cowell. “Number of Diamonds Varies at War Crimes Trial.” New York Times, Aug. 10, 2010. Web. Sep. 20, 2010. Simons, Marlise, and J. David Goodman. “Ex-Liberian Leader Gets 50 Years for War Crimes.” New York Times. May 30, 2012. Web. Jun. 4, 2012. Smethurst, James. “The Adventures of a Social Poet: Langston Hughes from the Popular Front to Black Power.” A Historical Guide to Langston Hughes . Ed. Steven C. Tracy. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004. 141–169. Print. ———. The New Red Negro: The Literary Left and African American Poetry, 1930–1946. New York: Oxford UP, 1999. Print. Spahr, Juliana. “Introduction.” American Women Poets in the 21st Century: Where Lyric Meets Language. Ed. Claudia Rankine and Spahr. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan UP, 2002. 1–17. Print. Spector, Robert Donald. “The Poet’s Voice in the Crowd.” Saturday Review Aug. 7, 1965: 29. Print. Suso, Foday Musa. “Jali Kunda: A Memoir.” Jali Kunda: Griots of West Africa and Beyond. Ed. Matthew Kopka and Iris Brooks. Roslyn, NY: Ellipsis Arts, 1996. 17–72. Print. “Synge, [Edmund] J[ohn] M[illington].” The Concise Oxford Companion to Irish Literature. Ed. Robert Welch. Oxford University Press, 2000. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. University of Pennsylvania. Web. Jun. 11, 2009. Tate, Allen. Preface. Libretto for the Republic of Liberia by Melvin B. Tolson. New York: Collier, 1970. Print. Taylor, John. “Poetry Today.” The Antioch Review 63.3 (2005): 590–593. Print. “Teaching With Documents: Documents Related to Brown v. Board of Education .” The National Archives. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. n.d. Web. Aug. 21, 2013. Thomas, Lorenzo. Extraordinary Measures: Afrocentric Modernism and Twentieth- Century American Poetry . Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 2000. Print. Works Cited ● 211

Thompson, Dolphin G. “Tolson’s Gallery Brings Poetry Home.” Phylon 26.4 (1965): 408–410. Print. Tillman, Nathaniel. “The Poet Speaks.” Phylon 5.4 (1944): 389–391. Print. Tolson, Melvin Beaunorus. Caviar and Cabbage: Selected Columns by Melvin B. Tolson from the Washington Tribune, 1937–1944. Ed. Robert M. Farnsworth. Columbia: U of Missouri P, 1982. Print. ———. “E. & O. E.” “Harlem Gallery” and Other Poems of Melvin B. Tolson. Ed. Raymond Nelson. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1999. 134–149. Print. ———. A Gallery of Harlem Portraits. Ed. Robert M. Farnsworth. Columbia: U of Missouri P, 1979. Print. ———. “ Harlem Gallery” and Other Poems of Melvin B. Tolson. Ed. Raymond Nelson. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia, 1999. Print. ———. The Harlem Group of Negro Writers. Ed. Edward J. Mullen. Westport, CT.: Greenwood Press, 2001. Print. ———. “Interview with M. W. King. A Poet’s Odyssey.” Anger and Beyond: The Negro Writer in the United States . Ed. Herbert Hill. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. 181–195. Print. ———. Libretto for the Republic of Liberia . New York: Twayne Publishers, 1953. Print. ———. “The Odyssey of a Manuscript.” New Letters 48.1 (1981): 5–17. Print. ———. “A Song for Myself.” Phylon 4.4 (1943): 351–352. Print. Tolson, Melvin B., Jr. “The Poetry of Melvin B. Tolson (1898–1966).” World Literature Today . 64.3 (1990): 395–400. Print. Turner, Daniel C. “Montage of a Simplicity Deferred: Langston Hughes’s Art of Sophistication and Racial Intersubjectivity in Montage of a Dream Deferred.” The Langston Hughes Review 17.22 (2002): 22–34. Print. Turner, Lorenzo D. “Review of Libretto for the Republic of Liberia .” Poetry 86.3 (1955): 175–176. Print. Walker, Marcellus. “African.” Rudy Walker—Drum Sounds . n. p. 2007. Web. Feb. 15, 2011. ———. “Rudy’s Bio.” Rudy Walker—Drum Sounds. n. p. 2007. Web. Feb. 15, 2011. Westover, Jeff. “Africa/America: Fragmentation and Diaspora in the Work of Langston Hughes.” Callaloo 25.4 (2002): 1207–1223. Print. Wheatley, Phillis. “To Samson Occum.” The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. Ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Nellie Y. McKay. 2nd edn. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2004. 225. Print. Whitman, Walt. “Preface to Leaves of Grass” (1855). Prefaces and Prologues . Vol. XXXIX. The Harvard Classics. New York: P. F. Collier & Son, 1909–1914; Bartleby.com. 2001. Web. Apr. 8, 2011. Williams, William Carlos. Paterson. Ed. Christopher MacGowan. New York: New Direction, 1995. Print. ———. “To Elsie.” The Collected Poems of William Carlos Williams . Ed. A. Walton Litz and Christopher MacGowan. Vol. 1: 1909–1939. New York: New Directions, 1986. 217–221. Print. 212 ● Works Cited

Wolf, Gillian, and Sara Pendergast. “Tom Feelings Biography.” Net Industries. 2011. Web. Feb. 3, 2011. Woodson, Jon. “Melvin Tolson and the Art of Being Difficult.” Black American Poets Between Worlds: 1940–1960. Ed. R. Baxter Miller. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1988. 19–42. Print. Wormser, Richard. “Niagara Movement (1905–10).” The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow—Jim Crow Stories—Niagara Movement. PBS. 2002. Web. Oct. 29, 2011.

Index

Abbott, Robert S., 100 education in, 43 Aberdeen, South Dakota, 146 epic history and, 45 abolitionists, 48, 159 European exploration of, 41 About the House (Auden), 85 folktales from, 79 absence, 105 freedom struggles in, 134 see also nothingness, shadow history and, 59 academia, 6–7, 13, 84, 180, 193n18 Hughes and, 95–7, 103–6, 109 see also high modernism Libretto for the Republic of Liberia Accent (journal), 54 and, 53, 60–2 Acheron, 77 masks and, 100 Achilles (Iliad), 164 modernity and, 127 “Advertisement for the Waldorf proverbs and, 67, 82, 84 Astoria” (Hughes), 140, 143–4 religions of, 126 Aeneas (Aeneid), 88 republics in, 46–7 Aeneid (Virgil), 170 revolutions in, 140 Aesop, 99 slavery and, 50 “A Few Don’ts By An Imagiste” Tolson and, 33–5, 72, 80, 86, 89 (Pound), 17 Whitman and, 42–3 Africa, 161, 163, 169, 194n24, 195n4, see also diaspora, slavery 196n3 African American Review (journal), 151 ASK YOUR MAMA and, 121, 124, African Americans, 123, 130–1, 153, 128, 135–6, 149 156, 159, 193n18, 194n24 “back to,” 170 archives for, 103 Baraka and, 157–9, 171, 176–8, 180, Baraka and, 162, 169–70, 179, 184 183–4, 188 Belgium and, 40 contributions by, 102 colonization and, 42 dialogism and, 81 dialect from, 55 diaspora and, 96, 112–14 diaspora and, 37, 56, 68, 112–14, economic opportunities of, 110 174–5 Eliot and, 37 drums and, 130–1 epic and, 66 214 ● Index

African Americans—Continued ideology and, 89 essentialism and, 80 innovations of, 180 eternal presence of, 96 Tolson and, 29, 31, 46, 62–3, 66, freedom for, 66 68, 74 griots and, 171, 173–4, 176–7, 181 see also modernism history and, 153 Aldington, Richard, 18 Hughes and, 91–3, 97, 101, 104–5, Alexander the Great, 170 107, 111, 120 Alfred A. Knopf (publishers), 130 Hughes identification with, 195n6 Alhambra, The, 75 identity and, 29, 40, 42 All Aboard (Tolson), 11 intellectuals and, 193n14 Allen, Donald, 179 invisibility of, 100 Allies (World War II), 39, 46, 50 language and, 70–1, 85 allusion, 19, 22, 37, 77, 80, 86, 191n18 law and, 100, 108 Hughes and, 135 life of, 5 Tolson and, 24, 29, 42, 46, 53, 67, 71 literacy and, 99 “Alpha” (Tolson), 68 literature and, 4 American Colonization Society (ACS), Modernism and, 75, 81, 95 43, 48–9, 192n12–192n13 Montage and, 115–18 American Negro Exposition (1947), 47 Negro language and, 70 American Quarterly (journal), 38 Negro-ness and, 52 Americas, 68, 135, 163 nothingness and, 86 anaphora, 24–5, 32, 101 poetry and, 6 Andalusian folklore, 184 re-bop and, 115–17 Anderson, Margaret, 13 second-sight and, 100 Anderson, Marian, 26, 101 silence and, 98 Anderson, Sherwood, 13 status of, 121 Anglo-American Tradition, 3, 45, 50, study of, 56 54, 93 Tolson and, 59–61, 68, 70–1, 87–8 see also England viewpoint of, 88 Anglo-Saxons, 164 “African China” (Tolson), 11 Annie Allen (Brooks), 151 Africanism, 94, 190n7 Anti-Defamation League (ADL), 198n6 Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect Antioch Review (journal), 61 (Turner), 55 anti-semitism, 27, 179, 198n6 Afro-American (newspaper), 54, 99 see also Jews Afrocentrism, 96 apartheid, 120, 124 Afro-Cubanism, 195n4 see also South Africa Afro-Cuban music, 113–14 Appleseed, Johnny, 25 Afro-Modernism, 1–2, 7, 19, 25, 38, 42 Aquinas, St. Thomas, 80 Baraka and, 153–5, 165–6, 169–71, Arabs, 96, 124 175, 181, 184, 186–7 archivalism, 37, 50, 98, 101–4, 182 epic and, 189n1 law and, 105 Harlem Gallery and, 85 Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression Hughes and, 92, 112–15, 120, 140, (Derrida), 103, 106 147, 149 Archive of American Art, 146 Index ● 215

