International Journal of Management (IJM) Volume 11, Issue 11, November 2020, pp. 2062-2072. Article ID: IJM_11_11_195 Available online at http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJM?Volume=11&Issue=11 Journal Impact Factor (2020): 10.1471 (Calculated by GISI) www.jifactor.com ISSN Print: 0976-6502 and ISSN Online: 0976-6510 DOI: 10.34218/IJM.11.11.2020.195
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COLLABORATIVE INITIATIVES TO MANAGE MALAY LANGUAGE RESEARCH
James T. Collins Distinguished Professor, Institut Kajian Etnik, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Chong Shin* Lecturer, Institut Alam dan Tamadun Melayu, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
ABSTRACT One hundred years ago, western scholars finally realized that the Malay language had a documented history as old as the English language. The study of Malay should then have followed the procedures and methods developed for studying other major languages of the world. But, instead, narrow nationalism coupled with hyper- prescriptivism has emerged as the trademark of Malay language studies. In this brief paper, we will explore observations by outsiders about Malay in the region and consider the contrasting narrow and bounded scope of contemporary research about the Malay language. The importance of devising a management program for transdisciplinary and transnational collaborative research projects needs to be emphasized, not as an exploration of the past but as a blueprint for the future. Key words: Malay language, Transdisciplinary, Transnational, Collaborative Management. Cite this Article: James T. Collins and Chong Shin, Collaborative Initiatives to Manage Malay Language Research, International Journal of Management, 11(11), 2020, pp 2062-2072. http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJM?Volume=11&Issue=11 1. INTRODUCTION In November 1920 an inscription carved on a stone was discovered near Palembang in South Sumatra. Scholarly investigation proved that this inscription was the oldest example of written Malay, dated 683 AD (van Ronkel 1924); see Figure 1. This inscription and other Malay texts discovered in Sumatra (Miksic and Goh 2016) were soon matched by lithic inscriptions and impressed bronze plates written in Early Malay (Old Malay) found beyond Sumatra: among many others, in Bangka (dated 686), Java (832), even the northern -like, chronologically layered expansion of Malay language texts demonstrates the centrifugal force of the tradition of Malay literacy, dynamically
http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJM 2062 [email protected] James T. Collins and Chong Shin released by its association with the advanced philosophical traditions of major world The evidence is indisputable: Malay-languages texts date back to 683 AD. However documented and preserved reports about Malay and its role in the cultural milieu of Southeast Asia by on-the-scene observers date to only eight hundred or nine hundred years after the emergence of the seventh century inscriptions. Early in the sixteenth century, European visitors and officials wrote about the amazing and unparalleled importance of the Malay language in the region. Five hundred years ago Antonio Pigafetta wrote about the use of Malay in the Philippines, Brunei and Maluku (Bausani 1960). In 1544, A. G crown in Ternate, compared the widespread use of Malay to the lingua franca of the Mediterranean (Jacobs 1971). In 1545 the Basque scholar and missionary, Francis Xavier, decided to go to Malacca to translate Catholic prayers and doctrine from Latin to Malay so he could use them in the proselytization of Sulawesi and Maluku (Schurhammer 1980:135). In 1578 the Spanish governor in Manila sent a letter written in Malay to the sultan of Brunei, where it was received in an elaborate court ritual (Collins 2018a:28). The Dutch traveler, Frederik de Houtman started collecting Malay language materials for his book of Malay dialogues and dictionary, when he was held prisoner in Aceh in 1599 (Collins 2018a; Karim 2017). In the same year the Dutch reached Ternate in Maluku where they assembled a wordlist of Malay (Collins and Schmidt 1992). These documented accounts of the use of Malay for diverse purposes in many places indicate that the contemporary role of Malay in Southeast Asia has a long history. Malay with various names is the national language of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Moreover it is the largest minority language of Thailand. In some other Southeast Asian countries, such as Cambodia, Myanmar, the Philippines and Timor Leste, Malay is spoken by certain communities or for specific purposes. With an estimated three hundred million speakers, Malay is the Southeast Asian language with the largest number of speakers.
Figure 1 The Inscription of the oldest example of written Malay, dated 683 AD (Source: van Ronkel 1924)
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Yet, the fact of Malay and its role in Southeast Asia as a region is obscure and poorly ken in Thailand. The number of Malaysian scholars who study Malay outside of Malaysia is very limited. Many Indonesian scholars do not recognize the connection of their national language with Malay other media the Malay language is incapable of expressing scientific concepts. In this brief paper, we will explore observations by outsiders about Malay in the region and consider the contrasting narrow and bounded scope of contemporary research about the Malay language. The importance of devising a management program for transdisciplinary and transnational collaborative research projects needs to be emphasized, not as an exploration of the past but as a blueprint for the future.
