The Situation in Syria

Montana Model UN High School Conference

Security Council Topic Background Guide Topic 1: The Situation in the Syrian Arab Republic1

15 September 2016

In spring 2011, when the popular uprisings of the “Arab Spring” began across the Middle-East, protests began in a number of Syrian cities calling for President Bashar Assad to resign and for an end to authoritarian rule. In response, the Syrian government used military force against protesters and granted some symbolic concessions. What began as protests has now degenerated into one of the deadliest civil wars in world history. More than 400,000 Syrians, including both combatants and civilians, have died,2 and 11.4 million people, more than half of the country’s pre-war population, has been displaced, either internally within Syria or to neighboring countries.3 In addition, according to the UN Human Rights Council and other human rights organizations, both the Syrian government and rebel groups have committed human rights violations.4

The events in Syria have affected other UN Member States. Shelling from Syria has occurred over the borders of both Turkey and Israel,5 and Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, Iraq, and Egypt have received large numbers of refugees. Today, the Syrian civil war has even affected countries beyond the Middle East. The refugee crisis has now extended into Europe, with more than 1.1 million refugees coming to Europe in 2015, including 363,000 Syrians who have lodged asylum applications and many more who have not yet applied.6

Since 2014, a United States-led coalition has been carrying out airstrikes in the region, marking a major increase in international involvement in the conflict.7 Tension rose even further in October 2015, as Russia began its own airstrike campaign and later deployed ground troops in the region against the wishes of the United States and separatist Syrian groups.8 The conditions within the region and the state of international relations has deteriorated even further since the birth of the militant group known as the Islamic State, also often referred to as ISIS or ISIL, that has strongholds in war-torn Syria and Iraq, and has perpetrated violent acts of terror all around the world.

2 John Hudson, “UN Envoy Revises Syria Death Toll to 400,000,” 22 April 2016, available at http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/04/22/u-n-envoy-revises-syria-death-toll-to-400000/.

3 Syrian Refugees, “A Snapshot of the Crisis—In the Middle East and Europe,” available at http://syrianrefugees.eu/.

4 “Annual Report: Syria 2015/2016” Amnesty International, 2016, available at https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/middleeast-and-north-africa/syria/report-syria/.

5 “How Syria conflict affects its neighbours,” BBC News, 9 June 2013, available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middleeast-22815222.

6 Jennifer Rankin, “EU prepares to scale back resettlement of Syrian refugees,” 16 March 2016, available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/16/eu-cut-number-syrian-refugees-coming-europe.

7 Matthew Weaver and Julian Borger, “Syrian airstrikes—everything you need to know,” http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/dec/01/syria-airstrikes-everything-you-need-to-know.

8 Ben Quinn, “Russia Military Action in Syria—Timeline,” 14 March 2016, available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/14/russias-military-action-in-syria-timeline.

According to the United Nations Charter, the Security Council has the primary responsibility to maintain international peace and security.9 Yet, until 2013, when the Council passed a resolution authorizing chemical disarmament (in response to the August 2013 use of chemical weapons in Ghouta, Syria), it was unable to pass any significant resolution related to the conflict. Since then, the Security Council has passed multiple resolutions concerning the conflict, but has been unable to reach political solutions between parties or visibly improve conditions over the course of the devastating five year war. What can the Security Council do to address these shortcomings in its position on Syria, so Syrians can return to their normal lives and the international community can return to greater peace and security?

History and Current Events

To understand the current situation in Syria and determine how the Security Council should respond, it is important to understand the history of Syria, the origins of the civil war, and the way that human, regional, and international security have been affected by the war in general and by the use of chemical weapons in particular.

