Beyond Germanization and Russification

CEU eTD Collection Beyond Germanization and Russification: and Germanization Beyond In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Nationalism and Education, 1870-1914 Advisor: Professor Victor Karady Nationalism StudiesProgram Central European University Central European Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Matthew J. Baltz Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted 2007 By CEU eTD Collection Chapter 1: Germanization in Prussian Poland...... 20 Introduction...... 2 Chapter 2: Russification and the Estonians...... 44 Bibliography...... 66 ...... 62 Conclusion Conclusion responsesPolish The role of the state and its policies Conclusion Estonian responses The role of the state and its policies ...... 39 ...... 60 ...... 34 ...... 56 ...... 24 ...... 47 Table of Contents CEU eTD Collection can even be used as historical justification for legislation designed to discriminate againstgroups discriminate designedto legislation for justification historical can evenbeas used they resonance, special a have words these where Europe, eastern and central In ink. national in in writings of nationalist their dipping indulging the pens academics rhetoricor inpopular inhard speechesof politicians guess, especiallywhenfound not the to forreasons abuseare The context. scholarly and a public in abused, often quite and used, been have Russification and Germanization, idea, Likethenational schizophrenia. with caseof diagnosed a similar as, conceivably, name any group followed by suffixthe “-ization” or“-ification”) could be Curricula inTransition. 1 the world. around only begun have they is that tomyths national be various of longevity overcome and power the of indication persistent one in schoolIndeed, state. nation the and nationalism, textbooks nations, of antiquity and origins the of understandings and in the collective andacademic popular between disconnect is apparent alsoan there state, nation and imaginations of between meaning citizensof a persistentconflation to In addition people.its of andculture minds the or astate of institutions the at directed a process to arereferring they clearwhether immediately not is it building,” “nation to refer academics or policymakers when that extent the to it, This “building”qualification. becomes especially apparentwhen confusion word the is added to of this sufferer well-known is one affliction, “nation” The reflection. or precision much without speech everyday and typically findmuch thembearing multiple meanings, heavily dependent on context and used in confusion arises whenIntroduction it is thrown about carelessly or without See Schissler, Hanna and YaseminNuhoglu Soysal (eds.) This thesis proposes that two other words, “Germanization” and “Russification” (aswell “Russification” and “Germanization” words, other two that This thesisproposes Certain words lead schizophrenic lives within public and academic discourse. We andacademic discourse. lives within public lead words Certain schizophrenic 1 New York: BerghahnBooks. 2005. 2 The Nation, Europe, andtheWorld: Textbooks and CEU eTD Collection Diversity liberal multiculturalism, see Will Kymlicka. 2 of growingthe add to corpus Nor will to I attempt will endeavor. a scholarly essentially remain may be written about the rhetorical usageeveryday and public lifepolitical academia. aswell as to Although a highly entertaining thesis of these words in the public and political sphere, this filling roles. these primary actors asthe “nations” bounded clearly self-motivated, whichsees present, past and both society, of understanding victims they also helpreaffirm an historical asheroesandvillains perpetrators, and groups casting pointthe annihilation. Besides of uponanation: couldto be repression that perpetrated injustice theultimate domination and recall resist to capacity celebrate nation’s the to purpose: scrutiny. When wielded bynationalists stripes,various of these words typically serve a dual groups in one respect or another, are historically well-known and have been the subject of special non-dominant ethnic assimilateto oracculturate states made nation and efforts byempires the or Russification and Germanization that surprising not therefore is it academic, the beyond with an axegrind to ora defense case beto mounted. With interests involved that often go well usage haveof words these been politicized, and all too often, by studied “side” of partisans either the which to extent the of indication one as be seen may statements these make to obliged feel implemented in a chauvinistic and culturally insensitive manner. That beingsaid, fact the I that and conceived often were they that deny or states these of policies the rehabilitate to intention their lived, ancestors learned, and thought, worked died within imperial an setting. Nor ismy it how of understandings current on based grievances historical with states of citizens for issue who had once occupied a dominant position but are now considered “national minorities.” Forextendedan discussionof imperial legacies, “minoritized majorities” and their impact onefforts to promote So I am quite aware that this thesis wades intorather controversial waters, of relevance to very controversial a remains still was and onwhat sides” “take to not is here My goal . (Forthcoming from Oxford University Press) University Oxford from (Forthcoming Multicultural Odysseys: NavigatingNew the International Politics of 3 2 CEU eTD Collection European University Press.) University European “Russificationentitled chapter orRussifications?”his in detail in appearing explored in are issues other and These term. general one just on reliance by obscured often too all particularities regional the reflect to order in approach nuanced more a advocated has Miller Alexey (ed) 3 group. beliefs adoptionthe languageor of the cultural dominant the aimedatof policies and of administration, apparatuses of the local control elites, of assimilation the including policies, and processes of describearray an to used term is a Russification that haveremarked historians many example, asan the Russian case take to Moreoever, homogenization. cultural achieve certain usually involving varyingdegrees administrative,objectives, linguistic,of or belonging to different interaction members occursthrough that the of voluntary,sociological, process usually categories orthesis. social groups, as many meanings,few a be qualifications made needto in terms specificof the of interests this wellWhen as to a specificone policywrites designed usage of have generated. such terms to of Germanization thatthe approach historical several a comparative and questions addressing through problems concerned modest, more bewith far The willtherefore study case. goals each comprehensively or Russificationfairly a over imperial context each within groups ethnic non-dominant several toward out were carried long period policies these that Given Russification. and Germanization of accounts narrative or descriptive one can of betime, referring it will to nota be possible within the scope of this project to be revisited at varying thisbe at times revisited thesis whenappropriate. throughout more “organic” voluntary the tokeepin areimportant sociological or processes mind,and will purpose-driventhe “brand” Russification Germanization, bethefocus and of study,of this will Such adivisionbetween “administrative” and “cultural” Russificationwas first proposed in Thaden, Edward C. Russification inthe Baltic Provinces andFinland,1855-1914 Since these terms can potentially be used in a variety of different contexts and take on However, even a focus on the policy-side of the equation does little to cut down down cutthe to little does equation of the policy-side on the even afocus However, The Romanov Empire andNationalism 4 . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1981. . (Forthcoming from Central from . (Forthcoming 3 While CEU eTD Collection myth, reality the political right among national movements. Hobsbawm, E.J. elevationof language and ethnicity as the most decisive criteria forpotential nationhood and(3) a noticeable shift to criteriathe for“nations” who could justifiably claim status assuch andthe to right self-determination (2) the one,three notesimportant that shifts innationalist thought took duringthisperiod, place namely expansionof(1) an 5 immediately in response to the events of 1863. 4 hadRussification beenpracticed during periods, previous 71 and endingbefore WorldWar I.Whileis itvarying truethat degreesof Germanization and War from secondary Franco-Prussian of with the education roughly periodbeginning the 1870- primary of focus Germanization be study this will limited to inand Russification primary and carrysystem function- were usually to degrees varying The this with of out deployed success. institutionsvarious facthighlight the state that -thejudiciary bureaucracy,and education army, most accounts general quite Indeed, lurksterms. large two, behind beast that these rather be ofthis themainfocus but throughout and study,the states empires of Europe. will that cases in the just not policies educational in the visible became which shift a mark they relatively life long before the nineteenth century in rivalryEurope, in educational the newsphere was a phenomenon.humble Prussian schoolteacher and scientist. While interstate rivalry and wars had been a fact of The worldemerged that soonbegan consensus general the was significant more after Far power. of balance European the on had toon thechange, decisive roleunnoticed is bythepowersof continental asEurope hardlysurprising effect given drastic the this played,did the not by stakesBismarckfrom a military orinvolved Napoleon and particularly economic power, of projection the and national strength to system education the of importance III, standpoint.butin bya the To say that the Frenchidentity. national and education of history defeat at Sedan did notFranco-Prussia go War of 1870-71 and the reaction itto serve as a useful symbol of a new era in the Nor am I alone in highlighting the significance Poles especially will attestof to the factthese that a ratherpunitive brand ofyears Russification had begun inRussia in almost the history of nationalism. Eric Hobsbawm, for The first was the linkage that was made, especially by observers at the time, between the between time,the at by observers was made,especially that linkage wasthe The first . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1990. p 102. 5 Nations and nationalism since 1780 :programme, 4 I chose this span of years because years of span this Ichose 5 In fact, the fact, In CEU eTD Collection Education in the late Ottoman Empire. Benjamin. Fortna, in appears century, nineteenth ofthe half latter the in beginning reforms school of Ottoman context the in issue, this on discussion recent A more 1987. No. 60 Vol. Constructionof Mass Schooling: European Origins and Worldwide Institutionalization.” 6 inside andoutside of government. in circles certain be seen asamore andmore suspect came to Germans of Baltic influence the and loyalties the where lands, Baltic in the enacted policies Russification the for a spur as balance of power. For instance, as we will discuss in the European affected implicationsand it but hadgeopolitical also borders, the within new the second chapter of this thesis, it served inwardturned after war,hadthe obvious consequences living non-dominant for the groups that a process unification, German own. their of state a seeking eventually movements national empires, of varying anideology within and effects states, nationalism, embracedbeing degrees to phenomenon. global schools, teachers, and students enrolled; an expansion of education that was both a European and political will butrequired, did this period indeedsee enormous increasean inthenumber of or funding the with matched rarely were standardization and improvements educational to educational goals. Tobe sure, even during this period, the rhetoric used and importance ascribed not until mandatory provision of levels certain of asfareducation dated back asthe 18 thisthe for calling laws and authorities, period bycentral reform in school interest While schoolhouse. the that was citizen) (and eventually, and subject between governmentsstate in encounter this intermediaries visible into toan degree.One power dailylives mostinhabitants the of their unprecedented the of had at their disposalgovernment’s success failureor in modernizing its education system. the resources to match their For more on education expansion as a global phenomenon, see Ramirez, F. O. and J. Boli. “The Political The outcome of the war also heightened existing security destabilizing overthe security existingalsoconcerns heightened thewar The outcomeof imperial or of state penetration the saw yearsalso these perspective, broader From a 6 Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2000. p 26-41. 6 Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and SociologyEducation of th century, itwas century, CEU eTD Collection among students and parents responding to the education being offered to them among education the students and them responding being to of to parents eachday offered the formsvarious rallies, but andalsomore other resistance, quotidian of organized experiences of battle nationalists both for on sides, like often dramaticschool producing events strikes, Education Quarterly. 1996. Curtis,Sarah.“Supply and Demand: Religious Schooling Nineteenth-Centuryin France.” Education and Middle-Class SocietyImperial in Austria: 1848-1918 a spuras acted often demand popular how appreciate to come we have years torecent in Only systems. education the modern expansion7 of schools and education, even as governments sought to resist it. See Cohen,mobility. social to Garypath a as more and more B. see education who of began demands parents the to specialized skills, and professionals with or workers of need in industries of requirements the unity, and strength of interest the toeducation turned that instates interest of by expansion spurnedsystems, education of on the modernization and of unprecedented marked aperiod these years First, twofold. essentially alsobut by government officials, and bureaucrats, general the population. justnot had by movements activenational the where this membersof long been since case, the hopetoexplaintherefore camebe education how why lens, viewedanationalist to and through preexisting andlinguistic religious categories popularlevel. atthe Partof thesisthis will of in nationalization the acrucial role played often education will argue, As this thesis religion, wereoften framed in national bymembersterms of dominant andnon-dominant groups. impactingeducational surprising that particularly languagethose the ofinstruction policies, and means of“awakening” consolidating or thenational identity of theirandcompatriots is it not asa of education importance the awareof were themselves century nineteenth the of Nationalists movement. political and ideology an both as nationalism of evolution continued the was period State-centric functionalism and economic determinism have been a common feature in explanations of the rise of rise ofthe explanations in feature common a been have determinism economic and functionalism State-centric Coinciding with, and in many cases strengthened by, the expansion of education in this education of expansion the by, strengthened cases many in and with, Coinciding So myfocus is So andsecondary during on education primary to thisperiod decision Vol 39, No 1. 1999. p 51-72. 7 Second, education often became an important field important an became often education Second, 7 . West Lafayette: Purdue University Press. University Purdue Lafayette: West . History of CEU eTD Collection right to right Albanian-languagean university in Tetovo and Hungarian-languagea university Cluj in demonstrate. 10 dominant ethnic groups in Europe: 1850-1940; v 6) Dartmouth: New York University Press. 1992. person. of from average perspective the the much instruction were greater education, and indeed other aspects of the broader political, economic, social and international and social political, economic, broader of aspects the indeed other and education, higher from isolation in understood be fully not can education secondary and primary that note to 20 the into well since a university education remained a remote possibility forlarge segments of the population elites. of acculturation or in play assimilation the role to important especially hadan deny issuehighernot to deal asthoroughly higherthat education of is education.with This the level,a popular nothave to andcategories at of policy chosen I andgroups “nationalization” the schoolhouse. the to them identities main the of and involved actors groups and intereststhe andgoals broughtwiththey shed attemptlayto complexity the lighton “events,” behind that bothin these terms of the 9 Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1993. p8. Eric. Lohr, “event.” nationalizing a as describes also he which episode an I, War World during Russia in aliens enemy against Cambridge University Press. 1996. 8 nationality.” of ascribed simplicity categorical use hisby “nullification identities the complex lead,toterrible words, the of potentially in terms of how the experiences of the Germanization and Russification of schools could and as fluctuating “event”with nationalism an levels especially salience is most appropriate, of and new Brubaker’s produce ones.Inthisrespect,Rogers understanding nationhood approach to boundaries old transcend simultaneously could that mundane,the experiences to spectacular the from ranging sharedexperience of common source became the therefore year. Schools school See Kappeler, Andreas. (Ed.) Andreas. SeeKappeler, Brubaker, Rogers. With the democratization of higher education, the same case could not be made today, as recent conflicts over the Given the rather specific interests of this thesis on the interaction between education between interaction the on of thesis this interests specific Given rather the Nationalizing the Russian Empire: the Campaign against EnemyAliens during World War I. th Nationalism reframed: nationhood and nationalthe question inthe new Europe. century, the stakes involved in, for instance, the language of of religious language in, the instance, for involved stakes the century, The FormationNational of Elites p 20. This quote was also cited by Eric Lohr in his book on the campaign 8 8 Picking up on this theme, this project will . (Comparative. Studies ongovernments and non- 10 It is also important is also It 9 However, Cambridge: CEU eTD Collection “Russification: Word and Practice 1863-1914. R. Theodore See Weeks, understandable. perhaps are mistakes these material, secondary dated rather “often gets his facts wrong for Russia.” Given that Anderson is a specialist of South-East Asia and his reliance on 4. December2004. p475. 12 86. