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Home , Basso continuo, Chaconne, Concerto grosso, Madrigal, Rebec, Ritornello

HISTORY OF

THE ERA

Created by J. Rogers (2015)

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Table of Contents

Medieval Music ...... 4

Renaissance Music ...... 7

Sacred Music in the period ...... 7

Secular Music in the Renaissance period ...... 13

Instrumental and Dance Music in the Renaissance period ...... 17

Baroque Music ...... 19

The and the birth of the ...... 20

Monteverdi and the beginning of ...... 23

Baroque and Equal Temperament ...... 25

The ...... 28

Baroque Structures ...... 29

J.S. Bach ...... 32

George Frederic Handel ...... 36

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The History of Music can be broadly divided into separate periods of time, each with its own characteristics or musical styles. Musical style does not, of course, change overnight. It can often be a gradual process with styles overlapping, and newer styles emerging out of old. It is generally agreed, however, that the History of Music can be divided into the following six periods (approximate dates are given for each period):

Medieval Music (up to about 1450)! This is the earliest music we know. An important feature of this period is Plainchant; an early form of church music with Latin words, based on Modes.

Renaissance Music (1450-1600) During this period, started to explore a variety of different textures (including Homophonic and Polyphonic textures) and forms, including: sacred music – Mass and ; secular music - and Ballet; and dance music – Pavan and Galliard.

Baroque Music (1600-1750) The music of this period has a reputation for being highly ornamented. Important features include; Ground , Fugue, French and Italian Overtures, , Ripieno, , , , Opera, Chaconne and .

Classical Music (1750-1830) Composers of this period placed much importance on form and structure. Important features include; , , , Concerto, Opera, Minuet and Trio, , Theme and Variations, , and Scherzo.

Romantic Music (1830-1900) Music of the 19th century tended to be very expressive with many references to emotions, literature and the other arts. Important features include; Nationalism, Lied, Cycle, Word Painting, Symphonic Poem, Tone Poem, Idee fix, Leitmotiv and Opera.

20th Century Music (1900 onwards) The 20th century has produced a wide range of musical styles. While some composers have taken quite a traditional approach to music, others have been very experimental. Important features include: popular styles such as Latin American, Blues, Ragtime, Swing, Samba, Salsa, Jazz, Boogie-woogie, Soul, Country and jazz-Funk; and more experimental music such as Impressionist, Nationalist, Expressionist, Minimalist, Aleatoric and Neo- Classical.

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Medieval Music

The earliest music that we know, both sacred and secular (non sacred) consists of a single line . This is a monophonic texture. Examples of this can be found in early church music, in the form of plainchant (also known as plainsong or Gregorian ). Plainchant were generally flowing, often moving by step rather than by leap, and would be sung in an style (i.e. unaccompanied). The rhythm would be irregular and very free, following the natural rhythms and stresses of the Latin words.

Here is an example of a simple plainchant melody, dating from about the year 800: Listen to this excerpt while following the music. Complete the table overleaf, identifying the concepts in the music.

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Melodic Harmonic Rhythmic Structural

Plainchant melodies were based on special types of scaled called modes. Modes can be found by playing any notes within an octave, but keeping to the white notes only. Here is an example of a mode:

The earliest polyphonic texture (that is, with two or more lines weaving together) dates from the 9th century. Composers attempted to embellish plainchants by adding one or more extra voice-lines. Music in this style is called . Listen to the example below. What do you notice about the notes that have been added (the small ones!) to the main chant? ______

In the late 12th century, Paris became a very important centre of musical activity when the construction of the Notre Dame Cathedral began in 1163. This is where writing of ‘organa’ (plural of organum) reached its most elaborate and impressive stage. Two of these composers are known to us by name: Leonin and Perotin. Much of the secular music of the time was played by ; aristocratic poet-musicians who would travel from town to town playing they had composed or collected. This therefore was a type of . The following instruments were often used to accompany:

