A MORPHOSYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF A REGIONAL VARIETY OF KISWAHILI SPOKEN IN KAKAMEGA COUNTY: A VARIATIONIST SOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROACH. By LIKUYANI ERICK MUHATI C50/23823/2011 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH AND LINGUISTICS OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY. MAY 2015 ii DECLARATION This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university or any other award. Signature: ___________________________ Date _______________________ Erick Likuyani Muhati (C50 / 23823 / 2011) Department of English and Linguistics SUPERVISORS We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our supervision Signature: __________________________ Date __________________________ Dr. Hilda Udali Kebeya Department of English and Linguistics Kenyatta University. Signature: __________________________ Date _________________________ Ms. Florence Owili Department of English and Linguistics Kenyatta University. iii DEDICATION I dedicate this project to the following people for their unique contribution to my life. First, my deepest gratitude goes to my dear wife Salome Peggy for supporting me both materially and morally, and for taking good charge of the family during my absence. I also dedicate this project to my children, Melinda and Sylvia, who have been my source of inspiration. I also dedicate this work to my dear mother Teresa, whose courage in 1979 was the foundation for my education. Finally, I dedicate this research project to the treasured memories of two dear souls: my late father, Peter Mmboyi, who called from his death-bed to encourage me to pursue academic excellence; and my late foster father, Alphoncies Muhati, whose bold decision in 1979 was the genesis of all the good things in my life. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to register my appreciation to Kenyatta University for according me the opportunity to pursue my master’s studies in this great institution. I equally salute my supervisors, Dr. Hilda Kebeya and Ms. Florence Owili. Working with my supervisors was a great learning expedition. I am indebted to them both for their moral and intellectual contribution to this research project. I am further grateful to Dr. Phyllis Mwangi and Dr. Eunice Nyamasyo for their critical readings and informed comments. I also salute Professor Chege Githiora for his invaluable advice on data collection. I pay special tribute to Dr. Caleb Shivachi, my mentor since I joined Kenyatta University in September, 2011. His lectures in language variation opened my eyes to variationist sociolinguistics and inspired the idea for the current study. I commend all my graduate classmates at Kenyatta University for the stimulating intellectual experiences we shared together. I may not mention them by name but they were all a blessing to my intellectual life. I also acknowledge all the sixteen respondents from Khayega location of Kakamega East district who provided the speech data for the current study. They generously shared with me their intimate stories and readily opened up to whatever personal questions I asked. However, I am solely responsible for all the shortcomings in this research project. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration ……………………………………………………………………ii Abstract ……………………………………………………………………….iii Dedication …………………………………………………………………….v Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………..vi List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ………………………………………..vii List of Tables …...............................................................................................x List of Figures ……………………………………………………………….xii Operational Definition of Terms ………………………………………….....xiii Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………xv CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION...………………………….1 1.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………….1 1.1 Background to the Study ………………………………… …………1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………8 1.3 Objectives of the Study ……………………………………………...8 1.4 Research Assumptions ………………………………………………9 1.5 Justification and Significance of the Study ………………………….9 1.6 Scope and Limitations of the Study …………………………………12 1.7 Summary of Chapter ………………………………………………...13 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ……………....14 2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………...14 vi 2.1 Language and Language Variety……………………………………...14 2.2 The Study Variables ………………………………………………….16 2.2.1 The Variable in Variationist Sociolinguistics …………………..........17 2.2.2 The Sociolinguistic Variables ……………………………………......19 2.2.2.1 The Social Value of the Linguistic Variable ………………………....22 2.2.3 The Social Variables ………………………………………………....23 2.2.3.1 Gender ……………………………………………………………….24 2.2.3.2 Age …………………………………………………………………..25 2.2.3.3 Educational Level as an Indicator of Social Class …………………..29 2.3 Variation Studies in Asia ….................................................................31 2.4 Variation Studies in Europe ………………………………………....32 2.5 Variation Studies from other Parts of Africa...