Aristotle, 82 Baker, Bob, 197n11 Aristotelianism, 81 Baker, Houston A., Jr., 3, 59, 84, 92 Armstrong, Louis, 74, 88, 121 Baker, Josephine, 101 art music, 114 Bakhtin, M. M., 80–1 Ashmun, Jehudi, 44, 48 Balaam’s ass, 67 Ashmun Institute, 48 bala (musical instrument), 172–3 Asia, 33, 67–8, 80, 86, 108–9, 178, 180 balafon (musical instrument), 172 diaspora and, 1, 97, 112 “Balancement” (Kandinsky), 140 “ASK YOUR MAMA” (Hughes), 121, Baldwin, James, 141, 165 126 ballads, 178 ASK YOUR MAMA: 12 MOODS FOR Baltimore Afro-American (newspaper), JAZZ (Hughes), 46, 92, 110, 53, 123 118–22, 141–2, 197n13 Baltimore Evening Sun (newspaper), 86, Baraka and, 151, 156, 187 190n4 Christianity and, 123–6 Bamako, Mali, 176 colonialism and, 135–6 Bamana people, 174 performance and, 130–4, 137 Banneker, Benjamin, 101 precursors to, 143–7 Bantus, 57, 79 social poetry and, 147–9 Baraka, Amiri (LeRoi Jones), 173–5, trope of, 138 178, 184–8, 189n1, 197n1, visual design of, 139–40 198n3 “A Song for Myself” (Tolson), 18 Blues People, 71, 114, 167–9 assimilation, 35 diaspora and, 154–5, 157, 162, 170–1, Atlanta University, 55 173–5, 187 Atlantic City, New Jersey, 148 Hughes and, 149 Atlantic Monthly (magazine), 30 papers of, 152 Atlantic Ocean, 159 Suso and, 171–2, 174, 176–7 “At The Colonial Y They Are Tolson and, 1, 7, 61 Aesthetically & Culturally whiteness and, 168 Deprived (Y’s Later) (31)” Wise Why’s Y’s, 151–3, 158–61, (Baraka), 153 163–7, 179–83 Attucks, Crispus, 29, 101 bardic traditions, 60 Auden, W. H., 85 Barrios, Pilar, 114 audience, 66 Beats, 154–5 authenticity, 194n6 Beatty, Talley, 13 Autobiography of LeRoi Jones, The be-bop, 111, 114–16, 137, 166, 168 (Baraka), 186 see also jazz automobiles, 39–40 Bechet, Sidney, 152 avant garde, 158, 180, 182–3 Belafonte, Harry, 131 Azikwe, Benjamin Nnamdi “Zik,” 126, Belgium, 40, 124 134–5, 196n8 Bell, Benjamin, 62 Bell, Daniel, 108 Bach, J. S., 83–4, 117 Bellow, Saul, 65 “back to Africa” movements, 48 Benin, 39 Bailey, Pearl Mae, 130 Berry, Faith, 15, 113–14 216 ● Index

Bérubé, Michael, 2, 67, 72–4, 93, 184, Black on Black : Twentieth-Century 191n18, 193n18 African American Writing About Tolson and, 30, 45, 50–3, 59–61 Africa (Gruesser), 59 Bess Hokin Prize, 42 Black Orchid Suite (Harlem Gallery), 73 Bethune, Mary McLeod, 101, 128 Black Pace Setters, The (Montague), 141 Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Freud), Black Power Movement, 142, 195n5 105 Blacks, see African Americans Bharatas, 165 Black Samson, 26 Bible, The, 67, 86 Black Verse, The (Hughes), 141 Bickham, Jack M., 87–8 Blakeley, Art, 115 Big Sea, The (Hughes), 114, 143 blood, 33, 191n20 “Big-Timer, The” (Hughes), 144 Blue Ark, 157, 173 Billboard (magazine), 141 Blue Note (record label), 157–8 Billetteri, Carla, 181 blues, 10–11, 16, 81, 131, 137, 148, “Billie’s Bounce” (Parker), 166–7 198n5 Bill of Rights, 30 Baraka and, 157, 167, 169, 173, 176 see also specific amendments vernacular and, 141 “BIRD IN ORBIT” (Hughes), 121, “BLUES IN STEREO” (Hughes), 121, 126 125, 139 “Black America Volume 1: The Buffalo Blues People (Baraka), 71, 114, 153, 159, Soldiers” (Montague), 141 163, 167–9 “Black Art” (Baraka), 181 Boas, Franz, 25 Black Arts Movement, 6, 35, 61, 154, Bodenheim, Maxwell, 17 162, 179 body, 93–4 Black Bourgeoisie (Frazier), 77 Bola Boa Enterprises, Inc. (Harlem Black Bourgeoisie (Harlem Gallery), 72, Gallery), 78 76, 78–9 Bollingen Prize, 50 “Black Clown, The” (Hughes), 144 Bond, Horace Mann, 47–8, 192n12 Black Codes, 153 Bontemps, Arna, 95 “BLACK DADA NIHILISMUS” Book of American Negro Poetry, The (Baraka), 163 (Johnson), 177, 184 Black Dispatch (newspaper), 47 Boone, Daniel, 25 blackface, 106 “#20 Borders (Incest) Obsession” Black Faculty and Staff Association (Baraka), 159 (SUNY Stony Brook), 152 Boris Godunov (Pushkin), 97 Black Gazette (newspaper), 58 bourgeoisie, 70, 77–9 Blacklisting, 6 Boyd, Marion, 107 Black Metropolis (Clayton), 13 Braden, Carl and Anne, 122 Black Mountain poets, 186 “Braggart, The” (Tolson), 192n5 black nationalism, 154–5, 181–2, 198n3 Brandeis, Louis, 25 see also African Americans, diaspora Bread Loaf Fellowship, 66 blackness, 58–9, 61, 70, 96, 106 break (jazz term), 187 absence and, 105 “Bridge, The” (Crane), 56, 62 Christ and, 125 British Broadcasting Company (BBC), definition of, 184 124, 193n15 Index ● 217