A Brief History of Syria Historically, modern Syria was part of the Mesopotamian “Fertile Crescent,” where the world’s earliest cities developed around 4000 BC. Until 1850 BC, the region was divided into two countries – Sumer (contemporary Iraq) and Akkad (contemporary Syria). By 1900 BC, both were conquered by the Amorites, who governed the regions as Babylonia and developed science and law, including the Hammurabic Code.10

Assyria broke away from Babylon in about 1100 BC, establishing an empire of its own. From the 9th to the 7th centuries BC, the Assyrian empire flourished and at times stretched from Egypt through contemporary Israel, Lebanon, Syria, southern Turkey, and Iraq to the Persian Gulf, uniting most of the Middle East.11

Scholars have traced Syria’s ancient roots through excavations at sites throughout the country, including the Tall Mardīkh palace near Aleppo, where archeologists found “more than 17,000 inscribed clay tablets, dated to about 2600–2500.”12 Aleppo is contemporary Syria’s largest city and has been the site of much rebel resistance. Since 2011, it has been repeatedly bombed by the Syrian government, reducing “entire areas to rubble.”13

After the fall of Assyria, Syria was ruled by various empires, including the Persian, Macedonian, Greek, Armenian, Roman, and Byzantine. In the 7th century AD, the Syrian city of Damascus surrendered to Arab Muslim forces extending Islam and a centralized Islamic state known as the Caliphate.14 As time went on, the system fragmented into competing caliphs, sultans, and other rulers with different territories, ideologies, and governments.15

During the Crusades (1095-1291), Western Europeans invaded parts of Syria and its neighbors and established a series of small Christian states. After their defeat by local rulers who united Syria and Egypt, the area flourished until 1491, when it was sacked by the Mongols.16 Later Syria was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire

9 United Nations, “Charter of the United Nations,” June 26, 1945, Chapter V, Article 24, available at http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-v/index.html.

10 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Babylonia,” 12 July 2016, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/47586/Babylonia.

11 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Assyria,” 10 June 2015, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/39555/Assyria.

12 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Syria,” 13 June 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/Syria/Media-and-publishing#toc214617.

13 Liam Stack, “Satellite Images Show Destruction in Aleppo,” New York Times, 7 August 2013, http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/08/07/satellite-images-show-destruction-in-aleppo/.

14 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Syria."

15 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Syria."

16 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Syria."

2 based in contemporary Turkey. When Ottoman power began to wane and Egypt invaded and occupied Damascus, Europeans once again became involved, with the British supporting the Ottomans and the French siding with the Egyptians.17 At the end of World War I, control of Syria passed from the Ottoman Empire to France. From 1920 to 1946, France administered Syria as a League of Nations mandate (essentially as a colony).18

After independence, the Syrian government was plagued by instability until Hafez al-Assad established the current government during a 1971 military coup. When Hafez died in 2000, the presidency passed to his son, Bashar, the current president. Although the majority (74%) of the country’s population is Sunni Muslim, Bashar al- Assad has continued his father’s policy of filling Syria’s top government and military positions with family members and people from the minority Alawite (Shiite Muslim) religious community.19 As a result, much of the opposition to the government is from Sunni Muslims and their Saudi and Gulf supporters. By contrast, much of the support for the government is from Shiite Alawites and their Iranian supporters.

Origins of the Civil War Inspired by 2011 anti-government protests in Tunisia and Egypt, Syrian protests first began in the city of Deraa and quickly spread to other cities. Protesters called for Bashar al-Assad to step down after four decades of family rule and continued violations of civil rights.20 By June 2011, as many as 100,000 Syrians had participated in protests, and 1,500 had been killed by government forces.21

In response to the regime’s crackdown, numerous opposition groups, including defectors from the Syrian military, gradually took up arms against the regime. Most of the military, however, continued to support Assad. By fall 2011, the fighting between opposition groups and the government’s military forces had escalated to full civil war, with large numbers of combatants on each side.22 Today, this conflict is far from a two-sided intrastate war. The situation is one of unthinkable complexity, with over a thousand militant rebel groups involved in the fighting. Each group not only has their own grievances and ideologies, but each have their own combination of support coming in from countries like the US, Russia, the Gulf States, and beyond. The war has been further complicated and escalated by the rise of ISIS, the powerful militant group that now holds control of large parts of Syria and Iraq. This complexity is one reason that the war has perpetuated for five years already. According to scholars, civil wars today, including the Syrian Civil war, are often prolonged by foreign intervention. This contrasts with historic civil wars, which often ended quickly when one side ran out of resources, or defeated the other militarily. The Syrian war, from this perspective, could continue for at least another five years if nothing is done to end the conflict.23

In April 2016, Staffan de Mistura, the UN special envoy for Syria, estimated the death toll in Syria to be around 400,000. Today the "UN no longer keeps track of the death toll due to the inaccessibility of many areas and the complications of navigating conflicting statistics put forward by the Syrian government and armed opposition groups." It is thus hard to estimate the number of civilians, for example, killed during the conflict – though civilian deaths have been frequent in the war.24

17 Encyclopedia Britannica, “Syria."

18 “Iraq,” CIA World Factbook, available at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/iz.html.