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread ofNationalism his chapter onofficial nationalisms has ensured that it has become most associated him. See Anderson, Benedict. 11 “official nationalism” Anderson the term Bennedict popularized educational sphere, and their conceptions of minoritythe groups within their borders. Ever since inthe strategies and goals their self-identifications, and their in worldviews variation regardto behind considerable existed dominantthe terms first these groups, general to target. Toturn who“Germanizing” non-dominantserveastheir “Russifying”groups andthe populations, and aspects of socialthe in groups question,in both of terms actors busy dominantthe by an unqualified usage of these terms.their parents. The first is the tendencymost importantly, to take fortheby leadersopinion like journalists, politicians, activists and clergymen well as as, and perhaps actualgranted consumers certain of wereframed school how polices affecting landscape, of wider the part often colonization were primary and secondary ownership and toachieve even policies, attempts favorable demographic amore balance through education: the students land Languageenvironment. regulations inadministrative andpublicdiscriminatory life, and body body empire.” of the gigantic the over nation the of skin tight, short, “the fit to attempting Tsars and Kaisers Kings, imagery forget the itis of hardto prose, Anderson’selegant familiar with those For peoples. what imperialaccomplishunderstandings aboutsubject their towards hopedto authorities “willed merger of nation and dynastic empire,” this notion has come to dominate much of our Andersoncredits HughSeton-Watson with first usingthe term, butthe popularity of Ibid . Referring to Anderson’s discussion of “official nationalism” Theodore Weeks even goes so far to say that he say that to far so goes even Weeks Theodore nationalism” of “official discussion Anderson’s to . Referring That beingisThat said, thisissues thesisI argueareoften with concerned two that obfuscated 12 Although a useful keep in metaphor conceptual to in mind, its Proceedings Americanof the Philosophical Society 9 . London: Verso, 1991 (2 11 which he defined asthe Imagined Communities . Vol. 148, No. nd edition). p and CEU eTD Collection (much less success) especially in terms of the all important indicator: funding. The cries of cries The funding. indicator: allimportant ofthe in terms especially less success) (much ensureimplementation even robustmeasures orthat their objectives, were to taken unambiguous had applied, consistently were policies the that assume always to misleading be quite itwould is concerned, education secondary leastand where primary At implemented. coherently definedor clearly ever were policies these of objectives the that assumes perspective even this context, to inform andchauvinism andnotions of a civilizingmission; each were variously depending used, legitimate on the the policieslinguistic,religious, lack and ethniccompatibility thereof; or cultural racialist discourses; of Germanization of assumptions nations; “non-historic” versus “historic” between Differentiation measures. these and Russification.outlined above, but also as Ofa resultof different attitudes course,toward the groups who were the target of or a combination of all of these things. simple obedience to the imperial center, a counterbalance to other national or foreign influences, acculturation, of forms linguistic assimilation, achieve complete to could aim policies argue, thesis will As this very different. wereoften authorities and local bureaucrats, policymakers, ideologues, nationalist ofthe imperial perspectives andinterests surprise thatthe center, Press. 2004. nationalism.” inAlexei Miller and Alfred J. Rieber(eds.) dealing Princeton: Princetonwith University Press. 2003.Alexey Miller provides Russiana useful survey of the literaturehistoriography, Konrad seeJarausch, H. and Michael Geyer and main issues identityof this thesis will explore inmore detail. For auseful survey of the mainissues and debates onGerman identity and in 13 Miller, Alexey. ““The Empire and the Nation in the Imagination of Russian construction, nineteenth the throughout and early twentieth century, German national identities were undergoing considerable change,contestation, and indeed, varied objectivescomplex.imperial of that Russianand quite which and authorities, Given were itoversimplification may domoreperhaps to obscure rather illuminate than realitythe behind the Studies of identity discourse and construction have grown immensely in the last two decades, asthe first chapter Educational policies also varied between and within empires not just for the reasons the for just not empires within and between varied also policies Educational 10 Imperial Rule. . Shattered past: reconstructing German histories. Budapest: CentralEuropean University 13 it should also come as no CEU eTD Collection University Press.1976. p 303. 14 imposed, butbecauseofferedit was useful.” or was becauseschool not school to went “people project) of this focus arethe which from those very itisdifferent adding, not episode,worth France (an rural of inthe modernization education of role the on his of chapter start the at noted Weber As Eugen forced. as characterized of needinterest social mobility always broadeningcareer prospects not potential or be in the group dominant the of language the learn or schools in the enroll to students or parents involuntary of forced the aspectssuch voluntary The decision coercion,and on of policies. questions,important This leads frequent despite nationalist-motivated characterizationsto of group. offered by dominant attractiveness educational servicesandsocial the prospects the of of Sotoodid educational establishments. attitudes, policies, the perceivedopenness,andrelative influenced responses not just to the messages of national and social movements, but also to those local, confessional linguistic as and prevailing ties, well as andsocial economic conditions their social standing, careeropportunities,indeed or their very lives for such a cause. Existing consciousness of certain populations, as thelengthswell as individuals were preparedtosacrifice “national” in identity modern the had sense understood penetrated the collective individual and intended“targets” of these policies. Herefind we considerable variation in the extent towhich a probably heard no less often in this period as well. were reform oneducation political discussions infamiliar current so “unfunded mandate!” groups and concerned,groups actors how they well perceived as as the theiroptions opportunities and at issuein be be second exploredthe thesis. will therefore this Russification Weber, Eugen. Similar points could be made if we turn from the dominant side of the equation to the In sum, by looking closer at the beliefs, identities, interests, and resources of the main the of resources and interests, identities, beliefs, the at closer looking by sum, In Peasants into Frenchmen: theModernization of Rural France 14 11 The patterns of response to Germanization andGermanization to of response The patterns 1870-1914 . Stanford: Stanford Stanford: . CEU eTD Collection its reputation its as house isreputation a “prison nations” a of obscures often farmorewhich complex,reality Moreover, intact. largely remained state national a than rather imperial, an as identity its reasons different of a number for but itself, redefining of process in the also empire an of an example 20 the incomplete well into respects important 15 the of declaration the with completed means no by was transformation this discover, will As we legitimacy. political asanew beginningembrace basis ofto the “nationhood” much on basis of established conquest Russification. Imperial Germany was selected because it provides an example an of empire very and of formingprocessof the Germanization apart as policies characterized educational to, the response and of, implementation and formulation the be will comparison of objects primary The finds by going beyond the simple usage of these terms, this thesis will use a comparative method. resistance. and acceptance of both process complicated itmay makeassimilation, instead moresee sense as to them engagedinactive subjects amore of objects passive as essentially these policies, of “victims” asthe characterized often groups the helpway to how understand Germanization and Russification was experienced. Andactually for may variouslong between interaction actors go a asa andas complicated “groupness” a project, Specifically, distinguishesapproach an that and between groups categories, sees group-making fruitfully understandingsbe called andmay our cast upon innew light. of these a topics may be of particular use in grasping these dynamics, but there Brubaker are Rogers by several others advocated that couldidentity and also ethnicity of study the to approach one how above Ihavementioned imperial each already context. within “worked’ in education Russification time, the goal is to become more sensitive to the dynamics of how Germanization and See Brubaker, Rogers. SeeBrubaker, In order to approach in a systematic way and bring to light the considerable variation one variation considerable the light to bring and way systematic in a approach to order In Ethnicity without Groups Kaiserreich in 1871,buthad onlyjustbegunand remained inmany . Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 2004. th 12 century. The Russian Empire,meanwhile, offers 15 CEU eTD Collection Reinterpreting the German Past. Romanov Habsburg empires,and was amultinational state.” Eley, Geoff. aspects of the history of Poles inImperial Germany, that “we cansometimes forget that the within a broader European (and indeed global) context of expansionand European education indeedof broader within context (and global) a experiences controversial, often these, by placing Also, histories. their of nature “entangled” all the more relevantmadeempires, of two the policies Russification and between Germanization the may be drawn given the fact that eachTherefore, one of the existedoverall goals of this study is to illustrate that many history. withinfruitfulimperial its of comparisonsmarginalization the to contribute to helped all a studies largercomparative system of states and the foremost critics of the 17 University Press. 2004. p47-66. (eds.) Rieber J. Alfred and Miller Alexey in empires.” European of p.45–73.2003. Philipp. Ther, “Imperial instead of history:national positioning modernGerman history mapthe on German concurrent de-emphasis of its imperial characteristics. de-emphasis of concurrent inunification has fallenespecially 1871, victim a nationalizationpremature to its andof past the following intheyears particularly Germanhistory, onto past. the projected have been that assumptions and perspectives nationalistic covertly or overtly the balance to and analysis, as primary of the unit andstate nation beyondgo the “nation” the to in a desire academia and corporations transnational organizations, intergovernmental superpowers, in interest and events by current in part explained be can subject in this interest in emergence Relational Basis of a Comparative History of Germany and Europe.” 16 introduction to As the empires. of study the comparative to devoted literature the growing contribute consideration. is into out taken they were carried and as this thesis will argue, its policies become far less sinister when the actual contextin which Itshould be noted that this observation is not especially new. As early as 1986 we can find Geoff Eley, one of the Such is the argument put forth by Philip Ther in two recent essays. Ther, Philipp. “Beyond the Nation: The The selection of Hohenzollern and Romanov empires was also made in order to made in order wasalso empires Romanov and of Hohenzollern The selection Sonderweg Imperial Rule Sonderweg and the pronounced tendency to look westward instead of eastward in New York: Routledge. 1986. p 200. thesis, thesis, remark prior to a lengthy review offourmonographs dealing withvarious , a collection of , acollection in2004rightfully of essays published acknowledges, 13 16 Preoccupation with the thesis of a Imperial Rule Central EuropeanHistory From toNazism:Unification . Budapest: Central European NGO Kaiserreich ’s, but also by ’s, butalso , vol. 36, no. 1. , like the 17 CEU eTD Collection imagine themselves as belonging to a broader national community. Ultimately, this thesis hopes thesis this Ultimately, community. national a broader to belonging as themselves imagine nationalize preexisting religious and linguistic categories and makeitpossible for Poles to words,itother will explainseek to how schools and the experience of helpedGermanization to one that began to encompass to nationality of conception an from elite-based transition inthe played education secondary and all strata of society alongcentury. Much of firstthe chapter will be concerned with the role ethno-linguisticthat Germanization of primary Polish-speakingamongbroader late inthe until therelatively population 19 and religious lines. In nationhood first but remainedelites andclerical of emergedconcept weak among aristocratic 18 typology, Smith’s Anthony draw on to type,” “lateral the respectively. Russification Germanization and to were possible that reactions of range thewide of appreciation different in so many ways, the primary groups were Baltic Sincethesetwo Livlandthe toRussification. of Estlandgoal provinces and will not be to compare the two but to Germanization,West of to Poznan, in andtheresponse Prussia Estonians andUpperSilesia the gain a better many insightsmay be through an gained of analysis responsesthe of inPoles the provinces of comprehensivelyNevertheless of each case. thescope study thisbe to project possible within not will it time, of period long a fairly over context imperial each within groups ethnic dominant Europe. andwestern experience of eastern and history the between divide the on made been have that misconceptions and assumptions torevisit wemay certain be forced needs, various of fulfillment for the system education the repeatedly to turning states imperial and national saw which acontext modernization, Smith, Anthony D. The Polish case was also selected because it provides an example of an ethnic group of group ethnic an of example an provides it because selected also was case Polish The non-several toward out werecarried policies Russification and Germanization Given that National identity . Reno: University of Nevada Press. 1991. p 61. 14 18 in which a territorial and dynastic th and early early 20 and th CEU eTD Collection to the group such group to the as its social historicstructure, strength or presence of elites, preexisting ethnic, behind them. Inaddition political,to economic and social factors, certain characteristics internal underground study school networks, homeabroad, schooling, andof schooling nocourse, all. at schools, denominational or private from far, and near both choices of range a had sometimes parents and students Indeed, control. state’s the beyond alternatives school other of availability the and teachers, reliable politically or of well-trained shortage inspection, through oversight and funding of lack persistent a was effectiveness government mitigating Often objectives. succeeded in translating official everydaypolicies into andpractice achieving the desired government the which to extent the analyze also will section This time. over changed they how and which were directed, they to group non-dominant the towards attitudes policies,these their motivated that goals and interests the with concerned be will section this themselves, policies the as wellcarried out as actors. playedbynon-state Inaddition role the exploringother to in depth were policies state which in context broader the to be given also will consideration although policies, and its state be the on will section first of focus the The sections. two into organized terms.popular andethno-lingustic in individuals who national conscious “nation” from and start defined the the increasingly of educated from group a small notfrom but elite, an arose, concept in anational type,” which ofthe“vertical onagroup of effects Russification the explore usto allow meanwhile, will case, this as one of the see to is it whether accurate more schools,or over conflict of ensuing the cause action the and to judgmentsoffer on extentthe to which we should as seean “nationhood” existingbasis for The second section will explore in detail these patterns of response and the reasons the and response of patterns these in detail explore will section second The Germanization beitsandwill and Russification own given chapter, bothchapterswill be results of these policies and the conflicts that arose over them. The Estonian 15 CEU eTD Collection a synthesis has that ofmuchwork in field, beenalready done the although studies these prior contribution tothe scholarly literature. This thesis should therefore be seen, inmany respects, as yearsinalso but auseful only of this not subjectkind makesaproject recent possible, in andrenewed strength interest In addition,of debilitating. the available literature the the be neednot limitations these perspective, nearly from a comparative butnot as often isolation haveinbeen researched that of topic this is aspects that approaching oriented, with concerned this is intended not tobe a comprehensive historical narrative and isinstead essentially problem- sources to be used in this work will be almost entirely secondary and published in English. Since sheer volume of resourcesnot tomention literature, the andsecondary review available primary the of a truly thorough that couldcarry out to required competency linguistic of the interms challenges obvious presents therefore be potentially called upon. For both often justthese as significant. reasons, are be“neutral” the orsimply groups, into thedominant acculturate or willfully assimilate to elected for their “nation,” however those who chose spokesmen or in make advocates being a career leaders who examples of numerous filled with opportunities members for non-dominanthistories national movementsof groups. The of are career potential into asdid these figuredchoices, by also being offered them education and quality the group of thedominant relative openness assimilation of acculturation. The and above influencehow educational could potentially wereframedpolicies andchoices toward All by incentive. the of wereaccompanied a positive Russification policies Germanization and which the to is degree the Alsoimportance of for beconsidered. action will determinant hadbecome a consciousness which national and degreeto the ties, linguistic andreligious Since the scope of this thesis encompasses the geographic territory of two empires, it empires, two of territory geographic the encompasses this thesis of scope Since the not 16 to partintake movements, these andinstead CEU eTD Collection York: Cambridge University 1987.Press. Rise of the modern educational system : structural change andsocial reproduction,1870-1920 21 3., Summer 1993. Europeanization of National History,” of National Europeanization 19 “progressiveness” or “inclusiveness” “systemization,” concernedwith data policy andbeyond qualitative government myths national of autonomy,authenticity, inevitability. and historical particularly pernicious fictions found in narratives master the of nations and nation states: the field of modern European history has already been alluded andto, that is the challenging of three and informing the lines ofinquiry forundertaken thesis.this The recentdevelopments in the history, nationalism, the history of education and the field of sociology that I see as coalescing itfollow,is worth calling four attention broadto in currents modern study the of European answerquestions. different research agendasandsought to with were completed different questions on these very topics. Verdery, Katherine. “Whither ‘nation’ and ‘nationalism’?” and ‘nation’ “Whither Katherine. Verdery, topics. very these on questions 20 inexperienced life.everyday and hasis the “nation”how communicated been and symbolized, andfinally,social categories, identity national and between the intersection ofnational nature and social formation,groups, the identity and identity of issues fundamental the with more concerned ones, new by replaced been nationalistThese originators describe of andexplaintheoriginshave questions old thought. or to grandtheories seeking or navels?”) havenations nations (“do antiquity the of debates on scholarship on nations and nationalism has essentially away shifted from increasingly stale decades. The pasttwo hasthe studies nationalism taken over thatthefieldof isturn thecultural For a well-known study belonging to this genre of education history, see Mèuller, D. K., F. K. Ringer, et al. For a good discussion of this issue, see Geyer, Michael. “Historical Fictions of Autonomy and the In an article Inan written1993,in the anthropologist Verdery Katherine formulated severalthought provoking In the history of education we can find a similar shift taking place, one that moves that find one shifttakingIn thehistory place, asimilar we can education of willAlthough literature a more extended bethis discussion of in that found chapters the 21 to how how andeducation was actually to experienced. practiced 20 Central European History 17 . Vol.22, 3/4.no September/December1989. 