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Instrument Description Pipe and A pipe and 2 headed drum, played by one person Double reed instrument, ancestor of the Ivory or wood bound with leather. It had a like mouthpiece but finger holes like a recorder Four brass strings that were plucked Smaller than the modern harp with fewer strings Larger than a modern viola. A Flatter bridge allowed more than one string to be played at once Pear shaped bowed instrument with three strings Hurdy-gurdy The strings, stopped by sliders pressed down by the fingers, were vibrated by a rotating wheel turned by a handle The strings were plucked with quills, one in each hand

The main characteristics of Medieval music: 1. Use of modes 2. Monophonic textures e.g. plainchant/ plainsong 3. Simple polyphonic textures e.g. Organum 4. A tendency to contrast sounds rather than blend them together 5. Distinctive of medieval instruments / Vocal music 6. Harmonic intervals are dominated by 4ths and 5ths creating a bare sound

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Renaissance Music

Renaissance means ‘rebirth’ and the chief characteristic of this period in the history of Western Europe was a sharpening of interest in learning and culture, centring in particular on many of the ideas expressed by the ancient Greeks and Romans. Also, it was of course and age of exploration and discovery.

Renaissance composers began to take a keener interest in writing secular music, including music for instruments independent of voices. Even so, the greatest musical treasures of the Renaissance were composed for the church.

Sacred Music in the Renaissance period Composers throughout history have written sacred music. In the Renaissance period sacred music was generally sung in Latin and performed a cappella (without instrumental ). It often contained some of the following features: Melodic Harmonic Rhythmic Structural Imitation Consonance /Dissonance Simple time Contrary motion Melisma Modal Rallentando Pedal Mode Suspension Inverted Pedal Plainchant Passing notes Plagal Homophony

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The most important forms of sacred music in the Renaissance period were the Mass, Motet and Anthem.

Mass! The Mass is the chief service of the Catholic Church. The Latin setting of the Mass divides into five main sections, or “items”:

Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison Lord have mercy, Christ Have mercy Gloria in excelcis Deo Glory to God in the highest Credo in unum deum I believe in one God Sanctus; Osanna; Benedictus Holy, holy, holy; Hosanna; Blessed is he.... Agnus Dei Lamb of God

Motet! The Motet is a short sacred choral work, usually contrapuntal in style, with a Latin text. Here are some examples of texts used for :

Veni Sancte Spiritus Come, Holy Spirit Haec Dies This is the day Ave Maria Hail Mary Jubilate Deo Be Joyful in the Lord O quam gloriosam est regnum O How Glorious is the Kingdom Ave Verum Corpus Hail, True Body O Magnum Mysterium O Great and Mighty Wonder

Anthem! The Anthem is a short sacred choral piece sung in English. It may be sung a cappella or with organ accompaniment. Examples of Anthems include: I Will Exalt Thee ! Teach Me O Lord ! Sing Joyfully Unto God

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Mass !Listen to the Kyrie from Missa Brevis by Palestrina

1. What is the of this Kyrie?

______

2. Give two words that describe the texture of this setting.

______

3. What is the main compositional device used in this music?

______

4. What do you notice about the final chord?

______

5. What style influences the harmony at the beginning?

______

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Anthem Listen to If Ye Love Me by

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Motet Listen to O Quam Gloriosum est regnum by Victoria

1. Compare the texture of both pieces. How are they similar/different?

______

______

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2. Which compositional device is chiefly used?

______

3. On what chord does the Anthem (Tallis) finish?

______

4. Comment on the structure of both pieces.

______

______

______

______

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Chorale

In 16th century Germany, where the Protestant Church led by Martin Luther was seeking ways of bringing its people into a more direct contact with God, there grew a tradition of writing hymns to be sung in German by the whole congregation – rather than in Latin by a trained . The tunes were newly composed, sometimes adapted from plainchants or even popular songs. A German hymn tune of this kind is called a . One of the best known, still sung today, is “A safe stronghold our God is Still” (Ein’ feste Burg ist unser Gott).