19 "Syria," CIA World Factbook, available at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html.

20 “Holding the Fort,” Economist, 31 March 2011, available at http://www.economist.com/node/18488544.

21 “The Squeeze on Assad,” Economist, 30 June 2011, available at http://www.economist.com/node/18895586.

22 David Jolly, “Death Toll in Syrian Civil War Near 93,000, U.N. Says,” New York Times, 13 June 2013, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/14/world/middleeast/un-syria-death-toll.html

23 Max Fisher, "Syria’s Paradox: Why the War Only Ever Seems to Get Worse," New York Times, 26 August 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/27/world/middleeast/syria-civil-war-why-get-worse.html.

24 "Syria death toll: UN envoy estimates 400,000 killed," AlJazeera, 23 April 2016, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/04/staffan-de-mistura-400000-killed-syria-civil-war-160423055735629.html.

The most pressing question facing the Security Council: How can diplomacy and limited military force be utilized to bring this fighting to an end? Initially, it was thought the war might end with the death or deposition of Bashar al-Assad and the establishment of a democratic government. Five years later, it appears that the Syrian government is strong enough to hold onto much of its territory, especially with the support of larger regimes such as Russia and Iran. Even if that were not the case, it is unlikely the fighting would cease if the government did change. There is no single opposition movement ready to take the government’s place. Instead, there are about 1,200 rebel groups, each with a local power base and a unique agenda. Moreover, there is a growing divide between rebels who seek democratic reforms and those who wish to establish a fundamentalist Islamic state.25

Human Rights and Human Security in Syria When violence initially erupted, it was by the Syrian government against unarmed civilian protesters. Thus, most accusations of human rights abuses were against the Assad regime. As the conflict has continued, however, human rights abuses from both the government and opposition forces have become apparent. According to Human Rights Watch:

Violence in Syria has escalated amid an absence of meaningful efforts to end the war. The government and its allies carried out deliberate and indiscriminate attacks on civilians. Incommunicado detention and torture remain rampant. Armed groups opposing the government have attacked civilians, used child soldiers, kidnapped, and tortured. The extremist group Islamic State (also known as ISIS), and Al-Qaeda’s affiliate in Syria, Jabhat al-Nusra, were responsible for targeting civilians, kidnappings, and executions.26

Between February 2014 and January 2015, Human Rights Watch determined 450 major damage sites that showed damage consistent with barrel bomb detonations, estimating that 22,2015 aerial barrel bomb attacks had killed 6,163 civilians in Syria, including 1,892 children. They also found that Syrian security forces continue to detain people arbitrarily, reporting that at least 890 detainees died in custody in 2015 from infections, torture, and lack of care for chronic diseases.27

Human rights organizations and the United Nations have also voiced concern over the inaccessibility of Syria to humanitarian workers and the paucity of routes for civilians to leave war zones. This problem exacerbates human security issues in the region, as people do not have access to necessities like food, water, energy, and medical assistance. The UN Office for the Coordination of Human Rights (OCHA) estimates that in 2016, 13.5 million people, including 6 million children, are in need of humanitarian assistance. OCHA claims that:

Of these 5.47 million people are in hard-to-reach areas, including close to 600,000 people in 18 besieged areas. According to current figures, 11.5 million Syrians require health care, 13.5 million need protection support and 12.1 million require water and sanitation, while 5.7 million children need education support, including 2.7 million who are out of school in Syria and across the region. About 2.48 million people are food insecure, while more than 1.5 million need shelter and household goods.28

Under the Geneva Conventions (which applies to intrastate conflicts and which Syria has ratified) and customary International Human Rights law, combatants must protect the lives of civilians and must give civilians the opportunity to leave any territory experiencing armed conflict.29

25 Ben Hubbard and Michael R. Gordon, “Key Syrian Rebel Groups Abandon Exile Leaders,” New York Times, 25 September 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/26/world/middleeast/syria-crisis.html.