“Broke” (Hughes), 144 Carver, George Washington, 101 Brooks, Gwendolyn, 13, 60, 84–5, 151 Castro, Fidel, 128, 134–5 Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 35 cataloging technique, 15, 32 “Brothers” (Hughes), 115 Catlett, Elizabeth, 13 Brown, Cynthia Stokes, 122 “Caviar and Cabbage” (Tolson Brown, Oscar, Jr., 13 column), 2, 34 Brown, Pearly, 152 censorship, 148 Brown, Sterling, 8, 23, 153, 191n20 Central High School (Little Rock, Brown vs the Board of Education Arkansas), 196n7 (Supreme Court decision), 107–8 Césaire, Aimé, 38, 126–7 Brumidi, Constantino, 26 Chang and Eng (“Ti”), 42 Buddha Records, 132, 141–2 “Characteristics of Negro Expression” Buffalo, New York, 124 (Hurston), 191n15 Bula Matadi (ocean liner), 39–40 Charles, Ray, 71 Bunche, Ralph, 128, 135 Charon, 77 Buñuel, Luis, 184 Charybdis, 42, 80, 190n4 Bunyan, Paul, 25 Chavez, César, 195n5 Buridan’s ass, 67–8 “Chiaroscuro” (Tolson), 11–13 Burke, Arthur, 22–3 Chicago, Illinois, 12–13, 15–16, 47, BYG Actuel (record label), 157 112, 184 free verse and, 17 Caesar, Julius, 19, 170 Chicago Defender (newspaper), 23, 100, Caesarism, 170 134, 141 Cahier d’un retour au pays natal Chicago Public Library, 13 (Césaire), 38 Chicago Renaissance, 12–13, 15–16, Cain, William E., 49 190n11 cakewalk, 178 “Chicago” (Sandburg), 13 California, 49 Chicago School, 12, 112 call and response, 175, 192n5 Chicano movement, 195n5 Calmore, John, 96 “Chi” (Tolson), 73, 194n5 Campbell, James, 186, 198n6, 199n6 Christianity, 39, 48, 78, 86, 123–6, Campbell, Naomi, 193n17 144, 159 Campus Exchange Forum (SUNY chronotypes, 80 Stony Brook), 152 Ciardi, Jon, 55, 66 Cane (Toomer), 46 citizenship, 50, 60, 93, 108–10, 167, 170 canon, 7, 17–18, 23, 57, 59, 61, 180 City Council of Newport, Rhode Hughes and, 112, 147 Island, 141 modernism and, 45 civil rights movement, 115, 135, 140, 142 Cansler, Ronald Lee, 58–9 Civil War (United States), 108, 152 Cantos (Pound), 38, 66, 155 Clark, William J., 146 capitalism, 31, 78, 182, 184 Clark Atlanta University, 55 Caribbean, 43, 120, 122, 135 class, 16, 77–8 Carnegie Hall, 130, 142 classical literature, 10, 59, 86, 95–6, Cartesianism, 42 155, 159, 174 Caruso, Enrico, 26 see also epic, Homer 218 ● Index classical music, 73 Count of Monte Cristo, The (Dumas), 97 Claudius (Hamlet), 100 “Count Us In” (Brown), 191n20 Clayton, Horace R., 13 Crane, Hart, 54, 56, 62, 66, 88 Cleveland, Ohio, 113 cream metaphor, 82–4 Cluny Abbey, France, 127 credit, 63 cocoa trade, 135 “Creole Love Call” (jazz standard), 152 Cocteau, Jean, 65 Crisis (newspaper), 12, 22–3, 91, 99, Cold War, 108, 123 107, 114–15, 146 Cole, Nat King, 13 critical legal studies, 195n5 Coleman, Ornette, 129 critical race theory, 92, 96, 107–8, 195n5 collage, 19 critical theory, 96 Collected Poems of Langston Hughes, The Crossroads Modernism (Pavlić), 189n1 (Hughes), 91, 132, 145 Cuba, 114, 134–5, 148 collectivity, 155, 164–5, 168–70, Cubism, 10 181, 187 Cullen, Countee, 4, 23, 100 Hughes and, 91–2, 112, 114 “CULTURAL EXCHANGE” colloquiaisms, 183 (Hughes), 119–22, 132–3 colonialism, 49–50, 105, 126, 135–7, performance and, 130–1, 134–7 159, 173, 192n13 Cuney, Waring, 57 decolonization and, 1, 17, 42 Curator, The (Harlem Gallery), 69–72, Europe and, 42, 48 74–5, 78–80, 82–3, 88 France and, 127 Cyprus, 95 see also Africa, diaspora Color (Cullen), 23 Dadaism, 10, 154, 182 “COLORED HOUR” (Hughes), 133 Daily Oklahoman (newspaper), 87 “Colored Soldier, The” (Hughes), 144 Dakar, Senegal, 126, 176 Coltrane, John, 115, 167–9, 183 Dalí, Salvador, 184 Columbia University, 4, 9, 152 Damas, Léon Gontran, 127 common speech, 17 “Danse Africaine” (Hughes), 91, 195n3 see also vernacular Dante Alighieri, 66 Communism, 108, 122–3, 154 Dark Symphony: Negro Literature in Seventh Congress of the Communist America (Emanuel and Gross), 22 International and, 15 “Dark Symphony” (Tolson), 18, 22, see also Marxism 29–30, 47, 191n18 compositional structures, 81 “Dark Youth” (Hughes), 144, 146 Congo, Democratic Republic of, 40, 124 Darrow, Clarence, 9 Congo River, 112 “DAT” (Baraka), 156–7 Conrad, Joseph, 62 “Date Line” (Pound), 178 consciousness, 95–7, 105, 114, 162 Daumier, Honoré, 76 “Consider Me” (Hughes), 110 Davis, Arthur P., 57–8, 193n22 Convention relating to the Status of Davis, Miles, 115, 151 Stateless Persons, 109 Davis, Robert A., 191n18 Cornhuskers, The (Sandburg), 15 Davis, Sammy, Jr., 131 Cortor, Eldzier, 13 Dawson, William I., 101 counterpoint, 22, 26 Day of the Barricades (May 12, 1588), 67 Index ● 219

Dead Lecturer, The (Baraka), 186 Discourse on Colonialism (Césaire), 126 death, 104–5, 195n8 dislocation, 67–8 democracy and, 34 Division of Negro Literature (New York “#19 Death Parallels” (Baraka), 160 Public Library), 103 Decker Press, 51 Dixie, 133 deferral metaphor, 107, 115–17, 132, Djali (poet-singer), 174–5, 178 136, 139 Dodd, Mead, and Co. (publisher), 18 see also Hughes, Montage of Dodds, “Baby,” 152 a Dream Deferred Doe, Samuel, 193n15 “Deferred” (Hughes), 117 Do-Re-Mi diatonic musical scale, 38 Delancey, Mary Rose, 86 Dorsey, Tommy, 198n5 Delaware, 107 “Do” (Tolson), 40–1 Delgado, Richard, 92 double consciousness, 101 Dell, FLoyd, 13 double talking tradition, 71–2 democracy, 30–2, 102–3, 106, 123 voice and, 153 death and, 34 Douglass, Frederick, 26, 48, 98–9, 165, Derrida, Jacques, 100, 103–4, 106, 195n5 195n5 dozens, 13, 80–2, 84, 120, 133–4, 137–9 Destination Out (Moncur), 157 Dr. Obi Nkomo (Harlem Gallery), 69, destructionism, 184 79–82, 84 “DEUCE” (Baraka), 156–7 Drake, St. Clair, 13 dialect, 63, 106, 128, 195n4 “Dream Boogie: Variation” (Hughes), Dialect of Modernism: Race, Language, 117 and Twentieth Century Literature, “Dream Boogie” (Hughes), 91, 116 The (North), 106 Dred Scott Decision, 108 dialogism, 81 Dreiser, Theodore, 13, 190n11 “Diamond Canady” (Tolson), 12–13 Drew, Charles Richard, 101 diaspora, 1, 6, 24, 189n1 Druid Theatre Company of Galway, 186 America and, 42 drums, 94, 120, 128, 130–1, 157, 195n3 Baraka and, 154–5, 157, 162, 170–1, “Drums” Hughes, 195n3 173–5, 187 Du Bois, Shirley Graham, 135, 195n5 consciousness and, 95–6 Du Bois, W. E. B., 4, 29–30, 54–5, 67, epic and, 45 74, 135 Hughes and, 92, 99, 106, 112–14, 119, Hughes and, 98, 123–4 124, 126, 128, 130–1, 136–7, 149 veil metaphor of, 100 identity and, 35, 43 Dudziak, Mary, 108 self and, 180, 184 Dumas, Alexandre, 97–8 study of, 55 Dunbar, Paul Laurence, 71, 101, Tolson and, 37, 56, 66, 68 121, 145 unity of, 97 Dun Dun (drum), 158 see also Africa Dunham, Katherine, 13 diatonic musical scale, 38 Du Plessis, Rachel Blau, 195n10, 197n10 Dickinson, Emily, 20, 23 Dusk of Dawn, an Essay towards an Dimaggio, Joe, 25 Autobiography of a Race Concept Diop, Alioune, 126–7 (Du Bois), 29, 67 220 ● Index

“E. & O. E.” (Tolson), 42, 73–6, Tolson and, 1, 6, 9, 12, 26, 46, 59 194n4–n5 see also Afro-Modernism, classical Earnest, Ernest, 9 literature, Homer East Africa, 48 epistemology, 42 Eastland, James O., 122–4, 133, Eremboi, 95 196n7 Esperanto, 57 Ebony (magazine), 13, 58 essentialism, 80, 128 École Normale Supérieure, 127 “Eta” (Tolson), 79 economics, 110, 125–6, 142 “Etchings” (Tolson), 11 education, 45, 196n7, 196n12 eternal presence, 96 Africa and, 43 Ethiopia, 94–5, 99 Edwards, Brent Hayes, 96, 127 Euphrates, 112 Egypt, 66, 95, 135, 173 Eurocentrism, 105 Eliot, T. S., 1, 132, 154, 181, 185, Europe, 1, 3, 178–81, 183, 189n1 192n9, 194n22 Afro-Modernism and, 62, 68, 85, African Americans and, 8, 37 89, 120 idiom of, 76 art music from, 114 modernism and, 16, 20, 38, 56–7 colonization by, 48–9 Tolson and, 3, 41, 62, 65–6, 68, exploration by, 41 72, 88 Hughes and, 97, 123, 135 Ellington, Duke, 152 metropolises of, 127 Ellison, Ralph, 34 philosophy from, 195n5 emancipation, 48–9 Tolson and, 40–3, 53, 59, 80 Emanuel, James A., 22 Evening Star (newspaper), 39, 47 empire, 41, 169–70 Evolution (Moncur), 157 Encyclopedia of Chicago, 13 Exposure of the American Colonization Encyclopedia of the Chicago Literary Society (Garrison), 49 Renaissance, 13 endnotes device, see notes device Fabio, Sarah Webster, 58–9, 61, 70–1, Engels, Friedrich, 168 84, 190n4 England, 60, 105–6, 128, 135, 180, 185 “Façade” (Sitwell), 88 see also Anglo-American Tradition Farnsworth, Robert M., 11, 20, 30, 34, enjambment, 12, 18, 113 47, 192n2, 192n12 epic, 63, 66, 92, 95, 99, 111–12, 120 Farrow, Mia, 193n17 Afro-Modernism and, 37, 153, 155, Fascism, 31, 46 169–71, 175, 181, 186–7 “Fa” (Tolson), 43–4 America and, 25 Faubus, Orville, 133–4, 196n7 Baraka and, 153, 157, 159, 164 – 6, Fearing, Kenneth, 197n14 172, 177–8 “Feeling Diaspora in Harlem and empire and, 169–70 Havana” (Guridy), 195n4 historical function of, 45 Feelings, Tom, 160–1 Hughes and, 137, 140–1, 149 feminism, 195n5 imagination and, 42 Fettered Genius: The African American industrialism and, 31 Bardic Poet From Slavery to Civil social poetry and, 147 Rights (Leonard), 190n8 Index ● 221