What do you notice about the texture of this chorale?

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Secular Music in the Renaissance period

Alongside developments in Renaissance church music, there were also important developments in secular songs and dances. Elizabethan were popular songs of the period while important dances were the and Galliard.

The Madrigal ! Madrigals are varied in style and express all kinds of human emotion, with composers often making use of word-painting (using music to illustrate the meaning of the words). The madrigal proper was through – composed (i.e. new music for each verse) and usually very polyphonic (or contrapuntal). It often contained some of the following features:

Melodic Harmonic Rhythmic Structural Imitation Consonance /Dissonance Simple time Through composed Melisma Modal Polyphony Word painting Suspension Passing notes

An example of a madrigal proper is As Vesta was from Latmos Hill descending by . Written for six solo voices, this piece contains clear examples of word – painting in the following lines: To whom Diana’s darlings came running down amain, First two by two, then three by three together, Leaving their goddess all alone, hasted thither.

Text Word – painting Running down amain First two by two Then three by three Together All alone

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The ballett was lighter in style with clear-cut dance-like rhythms. It tended to be strophic (i.e. the same music for each verse) and usually homophonic (chordal) in texture, with a “fa-la-la” refrain. It often contains some of the following features:

Melodic Harmonic Rhythmic Structural Syllabic Consonance /Dissonance Simple time Strophic Passing notes Dance like “Fa la la” refrain Homophony

An example of a ballett is Now is the month of Maying by , shown overleaf. !

The ayre (or song) was often performed by a solo voice, accompanied by either or . A very expressive and melancholy ayre is Flow my teares by .

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Listening Exercise Listen carefully to the following excerpts of music. For each excerpt of music you should identify the musical style. Write the correct style into the appropriate space. Choose from:

Mass / Motet / Anthem / Madrigal / Chorale / Ballet / Ayre

1. This is an example of ______

2. This is an example of ______

3. This is an example of ______

4. This is an example of ______

5. This is an example of ______

6. This is an example of ______

7. This is an example of ______

8. This is an example of ______

9. This is an example of ______

10. This is an example of ______

11. This is an example of ______

12. This is an example of ______

13. This is an example of ______

14. This is an example of ______

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Instrumental and Dance Music in the Renaissance period Until the beginning of the 16th century, instruments were considered to be far less important than voices. They were used for dances and to accompany vocal music – but here they only doubled the voices. During the 16th century however, composers took greater interest in writing music especially intended for instruments only. Some instruments such as recorders, and remained popular form the medieval era. And, of course, new ones were invented: Instrument Description Lute The neck of the lute was bent back; the strings were tuned in pairs and the fingerboard had frets Viols These had sloping shoulders and flat backs; six strings, with a fretted fingerboard; viols were held upright in front of the player rather than tucked under the chin A wooden cap enclosed the double reed, giving a rather soft but very reedy tone Rackett A low pitched double reed instrument: its great length of tube was coiled inside a cylinder which was only a foot high A name given to the English to the early kind of ; the bell was less flared, giving a rounder, more mellow tone Trumpet The tube was now folded to make it more manageable; until the valve system was invented in the 19th century Percussion Included , tabor, kettle drums, side drum, triangle and instruments cymbals

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The main characteristics of Renaissance music:

1. Music still based on modes, but these gradually treated with more freedom as

more ‘accidentals’ crept in

2. Richer, fuller texture, in four or more voice-parts

3. Blending, rather than contrasting, strands in musical texture

4. Harmony: a greater concern with the flow and progression of chords; a smoother

treatment of discords

5. Church music: some pieces intended for a cappella performance, mainly

contrapuntal, with much imitation dovetailing and weaving the strands to create a

continuously flowing, seamless texture; other church music accompanied by

instruments – for example, polychoral pieces in antiphonal (stereophonic) style

6. Secular music: rich variety of vocal pieces; dances and also instrumental pieces –

many copying vocal style but others truly suited to instruments rather than voices