26 “Human Rights in Syria,” Human Rights Watch, http://www.hrw.org/middle-eastn-africa/syria, accessed 16 August 2016.

27 "Syria: Events of 2015," Human Rights Watch, 2015, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/syria.

28 UNOCHA, “About the Crisis,” available at http://www.unocha.org/syrian-arab-republic/syria-country-profile/about-crisis.

29 Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (12 August 1949), available at http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/INTRO/380.

In February 2016, UNHCR reported that there were approximately 6.6 million internally displaced persons (IDPs) living in Syria. Many IDPs have braved harsh conditions in an attempt to leave the country, primarily to neighboring countries like Turkey and Jordan, and, increasingly, to make the much more harrowing trip across the Mediterranean in an attempt to reach Europe. Even refugees who do make it out of the country risk their lives on these trips only to find that many states have completely closed their borders. As a result, IDPs have undergone continued attacks, often have to live in makeshift camps under poor conditions, and still have no access to humanitarian assistance. In one IDP camp:

Heavy rain leaked into the tents and had turned the clay soil into thick slippery mud, raw sewage flowed between the tents. The food being distributed was insufficient and of very poor quality and large numbers of people complained of medical conditions for which they were receiving no treatment.30

Even when Syrians find shelter outside of camps in abandoned structures like schools, people have a severe shortage of food, water, sanitation, and medical services. Organization like Amnesty International have requested that states take action to assist IDPs, not only via humanitarian assistance, but also through ensuring that IDPs can escape the Syrian conflict by crossing borders.31

Relations with and Effects on Neighboring States The conflict in Syria not only affects the Syrian people. It also affects nearby states. In addition to IDPs within Syria, about 4.5 million Syrians have sought refuge in surrounding countries, including more than 2.5 million in Turkey, 1.1 million Syrian refugees in Lebanon, 635,324 in Jordan, 434,000 in Turkey, 245,022 in Iraq, and 117,658 in Egypt.32 This places strains on the states providing refuge in a number of ways. Refugees escaping war cause “natural resource depletion, irreversible impacts on natural resources, impacts on health, impacts on social conditions, impacts on the economy, and social impacts on local populations.”33 Often states must divert resources to refugees, putting pressure on social programs.34 For instance, in Jordan the “environmental sanitation situation has worsened due to the increased volume of waste” from refugees.35

In addition to providing a haven for a large number of Syrian refugees, Turkey has supported the opposition movement by allowing rebel bases on Turkish territory and working with the US on a plan to topple the Assad regime. This has inflamed Turkish relations with Syria, a former ally. In retaliation, Syria has shelled Turkish territory, and each side has shot down combat jets of the opposing military.36

In June 2016, as a result of an attack on Jordan's border with Syria, which killed several Jordanian soldiers, Jordan closed its final entry points for Syrian refugees. It cited security and economic concerns as its primary reasons for closing its border. Jordan has so far taken in 650,00 Syrian refugees, and was previously allowing 200 to

30 Amnesty International, “Syria: No respite for the millions displaced by the conflict,” 20 June 2013, available at https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/MDE24/031/2013/en/.

31 “Syria: No Respite for the Millions,” Amnesty International.

32 Amnesty International, “Syria’s Refugee Crisis in Numbers,” available at https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/02/syrias-refugee-crisis-in-numbers/.

33 Ken Conca and Jennifer Wallace, “Environment and Peacebuilding in War-torn Societies: Lessons from the UN Environment Programme’s Experience with Postconflict Assessment,” Global Governance, 15(2009), p. 490.

34 Brianna Kielar, Jessica Yellin, and Tom Cohen, “Obama to Move Forward with Plan to Arm Syrian Rebels,” CNN, 24 July 2013, available at http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/23/politics/us-syrian-rebels.

35 Oxfam, “Integrated Assessment of Syrian Refugees in Host Communities,” ReliefWeb [OCHA], 31 March 2013, available at http://reliefweb.int/report/jordan/integrated-assessment-syrian-refugees-host-communities-march-2013.