“FI’” (Baraka), 156–7, 159 Gambia, The, 171, 173–4 Fierefiz (Parzival), 39–40 Gardner, J. W., 95 Fifteenth Amendment, 108 Garrison, William Lloyd, 49–50 Fifth Amendment, 122 Garvey, Marcus, 48 Fine Clothes to The Jew (Hughes), 23 Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 100, 137 Firestone Company, 39 gender, 106 Fisk University, 56 Generación del 27, 184 Flint, F. S., 16, 113 genocide, 153, 159 “FO’” (Baraka), 156–9 see also slavery folklore, 79, 191n16 genre, 194n6 Andalusia and, 184 Georgia, 55 folk songs, 148 Germany, 50, 164 Folkways Records, 126 Ghana, 134–5, 161 footnotes device, see notes device Gillespie, Dizzy, 113 Formalism, 57 Giovanni, Nikki, 180 Fort Sumter, South Carolina, 27 Glass, Philip, 174 Fortune, T. Thomas, 100 globalism, 96–7 Fort Wayne News and Sentinel “Go Down Moses” (spiritual), 30 (newspaper), 86 Gold Coast, 135 Forward: Journal of Socialist Thought Golden Stair Press, 144–7 (journal), 152, 161 “Goodbye Christ” (Hughes), 123 Foucault, Michel, 195n5 “Good Gray Bard in Timbuktu Fourteenth Amendment, 108 chanted, The” (Tolson), 42–3 France, 67, 99, 135, 144 “Good Morning, Revolution” colonies of, 127 (Hughes), 6 Frazier, E. Franklin, 77, 100 gospel, 115 freedom, 91 “GOSPEL CHA-CHA” (Hughes), movement and, 109 121, 125 Freedom Riders, 196n7 Goya, Francisco, 67 Freedom Sounds: Civil Rights Call Out to Gramsci, Antonio, 195n5 Jazz and Africa (Monson), 114–15 Grapes of Wrath, The (Steinbeck), 30 free verse, 10, 12–13, 16–18, 20, Graziosi, Barbara, 172 112, 180 Great Depression, The, 6, 87 Freud, Sigmund, 65, 104–6 Great Ideas, 89 Frost, Robert, 13, 88 Great Migration, 153, 159 “Fugitive Poems” (Tolson), 76 “Great White World” (expression), 68, Fulani people, 173 70, 89 Fulbe people, 174 Greek literature, 59, 172, 174–6 Futurafrique, 37–9 archivalism and, 103–4 Futurism, 10, 38 Green Door (book store), 184–5 Greensboro News (newspaper), 140 Gallery of Harlem Portraits, A (Tolson), Greenwich Village, New York, 180, 8–11, 15–16, 18, 20, 69, 73, 87 198n3 free verse and, 12–13 “Griot/Djali: Poetry, Music, History, Galway, Ireland, 186 Message” (Baraka), 175 222 ● Index griots, 59, 94, 155, 161, 171–4 Harlem Group of Negro Writers, The Baraka and, 175–8, 181 (Tolson), 2, 4, 38 terms for, 174 “Harlem” (Hughes), 91 see also oral traditions “Harlem (2)” (Hughes), 117 Gropper, William, 77 Harlem Renaissance, 3–7, 15–16, 112, Gross, Theodore L., 22 134, 195n4 group dynamics, 104–5 Harlem Renaissance in Black and White, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the The (Hutchinson), 15 Ego (Freud), 104–5 Harlem Vignettes (Harlem Gallery), 73 Gruesser, John Cullen, 46, 59, 192n6 Harris, William J., 152, 154–5, 197n1, Guinea, 128, 134–5 198n3, 199n6 Guinea-Bissau, 173–4 Baraka and, 166, 178, 180, 182–4 Gullah peoples, 55 Harvard Law Review (journal), 108 Guridy, Frank, 114, 195n4 Harvard Law School, 162 Gypsies, 159 Hastie, William H., 101 Gypsy Ballads, The (Lorca), 114 Hausa people, 174 Havana, Cuba, 114 Hague, The, 50 H. D. (Hilda Doolittle), 17–18 Haitian Revolution, 101 Hecht, Ben, 13 Hale, Thomas A., 173–4, 176 Hector (Iliad), 169 Hamlet (Hamlet), 70, 77 Hegel, G. W. F., 105, 195n9 father of, 100 Hegelianism, 160, 168 hard bop, 114–15 Heights, R. Henri, III, 190n9 see also jazz Hellenes, 76 Harlem, New York, 4, 9–10, 148, 184, Henry, John, 25, 74 198n3 Henry, Patrick, 29 Chicago Renaissance and, 13 Heraclitus, 65 Hughes and, 67, 77, 87, 111–12, 114 “Hesitation Blues” (traditional), 131, 136 Sugar Hill section of, 78 Hideho Heights (Harlem Gallery), see also Harlem Gallery, Harlem 72–6, 81–2, 190n9, 194n5 Renaissance hierarchy, 110 Harlem Gallery: Book I, The Curator high modernism, 7–8, 17, 45, 80, 93, 179 (Tolson), 35, 63, 65–8, 190n4, see also academia, Modernism 190n9, 194n5 Hilyer, Robert, 23 Baraka and, 151 Hipnosis (Moncur), 158 Bérubé and, 50, 52, 72–3 “Hipnosis” (Moncur), 157 blackness and, 60–1 history, 153 – 4, 156, 159, 170 bourgeosie and, 76, 79 Africans and, 59 Imagism and, 16, 18 allusions from, 67 intended sequence of, 190n2 Baraka and, 173–4, 176, 178–80, 188 modernism and, 1–3, 10, 28–9 epic’s function in, 45 reviews of, 84–9, 193n20 Eurocentrism and, 105 vernacular and, 81–2 Hughes and, 60, 92, 94, 100–101, “Harlem Gallery” and Other Poems of 103–4, 108, 112 Melvin B. Tolson (Tolson), 3, 59, 76 making of, 181–2 Index ● 223

nationhood and, 93 performance and, 134–7 oral traditions and, 59 “Prelude to Our Age” and, 101, paralysis and, 132 106–7, 110–11 spiral of, 153, 160 shadow and, 93–5, 99, 102, 106 see also diaspora, epic, slavery Hugo, Victor, 66 Hitler, Adolph, 159 humanism, 127 Holocaust, 159, 199n6 Human Rights Commission (United homecoming, 170 Nations), 109 home (jazz term), 187 Hurston, Zora Neale, 8, 20, 191n15 Homer, 59, 82, 94–5, 99, 164 Hutchinson, George, 15 epic and, 170, 172, 186 Hyde Park School, 107 Hopkins, Lightnin’, 152 horizontal audience, 66 IBM, 130 “HORN OF PLENTY” (Hughes), 121, identitarian stasis, 93 125, 138 identity, 81, 88, 96–7 Hotel Viking, 142 African Americans and, 29, 40, 42 House Un-American Activities America and, 34 Committee (HUAC), 122–3 Baraka and, 153, 155, 170–1, 174, Howard University, 57 178 “How You Sound??” (Baraka), 179, 184 diaspora and, 24, 35, 43 Hughes, Langston, 1, 189n1, 190n9, essentialism and, 128 192n1, 194n23, 195n4, 195n6 Hughes and, 119, 128, 130–1 Afro-Modernism and, 112–15 Law of Synthetic Identity and, 42 anthology by, 57 nationhood and, 103 ASK YOUR MAMA and, 118–22, splitting of, 74–5 127–8, 138–40, 144–8 Tolson and, 18, 20, 38, 56, 60, 73 Azikwe and, 196n8 see also Africa, African Americans, Baraka and, 149, 151, 156, 169, 177, diaspora 184, 186–8 ideology, 19 blues and, 10 idiom, 188 Christianity and, 123–6 “Idols of the Tribe, The” (Tolson), 18, citizenship and, 108–10 32, 35 collectivity and, 91–2 Iliad (Homer), 82, 95, 169, 172 colonialism and, 135–6 Imagism, 12, 17–18, 113 “CULTURAL EXCHANGE” and, manifestoes of, 16 130–3 “Imagisme” (Flint), 16 death and, 104–5 imagistes, des (Pound), 16 democracy and, 102–3 “Im Blau” (Kandinsky), 140 diaspora and, 96–7, 112–14 impotence, 110 Douglass and, 98–9 improvisation, 156, 163 dozens and, 133–4, 137–9 “In a Station of the Metro” (Pound), 12 juxtaposition and, 143 Indies, 69 Montage of a Dream Deferred and, individuality, 194n6 115–18 industrialism, 5, 28 Newport Jazz Festival and, 141–2 epic and, 31 224 ● Index