7. The characteristic timbres of Renaissance instruments – many forming families

(the same instrument made in various sizes and pitches e.g. Viols)

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Baroque Music

The Baroque period was roughly from 1600–1750 and was an age of invention and rapid innovation. Great discoveries were made in science and in music, and musical structures were transformed in the hands of composers like Handel and JS Bach. This period also saw the rise of purely instrumental music and the birth of what became the modern orchestra. It was an age of transition where music blossomed from being from being a private affair to a public spectacle. No small wonder that, the music of this era is still massively popular today.

What makes so much of the music we enjoy today sound the way it does is a series of discoveries that burst into life in the 17th and early18th centuries. Laws governing the use of chords, which chords you could use and which instruments you could play them on all slid into place like parts of an intricate machine. People of the period were obsessed with the interplay of ‘cog and wheel’, the laws of motion and gravity and the understanding of the dimension of time itself. Indeed, this era saw great advances in clock making. Listen to the music of this period and you hear the ticking of clocks, the perfectly calibrated whirring of cogs, the turning of wheels and the to and fro of pendulums. Between1600 and 1750, music transformed beyond recognition.

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The Violin and the birth of the Orchestra

The Violin was a very important instrument in the Baroque period, and the strings became the foundation of the orchestra. The other sections of the orchestra had not yet become fully established. Based on a folk fiddle that had been around for some centuries, the Violin as we know it today, started its life in Italian workshops in the late 16th century.

The Violin’s rise coincided with that of the extravagant Kings of , Louis XIII and Louis XIV who brought in Italian experts to play for their flamboyant Royal Ballets. These ballets were on a fantastic scale often performed in Palaces or even outdoors, so the bright edgy sound of the violin was ideal to fill these spaces. In fact not just one violin, but lots of them! This was the very first time that you would have 10, 12, sometimes 24 playing the same tune. When they started adding in larger models of the violin, Violas and , they were also grouped together to play the same musical lines. This then was the birth of the modern orchestra.

The musician in charge of the Royal Ballet was Jean Baptiste Lully, who created a thicker, grander ensemble style for this larger group of instruments. Importantly, Lully always included a short, self contained, opening movement to his Ballets. The French word for this was the Ouverture while the Italian equivalent was the Sinfonia. Listen to the Ouverture to by Lully:

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Task: 1. How is the notated rhythm on the score different from what is played?

2. What is meant by at the beginning of the extract?

3. What happens to the metre halfway through?

4. How does the texture vary in the 2nd section?

These characteristics are typical of the French Ouverture. These overtures were soon borrowed by opera too. Soon they began to develop into longer pieces eventually becoming the symphony. The symphony’s basic structure was also to come from dance. Sections of different dance music (, Gigues, etc.) began to be gathered together into suites or partitas. Sections of music based on different tempi and rhythmic style characterized orchestral music until the end of the 19th century.

Dance Characteristics: : A moderately fast dance, usually in 4/4 or 2/2 time. Beginning with an upbeat, it is often characterised by flowing quavers or semiquavers. Bourrée: A lively dance in 4/4 or 2/2, starting on the last crotchet of the bar. When employed in a suite there were sometimes 2 bourrées played consecutively. Courante: Literally meaning ‘running’, the courante is a French dance, usually in 6/4 and commonly with bars of 3/2 added, especially towards (giving a hemiola -type effect). Sometimes this was replaced in a suite by the Italian version, known as the corrente. This was a faster dance in simple triple time (3/4) which tended towards more homophonic textures.