2. TRAVELLERS AND SCHOLARS As noted by Miskic and Goh (2016:518), the beginning of the sixteenth century marked a watershed in the history of Southeast Asia. The arrival of the Portuguese in the first decade of the century did not cause immediate changes in the social and economic structure of the region, but by the end of the century the encroachment of the British and Dutch generated deep and long-lasting restructuring of the regional socioeconomic ecology. The sixteenth century visitors, however, produced eye witness accounts of the roles of Malay and early efforts to understand the meaning of Malay in the region. This era is sometimes called the Age of Discovery because westerners first en Portuguese official posted in Ternate, North Maluku. As he wrote in 1544 (Jacobs (1971) e Malay language has come into vogue; and most of them speak it In sixteenth-century Europe Latin was the language of religion, education, diplomacy and scholarship. especially if we remember that Ternate, the threshold of the Pacific Ocean, is more than 5000 kilometers from Melaka. Basque priest from northwestern Spain, waited in Melaka for favourable winds to bring him to the eastern periphery of Island Southeast Asia. While he was in Melaka, he focused on studying the Malay language. As Schurhammer (1980:30- understood on the islands, Master Francis spent all the time left over from his apostolic labors in studying this language. He had no written or printed works to assist him in learning it, and it was written by the Mohammedans in Arabic characters. In February 1546, Xavier disembarked in Ambon island, where he wrote on 10 May 1546 very common in these parts. With much labor (at the time when I was in Malacca), I translated into this Malayan language the Credo with an explanation of the articles, the general confession, Pater noster, Ave Maria, Salve Regina and the commandments of the law so that they might understand me when I Again in a distant island of the archipelago thousands of kilometres from the Straits of Melaka, Malay was in widespread use, not just among Muslims but among those who had yet converted to a world religion. This led a Catholic priest to choose Malay for his missionary activities.
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Elsewhere, in the center of Southeast Asia the Malay language was emblematic of major trading cities. As Anthony Reid (1988), summarized the role of the Malay language and its link to identity--- Asia. The cosmopolitan trading cities came to be classified as Malay because they spoke that language and professed Islam, even when their forebears may have been Javanese, Mon, The Dutch missionary and author of a compendium about Southeast Asia and beyond, Francois Valentyn, wrote at length about his own observations in the region (Valentyn 1726, Their language, Bahasa Melayu, that is, the Malay language (whether called after its people or after the country) was not only spoken on the coast, but was used through the whole of the Indies, and in all the Eastern countries, as a language understood everywhere and by everyone, just as French or Latin in Europe, or as the Lingua Franca in Italy or in the Levant, to such an extent that, knowing that language, one never will be at a loss, because it is used and understood in Persia, nay even beyond that country in that region, and also as far as the Philippines. Moreover, if you do not understand this language, you are considered a very badly educated man in the East, whilst the Malays are accustomed to study it, trying their utmost to enlarge their knowledge of it and to learn also Arabic; some among them even study Persian, and those who are more studious still strive to obtain knowledge of Sanskrit, the mother It is by nature a pleasant, mellifluous, charming and very forceful language with which to express oneself. French, Latin, lingua francaMalay was similar to all these languages of wider communication, but Malay was much more. Malay functioned as the language of scholarship and religion like Latin, but also as the language of diplomacy like French. Moreover, Malay was the language of international commerce like the lingua franca of the Mediterranean. Malay played more roles than any single language of Europe. Later in the eighteenth century, an American seaman and unwilling visitor, David Woodard, shipwrecked and held for ransom with some of his crew for more than two years (1793-1795) in the now well-known Donggala and Palu region of central Celebes, learned to captivity he and h (Vaughan 1804:24, 37-38). account (1804), Woodard provided a vocabulary of Malay, influenced by Bugis, Makassarese and the local languages of central Celebes, that is, Malay as it was spoken in that area which at that time was still remote from colonial control; see Collins (2006). The nineteenth century brought even more western visitors: scholars, doctors, travel writers among them. In 1854, the British pioneer of evolutionary theory, Alfred R. Wallace, arrived in Singapore. He spent the next eight years in island Southeast Asia traveling, collecting insect and animal specimens, classifying and describing them while piecing together the theory of evolution. He noted that in 1859 Malay was the only language spoken by the government official (controlleur) in Tomohon, northeast Sulawesi, as they enjoyed an elegant European dinner under glittering chandeliers, while sipping madeira. He also reported the informal Malay conversation his Malacca Portuguese field assistant had with Balinese and Sasak villagers in Lombok in 1856. Wallace himself conducted entirely in just such a vehicular Malay. [In 1857] in the remote outpost of Kupang,