Inkwell Press, 140 Hughes and, 93, 102, 105, 107, innovative poetry, 189n2 109–11, 120, 122 interstate commerce clause, 102 Liberia and, 47 intertextuality, 71 Tolson and, 9, 23, 31 In the Tradition (Baraka), 185 see also race “Inventory at Mid-Century: A Review “Jimmy’s Blues” (Moncur), 157 of Literature of the Negro for John Laugart (Harlem Gallery), 72, 1950” (Locke), 55 76–9 “In Your Face Test of No Certain Johnson, Charles Spurgeon, 101 Skills, The” (student-designed Johnson, Elijah, 43 test), 137 Johnson, Fenton, 154, 179, 184 Ireland, 185–6 Johnson, James Weldon, 4, 177–8, “IS IT TRUE?” (Hughes), 121, 126 184 Israelis, 198n6, 199n6 Johnson, John H., 13 Israelites, 67 Johnson, Lamont, 158 Johnson, Lyndon B., 129 Jackson, Laura Riding, 105 Johnson, Yornie, 193n15 Jackson, Mahalia, 71 Jones, Casey, 25 Jacobsen, Josephine, 86–7, 190n4 Jones, LeRoi, see Baraka Jali Kunda: Griots of West African & Jones, Meta DuEwa, 137, 175 Beyond (Kopka and Brooks), Jones, “Papa” Jo, 152 173–5 Journey Back, The (Baker), 59 James, Jesse, 25 Joyce, James, 3, 18, 183, 185 “Jam Session” (Hughes), 118 “Juke Box Love Song” (Hughes), 91 jam sessions, 111–12, 115 juxtaposition, 143 Japan, 148 Jařab, Josef, 68, 73 Kalaidjian, Walter B., 6 Jasper, John, 125 Kalevala (Finnish epic), 196n2 jazz, 72–3, 113–15, 117, 122, 198n5 Kandinsky, Wassily, 140 Baraka and, 153–5, 157, 163, 167–9, Kansas, 107 175, 182–3, 187–8 Kansas City Star (newspaper), 72, 88 Hughes and, 137, 140, 142, 146 “Kappa” (Tolson), 78–9 see also be-bop, specific musicians Karpman, Laura, 142 Jazz Messengers (band), 115 Kemp, Roy Z., 140 “JAZZTET MUTED” (Hughes), 121, Kentucky, 49 129 Kentucky State College, 8, 62 Jazz Workshop, The, 115 Kenya, 135 Jesus Christ, 34, 79, 126, 144 Kenyatta, Jomo, 128, 135 blackness and, 125 Kenyon Review (journal), 54 Jet (magazine), 51 Khassonké region (The Gambia), 174 Jews, 30, 66, 85, 159 Kiel, Daniel, 107 culture of, 86 Kim, Daniel Won-Gu, 134 see also anti-semitism Kind of Blue (Davis), 151 Jim Crow laws, 126, 130, 133–5, 142 King, M. W., 17 Index ● 225

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 88, 107, 128, Liberian Motors, 39 135, 141, 195n5 Liberia Today (magazine), 39 Kingston, Jamaica, 126 Library of Congress, 17, 39, 42, 47, 85, Kleinianism, 195n8 190n2 kleos (praising famous deeds), 174 Libretto for the Republic of Liberia Komunyakka, Yusef, 113 (Tolson), 44–6, 48, 58, 66–7, kora (musical instrument), 172 189n4, 190n7, 193n20 Ku Klux Klan, 27, 132 Allies and, 39 Baraka and, 151, 181, 186–7 labor organizing, 32 Bérubé and, 2, 50–1, 53, 72 La Guardia, Fiorello, 25 critical responses to, 59–63 Langston College, 4, 65, 179 diaspora and, 1, 35, 37 Lardner, Ring, 13 Hughes and, 129 Latin America, 114, 120, 137 modernism and, 25, 54–7 Laveau, Marie, 125 singularity of, 38 law, 98, 104, 108–9 Tate preface to, 3 apartheid and, 124 Twayne edition of, 44 archivalism and, 105 Whitman and, 18, 42–3, 52, 56 inclusion and, 102 Libya, 95 see also Jim Crow laws lieder (songs), 120, 136, 189n1 Law of Synthetic Identity, 42 Life Studies (Lowell), 189n4 Lawrence, D. H., 18, 194n23 Lincoln, Abraham, 25, 48, 101 layout, 29, 40, 144 Lincoln Center, 186 centering and, 26, 28, 40, 67 Lincoln University, 13, 134–5, 148, left-flush margins and, 26 192n12 Leninism, 155, 198n3 Tolson and, 44–5, 47–8, 57 Lenox Avenue, Harlem, 190n9 Lincoln University Herald Leonard, Keith D., 12, 42, 190n8 (newspaper), 48 Leontyne (“CULTURAL Lincoln University Poets (Cuney, EXCHANGE”), 121 Hughes and Wright), 57 Léopold (King of Belgium), 40, 124, Lindsay, Vachel, 13, 15, 17, 88, 112 196n3 lineage, 88, 149, 151, 154, 171, 184 LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader, The liner notes device (Harris), 152, 154, 176, 178, 181, see also notes device 186 “LINER NOTES” (Hughes), 121, 129 Lewis, “Old” George, 152 liner notes technique, 122, 126, 129–30, Lewis, Reginald, 162 132, 144 Liberia, 56, 60, 62, 85, 192n12, listing technique, 15, 23–4, 26, 101 193n14, 193n16 literacy, 98–9 Poet Laureate of, 46–50 Little Eva Winn (“Diamond Tolson and, 35, 37–41, 43–4, 51, 54 Canady”), 13 see also Libretto Little Review, The (journal), 17–18 Liberian Centennial Commission, Little Rock, Arkansas, 196n7 46–8, 50 Livingstone, Dr. David, 192n4 226 ● Index

Locke, Alain, 4, 8–9, 55 Maynor, Dorothy, 101 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 121–2, McCall, Dan, 38, 41 196n2 McCarthy, Joseph, 6, 120, 122 Long Island, New York, 138 McGraw-Hill (publishers), 137, 197n9 Lopez, Ian F. Haney, 109 McGreevey, James, 198n6 Lorca, Frederico Garcia Lorca, 114, McKay, Claude, 4, 100 179, 183–4 McLean, Jackie, 157–8 Los Angeles, California, 197n11 McPherson, Aimee Semple, 148 Louis, Joe, 25 “Measure of Memory (The Navigator)” Love Supreme, A (Coltrane), 151 (Baraka), 186 Lowe, Ramona, 23 Mein Kampf (Hitler), 32 Lowell, Amy, 10, 16–17, 191n12 memory, 37, 103, 195n3 Lowell, Robert, 189n4 Memphis, Tennessee, 107–8, 196n12 Lucan, 170 Menelaos, King of Sparta, 95 Lycée Louis Le Grand, 127 Mexico, 114 lynching, 104 Michelson, Albert, 25 “Lyrical Ballads” (Wordsworth), 55 middle-class, 77–8 lyric poetry, 6, 15, 46, 56, 189n2 Middle Generation, 6 Hughes and, 91, 97, 111–12, 149 Middle Passage, 35, 39, 43, 60, 154, 159 MacKail, J. W., 9 Middle Passage: White Ships/Black Cargo Mackey, Nathaniel, 186 (Feelings), 161–2 Madhubuti, Haki, 180 Midwest Journal (journal), 11, 57 Madrid, Spain, 67 Mills, Florence, 101 Make It New (Pound), 17 Miner, Virginia Scott, 72, 88 Malan, Daniel Francois, 124 Mingus, Charles, 115, 141 Malcolm X, 88, 179, 198n3 minstrelsy, 106 Mali, 173–4 Mississippi, 69–70, 130, 196n5 Mallarmé, Stéphane, 157 Mississippi River, 112 Mandinka people, 173–4 Mister Starks (Harlem Gallery), 72–3 Maninka people, 174, 177 Mistral, Gabriel, 114 Man of Love, The (King), 141 “Mi” (Tolson), 43 Maoism, 155 Modernism, 189n1–n2, 189n4, 190n7 Marginal Forces/Cultural Centers: Africa and, 127 Tolson, Pynchon, and the Politics of alternative aesthetics of, 114 the Canon (Bérubé), 2, 50 America and, 17 Marsh, Alec, 63 Baraka and, 153, 155, 177–9, 183–4, Marx, Karl, 123, 168 188 Marxism, 15, 155, 160, 168, 182, 198n3 blacks and, 81 masculinity, 22, 25, 28–9, 189n1 canonization and, 45 emascualtion and, 110 Eliot and, 20 masks, 100–101 endnotes and, 44 Masters, Edgar Lee, 1, 9, 12–13, Harlem Gallery and, 1–3, 10, 28–9, 15–18, 68, 112 66, 68, 71–3, 75–6, 84, 88 Maximus Poems, The (Olson), 181, 186–7 high style of, 7–8, 17, 45, 80, 93, 179 Index ● 227