19 The second development second The Daedalus . Cambridge, New Cambridge, . 22 In a recent Vol 122, No The CEU eTD Collection France, Germany, and the United States.” United the and Germany, France, 24 Volume 40, Nos. 1 & 2, April 2004. p. 106. in of occurring as domains.”processes seeing these units groups homogenous Instead different assimilation asingle multiple considers referenceas process, distinct envisions and populations culture’ or ‘national society’ as a whole –toadisaggregated approach that discards the notion of –the ‘core referencepopulation “taken-for-granted from shifta a Brubakerdescribes group, dominantand social non-dominant groups howthey interact. Concerning dominant the shiftinof proposed tothis related inunderstanding is theassimilation concept change of been mentioned. To22 this we may also add Dowler, Wayne. similar.” understandingto amore “abstract” groups becoming “general” or of as a“process of assimilation of assimilation topic. areof two toour firstis The from relevance particular ashift understanding “organic” an that assumesBrubaker provides surveyofhowa useful thisin has shift occurred several although areas, only the by Rogers published entails.Anarticle actually process whatof this traditional understanding complete absorption of non-dominant groups by dominant will miss the fact that, as he aptly puts it, we reproduction, social of asengines simply seeschools or approaches state-centric to ourselves ifAnderson has Robert argued we confine in that essay secondary education Europe, on 23 1989. Press. University Oxford York: Marjorie. Lamberti, 2001. Press. University Brubaker, Rogers. of (2001) “The return Changingassimilation? perspectivesonimmigration and sequels its in BenFortna’s study educationon Ottomanthe in Empire and Gary workCohen’s Austria-Hungary on already has Anderson, Robert. “The Idea of the Secondary School in Nineteenth-century Europe.” Nineteenth-century in School Secondary of the Idea “The Robert. Anderson, Finally, loyalties. research supranational cultures (sometimes) and national into elites regional and local integrate to functioned schools how at and on how the structure of the system was affected assimilationby ethnic, gender and religious divisions; classroom, real the of culture the school,secondary differed from the official curricula; at wanted howfrom schools andthey what used actually on in them; athow wentthe intoday is thatwhich looks atsecondary schooling in its urban context, atwhat families the Much diversity remained behind the façade, and one offield themost fruitful kinds of research of sociology has sought to go beyond 24 The focus therefore shifts onto the process, rather than on end-states. The second Ethnic and Racial Studies State, society, and the elementary school in imperial Germany. 23 18 Classroom andEmpire. . Vol. 24, No. 4. p 534. Montreal: McGill-Queen's Montreal: Paedagogica Historica, New CEU eTD Collection suggests.” aspects of life,loyalties simultaneously,including nationality,and are simultaneously various concerned with any of which and attachments still have,several had,a time. pair one They and puton could one at that only may knowing shoes, at chose they as identification any collective choose not did women and “men it, one put time be foremostindividuals do not so easily pass from one state to the next. As Eric Hobsbawmin somemorably theirdress, surnames and place names,minds, or even language usage in schools or administration, as buildings or occasionof design suchasthe objects happens to describe that something to terms areused 26 25 are directed that distribution of properties – to another mode of heterogeneity.” it, itheterogeneity “a As– one from modeone entails of shiftin Brubakerputs certain respects. social logically meansgroups assimilation, the that process or of becoming similar, occurs only of heterogeneity the on emphasis new this other, the to one from wholesale occur shifts whereby Hobsbawm, E. J. ibid When speaking of When speaking human of andRussification Germanization beingsthe andof the policies 26 Nations and nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality at them, such perspectives are important to keep in important mind. tokeep these Unlikewhen are them, such perspectives 19 25 . p 123. CEU eTD Collection of citizenship, see Rogers Brubaker. Rogers see citizenship, of 3 building and nationhood in nineteenth-century Germany Press. 2002. p 98. and theirorganizations fromthenineteenth early century totheHitler era. E. Charles See McClelland, medicine. lines gender remained and characteristic confessional, throughout regional, the imperial period,national, along to extentan notorganizations found inother rival professions where like law orassociations, of teacher patterns 4 1994. Press, University 1918 bourgeois,worker or whetherbut say, they were Westphalian Bavarian, or or Protestant a was someone whether just not society: on identities overlapping multiple, of existence the to brought us closer to how those we write about understood their own lives and made us more alert remarked in his introductionthe to wide-ranging history of Germany, scholarship “has this imperial the nottomention variousperiod, othersocial categories. German idea of Heimat 2 sake, not in order to make a political statement. West Prussia, the three provinces in Prussia with the highest percentage of ethnic Poles. I use the term for brevity’s 1 interests. national and state of narrower imperial the this between understandings traditional partof empire the achieved under Prussian followingauspices, the decadeswitnessed in similaridentity struggles with membership to community. ethnonational or state German a broader “fatherlands” particular with identification from reorientation psychological just integration also of butnot a reorganization life economy,the political a of andfurther meant situation imperial new the how on light shed to much done have empire the within states decades. in overthe cultural historiography past two investigatingturn thenon-Prussian Studies Kaiserreich Chapter 1: Germanization inPrussian Poland For a discussion on how these various conceptions of state and nation affected Wilhelmine Germany’s conception Germany’s Wilhelmine affected nation and ofstate conceptions various on these how discussion a For One specific indicator of the continued relevance of different social categories can be found in the membership the in be found can categories social different of relevance continued of the indicator specific One Confino, Alon. Throughout this chapter, the term “Prussian Poland” will beused to refer collectively Poznan,to Upper Silesia, and . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1997. Applegate, Celia. Our understanding of German society between the proclamation of the in 1871 andits World after dismemberment War Ihas benefited immensely from the The nation as a local metaphor : Wèurttemberg, imperial Germany, and national memory,1871- 3 Religion also remained a significant element of collective identity throughout identity collective of element significant a remained also Religion . Berkeley:University of California Press. 1990. Green, Abigail. Citizenship and nationhood in France andGermany The German experienceof professionalization :modern learned professions . New York: Cambridge University Press. 2001. 20 1 2 Although German unification was unification German Although Cambridge: Cambridge University 4 As David Blackbourn A nationA ofprovincials :the . Cambridge :Harvard Fatherlands :state- Deutsche CEU eTD Collection European Quarterly politics.See Kamusella, Tomasz. “UpperSilesia 1870-1920: betweenregion, religion, nation and ethnicity.” 8 7 6) Dartmouth: New York University Press. 1992. p 14. of National Elites national the of content the but integration of degrees varying experiencing was empire the of life sphere followed inmany a coursedifferent in respects Poznacomparison to identification remained especially strong and in developments politicalthe and educational Silesia, Inthecase toasUpper significant. of aregional Opolethe regency,referred commonly remained variation between Prussian reasons, provinces the historical and demographic inin EastPrussia. West and Prussia, 7percent Opole the 20percent Silesia, regency of 6 University Press. 1998. p xxi. in highest left of the divisions (39percent) percentage Poles Pozna Romanov empires, anditself,2,200,000Poles lived Prussia within where in1867,provincial and Habsburg of borders Hohenzollern, the between the separated speakers were century, Polish the Prussian German State toward oriented or remained outsideloyalties whose those of between its and borders. nationhood of scenarios Sincecompeting the Congress of Vienna earlier in the place In take began following nationhood. asimilarstrugglethe between German to decades, of reality, if not ideal, based on the a newstate of formation the accompanied that uncertainty due tothe Germanin Confederation in1867and German part 1871inlarge the Empire 5 population. German total the Kaiserreich Catholic, young or old, male or female, and why these things mattered.” Recent interestUpper in Silesia has highlighted its regional particularity, particularly the in realm of identity and Molik, Witold. “The Poles in theGrand Duchy of Poznan, 1850-1914.” in Andreas Kappeler(Ed.) Blackbourn, David. Ibid. A situation curious unfolded,therefore where the political, social, economic, cultural and German unification had obvious consequences for German thenon-German had obviousunification consequences peoples of the , of which Poles between 1867 and 1910 accounted for approximately for approximately tenthof accounted one 1910 and between Poles 1867 which , of . (Comparative governmentsStudies on and non-dominant ethnic groupsEurope: in 1850-1940; v . Vol. 38 No. 4. Winter, 2004. The LongNineteenth Century: AHistoryofGerman, 1780-1918. 6 Polish deputies protested incorporationtheir in both North the 21 Ĕ , followedin by , 34 percent 5 Ĕ andWest Prussia. New York: Oxford York: New The Formation 7 For East 8 CEU eTD Collection p 73, 77. census completed in census thatless completed 1percent percent)1910 showed of (.6 nowthan population the A only similar speakGerman). professing and28.3percent only Polish (with 50.7 percent to inhabitants, 1,338,529 21percentof indicated population the spoke Polish they that German and and ran tensions highest.the According a to Prussian in conducted census 1846, of the in Pozna speakers German and national andlinguisticin canbefound polarization innumber declinebilingual the of the Polish one of the most identifybegan innational to andeachother themselves languageinparticular and became terms, important indicators collective. national imagined in the ofmembership constrict or expand this divide.to place and time on depending combination in or selectively used be may criteria racial and Perhaps the cultural, linguistic, most religious, very much in still emergence, category of national the “plasticity” striking linguisticsign of this ifnot in national “Germanization,” terms, fact that the of appreciation for abetter also allow but was a process affecting Germans as well as non-Germans. And given the Unification of Germany.” Unification a matter ofbitter dispute.” Eley, Geoff.“State Formation, Nationalism, and Political Culture: Some Thoughts on the suffusionof national values in asociety where the exact content of the national traditionand its future directionwere 9 “vital words historian of plasticity.”a one as to interpretation.both Nationhood, ina social identification, and source of retained, category much open very still remained this process fundament to serve asthe to was supposed idea that national culture (despite the assertions of German nationalists of an “authentic” German “authentic” an of nationalists German of assertions the (despite culture national duringgroups this only Theynotperiod. undermine theassumption bounded,of a clearly core areimportantnationhood in mind tokeep in approaching thenon-dominant Germanization of preexisting social ties and the role that construction played in giving substance to German Geoff Eley factin refers to this as “the central paradox of the post-unificationperiod, namely the indisputable increasingly Germans andPoles War,World theFirst eve of by the beingsaid, That From toNazism:Unification Reinterpreting the GermanPast Ĕ , the province in Prussia where Poles were the most concentrated most werethe Poles where inPrussia province , the 9 22 Recognition of the continued relevance of . London: Routledge. 1992. Volk ) CEU eTD Collection remainder of will remainder motivations behind some of chapter the this explore educational these of policies, The parents. and their itself, students the education the consumers of the course, and of interests, economic societies, and organizations nationalist Polish and German government, local and institutions, religious interactionmore between state complicated a existed of debate, the While the state policies that set in motion the Germanization of schools largely dictated terms. the terms national in others and themselves between relationship their of think to population the of multiplyingmobilization, sharedinterests andidentifications, and segments encouraging wider in process of this fornationalizing popular opportunities social creating certain categories, it. describes author asone self-absorption,” “national of kind in a resulting frame, nationalist a within deemphasized became now orientation political and interests basedon forcedbeingconfession, economic Previous commonalities andmade. outside lines national the beinglinguistic were that drawnin orreligious and terms, choices were conversions. Clearly,manyfor individualsit had attempt becameintolerable to remain to lines canbe found in declining rates of intermarriage, and a risein areasin certain religious indicators of polarizationthe society of throughout provincesthe Prussian Polandof along other German Empire, 1894-1919 W. Richard the of end wasWorldschoolthe War,it the policy language Bülow’spursued during chancellorship.”Tims, that “if any one policy paved the way more than the others for the Polish disaffection that cost Germany so dearly at 12 Chicago: Chicago University Press. 1980. p 260. 11 Dartmouth: New York University Press. 1991. p 179. Identity. Austrian, Russianand GermanRule, 1850-1918.” in Tomiak,J.J.(ed.) 10 of out andpercentspeakers 38.4percent a total German 2,099,831. population of for 60.9 speakers accounted speak) Polish German, while Polish both claimed and spoke (or to Richard Wonser Tims, in his analysis of the origins and policies of the ultranationalist H-K-T Society even writes Hagen, William W. Statistics cited inMiaso, Jozef. “Educational Policy and Educational development in the Polish territories under The Germanization policies in primary and secondary education played an important role important an played education secondary and in primary policies Germanization The (Comparative Studies ongovernments and non-dominant groups ethnic Europe: in 1850-1940;v 1) Germanizing Prussian Poland H-K-T : the Societyand thestruggle forthe Eastern marches in the Germans, Poles, andJews: theNationality Conflict in the Prussian East, 1772-1914 . New York: AMS Press. 1966. p 103. 23 11 Schooling,Policy Educational andEthnic 10 Other 12 . CEU eTD Collection history of modern education. H. E. Reisner, interchangeable.” and equivalent, equal, less or more were which of members the atrinity, as “regarded Reisner, to according were, fatherland” 14 University Press. 1989. p 37. 