36 Mark Galeotti, "Why did it take Turkey just 17 seconds to shoot down Russian jet?," The Guardian, 26 November 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/26/russia-turkey-jet-mark-galeotti. 5

300 refugees in each day, after carefully scrutinizing each individual. Jordan now considers its border with Syria a "military zone," and said it would treat any individual crossing the border as a "hostile act."37 As a result of this "[a]round 60,000 people are currently without food, water or healthcare" at the border, particularly because Jordan has denied humanitarian agencies access to the border.38

The conflict in Syria also poses a serious threat to the stability of Iraq, where the minority Sunni population accuses the majority Shiite government of discrimination.39 Some of the Sunni militias currently operating in Syria have roots in and connections with the al-Qaeda affiliated Sunni insurgents who fought the US and coalition forces in Iraq from the US invasion in 2003 until the US departure in 2011. After ISIS declared itself a caliphate in June 2014, the group has gained control of major cities in Iraq, leading to continued military deployments by the US to train and support Iraqi forces.40 Iraqi cities have seen increasing levels of terrorist attacks, the most recent killing 292 civilians with a car bomb in Baghdad, an attack for which ISIS claimed responsibility.41

According to the BBC in 2013, the Syrian conflict has had the most detrimental effect on the political stability of Lebanon. Hezbollah, a Shiite militia and political party with seats in the Lebanese government, depends on Assad for weapons to confront Israel and maintain political support. As a result, the group has assisted Assad in his fight against the rebels. This has angered Lebanese Sunni groups, which back the Syrian uprising and who have begun to fight Lebanese Alawites and supporters of Assad in some Lebanese cities.42

Although Israel and Syria have technically been at war since 1948, the Syrian-Israeli border was quiescent from the countries’ last real fight in 1973 until the Syrian civil war began in 2011. When shells and gunfire from the Syrian conflict permeated the border near the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, Israel returned fire. Israel has expressed concern that Hezbollah and Al-Qaeda affiliates will obtain advanced weaponry from the Syrian conflict and use it against Israel. To limit this possibility, Israel has used airstrikes to attack military convoys in Syria over the course of the five year war. In response, Syria has accused Israel of supporting rebel groups and has threatened to strike at Israel if it takes further action.43

International Responses to the War Shortly after the Syrian protests began, a number of regional organizations took stances against Bashar al- Assad. Most recognizably, the Arab League (of which Syria was a founding member) encouraged Assad to step down and hold peaceful elections and imposed economic sanctions to encourage him to do so. The European Union also imposed an oil embargo, which has significantly reduced Syria’s economic output.44

As previously noted, a number of states in and beyond the region have become involved in the conflict. For example, Iran and Russia provide military assistance to the Syrian government, while Saudi Arabia and Qatar

37 Rana F. Sweis, “Jordan Closes Border to Syrian Refugees After Suicide Car Bomb Kills 6," 21 June 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/22/world/middleeast/jordan-syria-attack.html.

38 Bethan Staton, "Syrian refugees stuck on Jordan border 'have nothing,'" AlJazeera, 23 June 2016, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/06/syrian-refugees-stuck-jordan-border-160623062555653.html.

39 “How Syria conflict affects its neighbours,” BBC News.

40 Tim Arango, “U.S. Troops, Back in Iraq, Train a Force to Fight ISIS,” 31 December 2014, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/31/world/us-troops-back-in-iraq-train-a-force-to-fight-isis.html.

41 Tim Hume and Kareem Khadder, “Death toll from devastating ISIS truck bomb in Baghdad rises to nearly 300,” CNN, available at http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/07/middleeast/iraq-baghdad-bomb-toll-rises/.

42 “How Syria conflict affects its neighbours,” BBC News.

43 “How Syria conflict affects its neighbours,” BBC News.

44 Liz Sly, “Syria’s economy is key to Assad’s future,” Washington Post, 14 November 2011, available at http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2011-11-14/world/35281705_1_assad-regime-damascus-ayham-kamel.

