LETTERS TO THE EDITOR to have a positive dn/d'1 and is considered to have large homopolar bonding, similar reasoning predicts that dn/dp is positive; i.e., ) 0&1. In crystals containing radicals and in many glasses, positive dn/dT values are frequently obtained although their de/dp values are negative. In these materials there are e6ects within the radical which con- tribute xnainly to dn/dT and only slightly to dn/dp. A more complete treatment of these subjects will be pre- sented in a forthcoming paper.

& H, Mueller, Phys. Rev. 47, 947 (1935). 2 Burstein, Smith, and Henvis, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 23 {2),33 (1948). ' G. N. Ramachandran, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.425, 266 (1947). 4 S. Bhagavantam and S. Suryanarayana, Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 426, 97 {1947). ' C. D. West and J. Makas, Chem. Phys. 16, 427 (1948) reported +{pn—pI2) for two mixed thallium halides in agreement with our results. Their data also gives a +{pn-pl~) and —p44, for AgCI in agreement with Mueller's prediction for NaC1 structures with small ratio of negative to positive ion polarizibilities. We do not agree with West and Makas concerning the sign of the diamond constants and 2 believe them to be correct as given by Ramachandran. ~

The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor Triode J. BARDEEN AND W. H. BRATTAIN Bell Telephone I.aboralories, Murray HiLl, ¹wJersey June 25, 1948 0 THREE—ELEMENT electronic device which util- 0 10 I5 20 25 30 3.5 le IN AMPERES X lo A izes a newly discovered principle involving a semi- conductor as the basic element is described. It may be Flo. 2. d.c. characteristics of an experimental semi-conductor triode employed as an amplifier, oscillator, and for other pur- The currents and voltages are as indicated in Fig. 1. poses for which vacuum tubes are ordinarily used. The device consists of three electrodes placed on a block of back-voltage rectifier. Of critical importance for the opera- germanium' as shown schematically in Fig. 1. Two, called tion of the device is the nature of the current in the for- the emitter and collector, are of the point-contact rectifier ward direction. We believe, for reasons discussed in detail type and are placed in close proximity {separation ~.QOS in the accompanying letter, ' that there is a thin layer next to .025 cm) on the upper surface. The third is a large area to the surface of P-type {defect) conductivity. As a result, low resistance contact on the base. the current in the forward direction, with respect to the The germanium is prepared in the same way as that block is composed in large part of holes, i.e., of carriers 2 used for high back-voltage rectifiers. In this form it is an of sign opposite to those normally in excess in the body of E-type or excess semi-conductor with a resistivity of the the block. order of 10 ohrn cm. In the original studies, the upper sur- When the two point contacts are placed close together face was subjected to an additional anodic oxidation in a on the surface and d.c. bias potentials are applied, there glycol borate solution' after it had been ground and etched is a mutual influence which makes it possible to use the in, the usual way. The oxide is washed oE and plays no device to amplify a.c. signals. A circuit by which this may direct role. It has since been found that other surface be accomplished in shown in Fig. 1. There is a small for- treatments are equally e6ective. Both tungsten and phos- ward (positive) bias on the emitter, which causes a current phor bronze points have been used. The collector point of a few milliamperes to flow into the surface. A reverse may be electrically formed by passing large currents in the {negative) bias is applied to the collector, large enough to reverse direction. make the collector current of the same order or greater than Each point, when connected separately with the base the emitter current. The sign of the collector bias is such electrode, has characteristics similar to those of the high as to attract the holes which flow from the emitter so that a large part of the emitter current flows to and enters the le~ Ve Vc 'c 1 F. collector. While the collector has a high impedance for EMITTER COLLECTOR flow of electrons into the semi-conductor, there is little SIGNAL RL LOAD impediment to the flow of holes into the point. If now the emitter current is varied by a signal voltage, there will be a corresponding variation in collector current. It has been ~aASE found that the flow of holes from the emitter into the col- lector may alter the normal current flow from the base to FlG. 1. Schematic of semi-conductor triode. the collector in such a way that the change in collector LETTERS TO THE ED ITOR current is larger than. the change in emitter current. of uniform resistivity, p. For a contact of diameter d, Furthermore, the collector, being operated in the reverse = direction as a rectifier, has a high impedance (10' to 10' R, p/2d. ohms) and may be matched to a high impedance load. Taking as typical values p =10 ohm cm and d =.0025 cm, A large ratio of output to