13 instruction and 1870, primarylevel at the to prior school on administration impact government’s the overestimated historians have generally that uncertain for the futureposition of language Polishthe it.within Althoughhas it been suggested featuring the assertion of the Prussian state’s authorityThe role of the state and its policies in the educationalpopulation. the of segments broad sphere,for but and case, the been long had this an where sides both on oftennationalists for just not group, national madesee instruction, itthese possible to categories ofmembershipas markers a broader within in defenseof the moreof Polish accurately language, use the religious religion how and or on placed be will emphasis Special practice. everyday into translated were they how and them, reasons, an early consensus emerged on the value of education to the state among early amongpan- state early tothe education thevalueof on emerged anearly consensus reasons, Ministry the of Religion, Education and Public Health in its operatingit ownright, within became adepartment andwithin adecade was established, a bureauof 1807, education In recovery plan. of Prussian the oneof centerpieces the became BattleJena, education at the of of hands atthe itsNapoleon humiliating defeat after immediately catalyst, as is often with in authorities. The concert albeit dominance, religious inasserting itsearly contemporaries the case in the history of education reform, arose out of a crisis. Almost the the of Prussia, unlike France, never attempted to separate religion from public education, and in fact “God, King, and King, “God, fact in and education, public from religion separate to attempted never France, unlike Prussia, Lamberti, Marjorie. Lamberti, Gymnasium Volksschule, The Germanization The Germanization in of schools 1870swasprecededbymorethe than a century both a state institution and a prerequisite for university entrance. For different For entrance. university for a prerequisite and institution astate both the introduction of provincial school boards, and legislation formally making formally legislation and boards, school provincial of introduction the State, society, and the elementary school inimperial Germany. New York,, MacmillanThe Company. 1922.p 149. Nationalism and education since 1789; a social andpolitical 24 14 . The following years saw the institution the saw years following . The 13 Prussia does stand out among Prussia stand its out does New York: Oxford York: New CEU eTD Collection “the complete fusion of both nationalities…through the decisive prominence of German culture.” ofGerman prominence decisive the nationalities…through ofboth fusion complete “the Flottwell, 18 provincial local level and varied andweredependentlargely and personalities on the heldviews atthe laws, practices formal form than rather of the decrees usually took regulations educational and exceededministerial guidelines. of overzealousness of forGerman theteachingand respect Polishwas one of prevailed. It by often disrupted the of knowledge the promotion the between balance an 1870s, uneasy the of policies Germanization hearts.” its subjects’ win itwill that may besure values these and acknowledges, respects, that nation…a government of a highesttreasures the instruction seven years issued Altenstein later, astatement language “religion saying that and are will bein incorporated my monarchy without having relinquishto your nationality.” proclamation the GrandDuchy of Pozna to III’s Wilhelm of Friedrich spirit original the with heIn wasinconcordance respect this tongue. schooling, and for Polish bilingual speakers, education and religiousin instruction themother education inPozna a gymnasium of principal 17 1772-1914 16 education service, thatexists withinthe childrenof all its people.” Quote cited inWilds, E. H. control of education, it must liberate all its potentialities –moral, intellectual, physical and vocational – for nationaltaken as the unit of15 social organization, Germany must realize its character and destiny, and through a conscious 1840. in death his until education of minister first the Altenstein, von Baron like officials government and Humboldt, von Alexander like intellectuals enlightened Fichte, like nationalists German Two noteworthy examples Theodorinclude vonSchön, Quote cited in Kulczycki, Quote cited inHagen, William W. John J. In his famous addresses to the German nation, Fichte wrote that “If Germany is to be saved, the nation must be 15 Altenstein was an important figure in upholding the principles of figurein Altenstein wasanimportant of upholding thedenominational principles . . New York,, Farrar & Rinehart. 1942. p 415. Oberpräsident of . p 79. Boulder: East European Monographs. 1981. p 4. 1981. Monographs. European East Boulder: Oberpräsidents Poznan (1830-1841). Flottwell, forinstance, that asserted thegoal polices ofhis was School strikes in Prussian Poland, 1901-1907 : the struggle over bilingual Germans, Poles, and Jews: Conflict theNationality inthe Prussian East, (provincial governors) who took advantage authority whoof took their governors) (provincial 18 Ĕ tried to limit the use of the Polish language in religious language Polish the of use the limit to tried Due to the low systemization of schools and the fact that fact the and schools of systemization low the to Due Ĕ in 1815, which assured his Polish subjects that “youin which his subjectsthat 1815, assured Polish 25 Oberpräsident 17 However, in the years leading up to the to up leading years in the However, of West(1816-1842) Prussia and Eduard The foundations ofmodern ibid p 6-7. 16 When a CEU eTD Collection 195. structural change and social reproduction, 1870-1920 inReform School Secondary of France Debate “The James. Albisetti, in cited Quote patriotism.” exalt “to responded percent and Germany.”20 in Mèuller, D. K., F. K. Ringer, et al. 19 20 the into well controversy of source was a typical inspectors school level the of to down way all the governors by officials occupying different levels of authority. Abuse of such discretionary power by October 1872and literature. on the history of teaching the through particularly levels, all curriculumat curriculum the to dimension a “German” of the was shared and alike. authorities government Catholic byProtestant and Protestants animosity newinterconfessionalthe by toward beingschools encouraged the classic 1872, which madewas servants inspectors much of very all school in state, the with keeping encouragement ofinterconfessional schooling and the passage of the School Inspection Law of clerical hands, a positionremuneration. Germanexpressed nationalists had also called for efforts to wrest controlin of schoolingthe from 1870s authorities,by the National Liberals. foragitate hadbegunfreedom better from Schoolteachers pay,by inspection then to religious In thisand respect, the thesocialcontinuation prestige of the struggle as a can beseen first The Question.” “Polish so-called the to in answer thatwere specifically beganthat over clerical would controlinto 20 continued the ofcome education withas early as thehigher 1840s. professional standards and By 1897, when candidates for the baccalaureate were asked what the purpose of the study of history was, 80 Lamberti, Marjorie. Lamberti, In conjunction with this assertion of state interest in education were attempts to introduce to attempts inwere education interest state of assertion this with In conjunction in 1870sand began the policies that Germanization the of A balancedperspective raison d’etat 20 th The General Regulations issued by the Prussian Ministry issued in Regulations TheGeneral bythePrussian Ministry Education of century. State, society, andthe elementary school inimperial Germany . At least in theory, the inspection law applied to Catholics as well as to th century requires an awareness of several dimensions, not all of which Volksschule . Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. 1987. p 26 called for the introduction of patriotic The Rise of the modern educational system : 19 . p 64-44. CEU eTD Collection strengthen German servedto only this faith, Catholic tothe large adherents were there Silesia where Upper and Polish Catholicmixed like areas linguistically persecution. In resist government’s to the grievances and reasons cooperation through inidentification generaland allCatholics, Germanprovided non-German and alike, with shared the religious of Centerimportance the elevated had government the Catholicism, by targeting Party, But offices. one that would from forthese removal madetarget aspecial Catholics inspection onschool year’s regulations training and appointmentsupervision,of clergymen under state combined with previousthe “Polonize”use of to religion theirparishioners. TheMay Laws of 1873,whichplaced the the priests, Catholic Polish of case in the and ultramontanism, particularism, Catholic by posed 1870s. Inleague with Nationalthe sought counterLiberals, Bismarck to decentralizingthe threat modern education. the government’s campaign government’sthe Catholicismagainst the during campaign Kaiser Wilhelm II to the Conference of Secondary School Reform: made inby address the explicit system expression found quite education forthe envisioned 22 based, humanist education represented by by the represented based, humanisteducation 21 elements in order to inspire loyalty to the state and devotion to the emperor. status of modern or realistically oriented realistically or modern of status and role the over debate abroader of part became literature and history German of introduction Quote cited in Reisner, E. H. Kulczycki, John J. The goal of rallying all Germans to the national standard was temporarily wastemporarily by standard challenged the national all The rallyingGermansof to goal history, andheroic geography, tradition. of is “National” thatinquestions see more the with developed us; like to should be must composition German centerthe which around is pointeverything else another and whichrevolves…There I basis the German make must Romans…We or It is our duty to educate young men to become young Germans, not young Greeks New York: The Macmillan Company Macmillan The New York: School strikes in Prussian Poland. Nationalism andeducation since 1789;and a social politicalhistory of Realgymnasium 27 22 . p 15. 1922 Gymnasium . p 211. and Kulturkampf Oberrealschule . In 1890, the national goals “culture struggle” 21 and the classically the and Inthe 1880s, the of the of CEU eTD Collection Province, Silesia and Westphalia. The majority of the new interconfessional schools, never schools, interconfessional new the of majority The Westphalia. and Silesia Province, Europe.” all spread enlightenmentover which istrying to combat culture, German to ignorance, and and backwardness foster to trying [are] Ultramontanes with the together people Romance influence“the hinders local of clergy language German the the spreading, from as the Slavicand especially justification in forparanoiac school Prussian supervision Poland whereheclaimed in the predominately Polish areas of West Prussia and Pozna and Prussia West of areas Polish predominately the in return inallowedfewer to Catholicswere Polish during of rapprochement 1880s, the the period measures. these made andCatholics, no secret thatthisbe for both Bismarck would the case support inrallying LawsInspection of 1872 and theMay the Polishthe by Katarzyna Kretkowska) Boulder: East European Monographs. p102, 119. that government desire to deal with church affairs in the Polish-peaking parts of the country the had always have “I that Laws May the of repeal the after in 1887 Vatican the to ambassador his to write later would Bismarck nationalism, German exploiting of agenda wider state’s the on was the real cause of the using Catholicism to nationalize the peasantry and were responsible polonization forthe of 30,000 Germans,over 26 Nazism: Reinterpreting the German Past Politics and PolishNationality: The Dialectic of Nation Forming in the East of Prussia.” and provided the most consistent ofthe parliamentary apparatus the staffed supporters “they for because players the anti-Polish important were legislation.” leanings Eley, political these Geoff. with “German officials society that needed to be marginalized in order to 25 strengthen the positionPrinceton: PrincetonUniversity ofPress. 1995. p 185. the peasantry. As Geoff Eley observes, 24 Canadian JournalofHistory Jeffrey“Loyal of Fatherland'?sons and D. Churchthe Center-Polish inUpper relations Silesia, 1871-1907.” 23 decades. forendure several Bismarck wouldduringclaim even his negotiations withPope 1878thatthe Polishpriests,Leo XIII in were who of elements retrograde represented landowner Polish the and clergy the both supporters, Liberal National his For Smith, Helmut Walser. For a full account of the increasingly troubled relationship between Poles and the Center Party, see Bowersox, Appropriately enough, Bismarck brings us to the education policies formulated by educationformulated brings Appropriately ustothe policies Bismarck enough, the 26 After Catholic priests began to be reinstated to inspectorships and teaching positions inspectorships andteaching beto began reinstated to priests Catholic After 25 did For the proposed inspection law, the “Iron Chancellor” resorted to an deal with the Polish-speaking parts separately. To be sure, both the School the both sure, be To separately. parts Polish-speaking the with deal Kulturkampf Vol. 38. No. 2. August, 2003. German nationalism and religious conflict: culture, ideology, politics, 1870-1914. 23 Perhaps in recognition of the negative effect the effect negative the of Perhapsinrecognition . Trzeciakowski, Lech. Trzeciakowski, . . London: Routledge.1992. p206. Laws of 1873 had an especially negative effect on Polish 28 The KulturkampfPrussian in Poland Ĕ in comparison to the Rhine the to in comparison separately From Unification to Kulturkampf . (translated from .” Kulturkampf 24 had CEU eTD Collection 28 Marjorie. 27 priests usingreligion and their in positions forschools national NorwereGermanpurposes. Catholic Polish of influence the to due allegedly “Polonized,” becoming were families Catholic inalarmingly it the eyesof authorities,the manythat from was reported students German evenfoundspeaking in students, highgrades,was be Perhaps more the to extremely even poor. of schoolsthe in in Poland conducted 1872.KnowledgePrussian among of German Polish- hours. school after school the within lessons private into Otherwise, itwas prohibited within curriculum, standard the aprohibition even that extended it was neededreligion. teach where to incasesonly admissible was asasubject Polish languageas knowledgeAs of consideredsufficient. the a general teaching was the of rule, levels German was tobe used to teach religion in both grammar and secondary schools as soon in although Polish wastolerated, upper remainedthe one areawhere religious instruction the Due to longstandingthe convention religion that should belearned in ownmother one’s tongue, as eliminated a language ofinstruction at alllevels, asithad beenearlierin theother provinces. early allow werein concessions made to instruction butby Polish, wasofficially1887 Polish areas. in located these also begin were with, to popular all levels, although variedregulations from toprovince.province For example,in Pozna overall diminishgoal was the to usage of asboth Polish a subject andlanguageinstruction of at The policy. government’s the of heart the at lay language Poles) most of perspective the from that they were envisioned asserving aGermanizing function. leavingbe positions, inspector teachers overrepresented, German tended littledoubt Protestant to By 1882, there were 200 interconfessional primary schools in West Prussian and 76 in Poznan. Lamberti, Ibid p112. The government measuresThe governmentwerebasedinlarge partonthefindings of inspection an tour Although there was an undeniable religious dimension to the school reforms (especially school the to undeniable dimension religious was an Although there State, society, andthe elementary school inimperialGermany 29 27 In these schools, as well as in school . p 91. 28 Ĕ , some CEU eTD Collection children per teacher, but for Protestant schools the corresponding figures ranged from 36 to 79 children per teacher.” per children 79 to 36 from Marjorie. ranged Lamberti, figures corresponding the schools Protestant for but teacher, per children Posen district government reported pupils.that School the provisions average for German Protestant size children in Catholic were better than those schools for the Polishand Catholics. 448in five In 1879 thein counties West rangedPrussia; from 97 perspective.proper 1877 theschoolto“In classesexceeding “normal”the (80students)136 size inPosennumbered 869in 240 of these schools in Posen,31 therewas a ratio of only one teacher per more than 150 30 29 in classrooms. ease overcrowding problem of the unable to were often Polishline, provideregion, bonuses teacherstow government the generoussalary or willing to system in the Prussian state.” overcrowdingmade in it, words the of one historian, “the most impoverished school and destitute concentrationmakeresisted. Hisdid replacement nothigh theseproblemsgoaway, inareaswith particularly of Poles shortage of qualified personnel, population andpopulargrowth, demand, Mühler of course and Catholics practical forinsurmountable primary and logistical bya schools already challenges overwhelmed like the of marginalization in andPolish Catholic school presence inspection instruction wouldand pose Pozna no prior experience in school administration)had (who Falk Adalbert to carry enthusiastic more out histhe appoint agendahe could in before 1872. Education of Fully Minister as aware that a itrespect, is worth recallingBismarck that had first relieveto Heinrich von Mühler of his duties this In reality. everyday into policies turn and directives its implement to period this after and before both ability government’s the overestimate to not important is it quo, status previous “Polonization.” as was understood their vulnerability to thanreligion, language,rather Since the Mazurians Mazurians.” agitation atPolonizingthe “Polishaims thatin 1872warned newspaper headline were anti-Polish one as at this time, threat “Polonizing” of the targets only the considered Catholics predominately Protestant and spoke Polish we can suspect that, Some statistics provided by Marjorie Lamberti will help to put the hopelessness of many teacher’s situation in the Lamberti, Marjorie. Lamberti, Trzeciakowski, Lech. Trzeciakowski, Although Although a policiesbegunin the radical change 1870srepresented the from of course the State, society, and the elementary school in imperial Germany State, society, andthe elementary school inimperial Germany The Kulturkampf inPrussian Poland 30 Attempts to entice instructors from German Attempts to of outside the 30 . p121. Ĕ Province, where shoddy schools and . p 115 31 . p109. 