6 provide arms and training to opposition groups.45 In June 2013, after CIA analyses of the bodies of Syrian civilians and opposition forces revealed traces of chemical weapons, the US announced that it would provide moderate Syrian rebels with small arms and anti-tank equipment.46 In response, Russia and China have criticized the US for intervening in Syria’s internal affairs, in violation of the UN Charter.

On August 21, 2013, reports emerged that a chemical weapons attack had occurred in Eastern Damascus and surrounding areas. Although some observers state that only about 300 people died, others estimate that more than 1,300 people died and that 3,600 were injured and received treatment. Among those affected or killed by the weapons were noncombatants, including a large number of children. Although Assad has repeatedly denied using chemical weapons and pinned their use on rebel forces, the US has stated that it has strong evidence that the Syrian government has used such weapons.47

In late August 2013, as a response to the attack, the US began considering missile strikes against Syrian government military targets. As Obama continued to seek support for the strike both domestically and internationally, Russia stated that it would accept a proposal to remove chemical weapons from Syria. Shortly thereafter, both Assad and the US agreed to begin working towards eliminating chemical weapons in Syria. On September 27, 2013, the Security Council agreed to a resolution that would work to remove Syria’s chemical weapons by June 2014. As a concession to Russia, however, the resolution does not include immediate consequences for the Syrian government if it fails to fulfill its obligations under the resolution.48 In June 2014, the UN announced that the removal of Syrian chemical weapons was complete.49

After the cooperation on the removal of chemical weapons, the conflict between the US and Russia in the region worsened, and has now become a central component shaping the structure of the conflict, specifically since the birth of the Islamic State. From the beginning of the war, the US has called on Assad to relinquish his position and has encouraged states to impose sanctions on the Syrian government and to assist moderate opposition groups.50 Russia, however, has continued to support Assad both militarily and diplomatically, protecting and putting major resources into key Russian naval and air bases in areas controlled by the Syrian government.51

In the first few years of the war, both sides were committed to working towards a diplomatic solution with no direct military involvement in the country. However, the birth and expansion of ISIS placed a new pressure on the international community, and by 2016, both Russia and the US were both directing airstrikes against ISIS targets within Syria. In his address to the nation on September 10, 2014, Obama announced his intention to bomb ISIS

45 Michael R Gordon, “Kerry Announces Saudi Support for Syrian Strike,” New York Times, 8 September 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/09/world/middleeast/kerry-announces-saudi-support-for-syrian-strike.html?ref=world.

46 Dan Roberts, “US Says it Will Arm Syrian Rebels after Chemical Weapons Test,” The Guardian, 13 June 2013, available at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/13/syria-chemical-weapons-us-confirm.

47 “Syria chemical attack: What we know,” BBC News, 24 September 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east- 23927399.

48 Gladstone and Sengupta, “Swift Movement is Seen on Syria After U.N. Action.”

49 “Syria Profile—Timeline,” BBC News, available at http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703995.

50 Hillary Rodham Clinton, “Remarks Following UNSC Meeting on Syria,” US Department of State website, 31 January 2013, available at http://www.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2012/01/182848.htm.

51 “Syria crisis: Where key countries stand,” 30 October 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-23849587.

7 targets in Syria, backed by a coalition of European and Gulf States.52 The coalition has carried out numerous airstrikes. By August of 2015 it was estimated that US-led airstrikes had killed nearly 500 civilians in Syria.53

Russia, on the other hand, began their airstrike campaign in September 2015, similarly claiming that they were aimed against ISIS targets. This claim has been met with great skepticism, as the West and Syrian opposition claim that they have overwhelmingly targeted anti-Assad forces.54 This tense situation has been reflected throughout attempted peace talks and within the UN Security Council, as diplomacy has continuously failed and compromises have not been reached.