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Chaconne: see Passacaglia. : French in origin, the gavotte is a moderately fast dance in 4/4. It characteristically begins on the third beat of the bar. Gigue: A dance of English and Celtic origins with a lively feel. It is usually in 6/8, although examples occur in 12/8, 3/8, 6/4 and 4/4 (with the beats divided into triplets). Melodically it tends to incorporate leaps across wide intervals, with an energetic rhythmic flow. Minuet: A dance of French origin in 3/4 time, of steady speed and dainty character. Although used frequently in the Baroque suite, it later became a standard part of the classical symphony, as the 3rd movement, where it was played with a following Trio (before the reprise of the Minuet). Passacaglia: A slow and stately dance with no great discernable differences to the Chaconne. It is usually in triple time and consists of regular phrases. These often take the form of theme and variations over a ground bass (i.e. a repeated bass line and chord sequence). : A quick dance in 3/8 or 6/8 of French origin. : Although originally a livelier dance of Latin American origin, the type of Sarabande commonly adopted in Europe was a slow, stately form in triple time. The dance is characterised by a slight emphasis on the second beat of the bar.

Listen to the following dances listening carefully to the , time signature and rhythmic features. Can you guess what the dances are?

1. ______

2. ______

3. ______

4. ______

5. ______

6. ______

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Monteverdi and the beginning of Opera

Music, by 1600, had become a rich mix of sacred and secular, instrumental and vocal. But almost everything at the time was relatively small scale. The time had come for someone, somewhere, to develop new forms that would last a whole evening, entertaining audiences for longer periods of time. This happened and Opera was born. It began in with .

Monteverdi’s Orfeo, composed in 1607 is the first truly great opera. In this opera many of the traditions and conventions were founded. In order to convey the story, opera would feature a range of different types of new (s):

Overture In a similar style to the French Ouverture, Italian composers started including extended musical introductions to the . They would often follow a structural pattern of ‘quick – slow – quick’.

Recitative This is a style of delivery in which a singer is allowed to adopt the rhythms of ordinary speech. The mostly syllabic recitativo secco ("dry", accompanied only by continuo) is at one end of a spectrum whilst the other is recitativo accompagnato (using orchestra). does not repeat lines as formally composed songs do. This was used to push the ‘plot’ of the operas forward, in a non-fussy manner.

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Aria The term describes a self-contained piece for a solo voice, with full orchestral accompaniment. In opera, the sung, melodic, and structured became differentiated from the more speech-like recitative – broadly, the latter tended to carry the story-line, the former carried more emotional freight and became an opportunity for singers to display their vocal talent.

The aria evolved typically in one of two forms. Binary form were in two sections (A– B); arias in ternary form (A–B–A) were known as da capo arias (literally 'from the head', i.e. with the opening section repeated, often in a highly decorated manner). In the the 'B' episode would typically be in a different key – the dominant or relative major key.

Listen to the following examples and state from what part of an opera the extract comes. Choose from the following:

Overture / Recitative Secco / Recitative Accompagnato / Aria

1. ______

2. ______

3. ______

4. ______

5. ______

6. ______

7. ______

8. ______

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Baroque Harmony and Equal Temperament

The regulating of harmony in the Baroque period is arguably the single most important development in the entire history of Western Music. The regulation of pitch was called Equal Temperament. Equal temperament made it possible for different instruments to play in tune with each other, something that was very difficult to achieve previously!

If we look at the keyboard below, we see 6 ‘C’s. Highlight them in blue. We also see 12 other notes between each of the ‘C’s. Since the 17th century we have only used these 12 notes within each octave.

However, in Western music, there are in fact at least 19 subdivisions between each ‘C’ – NOT 12! These notes are shown here.

For some instruments, playing all of these ‘squashed together’ notes wasn’t an issue – e.g. Stringed Instruments. However, instrument with fixed pitches (, , etc.) cannot. What Equal Temperament did was to abolish 7 of the 19 subdivisions and create a standardised 12 that would swallow up the other notes.