29 CEU eTD Collection just as attitudes toward the empire’s Polish citizens and understandings of the “threat” they posed And more complex. far of course was reality The empire. the of language theofficial learning in benefits forPolish-speakers highlight the integrative or on a defensive totake tended tone their understanding was of the overall situation. Officially, as we have already seen, justifications what and accomplish to hoped practitioners the what asking is worth it practice, into policies in form resistance of the strikes. school find in the next section, it was the crossingsurprisingly, even this area ofbecame the targetthis of Germanization in linethe early 1900s, and as we will that Not occasionedinstruction. religious schools: in primary language Polish the the for most remained officially active popular pointed at national agitators failure of Fingers wereinstead for the problems policy. werethe used asexplanations rarely among the clergy logistical and structural such notwithstanding, these suchas Letters and Marches. Eastern the for gentry, as well as the only Society the pressure group, yearsnationalistbe of oneof the in would co-founders time the two bastionwho that Jansemann, von Ferdinand from but still official, school a Catholic from issue not did complaint 32 most instruct diligentin teacher to Germanlanguagethe successfully.” the for even impossible it make which conditions with remain they and schools, Catholic the establishment andschools, equipmentof Protestantnothing improvehas happened to andexpand inEducation “While government1892: the state has sumsgiven considerable for the Minister the of to bya written in citizen concerned a letter summed upbest practice was The folly most. fundsthe this wereneeded of in where Catholic schools, level instruction the of even this salariesin schools and 1880s, tofurthergoal the didlittle improving of teacher’s Quote cited in Lamberti, Marjorie. in Lamberti, cited Quote Given the obvious shortcomings in the way the government went about putting its putting about went government the way in the shortcomings obvious the Given Moreover, as the government began to provide direct subsidies for the provision of State, society, and the elementary school in imperial Germany 31 32 Ironically, this . p 128. CEU eTD Collection “Imperial instead of national history: positioning modern German history onthe map of Europeanempires.” in 34 terms. in racist explained often were which inferiority, 33 or literature marches” “backwardness.” cultural their overcome and obscurantism Polesliberate the from of religious clutches ameansto the language was in thehouse Prussianin a generalupper wasnodoubt 1902, there German sense thatthe of a local Polishstatus the to “idiom,” Bismarck CountHerbert during aspeech did language as the demote to as far so go not would many Although endeavors. these behind lay chauvinism A healthy of cultural dose in communities. wentabout theirPolish-speaking work instructors in rural France also help explain missionary the zeal manywith school which andinspectors teachers state of that to methods and objectives both in reminiscent mission,” “civilizing of sense A state. the loyalty to natural from their ledastray being from peasantry, Polish-speaking the savenot only butalso to German-speakers, defensive measures language wereseen as decrees gentrythe and clergy blamethe took for taking advantage of German indulgence, and sothe from agitators National applied. in beenstrictly schools German had usageof beforelong the solved been have would “problem” Polish whole the and past, in the made been had allowances pick up on how motivated government’sthe popularpolicies and animated understandings of them, aswell as they seemed to change over andmembers oflocalinspectors, boards. school time. The teachers, mayors, governors, as provincial less positions occupyingpowerful among those first was thevaried among chancellors and ministerseducation duringyears, these this was noless true view that too many For a brief discussion on this issue, and how it informed the the idea of “internal colonialism” see Ther, Philipp. Tims, Richard W. Richard Tims, Nevertheless, it is still possible to identify a few official and public discourses that discourses public and official few a identify to possible is still it Nevertheless, Germanizing Prussian Poland Ostmarkenliteratur 33 . p134. also contributed to the sense of Polish cultural The depiction of the Poles in popular “eastern in popular Poles the Thedepiction of 32 34 CEU eTD Collection 61. Alexei Miller and Alfred J. Rieber (eds.) the within migration external “Polishness” of itself. Largely region the in anunprecedented response level to internal of and national a Polishagainstbut movementalso against the andamong theclergy, gentry being only not national waswaged proportions of contribute sensea struggle tothe that much to in of a national terms struggle. relations international and a partof trend of framing glorifying)ina broader many cases, economic, (and social political, in which hadthey interest aspecial Germanization (landownership, of names) hadplace become and society, framing broader ofand on the the infailuresuccess andin spheres education other influenceAlthough it notimportant tooverestimateis thisgroup’s inboth governmentcircles teachers) who neverrefrained from sloganshouting the follows “nationality that language!” ranks1894 whose included bythe20th century of asignificant percentage and civil servants from from partisans Society the for Eastern the Marches (anationalist founded pressure group in most explicitly expression viewfound This Marches.” so-calledand “Eastern of schools the land the over waged being Poles and Germans between struggle broader a of idea the positing tradition, other discourses dealtmore specifically to the national dimensions of the conflict, indicators of assimilation, no doubt contributed to the escalation of policies contributed government’s the escalation tothe of doubtno assimilation,indicators of The failurepromoteschool’s knowledge to of German, whichbecame one of mostthe important in territories. Eastern the settlement German encourage to designed Commission, Colonization Jews (many of whom had settled in PrussiaGermans, webegin findlike bythe to acts 1880s the non-Prussian of expulsion 30,000 and Poles long before) as well the establishment of the Royal Whereas the “civilizing mission” concept could appeal to a broader German a broader German cultural appeal to could concept mission” “civilizing the Whereas Official policies sphere,especially outsidein beginning educational the the1880s,did Kaiserreich Imperial Rule and a Polish birthrate that was nearly double that of the . Budapest: Central European University Press. 2004. p56- 33 CEU eTD Collection Press. 1974. and with more authority that this author could hope to claim. could to hope more this author and that authority with detail ingreater elsewhere have described been which of Polish press popular -all vitality of the middle class intelligentsiaand and corresponding decline in the role of the Polish gentry, and the the of “organic effects the namely - developments internal of significance the deny to not is This population. work” movement,significant impact growingnot only on the leaders economic responsesPolish and elites from belonged. strength most Polishwhich to religion the society, butand also theassertiveness broader of the Polish can be found in Wandycz, Piotr S. 35 and ideological struggle within national the movement that began during the decisive years of the political is the interest of Also century. 20th the into well identification religious to comparison among the Polish peasantry among whom the conception of Polish nationhood remained weakin this thesis, my concern rests primarily on the response of the general population, particularly andespecially Polish the the presence of languageandculture, during Poles, very the to but clergy, and gentry the from state” the of “enemies traditional the to just not hostile, increasingly had grown landscapethat social and economic, political, a within broader tookplace and TheGermanization political meetings. of therefore education secondary primary institutions,just asthe Associations of Act1908 soughttoinhibit usagethe of Polish during yearssubsequent inhibit were designed to impact economic the of lendingPolish banking and radicalization lawsproperty government’spolicies. Various of the in and expropriation incompetitor economicthe spherein and purchasing landalsocontributed tothe further in Polesthe be Polestowards fact The the proved aworthy upcomingthe that to decades. In addition In toHagen’s monograph, another useful survey from the perspective of partitioned three all territories The Prussian government’s policies and their methods of implementation had a had implementation of methods their and policies government’s Prussian The The Landsof Partitioned Poland, 1795-1918. 34 35 Due to the interests and scope of and scope interests the Dueto Seattle: University of Washington Kulturkampf era, CEU eTD Collection 38 37 36 Volksschulen by factin the that Bydgoszczregencyof the Pozna lack of an language beyond of usageapparent concern Polishits with the inreligion wasshown indication final One instruction. languageof matter the no limited was effectiveness school that meant demand accommodate to schools” “half-day of adoption frequent the and overcrowding children, who little learning of were very either language. their teach effectively to teachers enough qualified without schools left curriculum Germanized the that fact the on centered instead complaints Parental Polish. of expense the at came amenable,least at ambivalent,totheprospect or of learningtheir children ifit German even nearly as much protest as the government’s treatment of Catholic priests. Parents were generally in notof occasion schoolssecondary the began1870sdid Germanization and that primary of context. This is borne out by the fact that the early,and in many respects, quite extensive rounds its beyondseen usageina important religious very wasnot language educational as insphere the first is that identificationbe drawn may based conclusions some however classes, withworking onand peasantry thePolish the among the felt patternssentiment Catholic of response faith remained to the government’s strong and Germanization Polish participated. it has beenestimated 93,000 over students the status of policies.the Polish1890s and early 1900s and the rolethis played inthegeneral strikeschool of 1906-07, in which The outlined above. itrequire, butis nevertheless a figureandstriking corroborate seems to broaderthe trend would sucharequest taxes additional the especially given areobscure, was case why this the Kulczycki, John J. Lamberti, Marjorie. Lamberti, Kulczycki, John J. Lack of documentary evidence makes it difficult to speak conclusively of national the of speak conclusively to difficultmakes it evidence documentary Lack of elected to request electedsupplementary to Polish language lessons. School strikes in Prussian Poland. School strikes in Prussian Poland. State, society, andthe elementary school inimperial Germany 35 p 203. p 202. Ĕ as lateas1903,only as of 174 out 336 36 37 It is worth recalling that . p116. 38 Granted, the reasons the Granted, CEU eTD Collection took a major blow after the strategy of “loyalism” practiced by the so-called “court Poles” a major“court “loyalism” bytheso-called practiced blow strategy took the of after classes, as well as from populist and socialistmovements. The credibility of their leadership also influence of gentry the and upperclergy faced new challengers from intelligentsiathe and middle enjoyed little prominence. type in which political conservative politically and socially a of autonomy,was it but “nation” Polish broader a with secessionidentification from the awareness contributed of and nodoubt to activities political beand educational sure,these 1880 and 1914 there were over 1,500 Polish reading rooms to cite two just two examples.citejust twoPolish two to 1880 and readingrooms over 1,500 were 1914there impressive: by libraries had been 1883 475 andestablished with total volumes, between 78,784 areindeed efforts these of results numerical The constituencies. different to them appealing Association of Folk Libraries and the Society for Popular Reading Rooms and many others like the Folk Education, for like theSociety organizations work” “organic popularity the of general withinwillingness work society Polish to within system inthe was also reflected the A of resistance. tactics more revolutionary adopting ratherthan state the to grievances of airing lodge in protests to form the meetings, participatein legal organize or petitions, of meansother a remained confinedminority to by 1890s the basis ethno-linguistic or along aromantic separatism appealof the whom upper clergy among and Germanand Rule, 1850-1918.” p 178. and Trzeciakowski,Lech. 40 nation and ethnicity.” is, the postulated Polish nation.” See Kamusella, Tomasz. “UpperSilesia 1870-1920: between region, religion, replaced by the idea that the Polishnation-state should overlap withthe territorial extent of thePolish-speakers, that projectof Polandre-establishing asthe nation-state within the pre-partition ofborders Poland-Lithuania was 39 ideaof the traditional to in part Miaso, Jozef. “Educational Policy Educationaland development in the Polishterritories underAustrian, Russian nineteenth-century early estates' Polish “ the that 1890s the until not was it argues, Kamusella Tomasz as Indeed, However, in the final decades before the turn of the century infinal theturn before decades ofand traditional However, the role the century the We may also conclude that the peasants remained fairly loyal to the Prussian state, thanks Kaisertreue but also the conservative influence of the gentry and gentry the of influence conservative the also but . 39 36 This can be seen most clearly in the preference inthe clearly most seen be can This empire unification or with partitionsother The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland . p166. 40 To CEU eTD Collection Pzonanski Newspaper Democratic As the inNational 1906. were enforced language regulations new the when be ready and years for brewing been had that discontent the upon seize to was whoglorifiedDemocratic idea faction the national theiran of strategy struggle, uncompromising nationalist organizations likethe organizations nationalist previousthe decadeinWarsaw leadershiphomegrown of the Roman under and Dmowski) National (apoliticallyDemocrats savvy nationalist group whose organization duringoriginated of the butalso entrée the factions, competing various the vitality of organizational only not the was Whatchanged strike. more widespreadgeneral into a gestate to but hadfailed all attention, strikes, most notably in the county nationalof Wrzesnia which attracted and international school of instances isolated by predated been fact in had They society. Polish of segments Prussia andbeyond couldbe mobilized showand displayanunprecedented of solidarity. provided theissue –the Germanization of instructionreligious – around whichPoles from across various political factions organizing and seeking popular support, Prussian the that government 41 ideological struggle within Polish society massfor ensued. support and political broader a where level, local the to government the from gravity of center inCaprivi in As detail, failurealsogovernment Hagen this the shifted return. describes political gain from concessions the failed ofto adequate interests gentry the and clergy, representing the Hagen, William W. William Hagen, tomorrow will battle for PolishnessPolishness, as without secondaryconsiderations, and dearly associated with the question of religion. These same attributes ofour populace battling for Polish as thelanguage ofinstruction because in thiscase language isthe determined will, energy, and stubbornness. These ofattributes ourpopulace today are The most significant features of the school strike are its strong sense of civic awareness, The strikes in began that 1906werenot spontaneous nor immediately embraced byall (Pozna Ĕ Courier) made Courier) in clear 1906, this as wasunderstood but firstthe step: Germans, Poles, and Jews:Nationality the Conflict in the Prussian East,1772-1914 Straz (Guard). For these groups, theseFor especially groups, (Guard). theNational 37 41 It was in this context, with . p 230. Kurjer CEU eTD Collection 46 45 44 “Loyalsons of Church the andFatherland'? Center-Polish relations in Upper Silesia, 1871-1907.” 1907 Reichstag elections, leading for the first time to the election of a Polish party candidate. Bowersox, Jeffrey Polish countythe of Pless-Rybnik, D. where in Center supportclearly plummeted most from a high ofbe seen 99 percent in can 1892to 10 percent effect in the The co-operation.” of Center-Polish collapse the in moment decisive 43 officials drunkards, newspaper gymnasium to editors to students experienced thestrike insome elite.” of local socioeconomic the hand of the local priest, school board member, national activist,large landowner, or the members the detect usually can “one detail, in extensive describes asKulczycki strong,” itwas “Where approximately 1,600 schools and93,000students participated. was going on. going was one district, in Even the offices. local held strike who parents were as expelled, were compelled Gymanasiusms in the enrolled public houses to close at In finesleviedaddition beingto eight onnewspapers non-striking and striking students, siblings in the evening while thefeltby morestrikingback of just the students. effects than down,the refused to strikewere the strike inparticipation Pozna 42 effectiveness. strike’s the mitigated organizations nationalist in Upper Silesia localPrussian circumstances, especially dependenton strike Polandand throughout wasuneven the for support so, Even began. year whereschool the when teachers to present and copy could parents years that notes” “strike of ofsamples print far to as so going instances in some even strike, to students solidarity with the Center Party and hostility toward the Tims, Richard W. Richard Tims, Kulczycki, John J. “The be to prove did detail, in describes Bowersox as strike, the that note to significant is it Nevertheless, Kulczycki, John J. ibid p 151. The strike’s appeal was based on a combination of national and religious interests. The press played a vital role in spreading awareness and encouraging parents and andencouraging parents in avital The press awareness spreading role played Polish. in instruction religious defend they today which with strength same the with 46 It would therefore be safe to assume that all segments of society, from public Germanizing Prussian Poland School strikes in Prussian Poland School strikes in Prussian Poland Ĕ andWestPrussia,whereoverthe of1906andiscourse 1907it estimated 45 Also, thanks to the heavy-handedness of the authorities who authorities the of heavy-handedness the to thanks Also, . p98. . p 112. p . . p97. 