The Geneva II peace talks were repeatedly postponed until February 2014.55 These talks were consumed with gridlock between backers of the Assad regime and the opposition, and failed after just six days of inconclusive discussion.56 The next round of peace talks (Geneva III) has also seen months of postponement, delays, and controversies. These peace talks broke up most recently in April after the opposition delegation quit, accusing the Syrian government of ignoring a cessation of hostilities brokered in February.57 In September 2016, the US and Russia negotiated a ceasefire between the Syrian government and rebel groups. The ceasefire began on 12 September. As of 15 September, it is uncertain whether the ceasefire will continue. Both sides have claimed that the other has violated the ceasefire, including failures on Assad's part to deliver aid to citizens in Aleppo.58

Previous Committee Work on this Topic

The United Nations has made numerous attempts to foster a diplomatic solution to the Syrian conflict, particularly by sending several special envoys to speak with the involved parties. The UN initially sent former Secretary-General Kofi Annan in hopes of placating both groups. When Annan stepped down in August 2012, Ban Ki-Moon appointed Lakhdar Brahimi to serve as Joint Special Representative for Syria representing both the United Nations and the Arab League.59 Ban Ki-Moon has also designated Staffan de Mistura as the UN Special Envoy to Syria, who will “will consult broadly and engage with all relevant interlocutors within and outside Syria, in order to end the violence and facilitate a peaceful Syrian-led and inclusive political solution that meets the democratic aspirations of the Syrian people.”60

52 Dan Roberts and Spencer Ackerman, “Barack Obama authorises air strikes against Isis militants in Syria,” The Guardian, 11 September 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/sep/10/obama-speech-authorise-air-strikes-against-isis-syria.

53 Ishaan Tharoor, “US-led air war in Syria has killed hundreds of civilians, report says,” 4 August 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/08/04/u-s-led-air-war-in-syria-has-killed-hundreds-of-civilians- study-says/?tid=a_inl.

54 “Syria profile—timeline,” BBC News.

55 Security Council Report, “Syria: From Stalemate to Compromise,” 27 September 2013, http://www.whatsinblue.org/2013/09/syria-adoption-of-a-chemical-weapons-resolution.php.

56 Guardian Staff, “Syria peace talks break up as UN Envoy fails to end deadlock,” The Guardian, 15 February 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/15/syria-peace-talks-break-up-geneva.

57 Michelle Nichols, “Syria Talks Should Not Rest on Halt in Aleppo Fighting: Russia,” Reuters, 9 August 2016, http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-talks-idUKKCN10K25V.

58 Nick Cumming-Bruce, " Syria Is Delaying Aid Deliveries in Violation of Cease-Fire, U.N. Says," New York Times, 15 September 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/16/world/middleeast/syria-cease-fire-aid.html.

59 UN News Centre, “UN, Arab League appoint veteran diplomat to take over Annan’s role on Syrian crisis,” United Nations, 12 August 2012, available at http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=42702#.Uko5p4bNU0E.

60 “Secretary-General Appoints Staffan de Mistura Special Envoy for Syria, Ramzy Ezzeldin Ramzy Deputy Special Envoy for Syria,” UN News Centre, 10 July 2014, available at http://www.un.org/press/en/2014/sga1480.doc.htm.

UN organizations have also tried to ameliorate the negative humanitarian consequences of the conflict. Today, the UN Food and Agricultural Organization, World Food Programme, UN Children’s Fund, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, UN High Commissioner for Refugees, and the UN Population Fund all provide services to Syrians.61 For instance, UNICEF has distributed food, hygienic supplies, and water, but Syrian government checkpoints have limited the organization’s ability to reach people in need.62

In Security Council Resolution 2043 adopted in 2012, the Security Council established the UN Supervision Mission in Syria (UNSMIS). This resolution gave UNSMIS the mission of monitoring a ceasefire and ensuring the fulfillment of the Joint Special Envoy’s six-point plan. The plan aims to end violence in Syria, use the special envoy as a mediator, respect the rights and aspirations of the Syrian people, ensure the access of humanitarian assistance, and allow free movement of observers, such as journalists. Initially, UNSMIS had a 90-day renewable mandate, but the Security Council stopped renewing it in August 2013 because the use of heavy weapons and the high level of violence made it too dangerous for UN personnel to carry out the task.63 There has not been another UN peacekeeping mission in Syria since.