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For example the old notes F# and G♭, became one all-purpose note that accommodated both. B# got gobbled up by the note C and so on. What we are left with is the standard chromatic scale that still governs western harmony today.

In their natural state, the notes of the octave are not evenly spaced. What Equal Temperament did was to equalize the distance between the notes. Thanks to this compromise you could now move from chord to chord far more easily.

Original pitches Standardised pitches

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What followed was 300 years where instruments (and our ears!) have been calibrated to Equal Temperament. Interestingly, one reason the traditional music of Indonesia sounds exotic and mysterious to Western ears, is because it uses a different system of tuning. The same may be said about the music from India and China also.

As the new pitching rules settled, musicians discovered that in harmony, certain chords were attracted to others – much like a musical gravity. The main pattern that emerged was that chords behaved in cycles of 5. In other words, a chord (V) would yearn for chord (I). This pattern applied to every chord in every key family. In the Baroque era, composers became obsessed with these laws of attraction. Composers found that stringing sequences of chords together, to trigger this attraction, drove the music forward.

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The Concerto

In the late 17th century another crucial part of the musical toolkit was put into place. The who first introduced many of the innovations that Vivaldi, Bach and Handel built on (and that we now take for granted) was . Corelli was the first Violin virtuoso and he built on his love of the violin, an idea that took off spectacularly. He gathered stringed instruments together into groups and created for them a new form – the Concerto. A Concerto would feature a small group of instruments alternating with a larger group of instruments, making its impact by contrasting loud and soft passages (or light and shade/chiaroscuro in painting).

Corelli’s innovation was called the Concerto Grosso, literally, the ‘Big Concert’. In it, he explored the contrast between a small group of instruments (consisting of only 2 violins and a ) called the Concertino, and a bigger group featuring everyone else called the Ripieno, or the ‘stuffing’.

Every composer in Italy now had a stab at writing Concerti Grossi. One young Venetian admirer or Corelli was to make the Concerto Italy’s most famous export. His name was . Vivaldi took the big group v little group idea one step further, casting a charismatic SOLO Violin against the entire orchestra. Vivaldi’s craft in this genre was flawless, with perhaps the most famous of all time being composed – Quattro Staggioni (The Four Seasons).

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Here is an example of the virtuoso playing demanded from the soloist in this Concerto:

Vivaldi’s introduced a sense of drams and virtuosity never seen before. Such was the virtuosity of the performance, that the soloists would be regarded as (pop/rock stars of the time) to be compared with the opera singers of that era.

Baroque Structures

Basso continuo was a new form of musical accompaniment used in the Baroque period, meaning "continuous bass". Basso continuo, sometimes just called “continuo”, was played by a keyboard instrument and another bass instrument such as cello, (an old form of ) or . The keyboard instrument was normally a or, if it was being played in a church, an organ.

It was not usual to write out all the notes for the keyboard player. The composer normally just wrote the bottom line which would be played by the bottom part of the left hand, and by the cello or whatever the instrument being used. The composer would indicate what the harmony should be (which chords should be played) by writing figures underneath the music. This is why it is called or sometimes thoroughbass. The continuo player will “realize” the figured bass i.e. he/she will improvise the chords which are shown. In modern editions of old music the figured bass part has normally been realized (written out) by the editor.

Reading music from a figured bass was a skill that all keyboard and players were expected to have. They needed to have a good understanding of , especially of harmony. They would often improvise ornamental bits on top, but this had to be done musically and sensitively.

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An example of a realised bass figure:

Concertos were structured in three movements, usually following a fast-slow-fast pattern. The forms within these movements included Ritornello, Binary and Ternary.

Binary Form (AB) A piece of music in Binary Form divides into two clear sections. We generally refer to these sections as section A and section B. Each section is often repeated.

Listen to this March by Purcell. Notice the two sections; A and B:

If the A section were to return this would create a Ternary Form, as the A section would return to give the music symmetry.