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the topic of international discussion in Malay, before Darwin had even published his Origin of the species in 1859 In the Malay Peninsula, Isabell L. Bird, renowned nineteenth century traveller and author observed for herself the importance of Malay within the Chinese community of Taiping, Perak. During her visit in that tin-mining town in Februa five dialects of Chinese are spoken, and Chinamen constantly communicate with each other in government official in Malaya and a contemporary of Isabella Bird wrote even more effusively and broadly about the role of Malay. In 1881, W. E. Maxwell (1907:2) declared: East... It is spoken in all the states of the Peninsula, in Sumatra, Sunda, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Flores, Timor, and Timor Laut, the Moluccas, and the Philippines ... Siam proper has a large Malay population, descendants mainly of captives taken in war, and the language is therefore in use there in places; it is found also here and there on the coasts and rivers of Anam and Cochin-China. No other language of the Eastern Archipelago is understood over such an extensive area, and it is the common means of communication between the numerous tribes (1726) claim about the diffusion of Malay almost two hundred years earlier. Both Valentyn and Maxwell emphasize the geographic diffusion of Malay but, at the same time, comparisons with the international languages of Europe suggest the vast range of social domains in which Malay functioned. Western observers writing for five hundred years have reported on Malay as a regional phenomenon of great social complexity, the medium of communication for scientific discussions between a Welshman and a German, for the explanation of religious doctrines whether Islamic or Christian and for day-to-day interaction among the diverse peoples of the region. Nonetheless, in contemporary Southeast Asia the study of Malay has been compartmentalized both by political boundaries as well as disciplinary borders. The status of Malay as a regional language across diverse social domains seldom attracts the attention of Southeast Asian scholars. In Thailand, Thai scholars have studied the Malay dialects spoken in central Thailand, the ieties of Patani Malay; see Collins (2018b) but not dialects. In Malaysia, the standard grammar book, Tatabahasa Dewan (Safiah et al 1986), devotes a chapter to dialects, idiolects, and registers but there is no mention of dozens of dialects of Malay spoken in Indonesia, Brunei or Thailand. The Ensiklopedia Sejarah dan Kebudayaan Melayu (Safian Hussain et al. (Eds.) 1994:628-664.) devoted almost forty pages to entries about Malay dialects in Southeast Asia, but entries written by Malaysian scholars about dialects outside of Malaysia are not drawn from their own research but rather they are summaries based on books published, in particular, in Indonesia. Indeed very few Malaysian scholars have conducted research on Malay dialects spoken outside of Malaysia. Based on entries in the series of Malay dialect bibliographies (Collins 1990, 1995a, linguists write exclusively about Malay dialects in Indonesia. Moreover, the titles of books and articles written by Indonesian scholars often fail to recognize or, perhaps, acknowledge Malay dialects. In Sumatra, Malay dialects spoken by Muslim groups living chiefly on the
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dialek Melayu Jambi”, “bahasa Melayu Langkat”, “Melayu Belitung “bahasa Minangkabau, bahasa Kerinci -Muslim groups in Sumatra always appear in book titles as separate languages (“bahasa Bonai”, “bahasa Lubu”, “bahasa Sekak”). In Indonesian Borneo, Malay dialects spoken on the west coast usually are referred to by Indonesian scholars as Malay variants (“bahasa Melayu Sambas”, “bahasa Melayu Pontianak”) but elsewhere are on the island they are separ bahasa Kutai”, “bahasa Banjar”, “bahasa Bukit enclaves in the largely Hindu areas of Bali and western Lombok are entitled Malay dialects (“dialek Melayu di Bali’, “dialek Melayu Ampenan”, “dialek Melayu Sasak Indonesia the Malay dialects spoken mostly by Christian communities are usually referred to bahasa Melayu Ambon”, “bahasa Melayu Manado prefer labelling these Malay dialects as languages bahasa Manado boundaries that block progress in the efforts to understand the language networks of Southeast Asia. To my knowledge, there is no comprehensive study comparing lexical, phonetic or morphosyntactic differences between Malay variants in Pattani and nearby Thai provinces with variants in Kelantan and Hulu Perak. Neither Malaysian nor Thai scholars have conducted such research. The Malays of Satun province in Thailand are losing their heritage Malay