input voltage, of the same order the formula gives R, =2000 ohms. Actually the forward as the ratio of the reverse to the forward impedance of the current at one volt may be as large as 5 to 10 ma, and the is point, obtained. There is a corresponding power am- differential resistance is not more than a few hundred plification of the input signal. ohms. Bray' has attempted to account for this discrepancy The d.c. characteristics of a experimental unit typical by assuming that the resistivity decreases with increasing are shown in Fig. 2. There are four variables, two currents field, and has made tests to observe such an effect. and two voltages, with a functional relation between them. In connection with the development of the semi-conduc- If two are specified the other two are determined. In the tor triode discussed in the preceding letter, ' the nature of plot of Fig. 2 the emitter and collector currents I, and I, the excess conductivity has been investigated means are taken as the independent variables and the correspond- by of probe measurements of the potential in the vicinity of the ing voltages, V. and V„measured relative to the base point. 4 Measurements electrode, as the dependent variables. The conventional were made on the plane surface of a thick directions for the currents are as shown in Fig. 1. In normal block. Various surface treatments, such as anodizing, oxidizing, and sand blasting mere used in different tests, operation, I., I„and -V, are positive, and V, is negative. The emitter current, I„is simply related to V. and I,. in addition to the etch customarily employed in the To a close approximation: preparation of rectifiers. The potential, V(r), at a distance r from a point carrying I,=f(,v.+z,l,), a current, I, is measured relative to a large area low resist- where Rg is a constant independent of bias. The interpreta- ance contact at the base. In Fig. 1 we have plotted some tion is that the collector current lowers the potential of the typical data for a surface prepared by grinding and etching, surface in the vicinity of the emitter by R+I„and thus and then oxidizing in air at 500oC for one hour. The ordi- increases the effective bias voltage on the emitter by an nate is 27rr V(r)/I which for a body of uniform resistivity, equivalent amount. The term RyI, represents a positive p, should be a constant equal in magnitude to p. Actually feedback, which under some operating conditions is it is found that the ratio is much less than p at small dis- sufhcient to cause instability. tances from the point, and increases with r, approaching The current amplification factor a is defined as the value p asymptotically at large distances. The depar- ~ = (~Ic/~Ie)vc~onst, . ture from the constant value indicates an excess conduc- This factor depends on the operating biases. For the unit tivity in the neighborhood of the point. shown in Fig. 2, a lies between one and two if V. & —2. The manner in which the excess conductivity varies with Using the circuit of Fig. 1, power gains of over 20 db current indicates that two components are involved. One have been obtained. Units have been operated as ampli- is ohmic and is represented by the upper curve of Fig. 1 fiers at frequencies up to 10 megacycles. which applies for reverse (negative) currents and for small We mish to acknowledge our debt to W. Shockley for forward currents. This component is attributed to a thin initiating and directing the research program that led to conducting layer on the surface mhich is believed to be the discovery on which this development is based. We are P-type (i.e., of opposite type to that of the block). A layer also indebted to many other of our colleagues at these with a surface conductivity of .002 mhos is sufFicient to Laboratories for material assistance and valuable sug- account for the departure of the upper curve from a con- gestions. stant value. The second component of the excess con- ' While the effect has been found with both silicon and germanium, ductivity increases mith increasing forward current, and we describe only the use of the latter. ~ The germanium was furnished by J. H. Sca6 and H. C. Theuerer. For methods of preparation and information on the rectifier, see H. C. Torrey and C. A. Whitmer, Crystal Rectijkrs (McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, New York, 1948), Chap. 12. 3 This surface treatment is due to R. B. Gibney, formerly of Bell Telephone Laboratories, now at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. 4 W. H. Brattain and J. Bardeen, Phys. Rev. , this issue. l5 ———

0x z lp— Nature of the Forward Current in 0. Germanium Point Contacts = W. H. BRATTAlN AND J. BARDEEN ~ 1 -0 75 X )0 AMPERES x I = 0, l7 II Bel/ Telephone Ia&oratories, Murray Hil/, Nnv Jersey 2 P I ~ June 25, 1948 o t I0P 1l 0 0 0.02 0.04 006 0 ~HE forward current in germanium high back-voltage DISTANCE IN Chk rectifiers' is much larger than that estimated from FIG. 1.Measurements of potential, V~, at a distance r from a point: con- the formula for the spreading resistance, R., in a medium tact through which a current I is flowing into a germanium surface.