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Ritornello Form The most common form used in concertos was the ritornello form, in which the ritornello theme alternates with episodes. Here is the overall plan of ritornello form: Ritornello Episode 1 Ritornello Episode 2 Ritornello Tutti Soloist(s) Tutti Soloist(s) Tutti

In the Italian school of composers of the late 17th and early 18th century, the da capo form of aria came gradually to be associated with the ritornello. This version of aria form with ritornelli became a dominant feature of European opera throughout the 18th century. It is thought by some that THIS was to be the origin of the instrumental forms of concerto and later the sonata form. The ritornelli became essential to the structure of the aria. You will study this form very closely in your set work – (J.S.Bach – Brandenburg Concerto no.2 in F major).

Ground Bass Another common structure of Baroque music is the ground bass. This is when a theme in the bass is repeated many times while the upper parts are varied. Canon in D by Pachelbel is arguably the most popular. When I am laid in Earth from the Opera “Dido and Aeneas” makes use of this also:

Task: 1. Highlight the Ground Bass and state how many times it appears in the example

2. Name the key

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3. Add a suitable tempo marking

4. Describe the movement of the Ground Bass line

J.S. Bach

J.S. Bach and Handel learnt from the Italians, especially Corelli and Vivaldi. The French ‘Violin Bands’ and Proto that developed from the court Ballet also heavily influenced them. They incorporated the conventions and styles of their time and created something extraordinary of their own – which grew out of the German Lutheran tradition that they were born into. Lutheran congregations were active participants in the church service, with communal hymn singing being given high status. Just as the swept away the elaborate decorations found in the Catholic Church, so to in Protestantism, music was always in service of the ‘message’, making the words of the gospel unfussy and clear.

A huge amount of what Bach wrote, including virtually all of his 300+ and his vast output of organ music, is based on German Hymn tunes or . He would weave a tapestry of sound around a hymn, being sung or played steadily through the centre of the work. A popular example of this is ‘Jesus Bleibet Meine Freude (Jesu, Joy of Man’s Desiring)’ – score overleaf.

1. What is the metre of this piece? (Circle the correct term) Simple Duple Simple Triple Compound Triple Compound Quadruple

2. What term best describes the running quaver melody?

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All Bach’s vocal music is based on one thing – devotion to God in the human form of Jesus of Nazareth. Whatever he does musically, no matter how complex, he does it to emphasise the meaning of the words. A great example of this can be found in his aria “Zerfliesse, mein Herze” from the St. John Passion. The Harmony is based on a series of descending chords. Yet, when studying the vocal part, we see how daring Bach’s harmony can be. He intentionally allows notes to clash against each other, in swiftly moving dischords. The dissonances may be cleverly disguised, but they are still there. That is because Bach wants to create a subliminal feeling of anguish and grief, which is exactly what the words of this aria are trying to convey.

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Can you name the EXACT intervals of the dissonances identified above?

a) b)

c) d)

e) f)

g) h)

If Bach’s aim in his choral music was to move and inspire, surely his aim in his instrumental work was to dazzle! He is undisputed master of , the interweaving of different tunes and melodies. The quintessential form of Bach counterpoint was the fugue. Meaning “flight” in Italian, the fugue is a complicated type of canon or round.

Can you name this famous round?______

In a canon or round, the same tune is sung at different times by different groups, allowing each new entry to sit on top of the others. A fugue is essentially a more complicated version, with multiple lines. Some enter backwards, in reverse or upside down! “” was a collection of pieces where Bach demonstrated his genius-like craft. Contrapunctus VII is one of the most impressive:

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In fugues Bach employs the following compositional techniques. Please give accurate definitions of each technique.

Technique Definition Transposition Inversion Retrograde Augmentation

Sometimes, Bach would utilize more than one of these techniques at the same time! Here is a summary of the treatment of the main theme(s) in the opening 8 bars of Contrapunctus VII. Can you complete the table of statements?