From 2011 until September 2013, with the exception of authorizing and de-authorizing UNSMIS, the Council could not achieve consensus on any measure to address the conflict. In July 2012, China and Russia vetoed a resolution that would have placed sanctions on the Syrian government until violence ended against opposition groups. This was the third instance in which China and Russia vetoed sanctions on the Syrian government. China and Russia have stated that they want to avoid another destabilizing military intervention, as in Iraq and Libya.64

However, as the conflict has dragged on and violence has increased, the Security Council has successfully passed more resolutions concerning the conflict, most notably S/RES/2258 in December 2015 and S/RES/2268 in February 2016. S/RES/2258, which was adopted unanimously, was the first resolution focused exclusively on a political solution to the Syrian conflict, and it called for a Syrian-led political process to be facilitated by the UN.65 S/RES/2268 was adopted amidst the continuous failures of the Geneva peace talks, and the resolution endorsed the cessation of hostilities and called for the resumption of political talks.66

The UN General Assembly (GA) has also passed several resolutions on the issue. In early 2013, the GAadopted the resolution “The Situation in the Syrian Arab Republic,” which condemned the violence and human rights abuses committed by both sides of the fighting and urged Syria to allow humanitarian aid and independent observers into the state to distribute aid, evaluate the situation for human rights abuses, and investigate the alleged use of chemical weapons against civilians.67 According to Syria and Russia, this resolution gave unbalanced support to the opposition forces in Syria and empowered terrorist organizations within the country. China also opposed the resolution, arguing that was in violation of the UN Charter because it interfered unnecessarily in the internal affairs

61 UN News Centre, “News Focus: Syria,” United Nations, available at http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocusRel.asp?infocusID=146&Body=Syria&Body1=, accessed 4 September 2013.

62 UN News Centre, “Syria: UN officials urge humanitarian access to thousands trapped by intense fighting,” United Nations, 2 August 2013, available at http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=45555&Cr=syria&Cr1=#.UhJ0aT8cCHs

63 “United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria,” United Nations, available at http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/unsmis/, accessed 2 September 2013. Also see: UN Security Council Resolution 2043, 21 April 2012, available at http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=S/RES/2043%20(2012).

64 Rick Gladstone, “Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions,” New York Times, 19 July 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html.

65 UN Security Council, Resolution 2254, 18 December 2015, available at http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2254(2015).

66 UN Security Council Resolution 2268, 26 February 2016, available at http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/2268(2016).

67 UN General Assembly Resolution 67/262, 15 may 2013, available at http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/67/262.

9 of Syria. By contrast, the US and members of the Arab League extolled the document as emblematic of the international community’s desire to bring peace to Syria.68

The 2015 session saw the passage of six resolutions pertaining to Syria.69 A/RES/70/234 focused on the human rights situation in the country, strongly condemning the armed violence by Syrian authorities against its own people and demanding an immediate end to all indiscriminate attacks in public spaces.70 Four of the six focused on the Israeli-occupied Syrian Golan, and one on the financing of the UN Supervision Mission in Syria.

Conclusion

Soon the Syrian civil war will enter its sixth year. What can the Security Council do to ensure that the violence ends and stability returns to the country so that the war does not spread to neighboring states and further distance UN Member States from one another? In researching and writing your country’s position on this issue, consider the following questions:

--What political, military, economic, and cultural relations does your country have with Syria? How might supporting either the Assad regime or the opposition affect your country? --How has your country been affected by the civil war in Syria and by civil wars in other countries, such as Afghanistan, Iraq, and Libya? --What is your country’s experience with civil war and human rights violations within its own borders? What is its record of involvement in civil and international wars in other countries? What do these experiences suggest about how the Syrian conflict could be resolved? --What is your country’s current stance on refugees? Have they accepted Syrian refugees? How are they financially and politically effected by the current Syrian refugee crisis? --From your country’s perspective, which of the following elements of the Syrian conflict are most important: lack of democracy, religious differences, civil war, refugees, regional instability, terrorism, weapons of mass destruction? Should the Security Council attempt to address all of these issues, or should it focus on just some of them? --Is your country a party to the Chemical Weapons Convention? How did it respond to the use of chemical weapons in Syria, to the US’s threat of force, and to the Security Council resolution on chemical disarmament? --What can and should the Security Council do to ensure that Syrians in particular and people and states worldwide will experience greater peace and security in the coming months, years, and decades?