variant which is a subdialect of Kedah Malay; recognizing this and drawing on the many resources for Kedah Malay, a language revitalization project could be developed by a team of Malaysian and Thai scholars. Indonesian scholars published a monograph entitled Struktur bahasa Orang Laut (bahasa spoken by non-Malays in two small villages on the coast of Sumatra northwest of Medan is, in fact, a subdialect of Kedah Malay (Collins 1988)a fact the authors of the book apparently did not realize precisely because of the ideological boundaries that persist in this region. Kalimantan Timur is a subdialect of Johor Malay but no Southeast Asian scholar has studied it from that perspective. Political ideologies of geography, ultimately based on divide and conquer treaties of the colonial era, such as the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, have obscured scientific generalizations and impeded scholarly progress. How can we change this limited, parochial scope for the
3. MANAGING THE COLLABORATIVE STUDY OF MALAY By limiting research about the Malay language to projects bounded by national borders, the complexity of the Malay language is overlooked. Important generalizations about linguistic processes may go unnoticed, language history and etymology are poorly understood, the social setting of language domains is disregarded. There are two interlinked endeavors that should be undertaken to advance research about Malay as a regional phenomenon in Southeast Asia. We must replace narrowly confined knowledge with a broader perspective. We must reject hearsay and fleeting impressions and replace them with analyses based on empirical data. To achieve these goals we should design projects that are both transdisciplinary and transnational.
3.1. Transdisciplinary Research The Harvard Transdisciplinary Research in Energetics and Cancer Center (TREC). This Center offers a description (TREC 2018) of Transdisciplinary Research: Research is defined as research efforts conducted by investigators from
http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJM 2067 [email protected] Collaborative Initiatives to Manage Malay Language Research different disciplines working jointly to create new conceptual, theoretical, methodological, and translational innovations that integrate and move beyond discipline-specific approaches to The emphasis here is on planned efforts shared among diverse disciplines to produce innovations to resolve shared problems. However, there is a more nuanced, more inclusive understanding of transdisciplinary research. Toomey et al. (2015) perceived transdisciplinary research as an endeavour with broader societal implications: -disciplinary work moves beyond the bridging of divides within academia to engaging directly with the production and use of knowledge outside of the academy. In this approach, societal impact is laid out as a central aim of the research at hand. Solutions that emerge from the research may additionally be put into place through an action-oriented process built on direct collaboration with the The critical underpinning is that transdisciplinary research means Move Beyond Academia. Indeed, cooperative efforts should lead to action-oriented processes. As McGregor specific kind of interdisciplinary research involving scientific and non-scientific sources or practice; and (b) a new form of learning and problem solving involving cooperation among different parts of society, including academia, in order to meet the complex challenges of ne From this point of view, transdisciplinary research is not only about scholars from different fields creating innovative and integrative ideas. It should be more than that. Transdisciplinary research plans and their implementation must include scholars, practitioners and local community members. So what social scientists and linguists should aim at are projects that draw on the expertise and insights of many scholars in diverse fields, that are based on an action plan that ensures the criss-crossing of these many disciplines and that build a strong linkage to the language starting point and core focus. Moreover, social sciences and humanities do not prosper in an ethereal environment far from the natural sciences. Indeed, the founding of modern linguistics in the nineteenth century developed simultaneously and symbiotically with the emergence of the new technologies as well as innovative methodologies and conceptualizations of that era. As delineated in Collins linguistics as a field of study has developed side by side with rapid advances in the life sciences, especially botany and zoology. Terms like morphology, innovation, retention, diversification, speciation, reconstruction, indeed the possibility of extinction discussed above, all arose because of perceived parallels between the study of languages and biology. The basic linguistic notion of a family tree or dendrogram to image the relationships of related languages draws its strength from the strength of evolutionary theory. Thus, it is appropriate to continue to see contemporary language phenomena through the perspective of life it is all the more important for transdisciplinary research to be linked to the sciences.