………………............33 2.6 Variation Studies in Kenya ….............................................................34 2.7 The Place of Kiswahili in Kenya ……………………………….…...40 2.8 Language Contact and Language Variation …..................................42 2.9 Bantu Verbal Morphology …………………………………………44 2.10 The Basic Morphological Structure of the Kiswahili Verb ………..45 2.11 Kenyan Non-standard Kiswahili …………………………………..54 2.12 Theoretical Framework …………………………………………….59 2.12.1 The Language Variation Theory (Labov, 1972) ……………………59 2.12.2 Generative Morphological Theory (Katamba, 1993)……………….62 2.13 Summary of Chapter ……………………………………………….64 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ……………................65 vii 3.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………….65 3.1 Research Design …………………………………………………..65 3.2 Description of the Study Variables ……………………………….68 3.3 The Site of the Study ……………………………………………..69 3.4 The Study Population …………………………………………….71 3.5 Sampling Size and Sampling Techniques ………………………..73 3.6 Research Instruments …………………………………………….76 3.6.1 The Semi-structured Interview Schedule ………………………...77 3.6.2 The Unstructured Interview Schedule ……………………………77 3.7 Data Collection Procedures …………….……………………………78 3.8 Data Management and Ethical Issues ……………………………….82 3.9 Summary of chapter …………………………………………………83 CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ………………..85 4.1 Qualitative Analysis ………………………………………………....85 4.1.1 Transcription………………………………………………………....86 4.1.2 Description of Forms and Functions of Luhya Kiswahili Variants ……………………………………………………………....87 4.1.2.1 Identification of the Salient Morphosyntactic Feature [-ANGA] ….87 4.1.2.1.1 The Variant [-ANGA] in the Indicative Mood ……………………96 4.1.2.1.1.1 The Present Habitual Aspect Marker Variant [-ANGA] ………...96 4.1.2.1.1.2 The Past Habitual Aspect Marker Variant [-ANGA] …………..102 4.1.2.1.1.3 The Allomorph [-INGI] as a Variant of [-ANGA] …………….107 viii 4.1.2.1.2 The Variant [-ANGA] in the Subjunctive Mood…………….....113 4.1.2.1.2.1 The Subjunctive Variant [-ANGE] …………………………….113 4.1.2.1.2.2 The Subjunctive Allomorph Variant [-ENGE] ………………...119 4.1.2.1.2.3 The Subjunctive Allomorph Variant [-INGI] ………………….124 4.1.2.1.3 The Variant [-ANGA] in the Negative Mood ………….............129 4.1.2.1.3.1 The Negative Variant [-ANGI] …………………………………129 4.1.2.1.3.2 The Negative Allomorph Variant [-INGI] ……………………..134 4.1.2.1.4 Discussion ………………………………………………………140 4.1.2.2 Identification of the Salient Morphosyntactic Feature [-KO]…141 4.1.2.2.1 The Variable [-KO] as a Marker for Politeness ……………….145 4.1.2.2.1.1 The Variant [-KO] as a Marker for Polite Imperative …………145 4.1.2.2.1.2 The Variant [-KO] as a Marker for Polite Imperative Emphasis ………………………………………………………151 4.1.2.2.2 The Variable [-KO] as a Marker for the Diminutive ………….157 4.1.2.2.3 Discussion ……………………………………………………...163 4.2 Quantitative Analysis ……..........................................................164 4.2.1 Statistical Analyses …………………………………………......165 4.2.2 The Analysis Report ……………………………………………166 4.2.2.1 Correlation of Luhya Kiswahili Variants against Educational Level …………………………………………………………...171 4.2.2.1.1 Explaining the T-Test for the Habitual Marker Variants ......................................................................................173 ix 4.2.2. 1.2 Explaining the T-Test for the Politeness & Diminutive Marker Variants ......................................................................................174 4.2.2.1.3 Summary of T-test for the Education Variable ..........................175 4.2.2.2 Correlation of Luhya Kiswahili Variants against Gender …….175 4.2.2.2.1 Explaining the T-Test for the Habitual Marker Variants ..........177 4.2.2.2.2 Explaining the T-Test for the Politeness & Diminutive Marker Variants .....................................................................................178 4.2.2.2.3 Summary of T-test for the Gender Variable .............................179 4.2.2.3 Correlation of Luhya Kiswahili Variants against Age ………..179 4.2.2.3.1 Explaining the T-Test for the Habitual Marker Variants ..........181 4.2.2.3.2 Explaining the T-Test for the Politeness & Diminutive Marker Variants .....................................................................................183 4.2.2.3.3 Summary of T-test for the Age Variable ..................................184 4.2.3.4 Discussion .................................................................................184 4.3 Summary of Chapter ………………………………………….185 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ………………………………............................189