Hughes and, 92, 95, 105–6, 112, Murray, David, 152 130, 132 music, 153–4, 156, 169, 197n1 Irish and, 185 spiritual connection to, 168 Libretto and, 37–8, 50, 56–7, 59, 62–3 see also jazz methods of, 19 notes and, 129 Nance, Ray, 13 prefaces and, 55 Narrative of the Life of Frederick Proletarianism and, 7 Douglass, An American Slave, serial and, 25 Written by Himself (Douglass), 98 Tolson and, 5, 10, 16, 18, 28, 32 Nashville, 56 whites and, 3, 40, 54, 62 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 134–5 see also Afro-Modernism Nation, The (magazine), 55 Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance National Association for the (Baker), 3 Advancement of Colored People Moncur, Grachan, III, 152, 157–8 (NAACP), 35, 65, 69, 107, 123 money, 63 Legal Defense Fund of, 108 Monk, Thelonius, 154, 168 National Guard, 142, 196n7 Monroe, Harriet, 5, 13, 184 nationalism, 154–5 Monrovia, 39 National Poetry Prize, 47 Monson, Ingrid, 114–15 National Urban League, 35 Montage of a Dream Deferred (Hughes), nationhood, 25, 92–3, 110, 131 91, 110–14, 118, 129–30, 132, 143 identity and, 103 re-bop and, 115–17 Native Americans, 109, 196n2 Montague, Nathaniel, 141, 197n11 Native Son (journal), 99 Moors, 96, 99, 174 Native Son (Wright), 31 Mootry, Maria K., 191n16, 192n5 naturalization statute, 109 Morgan, Joyce, 157 Nazism, 32–3 Morrisson, Mark, 17–18 Négritude Movement, 126–7 Morton, “Jelly Roll,” 66, 152, 175 “Negro Artist and the Racial Moscow, USSR, 130 Mountain, The” (Hughes), 91 Moten, Fred, 156, 160, 163, 187 Negro Art Movement, 145 Motley, Willard, 13 Negro Digest (magazine), 84 “Motto” (Hughes), 91 Negroes, see African Americans “Mountain Climber, The” (Tolson), 19 “Negro Mother, The” (Hughes), 144–5 Mount Sinai, 78 Negro Mother and Other Dramatic mourning, 195n1 Recitations, The (Hughes), 143, 147 Mr. Auld (Narrative of the Life of “Negro Poets Issue” (Voices), 11 Frederick Douglass), 98 Negro quarter motif, 132, 136 Mr. Guy Delaporte III (Harlem “Negro Scholar, The” (Tolson), 11 Gallery), 78–9 “Negro Speaks of Rivers, The” mulitvocal experimentation, 19 (Hughes), 6, 91, 112 multimedia, 198n5 Negro World (newspaper), 58 Murat, Joachim, 67 Nelson, Cary, 6, 180, 189n4, 194n5 Murphy, Carl, 54 Nelson, Raymond, 2, 3, 68, 76, 78, 82 Murray, Albert, 187 “Neon Signs” (Hughes), 116 228 ● Index

Nestor (Iliad), 82 Northerners, 142 New Africa (Moncur), 157 North Star, The (newspaper), 48 New American Poetry, The, 1945–1960 Norton Anthology of African American (Allen), 179, 182, 187 Literature, 91 Newcomb, John Timberman, 5 nostos (homecoming), 170 New Critics, 7 notes device, 44–6, 53–5, 60, 129, New Jersey, 183, 198n6 192n10 Poet Laureate of, 154 see also liner notes device New Left, 155 nothingness, 86, 110–11, 194n24 New Mexico, 49 novels, 194n6 New Negro, The, 4, 7, 30–2, 42, 112 Nubia, 95 New Negro Renaissance, 8, 13, 42 Nuremberg Trials, 50 Newport Jazz Festival, 141–2, 197n13 nyanyer (musical instrument), 172–3 New Red Negro, The: The Literary Left and African American Poetry, objective correlative, 72 1930–1946 (Smethurst), 7, 143, Occum, Samson, 105 190n8 octoroons, 69 New York Amsterdam News odes, 56 (newspaper), 51 “ODE TO DINAH” (Hughes), 121, New York City, 4, 9–10, 16, 70, 184 124, 138 New York Public Library, 103, 142 Odysseus (Odyssey), 164, 186 New York Times Book Review, 23, 56 Odyssey (Homer), 95, 169, 172 New York Times (newspaper), 54, 137 “Of Men and Cities” (Tolson), 18, Niagara Falls, 124 21, 31 Niagara Movement, 124 Ogoun (Yoruban God), 125 Niamey, Niger, 176 O’Hara, Frank, 183 “Niam N’Goura, or raison d’ être” Olson, Charles, 179, 181, 183, 186–7 (Diop), 127 One Step Beyond (Moncur), 157 Nielsen, Aldon, 1–3, 17, 190n4, 190n7, One-Way Ticket (Hughes), 115 199n6 Opportunity (journal), 99, 114, 146 Tolson and, 42–3, 45, 51, 60, 62, 72 oral traditions, 34, 161, 173, 175–7, Nietszche, Friedrich, 44 180, 192n5 Nigeria, 48, 135, 158, 193n15 bardic traditions and, 60 “Night in Tunisia, A” (Gillespie), 113 forms of poetry and, 13, 56, 74, “Nightmare Boogie” (Hughes), 117 76, 94 Nile River, 112 history and, 59 “19th Century Moment—Y’s Up (27)” oratory and, 11 (Baraka), 153 see also griots, vernacular Nkrumah, Kwame, 47, 128, 134–5 “Over There” (Hughes), 144 Nobel Prize, 8, 55 overwriting, 103 “Nobody Knows the Trouble I Seen” “O Vocables of Love” (Riding (spiritual), 152, 162 Jackson), 105 Norman, Jessye, 142 North, Michael, 7, 106 paganism, 39 North Carolina, 99 Paine, Thomas, 25 Index ● 229

Palmer, Robert, 176 Playboy of the Western World, The Pan-African Airways, 39 (Synge), 185 “Pan-African Brotherhood of Langston Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts, 27 Hughes and Nnamdi Azikiwe, “Poem” (Hughes), 135 The” (Obiwu), 196n8 “Poet, The” (Tolson), 18–20 Pan-Africanism, 97, 120, 126, 131, Poetics (Aristotle), 82 135, 154 Poet Laureate of Liberia, 46–50, 58 see also diaspora Poet Laureate of New Jersey, 154, 198n6 Panathenia festival, 172 Poetry and Poetics of Amiri Baraka: The Paradise Lost (Milton), 170 Jazz Aesthetic (Harris), 182 Pardo-Sanchez Esther, 195n8 Poetry (journal), 13, 42, 53–5, 113, 184 Paris, France, 126–8, 192n2 Imagism and, 16–17 Parker, Charlie, 126, 152, 166, 183 Modernism and, 5, 28, 63 Parks, Gordon, 13 “Poetry Today” (Taylor), 61 Parsifal (Parzival), 39–40 Poitier, Sidney, 130–1 Parzival (von Eschenbach), 39 politics, 155, 170 passing, 69 polyphony, 10 “Pastels” (Tolson), 11 Pope, Alexander, 71 “Paterson” (Williams), 56, 62–3, 181, Popular Front, 7, 15 187 populism, 38, 66, 72, 76, 114, 147–8, patriarchy, 106 155 Patroclus (Iliad), 164 Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog Patterson, John, 133, 196n7 (Thomas), 185 Pavlić, Edward M., 189n1 Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Pearl Harbor, attack on, 27–8, 33 (Joyce), 185 Penelope (Odyssey), 164 portraiture, 9–10 People, Yes, The (Sandburg), 15 Poseidon, 95 Perelman, Bob, 50 post-bop, 137 performance, 130–3, 155–6, 164, 172, see also jazz 175, 187, 198n5 “Pot Belly Papa” (Harlem Gallery), 73 “CULTURAL EXCHANGE” and, Pound, Ezra, 1, 3, 12, 55, 65–6, 88, 134–7 190n4 see also jazz, oral traditions Baraka and, 154–5, 178–81, 183, 185 Pharsalia (Lucan), 170 Bollingen Prize and, 50 Philadelphia Community College, 179 Hughes and, 147 Philosophy of History, The (Hegel), 195n9 Modernism and, 16–18, 38, 45 “Phi” (Tolson), 74 poverty, 124–5 Phoenicia, 95 Powell, Adam Clayton, Jr., 101 Phylon (journal), 21–2, 55, 72, 85, 99, power, 16, 80, 100, 103, 110, 170 193n20 praise, 173–4 Picasso, Pablo, 77 prefaces, 51–3, 190n4 pilgrims, 27, 31, 43, 60 Wordsworth and, 55 Pisan Cantos, The (Pound), 50 “Preface” (Whitman), 21 Pittsburgh Courier (newspaper), 123 “PRE-HERE/ISTIC Sequence” (Baraka), Plato, 66 156 – 60 230 ● Index