38 44 43 They enjoyed the most the enjoyed They 42 CEU eTD Collection 48 47 in the funding of Protestant and Catholic schools in the region, there was the more general failure In start. addition the failureprovideto schooling adequate to and strike amore equitable balance in many doomed were from the respects these in policies atmosphere they were enacted, which theirfailure,but given lackoffunding,the qualified oversight, teachers,andincreasingly hostile in organizational concentration manycapability, geographic and contributedareas nodoubt to the inadequate means through which they were carried out. The resistance of Polish elites, to above, we discovered measure due,as largeintheir asanagentof Germanization, inschools using pursued andis Polish them. first response the to governmentpolicyineffective The thatthe was Conclusion itKulczycki bestput whenhewrote: linguisticreligious, andnational identification. In summing upthe significance of strike,the nexus in between the solidifying already they succeed Germanization growing did policies, newspaper andhanded editors, imprisonment to fines. considerable out gymnasiums, 35 of a sentenced clergymen total to 20 months injail and 45 monthsof worth from local expelled 80students from authorities the removedoffices, that 280Poles way, uniting classes and generations. By the conclusion of the strike in July 1907, itis estimated Kulczycki, John J. ibid p 99. affairs of Polish society more intensely than they had in the past. The risks they endured and the price they indicated they paid that risks they The past. the in had they than intensely more society of Polish affairs something haddone neverthey Throughbefore. strikes the they to the pointof rousing them put updirectto resistance the Prussian to government, Several conclusions may be drawn based on the policies the Prussian government Prussian the policies the on based drawn be may conclusions Several activities. cultural and Polish for support popular of upsurge an was there strike, embraced the religious andnationalwere valuesthatostensibly at stake. Following the society. joined varietyof Parents strike andchildren reasons, buttheysoon for a the The Polish national movement had bringAlthough failedachange strikes the to eventually about inthe government’s School strikes in Prussian Poland penetrated . 39 identified p 218. the the livesofmasses the of Prussian Poland their interests with those Polish of those with interests their 47 participated 48 in in the CEU eTD Collection 50 Germanand Rule, 1850-1918.” p 178. 49 in for barely 1908. 10 percent 1898, they accounted in of enrolled madestudents up 60percent Poles where the incolleges, decreased, and training difficult over time. Between 1902and 1908the numberof in Poles actually schools secondary largely were barred toPoles, in andenrollment secondary madewas education increasingly learnprovide incentive and language. to to Job the local instate adequate opportunities offices eyes for selling “children’s souls for ahundred marks.” his “scratch out” to threatened mother who oneangry of him the ire earned fact which a Polish, speak Polish unwillingGerman students sparked famously to wasin amob’s factdiscontent, toward corporal punishment to excessiveresort whose Wrzesnia, in teacher thatthe recalling limited their appeal, especially in areas with large Polish majorities.doubt no entail Nevertheless, would them itis following worth that alienation the and requirements radical increasingly their in effectiveness government’s bonuses, German were providedbutthe teaching with In this respect, the Germanization of schools can be seen as contributing to, andreflecting, to, contributing as beseen can schools of Germanization the In this respect, instruction. religious namely in schools, still tolerated was where Polish area last century on the the aggressive drift of the policies in contributed ofto no alsodoubt became language, essentially progress, chiefindicator the which other spheres, as well as the final attackinside and outside Thelack theschoolhouse. apparent success in of teaching German the at the turn of the both forms its all in language Polish the of presence the to hostile increasingly was which one be claiming toin defensiveintegration of andmoreacculturation conceptor the to with keeping schools hadtaken. conflictreflects again language in thatover the of souls” nodoubt religious dimensions the Kulczycki, John J. Miaso, Jozef. “Educational Policy Educationaland development in the Polishterritories underAustrian, Russian In terms of the policies themselves, we can also note a definite drift from a policy School strikes in Prussian Poland . p51. 40 49 Polish schoolteachers who could prove 50 The mother’s reference to the “selling CEU eTD Collection Poland 52 Princeton University Press.1995. p 183. Helmut Walser. newspaper, official Marche’s Eastern the for Society from of the issue taken is an excerpt This be destroyed.” can Catholic and Polish as well as German and Protestant of equivalence League.Both shared an anti-Polishorientation but the former group believed that“the absurd idea that posits the 51 its Polish citizens, as they Foreign policy considerations alsonodoubt tempered government’s the enthusiasm in alienating were seen as an important socialism.” “state to rightof vieweditproperty as a conservatives and adriftthreat toward factor in the event war,as the before bill expropriations pass, the if notradical exercise, ofto reluctant government the a war with Russia, empire;find hence tothe wealso importance Army passage and Navy Bills of considerable of gain the court Poles “national” in to to ones.HencewefindCaprivi willing strictly order trumped often interests and economic estate imperial, in where cases most notably level, official the to extended uncertainty A similar boundaries. and categories social various of relevance the over contestation to subject still and absolute means no by was worldview nationalist offer.best made them Poles when they the landowners to continue to hire Poles from abroad for seasonal labor as well as sell their of bythewillingness asshown ones, national lands often trumped quite interests economic identity. Moreover, to German of conception ethnonational more a to hurdle significant a remained the German-speaking population, both locally or across the empire. Religious identification overestimate their impact on the government’s policies or that they spoke for broad segments of and it like groups isnot Marches, Eastern Society the organizations the of however to important nationalist of rise the course of was trend this of manifestation visible most The ascendant. societal inbroader nationalitylinguistic, trends ethnic, andracial which along was terms For abalanced account of the so-called “struggle for the soil,” see Tims, Richard W. Protestant the and Marches Eastern the for Society the between conflict the in clearly most illustrated is This .. All of the above are really just glimpses of a wider situation in which the shift to a German nationalism andreligious conflict: culture, ideology,politics, 1870-1914. 52 41 Die Ostmark date April, 1898. Cited in Smith, Germanizing Prussian Germanizing Princeton: 51 CEU eTD Collection 54 “A Document of 1892 on Germany, Prussia and Poland. 53 was the result “treasures” asAltenstein two By predicted, unifyingtrends. the these attacking the Polish peasant and the Polish business man.” landowner, Polish the of interests common the “multiply to in detail, describes Tims as served, only decades two following in the policies agrarian empire’s the sphere, religious the outside the minds of many lack inmany of for created image a lastingareas a priestin andarchdioceses nodoubt seminaries Poles of a government the of closing down andthe being arrested, hundredspriests of of legacy asthespectacle hostileHowever, the government’s againstoffensive their religious did leaders leave important an to them and theirorganized by from leaders Polish gentry the classesmostand middle by impacted directly them. religion. save andrallies little afewpetitions levels, protest upper the occasioned at secondary education Furthermore, primary which primarily and affected schools of rounds inthe1870s, of Germanization initial the that is fact recallingthe It worth authorities. bythegovernment policies pursued or in made in rarely practice. rhetoric at the “disloyal” elements of Polish society from the clergy and the gentry, such a distinction was directed nominally Although in spheresof society. and sphere other in educational the of control with “Others” which tojustify werefrom citizens state’s expansion the beginning the convenient Polish empire’s the group, non-German threatening most andtheoretically largest, As the ones. national with interests state identify to willingness increasing an displayed and necessary beginning especially in 1890s. the Tims, Richard W. Richard Tims, For an interesting discussion of Kaiser Wilhelm II’s views of the Poles, Russia, and the empire, see Rohl, J.C.G. The government’s encroachment on the language of religious instruction only reinforced radical increasingly the mirrored of response Polish patterns the In many respects, when nationalism German exploit to willing quite also was government the Nevertheless, Germanizing Prussian Poland 53 . p 15. 42 The Historical Journal 54 . Vol. 7,No. 1. 1964. p 143-149. CEU eTD Collection collective understanding of of them. understanding collective of nationalization the changes, economic and social broader these to due but disloyalty, only not 43 CEU eTD Collection 4 Window to theEast: National and Imperial Identities inLate Tsarist Russia Empire’s NorthwesternRegion the in1860s.” specifically withthis region. See Dolbilov, Mikhail. “Russificationand the Bureaucratic Mind in the Russian of empirethe groups on the ethnic toward policies or consistently applied systematic, coherent fiercelycombinations) –competed for precedence.” national, dynastic, cultural, political,linguistic, and racial (separately and invarious divergent opinion in Russia, different conceptions of the empire – confessional, administrative, made on understandings ofMoreover, beyondthe official and public understandingsempire of the “nation,” similar points could also empire. be the of itself.diversity sheer the mention to not concept, the of Asnovelty relative Robertthe considering Geraci has aptly put social beingit, Thisiscategories hardly emphasized ordeemphasized assignificant. surprising “at a time of and nationhood on range sametheme:various of broad the understandings a of often conflicting 3 Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland, 1855-1914 2 Polesand in the Northwest Regionafter theUprising of 1863-64?” 2004.2. Spring this p245-71.Also issue,in Staliunas, Darius.“DidGovernment the SeekRussify to Lithuanians Philosophical Society Illinois University “Russification:and Press. 1996. Word Practice,and 186-1914.” Imperialin Late Russia:Nationalism andRussification on Western Frontier,the 1863-1914 1 provinces, western used individually or in combination as indications of it. From regional studies focusing on the alphabetvariousincludingsocial markers, or class, andlanguage that category were religion, “nation” word havethe avague remained confirmedthat discourse of bureaucratic official and analysis First, respects. least two in at have emerged to appears consensus scholarly broad rather Chapter 2: Russification and the Estonians Geraci, R. P. Dowler, Wayne. Dowler, (ed) C. Edward Thaden, in collected articles the remain region this in Russification on text standard The Theodore Weeks has written numerous monographs and articles on this subject. See especially: subject. this on articles and monographs numerous written has Weeks Theodore Many scholars are also in agreement that the central government never adopted never government central the that in agreement also are scholars Many Russification in the late imperial period remains controversial in many circles, but a but circles, many in controversial remains period imperial late inthe Russification Window to the East: National and Imperial Identities in LateTsarist Russia Classroom andEmpire. . Vol. 148, No. 4. December,. Vol.148, No. 4. 2004.Two appearing articles the injournal 1 Balticthe provinces andFinland, Kritika: Explorations of Russian andEurasian History. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. 2001. Geraci, R. P. 44 . Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press. 1981. 4 2 and the Volga Region, . Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 2001. Proceedings of the American p27. 3 we find variations find we . DeKalb: Northern DeKalb: . Nation and State Kritika Vol. 5, No. also deal also CEU eTD Collection national,just as the national worked to erode the stability and legitimacy of the state.” subvert,if the not thwart, imperial “the has argued,tended to especially, Suny as Ronald In two latter caseof inmisalignment. the the interests with their andfound each other purposes cross- at worked often quite nation” “Russian andthe state, dynastic Church, the Orthodox representedisHowever, groups asthis will chapter illustrate,by thevarious that the trinity,this by minister Sergey proposed guidingeducation as forming the of Uvarov empire. principles the form all,of thirdpointthe famousthe of“Orthodoxy,trinity Autocracy, and Nationality” Stalin Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (eds.) 7 in imperial Russia 6 Frontier, 1863-1914. understandings of it. of the imperial authorities, or that itfailed toact or pursue policies according to their own did. eventually theempire’sasBolsheviks nationalities toward policies inofficial coordinating charge of an appoint bureau”or “nationalities establish a need to never sawthe time atthis government the that context, different a in Russification on article an in does Pearson as recalling, worth be may the failure to formulate a consistent policy is all the more surprising. To help accountin which imperialthe for viewedauthorities thethreatposedby Poles to this, integrity the empire,the of it 5 subjects.” non-Russian its vis-à-vis administration Russian of the actions anduncoordinated theconfused,itdefinite for disparate, that“seemsfar too grounds aterm Kingdom Weeks theusageof Poland, Theodore of term “nationalityresists the policy” onthe the and Provinces Western the in Russification of study his In basis. collective or individual an Suny, Ronald G. “The Suny,Ronald G.Empire “The Strikes Out: Imperial Russia, ‘National’ Identity, Theories and in of Empire” Pearson, Raymond “Priveleges,Rights, and Russification.” in Olga Crisp and Linda Edmondson (eds.) Weeks, Theodore R. : . Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2001. p 56. All of the above is not to deny that national considerations did not enter into the calculus the into enter not did considerations national deny that to not is above the All of 6 . Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1989. p5. Narodnost Nation and State in Late in ImperialRussia: andState NationalismNation and Russification Western onthe , or according to one English translation, “nationality,” did, after “nationality,” did, one translation, according toEnglish , or A State ofNations: Empireand Nation-Making intheLenin Age of and 45 5 Given the seriousness the Given 7 Civil rights CEU eTD Collection 10 Vol.5, No. 2. Spring 2004. p 296. 9 Press.) University European Central 8 international contexts of Russian policy.” and imperial regional, different the and perspectives “different account into take to us requires study the Russification that recently of Kappelerhas wrote Andreas Along lines, same the singular. inthe “Russification” than rather plural inthe “Russifications” in more of terms Russification may beRussification in order. demographic served main two sketch state’s arough policies, of of asthe target that the groups the of analysis an beginning before But Church. Orthodox and Lutheran the and government, Russian the Germans, Baltic notably mostthe andactors, groups of different a number involves that a situation is it Moreover, ways. many in group non-dominant the to benefit of fact inremained ambiguous sensethe Geraci that subject tochangeproposes, overtime, and wasin on its impact on the and in secondary education Provinces Baltic the of Estonian-speakingEstland andLivland,with special emphasis peoples of this region.being a simple question of whether or not.” In this case,Along the thesepolicy lines, goals he and culturalcontends, assimilation, and on the other, for more modest integration most with the imperial state. policiesto think in terms of a continuum along two extremes that aim,fell on the one hand, for total linguistic somewhere inRussification, which is of particularthe interest to this study, Geraci has middlewritten that it would bebest and “wasbe need qualified to policies situation.the andpractices on depending Ontheissue of cultural far from butineventhe objectives of these casestheactual Russification Thaden hasproposed, as Kappeler, Andreas. “The Ambiguities of Russification.” Miller, Alexey.“Russification or Russifications?” in Geraci, R. P. So we are left to conclude, as Alexey Miller has recently argued, that we should that think argued, recently has conclude,we areleftAlexey Miller as to So With these in perspectives mind, will this chapter explore Russification the of primary Window to the East: National and Imperial Identities in LateTsarist Russia. 9 Itmay take the form “administrative”of or“cultural” 10 The Romanov Empire and Nationalism 46 Kritika: Explorations of Russian and Eurasian History. p9. . (Forthcoming from (Forthcoming . 8 CEU eTD Collection 1855-1914 13 12 Finland, 1855-1914 11 Orthodoxy 65,000 wereEstonian). thatto estimated (it began which inthe 1840s resulted intheconversion approximately of 100,000 Lutheran peasants Livland in northern movement a land, free of promises vague with combined were conditions conductbeganmissionary to in regionwork duringWhen thethe 1830s. worsening economic Church Orthodox Russian the Germans, Baltic the like Lutheran were Estonians most Although in 1860s. tobecome more prevalent the started landownership intactlargely until Estonian Wars,but feudal the arrangement landowner and between German Estonian peasant remained the northern parts of Livland. Serfdom was abolished inindialectslocated Estlandpopulation was The Estonian-speaking Latvian. and Estonian of and the region shortly after the Napoleonic ethnic hierarchy andsocial landowners and of consisting German local apeasantry speaking numbers the empire’s military and civil service. Baltic society was divided according to a rigid degree of political and cultural autonomy and over the years Baltic Germans began fillto in great Kurland, part of the Russian empire since the early 18 The role of the state and its policies percent livingin countryside. the approximately 180,423 periodthe of Russification in 1880s.In the 1881, populationthe of Balticthe Germansat stood issue became an important than status during the rather and of “reconverts” these spiritual reward bymaterial motivated whowere converts waned among soon in religion interestthe follow, Raun, Toivo U. “The Estonians.” Haltzel, Michael H. “The Baltic Germans.” in p 150.Thaden, Edward C. (ed) Haltzel, Michael H. “The Baltic Germans.” in Thaden, Edward C. (ed) C. Edward Thaden, in Germans.” Baltic “The H. Michael Haltzel, The Baltic Germans made up the ruling elite of the provinces of Estland, Livland and A proper understanding of the imperial state’s Russification of andsecondary primary of Russification imperial state’s the understandingof A proper . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1981 p 296-297. . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1981. p 123. 