Bars Instrument What is Bach doing? 1-8 Violin 1 Main theme 3-6 Violin 2 7- Violin 2 1-5 Viola 5-8 Cello

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Composing something this complex would be difficult enough to organise when laid out on a page in front of you. However, Bach was so adept at this style that he was able to improvise Fugues at the keyboard! From one fragment of tune, Bach is able to create 7 minutes of contrapuntal invention.

The towering achievements of Bach’s career are the settings of the trial, crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. Pieces that deal with this specific subject are called Passions. Bach’s choral music would always be set to German saw that all could access and take part in the music. In these Passions, Bach employs all the techniques we’ve encountered in the survey of the 17th and early 18th centuries. Vivaldi’s concerto style with large and small forces, fugal counterpoint, vast choral effects, dance rhythm patterns, harmonic stability with regular chord patterns and a violin led orchestra with woodwind and brass instruments.

George Frederic Handel

In the 100 years after his death Bach became a forgotten and un-performed composer. Interestingly Bach wrote NO operas in his lifetime, despite this being the most popular and most financially lucrative form of the time. If Bach HAD written operas instead of Church music this might have been different – opera composers had always courted more fame and recognition than church musicians. Fortunately for Bach’s contemporary, Handel, opera WAS his thing.

Unlike, Bach, Handel was more of an entrepreneur and adventurer. Bach stayed his entire life in his native North Germany whereas Handel travelled. For a short time he lived in Italy before settling for the majority of his working life in London. This was much to with his previous employer in Germany had just been crowned ‘King George 1’ in 1714. The King, and his son ‘George II’ commissioned several works that are still well known to this day. Handel’s greatest asset was that he could write music that was very popular with audiences. This made his music marketable and improved his reputation in the public eye. He wrote 39 operas, in Italian, for the London stage. However, Opera in London was under threat. A number of parody-type works were composed which undermined opera – Handel therefore developed a new form – .

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Oratorio

An oratorio is a large musical composition for orchestra, choir, and soloists. Like an opera, an oratorio includes the use of a choir, soloists, an ensemble, various distinguishable characters, and arias. However, opera is musical theatre, while oratorio is strictly a —though are sometimes staged as operas, and operas are sometimes presented in concert form. In an oratorio there is generally little or no interaction between the characters, and no props or elaborate costumes. A particularly important difference is in the typical subject matter of the text. Opera tends to deal with history and mythology, including age-old devices of romance, deception, and murder, whereas the plot of an oratorio often deals with sacred topics, making it appropriate for performance in the church. Protestant composers took their stories from the Bible, while Catholic composers looked to the lives of saints, as well as to Biblical topics. Handel set the standard with oratorios such as Messiah, Solomon, Samson and Judas Maccabeus. Oratorios were written in native language so that the form would be more accessible.

Listen to the following examples and state from what part of an opera the extract comes. Choose from the following: Passion / Oratorio / Opera / Mass

1. ______

2. ______

3. ______

4. ______

5. ______

6. ______

7. ______

8. ______

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The main characteristics of Baroque Music:

1. The basso continuo or figured bass, becomes the foundation for most types of

Baroque Music – providing a purposeful bass line which causes the music to press

steadily forward.

2. Viols gradually replaced by Violin (string) family. The becomes the

basis of the , often with the continuo filling out the

above the figured bass and decorating the textures.

3. Equal temperament establishes Major/Minor diatonic key system

4. Main forms used: binary, ternary (da capo), ground bass, ritornello, fugue etc.

5. Main types of music: Chorale, recitative and aria, opera, oratorio, , Italian

Overture, French ouverture, dance suite, concerto grosso, solo concerto

6. Energetic rhythms drive the music forward

7. Melodies spun out into long, flowing lines with many ornaments

8. Contrasts of instrumental timbres, of few instruments against many, and of loud

against soft (terraced dynamics).

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