“Prelude to Our Age: A Negro History theorizing of, 69 Poem” (Hughes), 91–2, 96, 101, see also African Americans 106–8, 110–11, 131, 195n3 Race Music: Black Cultures from Be-Bop death and, 104–5 to Hip Hop (Ramsey), 113 democracy and, 102–3 radicalism, 147 shadow and, 93–4, 99 ragtime music, 178 Premier des Noirs, Le (airplane), 39 railroad trope, 159 Présence Africaine (journal), 126–7 Rainey, Lawrence, 16 Price, Leontyne, 130–1 Rainey, Ma, 198n5 “Primer for Today, A” (Tolson), 21 Raleigh, Walter, 44 primitveness, 106 Ramazani, Jahan, 60, 194n23 private and public, 74, 76, 104 Rampersad, Arnold, 91, 95, 112, process artists, 154, 156 115–16, 137, 146, 197n13 projective verse, 179 Ramsey, Guthrie, 113 proletarianism, 5, 15–16, 38 Randall, Dudley, 192n9 Modernism and, 7 Rankin, John, 123, 191n20 propaganda, 74 Rankine, Claudia, 189n2 prose, 12, 40, 53, 81, 174–5, 194n6 R&B (Rhythm and Blues), 114 Hughes and, 129–30, 144 Reagan, Ronald, 193n15 polyphony and, 10 re-bop, 115–17 rhythm and, 18, 113 see also jazz Whitman and, 52 “Recent Verse” (Ciardi), 55 Proust, Marcel, 66 Reconstruction, 153 Provençal ballads, 178 Red Cross, 33, 191n20 proverbs, 15, 21, 43 Redding, J. Saunders, 53–4, 57, 192n10 Tolson and, 57, 67, 79, 82, 84 Reds, 128 Psalms (Bible), 192n7 Reed, Brian M., 15 psychoanalysis, 104 Regents of the Gallery (Harlem public and private, 74, 76, 104 Gallery), 78–9 purity, 33, 193n22 Rendezvous with America (Tolson), Pushkin, Aleksandr, 97–8 2, 27–8, 30–4, 190n7, 191n18, 192n5, 193n20 Quint, David, 169–70 allusion and, 19 high modernism and, 7–8 Rabaté, Jean-Michel, 195n1 identity and, 18, 29 race, 16, 33, 52, 62, 68–9 Libretto and, 25, 47, 61 Baraka and, 168 praise for, 23 constructions of, 12, 66 proverbs and, 67 essentialism and, 80, 128 slavery and, 30 Hughes and, 93, 105, 131 Rensselaer, C. Van, 48 identity and, 96 repetition, 11, 27, 137, 168, 175, 195n1 metaphors for, 83 Repression and Recovery (Nelson), 180 racism and, 7, 25, 31, 111, 123, 184 “Re” (Tolson), 42–3 stereotyping and, 122 “Retrospect” (Pound), 17 Index ● 231

“Return of the Native” (Baraka), 188 Sanders, Pharoah, 174 revenge plots, 164–7 Sankoré, University of, 43 reviewers, 50–4 Sanskrit, 164–5 Tolson and, 84–9 Santa Claus, 122, 128 “Review of Libretto for the Republic of Sarton, May, 55 Liberia” (Redding), 192n10 Saturday Review (magazine), 85 revolution, 101, 144 Saul, Scott, 115, 141–2 rhapsodes, 172 Savanna region, 176 Rhapsody in Black and White (Harlem Scandinavia, 196n2 Gallery), 73 Scanlon, Larry, 132, 137 Richmond, Virginia, 125 scat, 169 “RIDE, RED, RIDE” (Hughes), 121, Schomburg, Arturo Alfonso, 100, 103 122 Schomburg Center for Research in Riding, Laura, 105 Black Culture, 102–3, 142 rights, 98 school desegragation, 107–8 Rights of Man, The (Paine), 25 Scottsboro Defense Fund, 147 Roach, Max, 141 Scottsboro Limited Robeson, Paul, 101 Four Poems and a Play in Verse Robinson, Earl, 22 (Hughes and Taylor), 147 Robinson, Edwin Arlington, 13 Scylla and Charybdis, 42, 80, 190n4 rockabilly, 128 Sea Islands (South Carolina), 55 rock and roll music, 114, 128 “Second of May, The” (Goya), 67 Rockefeller Fellowship, 4 second-sight, 100–101 Rodman, Selden, 56–7 segregation, 35, 120–4, 131–3, 136–7, Romance epics, 164 142, 196n7, 196n12 Romans, 76 schools and, 107–8 Romantics, 17, 43 “Selah” passages (Tolson), 54, 63, 192n7 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 34 Select Epigrams from the Greek Rosenthal, M. L., 178–9 Anthology (MacKail), 9 Rosenwald, Julius, 25 self-portraiture, 9 Rosenwald Foundation, 11, 146 Senegal, 96, 173–4, 176 Roumaine, Jacques, 159 Senghor, Léopold Sédar, 126–7 Roylance, Patricia Jane, 196n2 “separate but equal,” 107 Rubicon, 19, 77 sermons, 148 Rukeyser, Muriel, 197n14 Seventh Congress of the Communist Russia, 99 International (1935), 15 Rutgers University, 185 “SHADES OF PIGMEAT” (Hughes), 121, 124 Sahel, the, 176 shadow, 93–5, 99, 102, 106 Salaam, Kalamu ya, 151, 155–6 Shakespeare, William, 8, 21–2 Salmagundi (journal), 178 Shapiro, Harvey, 55 Sandburg, Carl, 1, 12–13, 15–18, Shapiro, Karl, 3, 50–2, 70–1, 85–9, 112, 115 190n4 Sanders, Mark A., 7–8, 42 Sharon, Ariel, 198n6 232 ● Index

Shelby County Schools, 196n12 Some Imagist Poets (Lowell), 16 “Shipwright, The” (Tolson), 31 Some Other Stuff (Moncur), 157 “SHOW FARE, PLEASE” (Hughes), Songai (African kingdom), 43, 174 121, 129 “Song For Myself, A” (Tolson), 20–1, 23 Shulman, Robert, 144 “Song of Hiawatha, The” (Longfellow), Sidonians, 95 121–2, 196n2 Sidran, Ben, 158 Soninké, 174 Sierra Leone, 55, 193n16 sonnets, 21–3, 191n16, 192n5 signifying, 137 “Sonnets” (Tolson), 18, 21–2 silence, 98, 105–6 sorrow songs, 30, 98, 159–60 “Silhouettes” (Tolson), 11 Soul Look Back in Wonder (Feelings), 161 Silver, Horace, 115 Soul’s Errand, The (Raleigh), 44 Simple (Hughes character), 134 South, the (United States), 33, 49, 54, sit-ins, 128 62, 146 Sitwell, Edith, 88 Hughes and, 120, 122, 124, 128, Sixth Mt. Zion Baptist Church 132–4, 142 (Richmond, Virginia), 125 South Africa, 48, 120, 124 Slave Coast, 40 South Carolina, 55, 107, 113 slavery, 30, 39–40, 43, 49, 60–1, 68 Southern Conference Education Fund Baraka and, 152–4, 158–61, 163–4, (SCEF), 122 167–8 Southern Review (journal), 152 effects of, 97, 166 Southern Road (Brown), 23 emancipation and, 48 Southern Tenant Farmers Union, 15 Hughes and, 93, 103, 109, 124, “Space Spy” (Moncur), 157 133, 135 Spahr, Juliana, 189n2 Liberia and, 50 Spain, 96, 114, 184 narratives of, 98 Spanish Civil War, 114 Smethurst, James, 7, 123, 135, 142, Specters of Marx (Derrida), 100 146–7 Spector, Robert Donald, 85–6 Smith, Bessie, 71, 183 spiral of history, 153, 160, 168, 177 Smith, Hale, 142 spirituals, 30, 72, 97–8, 148 Smith, Henry Justin, 13 Baraka and, 162, 168–9, 178, 184 Smith, Hughie Lee, 13 Spoon River Anthology (Masters), Smith, Pine Top, 152 9–10, 13 Smith, Vincent, 160, 162 Spring and All (Williams), 40 Social Credit, 63 St. Elizabeths Hospital, 147 social hierarchy, 83 St. John, 81 socialism, 144 Stanley, Henry Morgan, 40, 192n4 social poetry, 147–9 statelessness, 109–10 Sollors, Werner, 155 status, 121 “Sol” (Tolson), 43 Stein, Gertrude, 45, 62, 65, 86, 194n24 “Somebody Blew Off Baraka” (Harris Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle), 45 and Nielsen), 199n6 stereotypes, 122 “Somebody Blew Up America” Stevens, Wallace, 195n10 (Baraka), 198n6 Stony Brook, New York, 152 Index ● 233