3.2. Transnational Research In 1995 scholars from five Southeast Asian countries founded the Southeast Asian Studies Regional Exchange Program (SEASREP) with support from the Toyota Foundation. Among hat
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National University of Malaysia and Tanjungpura University in Indonesia to conduct collaborative research in both Indonesia and Malaysia. The research team included specialists in anthropology, sociology, oral literature, linguistics and the then emerging field of computer science. The realization that underpinned this project was, first, that what is needed now is intensive, focused research at the ground level; there can be no substitution for basic empirical research and inductive analysis. The second insight was the need for collaborative, transnational research; in this case only two Southeast Asian countries were involved but the groundwork was laid for more comprehensive regional collaboration. This project relied on the sustained cooperation of local communities, indigenous ransnational collaboration of young scholars. Malaysians conducted research in Indonesia and Indonesians in Malaysia. The research provided those individual scholars with insights into their own fields and the interlinked social ecologies of the region. The project also produced publications in Malay, Indonesian and English about the complex issues that connect languages and ethnic groups across political borders. Perhaps of even greater importance in the last fifteen years the project has served as the model for numerous other research transnational projects that focus on language issues in some of the Malay-speaking parts of Southeast Asia. But there remain many topics that can be explored specifically related to the Malay language as a regional phenomenon. In Thailand, for example, there are many possible topics for transnational research. Near Bangkok there are remnant communities where Malay is still remembered, even spoken; see Tadmor (1995). What role does Malay play in their contemporary understanding of their identity? What changes in language vitality have taken place in the more than twenty years Nakhon Si Thammarat provinces, numerous individuals can speak Malay. Where did they acquire these language skills; how and when do they use Malay? As suggested above, the Malays of Satun province in Thailand appear to be losing their heritage Malay, a subdialect of Kedah Malay. This is an undocumented language variant that needs immediate attention, first, to provide a description of the variant and, second, to explore the possibility of developing language maintenance projects. Many Indonesians have been trained in language documentation and Malaysian scholars have worked in language revitalization. A transnational project, involving Thais, Malaysian and Indonesians, could be developed. Some one-time Malaysian visitors to Cambodia have asserted that there is no need to learn Khmer in order to conduct research among the Chams of Cambodia because Malay is widely spoken in that community. These two assertions should not be confused. The Cham language is not Malay or a Malay dialect but that there are Cambodians who speak Malay is credible; that a researcher in Cambodia need not know Khmer or Cham is not credible at all. Again a transnational Southeast Asian team (including Cambodians!) can study the role of Malay among Chams and how they acquired the language. It is not unlikely that this use of Malay in Cambodia is tied to Islamic schools n Patani and Kelantan as well as Cambodians who have worked in Malaysia. Twenty two years ago (November, 1996), participants in the Bengkel Kerjasama Pengajian Melayu di Nusantara, held at the National University of Malaysia, unanimously agreed that research focussing on the language and culture of the Natuna Islands (Indonesia) be prioritized, in view of the plans at that time to expand oil exploration and exploitation to those islands. In late April, 1997, a meeting was held with representatives from four universities in Indonesia, Brunei and Malaysia who succeeded in producing a collaborative research and publication plan for the Natuna project. 1998 was targeted for the launch of this
http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJM 2069 [email protected] Collaborative Initiatives to Manage Malay Language Research transdisciplinary and transnational project (Collins 1998). Sadly this pioneering project was never realized, but the choice of this research site at the very center of Southeast Asia remains viable. Moreover, this project links to the relationship of Tioman Malay and Sarawak Malay (Collins 1986) as well as other Malay dialects spoken in Indonesian Borneo (Kalimanatan Barat). For a long time now, Southeast Asian nations have cooperated in codifying Malay grammar. We can reach out to Malaysians in diverse fields of study and other Southeast Asians to explore the contemporary network of Malay as a social reality that is poorly understood and often politicized. Why is the Malaysian cartoon series, Upin dan Ipin, the most popular program of TV entertainment in Indonesia?
4. CONCLUSION For too long Malaysian linguists have been focused on Malay spoken in Malaysia only. Indeed, for a long time emphasis has been placed on the standard language. Moreover, the task of studying the Malay language has been relegated exclusively to linguists. Sociologists, anthropologists, historians, geographers, and others seldom undertake research about the Malay language, its place in society, its development, its cultural context. Contemporary a demand transnational and transdisciplinary research published in diverse languages. The time has come for the scholars of Southeast Asia to initiate projects that treat the Malay language in a holistic manner within a regional context. We need research that crosses political border and geographic constraints; we need systematic investigations that traverse academic fields and interweave diverse disciplines. Southeast onal and transdisciplinary, research infused with the observation of five hundred years ago about history of man is a seamless web. No part of it can safely be treated in isolation, and certainly
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