12 while the Estonian-speaking population whilewith population thewas Estonian-speaking 812,000, over 90 13 47 th Russification inthe Baltic Provinces andFinland, century. These territories enjoyed a wide 11 landnot thepromisedSince did Russification inthe Baltic Provinces and CEU eTD Collection the Estoniansthe andLatvians. thatvillage notpersonally shared by (probably tsar) were being the “Germanize”schools usedto some instructionRussian in the curriculum,inpart due concerns to raised during the 1860s schools, teaching seminaries, universities. Village and include schools werealsorequired to in of asubject made secondary wererequirethe increasedRussian as instruction efforts to empire,the its as peoples andunderstood theto one meansof provincial uniting governments adapting local toward to asmuch conditions as possible. geared were and regime) tsarist the during in Baltic area the never established which were introducingfor reforms, zemstvos quotoodrastically example, (by,disrupt status the intended to not reforms The were andadministration. of in state further useof andaffairs Russian the landtargeted ownership, peasantself-government, reform judiciarythe of municipalities,and integrity of borderlands in afterthe empire’s the uprising of reformsgeneral 1863, the mainly superintendent’s resignation. Quote cited in Haltzel, Michael H. “The Baltic Germans.” p 125 . 125 p Germans.” Baltic “The H. Michael Haltzel, in cited Quote resignation. superintendent’s enjoy.” This was seized upon by Russsian nationalists in the press like Mikhail Katkov, and eventually led to history”the may be brought “to equalan footing of nationality with their masters, like the religious equality they now calling for the 15 Germanizationand Finland, 1855-1914 of the14 Latvians and Estonians so that “these fragments of peoples vanishing from inin Riga 1867. representatives German Baltic the told tsar the as family” “Russian the of part integral an lands apply Baltics,to the andthefollowing decades saw two varioustogradually steps make these Alexander II. The reformsadministratively,and economically had begunduring the within empire already the reign of of the 1860s affecting the in politically, Attempts Balticthe tointegrate provinces context which thy occurred. rest of the empire did notschoolsmid-1880s Balticin in Provinces historical thethe of requires broader the an awareness automatically One One catalystwas asermon delivered1864 in by Superintendent-Generalthe of Lutheranthe Church Livlandin Thaden, Edward C. “The RussianGovernment.” inThaden, Edward C.(ed) This held true in the realm of education reform. Since the Russian language was 14 Also spurred on Alsospurred on inby concerns peasant over unrest the Balticsand the . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1981. p 33. 15 The overall strategy was to introduce the in Thestrategy Russian languageoverall was to 48 Russification in the Baltic Provinces CEU eTD Collection very muchvery as means designed a wouldof social control, prove difficultfor Russianlanguage the seminaries. teachers’ in Lutheran by maintainedby andthemanorlords, organizations andweretrained instructors peasant staffed Latvian population) gymnasia (alsooverwhelmingly and The villageGerman). schools were schools (mainly for German students) village andtownshipschools (catering the Estonian to and municipal elementary of was composed system school public the schools, while private attended typically wellborn The church. Lutheran the and landowners German Baltic the of control Region,higher schools education remained primary, secondary, and 1880sunderthe until were resisted. 1873) been since the administration and supervision Lutheran. were Livland and in Estland schools of in Orthodox the enrolled pupils Estonian the Ministry of Educationprovidedsmall no incentive, andmayhelp forby thefact account that percent 1880s,13.4 the of (as the Orthodox schoolscompetency in the Russianlanguage. Since universal conscription was decreed in 1874, this had asatisfactory whodemonstrated years graduates by for two requirement service military 19 18 17 16 Livland. northern for1884, theyaccounted 315 out of rural a total schools1,612 elementary inEstland and By fundingtoimprove theirquality emphasized,and attractiveness. with provided werealso Orthodox schools, whereinstruction inwas localthe languages butRussian was also The institutions. teachertraining as well schools as secondary and new elementary establishing existing gradually schools offermoreand to and better opportunities tolearn languageby the Baltic schools remained under the loose jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior until 1886. until Haltzel, Interior the of Michael Ministry H. “Theof the Baltic Germans.” jurisdiction loose p 120.the under remained schools Baltic Thaden, Edward C. “The Russian Government.” p 50. Raun, Toivo U. “The Estonians.” p 315. Radical Russifyproposals more to existing thoroughly place and schools the them under 16 A positive incentive to learnby A Russian to positivereducing the incentive was also added 18 Although officially a part of the empire’s Dorpat Educational empire’s Dorpat of the apart Although officially 19 This system, so long displaying a German orientation and 49 17 CEU eTD Collection 20 between interplay onthe rested power political of “scenarios” or presentation the that proposed Wortman Richard dynasty, Romanov of the representation and ceremonial symbolic the individual personality played, especially in the person of the tsar. In a two volume study tracing 1881 and the ascendance ofhis son, Alexander III. perspectives from Petersburg wouldSt. change Alexanderdrastically with II’s in assassination defeat and the eventualmother’s undoing of thePrussian disastroushis perhaps dueto ina partly he light, positive victories viewed Alexander’s the Prussian part, origins,terms of the Treatybutand Slavophil Iurii Samarin and the Baltichistorian German and chauvinist,Carl Schirren. For more of Paris significantly of 1856.peasantry, beingvery between exchange highlight the Russiannationalistthe awritten public Such becausePrussian conquests did little to cool the growing criticism a of the Baltic German’sPrussian treatment of the and privileges.Germans’ The special “Germanization”Balticvictory and rights the of abolish some meant thea French mobilization call began Balticthe infor to nationalistsphere during the1860s Germans, thepublic polemics of the state and culture. German intothe assimilate the Orthodox only attend German in secondary in pastwasto basically option schools the smallnumbers and Church toand period this nodoubt Narvaduring opened new opportunities for Estonian students, whose defendin Reval schools secondary Russian four of introduction the theNevertheless, years. these during local peasantryestablishmuchfornew schoolsin of slow probably learningaccounted progress the Russian from funding to and lackof Russian effectively, teach of to teachers qualified University) ashortage crack, mainlylevels.to in upperin the (especially of Dorpat Acombination resistance Raun, Toivo U. “The Estonians.” p 316. Given the nature of the political system, it is important not to underestimate the role that role the underestimate to not important is it system, political the of nature the Given Although Alexander his IIand maintained apositiveadvisors orrealistic perspectiveon 20 50 CEU eTD Collection courts, police, provincial administration and the school system were introduced. The introduced. were system school police,and the administration provincial courts, press. nationalist no influenced, doubt as many inwere service, imperial by in anti-German the polemics the campaigns why reason of they short-lived. 1880s,andthe the remained somewhat Russification the explain help religion and “nation” the of that with closely more interest state’s the Holy Synod of like menhesurroundedMinisterthe himself with Interior of Chief D.A. Tolstoi, Procurator K.P. Pobedonostsev,feel the power of Germany on our own shoulders.” to bound are we later or “sooner that and her” reach will Prussians filthy the soon that and land and Education in sonwrote letters friends 1870,the “oneto warning that has tothink seriously native of our Minister victory Prussian after the congratulations of sent atelegram father Where the Germanophobia. I.D. Delianov,his and centralization, state on stances uncompromising his church, Orthodox the to identify the interests of “Russianness,” hisdevotion Russians”to “true obsession and with authentic or the imagery. and symbols in national is that dimension, latter in moreimperial its authority unabashedon athe of grounding inaugurated scenariopower of Government.” 23 22 University Press. 1995. p6-7. word with the associated people was and 21 word the with associated was and conquest” and empire of motifs the “expressed words, Wortman’s borrow to myth, European The “national.” the and “European” the myths: overarching two This episode has even characterized them as an “abortive experiment.” See Thaden, Edward C. “The Russian “The C. Edward See Thaden, experiment.” “abortive an as them characterized even has episode This Wortman, Richard. Wortman, ibid p 185. Rossiia, Following an inspection Following aninspection of tour in provinces Baltic the of 1882,aseries reforms of the his in father his of image mirror a much very was son the extent, remarkable To while“national”heartland the the expressedaconnection ethnicRussian andits to ScenariosPower: of and Myth Ceremony inRussian Monarchy. Rus. 21 51 The ascendance of Alexander III to the throne 22 His willingness, along with the willingness Princeton: Princeton Princeton: 23 He was also CEU eTD Collection “reconverts.” forOrthodox administering Lutheran Estonian localthe peasantry to and persecute priests day Tallinn) local the over government’s objections, more to active toproselytize efforts among in a citeon atop Domberg (present- the Cathedral Reval Nevsky of Alexander the construction activities of the Orthodox Church in the region. These ranged vicinity. in the found from symbolic gestures like were given inspired name by the Iur’ev, an 11 the Russified and it lost final blow camein 1893when its languagethe instruction of Universityand name of Dorpat were former autonomy.elected Both the to towndiets closeEstland and Livland the curricula, and aRussified with them, gymnasia the their maintain to continue universityalthough theirlocated private Germanwithin urban elementary schools, secondary schools, and privateschools schools. However, ratherit than remained open in a Russified form. The movement on the scale of the previous one. In many cases, such “conversions” remained largely superficial and superficial largely remained “conversions” such cases, many In one. previous ofthe scale the on movement into economic or land gains.mentioned, dates back to the 1840s when Hope itwas believed thatadoption ofwas the state’s official alsoreligion may translate renewedin Russian Monarchy during the 1880s empire the onundertookof reign AlexanderIII, see Richard.for Wortman, similar reasons, but failed25 to produce a 24 ingrades until the lower two 1893. except was religious instruction in motherchurch tongue singing. Instruction and the permitted forinstruction languageall subjects Latvian asthe of 1887, Russian and Estonian replaced schools were centralized Baltic under all year, following the in the and jurisdiction curriculum, in the included not still was it andwhere schools supervision of the Ministry of Education. In 1885 and forbecameRussian acompulsory allprimaryandsecondary subject 1893. In 1885, between steadily but gradually wasimplemented schools secondary and primary Russification of For anextended discussion of the symbolic dimensions that the construction of Orthodox churches Haltzel, throughout Michael the H. “The Baltic Germans.” p. 169. Support from Support from Alexanderandsympatheticinvigorated III provincial also governors the 25 Behind these efforts, as Behind expressedone governor provincial efforts, of these tothe procurator p254. The history of conversionsEstonian into the Orthodox fold,as has been already 24 The instructionRussification of allalso to extended the th 52 century Russian fortress of the same name once name same of the fortress Russian century Scenarios ofPower: andCeremony Myth CEU eTD Collection 1985. p 85. composition of patriotic groups among the smaller European nations. Baltic landowners German and populations tofundpeasant the schools. In wherecases schools failedmany fully to follow the ministry’seducation mandate. assumeit that wouldto besafe movement, national in Estonian the strata active among most the school were teachers account that into Taking teachers. village of the 70 percent approximately instructin qualified for to Estoniansareas inrural accounted Russian, especially were of teachers shortage a remained there that been fact the not hadit be problem amajor not would 29 28 27 26 apostasy is strictly forbidden. many returned back to the Lutheran fold; an illegal act according to the state and the Orthodox church, for whom as 400 schools.Notsurprisingly, years would often go bybetween inspections.school asmany for all someprovinces, with responsible inspectors 1891, therewereonly three ten In ensure compliance. in to region the inspectors very few school were there First, practice. always respectedthorough as the German case since the principle religiousof instruction in the mother tongue was by the authorities)1897. year prior to period there increased by3.9percent,whilein of less afifty wasgrowth than Livland, there over 1 percent were several Between inEstonian populationEstonian Estland Orthodox 1881 and1897the converts. factors inlimiting low successrate attracting due tothe ita moot pointbecame largely hoped, as theauthorities its further assimilation to asa gateway have acted could religion that questionable is highly While it effectivenessEstonians hasten andbutalso unification Lutheranism, “greatfamily.”their with Russian the in Holy the in Synod 1886,was Orthodoxy hopethat the not only would drive the awedgebetween Hroch, Miroslav. Hroch, Raun, Toivo U. “The Estonians.” p 325. ibid ibid p 317. Further complicating the picture was the government’s continued reliance on the local the on reliance continued government’s the was picture the complicating Further Although systemas Russification the not(although education the of thorough was quite Social preconditions ofnational revival Europe in :acomparative analysisofthe social 27 53 29 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. University Cambridge Cambridge: 28 This 26 CEU eTD Collection 31 30 to movement The thing. good is a this that allow not do I propaganda; Orthodox of kind responding to one energetic gain proposal to Latvian by converts “allsaying that islikethis some instance,brotherhoods to proselytizein For and1886findhim Latvians. Estonians the we Alexander firmlythe did support III devout not morethe aggressive oftheOrthodox tactics Even throne. the ascended II Nicholas when ended which pastors, Lutheran of persecution the undermining in rights property tobuildorder new churchesonexpropriated land in or renewing of prospect the less enthusiastic about of than Council andCommittee Ministers were Russification should olds in 1897. also not be already high in 1881with all 14year-olds,95.8% of actually96.6% of increased to all 10year- overestimated.in may Estonian culture, and thedeclineexplain why,despite literacy inenrollment, the rate, Influentialmany were educated in their homes or not at all. Home schooling in fact enjoyed a long tradition circlesfewer The hadnot compulsory was options, butsinceEstonians education within empire, the withinmany pursued their secondary studies in instructional unofficial circles run from homes.private the Senate,secondary schoolsState in Germany or one of the six located availabilityin Moscow and St. Petersburg. A great of alternatives. Thefromdropped 25,646 to20,565. Baltic Germansenrollment. Thishelps explain 1886 between whyin and 1892, enrollmentactually Estland had several possibilities; with in instruction nodoubtcontributed tothe declinethethe quality decline inoverall of a closed funding whichin landownersmaintenance, few were not entirely, woulddecrease andtandem could go to Raun, Toivo U. “The Estonians.” p 317. ibid The government’s support of the Orthodox Church, and its abilities to act asanagentof abilitiesits to Orthodox supportof Church, The and government’s the was the system school of the Russified limiting theeffectiveness factor The final 31 30 54 CEU eTD Collection 34 Uvarov, 1786-1855 Russiathat hasgrown up.” perceive not do “they that he remarked reforms, implement or Russian learn to refusal German by Education Uvarov Minister over the Baltic 1830s, whensimilarcomplaints wereraised theideathat “maturity” of hadlong playedin officialand public As discourse. early as the of isit classes, Germanand nobility inthe note and educated this to rolerespect interesting the theworldview informed a sensesuperiority of is that cultural nodoubt There learning Russian. to resistance) German Baltic the (and insistence government’s the of dimension symbolic the administrative communication within the empire. To these official concerns must also be added and bureaucratic efficient to asbarrier seen also was classes, educated the among especially in Russian, and usageof thecontinued knowledge the weakness Education. Moreover, of Ministry the within firmly more schools Baltic integrate to designed element centralizing and howenergetically governmentpursued them.the had Clearly, measures the a taken 33 32 classes. ruling and officials German Baltic practice, which went well beyond theneed tobetterinstill knowledge of Russian among the in entailed Russification that theextremities some for of account therefore can bureaucracy, and imperial the down felt resonating through tsar levelofthe the pride, at A senseofaggrieved mature and not worthy of ruling over us…chain your instinctup and it teach control itself…” to 1860s,the by asshown rejoinder SamarinyourSchirren’s to in1869 peoplenot “no, that is of the government.” mustOrthodoxy bespontaneous, on personal the initiative of any Latvians,the without pressure Haltzel, Michael H. “The Baltic Germans.” p 132. Whittaker, Cynthia H. Thaden, Edward C. “The Russian Government.” p 69. This leads us to the important question werebehind importantobjectives thesepolicies This leadsthe the of us to what . DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. 1984. p 202. 