Story of the Negro, The (Bontemps), 95 Three Musketeers, The (Dumas), 97 “Stray Document” (Pound), 17 Three Travelers Watch a Sunrise Struggle, The (Baldwin), 141 (Stevens), 195n10 style, 194n6 Thus Spake Zarathustra (Nietszche), 44 Sudan, 95 Tiajuana, Mexico, 9 Sugar Hill, Harlem, 78 Till, Emmet, 126, 196n5 sugar trade, 135 Tillman, Nathaniel, 22 Sumner, Charles, 108 Timbuktu, Mali, 43, 45 SUNY Stony Brook, 152 “Ti” (Tolson), 42, 44, 51, 54, 63 Surrealism, 38, 182 “To Elsie” (Williams), 40 Suso, Foday Musa, 171–2, 174, 176–7 Tolson, Melvin B., 1, 4, 15, 19, 23–5, Swahili, 178 33, 46 “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” allusion and, 42 (spiritual), 98 Baraka and, 151, 154, 169, 177, 179, swing music, 114, 169 181, 184, 186–7 Synge, J. M., 185–6 critical neglect of, 45 syntactical parallelism, 15 critical responses to, 59–63 early work of, 16 Taine, Hippolyte, 83 Fabio on, 58–9, 61, 70–1, 84 Talmadge, Eugene, 134 formalism and, 57 “Tapestries of Time” (Tolson), 18, 33 free verse and, 10, 12–13, 16–18, 20 taste, 70 Harlem Gallery and, 8–11, 60, 65, Tate, Allen, 3, 50–3, 62–3, 89, 190n4 68, 71–3, 76, 79–80, 82–3 preface by, 54–8 Harlem Gallery intended sequence Tax, Ervin, 51 and, 190n2 Taylor, Charles G., 50, 193n15–n17 Harlem Renaissance and, 3–7 Taylor, John, 61 Hughes and, 113, 123, 129 Taylor, Prentiss, 144–7 Liberian laureate and, 46–50 Teapot Dome scandal, 27 Libretto for the Republic of Liberia tempo, 30 and, 38, 40–1, 45, 50, 53–6, 58 tenant farmers, 15 Lincoln University and, 47 Tendencies in Modern American Poetry Master’s degree of, 4, 8 (Lowell), 191n12 “Negro Poets Issue” and, 11 Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 65 obituary for, 51 Terence, 99 prefaces for, 50–4 “‘There Was Something I Wanted to Twayne edition and, 44 Tell You’ (33)” (Baraka), 153 Whitman and, 42–3 Third World, 108, 135, 155 Tolson, Melvin B., Jr., 38, 45, 192n12 Third World Press, 152–3, 171 Tolson, Wiley Wilson, 87 Thirteenth Amendment, 108 Toomer, Jean, 8, 34, 46 Thomas, Dylan, 185 Torre, Vincent, 140 Thomas, Lorenzo, 33, 59–60, 96, Toscanini, Arturo, 26 178, 184 totalitarianism, 184 Thompson, Dolphin G., 85, 193n20 Tourè, Ahmed Sèkou, 128, 134–5 Thorton, Willie Mae, 71 Toussaint L’Ouverture, 101 234 ● Index

“Traitor to France, The” (Tolson), 22 epic and, 25–6, 120 transformation, theory of, 184 “Great American poem” of, 85 transnationality, 60, 114, 120, 134–5, Harlem Gallery and, 80, 89 194n23 history of, 103 Baraka and, 155, 170, 178 Hughes and, 98, 100–101, 104, 108, “TREY” (Baraka), 156–8 110, 124, 126 trochaic tetrameter, 121 identity and, 24, 34 Trojans, 170 idiom of, 183 Truman, Harry S, 123 imperialism and, 41 Truth, Sojourner, 195n5 Jim Crow and, 111 Tubman, William V. S., 39 literature and, 4 Turner, Daniel C., 116 modernism and, 8, 17 Turner, Lorenzo D., 55 nationhood and, 92–3 Turning South Again (Baker), 92 poetry and, 18 Tuskegee Institute, 101 pre-national period of, 105 Twayne edition (Libretto for the race theory and, 69 Republic of Liberia), 44, 51, 53 racism and, 7 12-bar blues, 120, 137, 166 segregation and, 35 see also blues Tolson and, 21, 30, 38, 40, 48, typography, 140, 180 60–1, 72 white supremacists and, 136 Ulysses (Joyce), 185 United States Air Force, 184 Ulysses (Tennyson), 65 United States Congress, 109, 122–3 Unanism, 10 United States Constitution, 108 Uncle Remus stories, 178 United States Department of Housing Uncle Tom (Uncle Tom’s Cabin), 74, 83 and Urban Development, 129 Un Coup de Dés (A Throw of the Dice) United States Department of Justice, (Mallarmé), 157 108 Underground Railroad, 159 United States Department of State, 108 underworld, 77, 159 United States Senate, 123 United Nations, 50, 110 United States Senate Committee on human rights and, 109 Government Operations, 6 United Nations, Limited, The (train), 39 United States Senate Internal Security United Negro Improvement Subcommittee, 122–3 Association, 48 United States Supreme Court, 102, United States, 5, 9, 15, 17, 189n1, 108–9 189n4, 193n15 Unity (journal), 152 ASK YOUR MAMA and, 144–5, 147 Université de Sorbonne, 126 Baraka and, 178–81, 183–4, 188 University of Chicago, 55 civil rights in, 140 University of Missouri Press, 11 “CULTURAL EXCHANGE” and, University of North Carolina, 148 131, 135 University Press of Virginia, 59, 76 cultural importation and, 49 “Upsilon” (Tolson), 80–2 diaspora and, 42, 106, 155 utopianism, 38 Index ● 235

Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, 27 Westover, Jeff, 97, 195n3 Vanity Fair (magazine), 143 “What about Literature? W-15” Van Vechten, Carl, 144, 146 (Baraka), 152, 165 Vaterrecht (patriarchal right), 106 Wheatley, Phyllis, 51, 71, 105, 180 veil metaphor, 100–101 “When the Saints Go Marching In” verbal nouns, 20, 25, 41, 191n15 (spiritual), 122, 136 vernacular, 153, 175 White By Law (Haney), 109 blues and, 141 White House, 85 Hughes and, 146, 148 whiteness, 26, 69–70, 84, 168, 178 Tolson and, 10, 13, 15–16, 60, 71, 80–2 parody of, 58 see also oral traditions whites, 33, 40, 101, 105–6, 141–2, versification, 11 198n3 Vers Libre Prize, 17 avant-garde and, 182–3 vertical audience, 66 Baraka and, 180, 184 Victorians, 17, 42–3 curiousity of, 126 Virgil, 88, 170 Du Bois on, 100 Virginia, 49, 102, 107, 125 flight of, 107 Virgin Mary, 144 intellectual hegemony of, 45 visual design, 26, 139–40 modernism and, 54, 62 Voices (journal), 11 Modernists and, 3, 4 Vollentine Elementary School, 107 non-white binary and, 109 “voluntary Negroes” (expression), 69 riot by, 141 von Eschenbach, Wolfram, 39 slavery and, 49 voodoo, 125 social norms and, 83 voting rights, 92 supremacist ideas and, 59–60, 135 supremacy and, 136 “Wade in the Water” (sorrow song), 159 swing music and, 114 “Wait” (Hughes), 143 Whitman, Walt, 12, 16–18, 88, 194n23 Walker, Margaret, 13, 165 Africa and, 42–3 Walker, Rudy, 157 anaphora and, 101 Wall Street, New York, 27 Baraka and, 176–7 Washington, Booker T., 124 Libretto and, 18, 42–3, 56 Washington, D. C., 39, 49, 85, 107 prose and, 52 Washington Post (newspaper), 47 Tolson and, 20–1, 23, 28, 32, 66 Washington Tribune (newspaper), 2 “Who Said: ‘This Is a White Man’s Waste Land, The (Eliot), 38, 53, 55–7, Country’?” (Tolson), 34 62, 132, 192n9 “Who Speaks Negro?” (Fabio), 70, Watts uprising, 197n11 190n4 Weary Blues, The (Hughes), 135, 148 “Why Don’t You Fight? #37 (One Mo’ Weaver, Robert, 128 Time)” (Baraka), 168 West Africa, 35, 39–40, 49, 154–5, Wiley College, 4, 65 171, 173–5 Wilkins, Rev. R., 152 Western civilization, 83, 86, 94–5, 183 Williams, William Carlos, 40, 62, 179, philosophy and, 127 181, 183, 186–7 236 ● Index

Willis, Edwin, 123 Wordsworth, William, 54 Winter Wheat Press, 147 working-class, 128 “Wise 1” (Baraka), 156, 160, 162, 166 World Trade Center, 198n6, 199n6 “Wise 2” (Baraka), 158, 164, 166 World War II, 27, 32, 34–5, 47, 50, “Wise 3” (Baraka), 157–8 179, 191n16 “Wise 4” (Baraka), 158, 167 Wright, Bruce, 57 “Wise 6” (Baraka), 157 Wright, Richard, 13 “Wise 7” (Baraka), 167 writing, 99 “Wise 18” (Baraka), 161 overwriting and, 103 “Wise One, The” (Coltrane), 169 rights and, 98 Wise Why’s Y’s: The Griot’s Song (Djeli Ya) see also Afro-Modernism, epic, (Baraka), 151–5, 159–63, 173, 175, Modernism 182–5, 188 Blues People and, 71, 114, 167–9 Xerxes, 170 epic and, 164–6, 169–72, 186–7 Europe and, 178–81 Yerby, Frank, 13 Hughes and, 149 Young, Gerald, 107 Suso and, 171–2, 174, 176–7 “Young Prostitute” (Hughes), 12, 113 “TREY” and, 156–8 youth culture, 128 “Wise Why’s Y’s” (Baraka), 181, 186, “Y The Link Will Not Always Be 197n1, 198n5 ‘Missing’ #40” (Baraka), 169 Wolof people, 174 Yugen (journal), 179 women, 34, 189n2 “YYYYYYY (18)” (Baraka), 161 Wood, John, 123 “Woodcuts for Americana” (Tolson), “Zeta” (Tolson), 72, 77 18–19 Zeus, 95 Woodson, Carter G., 100 Zulu Club (Harlem), 67, 73, 80 Woodson, Jon, 44 Zulus, 79