32 The origins of modern Russian education: an intellectual biography of Count Sergei 33 Maturity also played an important role in insultsthe in exchanged 55 34 CEU eTD Collection lower-middle class in in 1880s,the previous some hadlandownershipandof a small the the growth gains seen decades Baltic towns and cities. Like the patternsEstonian responses followed by many schooling. of years two of first in the Estonian the so- instruction legal,was made and concessions in in made coming years, the allowing in instruction beginningin 1906 the of establishment schoolsprivate offering Estonian as language the of Revolutionthe in the1905 that Estoniansprotest Russified the would elementary andschools, would be after only II.It the Nicholas of sphere through reign inwhich education the continued tofully littlevery implementing fundingpolicies wasdevoted the1880s,the of Russification and few very lay inspectors also why behind nodoubt reason the posed Estonians threat the the over Alack goal. concern overriding of the was assimilation than rather Russian acculturation government’s willingness allowto in religious instruction the mother tongue as an indication that we may the language. interpret promote Moreover, state the andadesire influence to German of the policies, Although “denationalization” may of havebeen Estonians the seen as eventual the consequence they should within thefold, German Russian therefore dependingon or whose gravitational pull stronger. was be seen who spokemarginalized with those assimilation, language Estonian the becoming eventually more in termslocal the “Germanize” seetheEstonianspopulation. They more aspassive to tended objects of of a defensivemixture of ignorance and alarm measurethat Lutheranism and the German language would eventually against a be appear to basedon this group toward perspectives Official populations. Estonian-speaking be of true the couldto be said the Balticthe informed Germans, toward opposite attitudes Whereas Whereas a mixtureinferiority of complex and a sense of pride may in“Russianness” have Although nine out of Although nine outof livedten inrural Estonians areas on in eveof the Russification the 56 CEU eTD Collection 1985. p 27. composition of patriotic groups among the smaller European nations. 37 group of “largest the formed according Hroch’s research to who villagegroup schoolteachers, of active number andthe was among aboveall landowners growing a large the of participation rural eliteon ethno-linguistic criteria of educated social asmall inwhich and played most and an role This was very much a national movement of the “integrated” type described byHroch, type described much movement “integrated” national the of This very a was movement. School Alexander Estonian the and Society Literary Estonian the like organizations German culture, aswell dominant as formation the Estonian of agricultural cultural and Baltic the with identification circles to educated in certain find resistance we where agitation” 1860s and 1870s.Itis during period this we that find beginnings the of a period “patrioticof less drastic. numberjumped in 230, whileEstland from 47 to inLivland496) theincrease (from was 393 to construction Lutheran schoolsof inrural areas between1835 andin 1860, which time the 36 35 education. some hadany individual acquired spoke German or could Estonian) (including who to refer as most typically surprising tothemselves Estonian-speakinguntil referred 1850s the peoples that beganonly be to formalized by Baltic scholars German in 1830s the andit 1840s,is not rigid ethnicandsocial divides and various the written factthat forms of Estonianlanguagethe Estonian nationality a smallbeginning minority. inthe remained confined to educated Given the called “non-historic nations” “small in or nations,” 19 the Smith, Hroch, Miroslav. Raun, Toivo U. “The Estonians.” p 293. ibid maarahvas , 294. This surge in schooling would be inpivotal theEstonian national “awakening” of the 35 36 The overall leveleducation Estoniansof the improved by a surgein the or“people of the country” and others as Social preconditions of national revival in Europe : a comparative analysis of the social 57 saks Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. which typically meant “German” but“German” meant typically which th century, identification with an 37 based CEU eTD Collection 40 culture.”and Thaden, Edward C. “The Russian Government.” p72. terms of state interests, claiming that it was necessary for the population to participate in “the common national lifefollowing this very administrator’sthis Inpattern. case however, heconceived of government’s the goals more in 39 number in from4 increased number of of servants) ethnic Estonians (2 percent of civil total the the found that has inRevel servants civil of patterns career the on completed study recent within civilA serviceandtheRussian Baltic empire. careeropportunities unprecedented the displacement of Baltic Germanhegemony in secondary higherand education opened up the knowledgeRussian, of an gain adequate enough to fortunate students Estonian-speaking cosmopolitan outlook or remainedlukewarm the ideato nationalism.”cosmopolitan Estonian of outlook continued“some acknowledges rightfully as Raun Tivo that, fact the andignore movements national to assimilate offered. of schools Russification willingly advantage the that of language newopportunities the learning wellandtook quite the to German or Russian culture while others adopted a 38 purpose. pursued in France and Germany as evidencecould thatstates adoptsuchmeasures achieve to this being policies the saw administrators many time at the but illusory, seem may expectations Estonian the supplanted ultimately have may language Russian the schoolteachers, village and landowners “dialect”Estonian andeducational cultural activities, spearheaded mainly by number a growing of peasant as decades of by two beennot preceded itHad the 1880s. of policies Russification the to response many Russian bureaucrats patriots.” Estonian no doubt expected. In retrospect such Raun, Toivo U. “The Estonians.” p 291. Thaden cites one report on the Baltic German schools prepared in 1902 in which it was argued that Russia was ibid p 82. There is a tendency to over-represent in the historical record the activists and leaders of and activists the record in historical the over-represent to is There atendency Timing,inbe therefore proved many everything to respects, inshaping the Estonian 39 And as we will discover bellow, there is ample evidence that many And aswewill bellow, isampleevidence there discover beganthat Estonians 38 58 40 For many CEU eTD Collection European University Press.) University European theEstonian toward tsar of the benevolence anddoubtthe thefuture viewof a pessimistic adopt in Estonianthe Alexander asthelanguage Russian 1888 instruction ledmany School with of to ensuingthe primary Russification schools,of education, especially aswelltheopeningof of universally welcomed, bypetitioners even and sincethe1860sandrequested 1870s.However been had curriculum school in the language Russian the of introduction the and Germans, Baltic the of privileges and rights traditional the of many of displacement the Russification, introductionand 1890s markedaof The administrativedisillusionment disorientation. period of butgrowing intelligentsia Estonian for whom Russificationthe of duringschools the 1880s and served to dampen the shock of the Russification of schools. positive by incentive reducing the military service requirementfor Russianno speakers, doubt introducing 1880s the languageofthe Russian inonly of curricula the providinga parts and to approach prior gradual government’s the Moreover, peasantry. among Estonian-speaking the schools of Russification the to resistance potential any temper served to also mother tongue the why reasons toRussification.we findvery little organized resistance the of one and system, school Russified of the successes ofthe indicator clear are elites educated Estonians ofeducation in Livland, remain Estland by or by asshown factthat the nearly 1915 40 percentof this category lived in other parts of the empire. Such tendencies among the Miller“Russification by Alexey or chapter Russifications?” ofthis start the at in mentioned already article an in found was reference This 2005. July Berlin, officials in EstlandProvince, 1870-1914.” Paperpresented international atthe congress of Studies, EuropeanEast 41 442 (approximately1871 to in50 percent of total)the 1897. Woodworth, Bradley D. “Those who wore the cap of the bureaucrat: multiethnicity and Estonian tsarist state Russification therefore had the biggest emotional and psychological effect on small, the on effect andemotional psychological biggest hadthe therefore Russification We may also conclude that the government’s willingness to allow religious instruction in The Romanov Empire and Nationalism 59 41 Nor did those with a higher . (Forthcoming from Central from (Forthcoming . CEU eTD Collection neither of which was strong enough to supersede the other.” the supersede to enough strong was which of neither influences,competing two cultural wereexposedto “the Estonians consequence, Raunobserves, level Asa the higher education. and atsecondary and languageinof administration of dominant German as the displacement its life was political and education of Russification the completely assimilate the Estonian-speaking peoples into Russians. The most positive effects of Estonian national identity, and an of that it is development doubtful the on effects thatnegative the and policy positive both everhad aimedLivland and to “denationalize”in Estland schools or Conclusion education, one of the few issues on which there was general agreement. of levels all at Estonian in instruction more for demands make collectively to opportunity provideleaders the of Estonian 1905 to activistsof destabilizingeffects the Revolution the and would limited.quite Itthe ultimately emergencetake of a newgeneration of university-educated therefore system was school decades of Russified the two first during the leadership coherent provide any ability theirgroups, dominant Germanthe to and Russian its about relationship to wasfar there defined,social from universally and category embraced a consensusamong them 43 42 the of hegemony fully displacethe to its unwillingness a combination of due to Estonians was the among engendered thegoodwill of full advantage take failureto government’s term, the also a source of disillusionmentfor the small, but growing, Estonian intelligentsia. In the longer it bureaucracy was within Balticsboth andtheempire.But the inthe state pursue opportunities learn language many Estonians schools and wasindeedasuccessin Russian to the attracting people. Raun, Toivo U. “The Estonians.” p 316. ibid p320. 42 From the preceding discussion, we may therefore conclude that the Russification of ideaSince the had “nationhood” meansof byno intoEstonian developed awell- 60 43 To be sure, the Russification of CEU eTD Collection Estonian language andculturegain to a statusequal Russian the orGermanto traditions. of traditionalthe in social structure and the provinces,political of and short allowingwell the introduction of the zmstevos reforms. A line was clearly drawn just short of the full dismantlingBaltic Germans or to satisfy Estonian demands for greater control of political affairs through the 61 CEU eTD Collection with fleshing out the aspects that made their particular cases unique, this conclusion be will this conclusion casesunique, made that their particular aspects the fleshingout with concerned been have chapters preceding the Since commonalities. certain identify to thesis, this system. judiciary bureaucracy,army, and the as such function integrating an served have that sectors in other but sphere educational the in other states, may ultimately make it possibleconstruct to a typology of different policies,notjust in but empires, Romanov and Hohenzollern the of context in the just not thesis, in this adopted understandings of a considerable terms the to Further degree. study along the lines ofinquiry Western Provinces, Congress parts Poland, andvarious other of empire,the multiply would our the Finland, in Russification as well as Alsace and inSchleswig-Holstein Germanization policies, Russification and andits Germanization state of intherole the diversity of similar degree as well replication of in approachesthe adopted chapters previousthe wouldas two nodoubt reveal a the patternsinwere carried out many othernon-dominant contexts different toward numerous groups. A of Russification during must thisremain period since tentative atbest, inboth empires such policies responsemeasures. to them. For all were alsovariedquite groups whowithin of served both thetwo andbetween these asthe targets Therefore of the above subject to changereasons, over time. It was also found that responses to Germanizationwe and Russification may broader anticipatepolicies conclusions and these and motivated goals foundvarious interests chapters that The two preceding context. that concerning thatthe policies in things whentheyarestudied meanvery original potentially their different can “Russification” Germanization themselves and were carriedConclusion out in different ways and very much That beingThatit is said, still evenon possible, basisthe caseof studies two the exploredin and terms “Germanization” indetail, the of As thediscussed introduction thesis this 62 CEU eTD Collection inspectors, especially inspectors, in Baltics, ensuredthat supervision the was low inmany areas. school of number low the training,and adequate with of teachers cases ashortage in both meant of Prussian asinPoland aswell Estland northern and Livland. New language requirements remainedleading substandard, adecline in to notonly in effectiveness butalso enrollment parts providelearning unwillingness to it, often especially inrural ensuredconditions, that areas, or funding, of A lack practice. into policies their in translating constraints logistical local governing elite thathadlong enjoyed autonomy in the educational sphere. Both also shared school inspection and the training of teachers, while in the Baltic States it was the control of the certain rights and privileges. of been landscapeenjoy governing that educational hadlongthe part elites, to andcontinued In Imperial Germany, and religious namely players, of established reconcile interests the eachhadto conquests, the main obstacle historic and of recent out born was Asempires constraints. met with certain also governments religious control of were the main instruction language governing of content curriculaof of the the teachers, the parameters andthe areas control inwithin their respective education ministries. In both cases,which school inspection, the training the of expansion and varying degreesof centralization meant in practice which objectives, various stateaccomplish to system education the to turned increasingly states both thesis, this began of introduction to assertinterests its authority.and goals thatin language,national especially terms. categories, Inmotivated doingsocial preexisting framing in activities played state and other education that role especially the so, its both policies. thesis, ofthis introduction in the discussed were that trends broader tothe aspects of these For link some to will attempt It the differences. than rather similarities of a brief discussion to devoted reasons described at length in the Most similarities can be found in comparing the respective roles of the state andthe of state the roles respective the incomparing be found similarities can Most 63 CEU eTD Collection schools didnot appear to bemotivated by an Estoniansattempt to turn Russians. into amounted to a coherentunderstandings of relationshipthe between nation andremained state quite ambiguous andnever or universally held chapter, beginning of second the the As at wasdiscussed ofcertain activities the officials. principle. In any case,see a tendency to both identify with, and act accordingthe to, national as well as imperialRussification interests in notfollowed in the Russian Empire,of but during the reign of AlexanderBaltic III we did indeedbegin to was Suchapattern life. andpublic political of nationalization the of as oneindication sphere, bothinside took, forms increasingly the andoutside thatGermanization radical the educational case the inof German the followedEmpire decadesthat 1870sandthe wecanroughly the trace in so particularly was This interests. its and itself of conception national a of ambiguity, of deal policies. Russification and defensivecan element betherefore found as partof justificationthe behind the Germanization A Baltic inthe States. and“Germanization” inPrussia “Polonization” of encroachment the block to which leverwith apotential as seen therefore was education newcircumstances, these these thatwouldconflicts not be experienced inthe Russian Empire until 1905.Underafter to dimension another lifeadded political of democratization the Germany, Imperial caseof the in growth In increasing literacy. general support thanks influencepressand the popular the of to varying enjoyingpopular degreesof movementsand challengingauthority modes of traditional danger of being led astray. This was in part unfounded, butin of was naturallya peasantry and classthat loyal working thestate constant to a reaction to the emergence of nationaland and minds” social of their subjects and citizens. We find in both cases the assumption, not entirely In addition to centralization, both states were also motivated by a concern for“hearts the byaconcern motivated werealso both states centralization, to In addition Finally, we witnessed in both empires an embrace, to varying degrees and with a great 64 CEU eTD Collection linguistic nationality.” but alsobut aprerequisite national for survival. language bea levels nationalall system education notcame to only the of atof a symbol status, useof The significance. on an added took inschools its usage markersnationality, of important themost of became one and communication means of a more than beas seen came to language as And treatment. unequal their of awareness intensify to served only statuses different to time first for the censuses question language “byasking with the As Hobsbawm rightly regularity.conduct increasing observes, began to states ofinthecensuses indicator benationality objective seenas came only to the with language national For instance, linguistic categories ones. nineteenth century conflating of consciousness. national aPolish with resistance toit, played a vital in mergingrole preexisting religious and linguistic identifications active their ultimately and schools, in Germanization of experience the how found we chapter forTo be in Poles hadin, set terms sure, begun nationhood to ethno-linguistic and inthe first 1 bedevelopedunit congruent, late duringshould relatively decades 20 the first of cultural and political the that idea nationalist the terms, in Gellnerian or lines, ethno-linguistic However,is it note significantto thatin both cases for support broad political autonomy along and Russification policies divergedin wayssignificant in and occurred contexts. different as wediscovered,Germanization Moreover, compare patterns of response. attempt two to the to be it andotherfactors, would inappropriate various groups, dominant relations with structure, Hobsbawm, E. 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