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Contents I CONTENTS

1. INDIA - LOCATION ...... 1 Structure and Physiography...... 2 The Peninsular Block...... 2 The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains...... 2 Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain...... 2 Physiography...... 3 North and North Eastern Himalaya:...... 3 The Himalayan Mountains...... 3 Karewas...... 4 Longitudinal division...... 4 Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas...... 4 The Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalays...... 5 The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas...... 5 The Arunachal Himalayas...... 6 The Eastern Hills and Mountains...... 6 The Northern Plains...... 6 The Peninsular Plateau...... 7 The Deccan Plateau...... 8 The Central Highlands...... 8 The Northeastern Plateau...... 9 The Indian Desert...... 9 The Coastal Plains...... 9 The Islands...... 10 2. DDRAINAGE SYSTEM ...... 11 Drainage systems of India...... 12 Important Drainage Patterns...... 12 The Himalayan Drainage...... 12 Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage...... 12 The river Systems of the Himalayan Drainage...... 13 The Indus system...... 13 The Ganga System...... 14 The Brahmaputra System...... 15 The peninsular drainage system...... 16 The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System...... 16 River systems of the peninsular drainage...... 16 Smallar Rivers flowing towards the West...... 17 3. CLIMATE ...... 19 Factors determining the climate of India...... 19

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II Contents

Mechanism of Weather in the Winter Season...... 20 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)...... 21 Mechanism of Weather in the Summer Season...... 21 The Nature of Indian Monsoon...... 22 Onset of the Monsoon...... 22 Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall Distribution...... 23 EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon...... 23 Break in the Monsoon...... 24 The Rhythm of Seasons...... 24 Some Famous Local Storms of Hot Weather Season...... 24 The Cold Weather Season...... 24 Role of Westerly Jet Stream...... 25 The Hot Weather Season...... 26 The Southwest Monsoon Season...... 27 Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea...... 27 Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal...... 28 Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall...... 28 Season of Retreating Monsoon...... 29 Distribution of Rainfall...... 29 Types of Forests...... 31 Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests...... 31 4. NATURAL VEGETATION ...... 31 Tropical Deciduous Forests...... 32 Tropical Thorn Forests...... 32 Montane Forests...... 32 Littoral and Swamp Forests...... 33 Forest cover in India...... 34 Forest Conservation...... 34 Social Forestry...... 35 Farm Forestry...... 35 Wildlife...... 35 Wildlife Conservation in India...... 36 Biosphere Reserves...... 37 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve...... 37 Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve...... 37 Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve...... 38 Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve...... 38 5. SOILS ...... 39 Classification of Soils...... 39 Alluvial Soils...... 40 Black Soil...... 40 Red and Yellow Soil...... 40 Laterite Soil...... 41

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Contents III

Arid Soils...... 41 Saline Soils...... 41 Peaty Soils...... 41 Forest Soils...... 42 Soil Degradation...... 42 Soil Erosion...... 42 Soil Conservation...... 43 Water Resources...... 43 Water Resources of India...... 43 Surface Water Resources...... 44 Groundwater Resources...... 44 Demand of Water for Irrigation...... 45 Prevention of Water Pollution...... 46 Watershed Management...... 46 Rainwater Harvesting...... 47 Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002...... 47 6. LAND USE AND A GRICULTURE ...... 49 Land-use Changes in India...... 50 Agricultural Land Use in India...... 51 Primitive Subsistence Farming...... 52 Intensive Substance Farming...... 52 Commercial Farming...... 53 Types of Farming...... 53 Cropping Pattern...... 53 Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology...... 59 7. MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES ...... 61 Mode of Occurrence of Minerals...... 61 Agencies Involved in the exploration of minerals...... 62 Distribution of Minerals in India...... 62 Major Industries...... 67 The Iron and Steel Industry...... 67 Integrated Steel Plants...... 68 Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)...... 68 Rourkela Steel Plant...... 68 Bhilai Steel Plant...... 69 The Cotton Textile Industry...... 69 8. SUGAR INDUSTRY ...... 72 Location of the Sugar Industry...... 72 Petrochemical Industries...... 73 Knowledge based Industries...... 74 Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG) and Industrial Development in India...... 74 Industrial Region and Districts...... 75

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IV Contents

Industrial Regions in India...... 76 Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region...... 76 Hugli Industrial Region...... 77 Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region...... 77 Gujarat Industrial Region...... 78 Chotanagpur Region...... 78 Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region...... 78 Gurgaon-Delhi-Merrut Region...... 79 Kollam-Tiruvanantapuram Region...... 79 9. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION...... 80 Land Transport...... 80 Indian Road Network (2005)...... 80 Rural Roads...... 81 Other Roads...... 81 National Highways Development Projects...... 81 Rail Transport...... 82 Water Transport...... 83 Inland Waterways...... 83 Oceanic Routes...... 83 Air Transportation...... 83 History of Indian Airlines...... 84 Mass Communication System...... 85 International Trade...... 86 Direction of Trade...... 87 Ports...... 87 Tourism as a Trade...... 89 11. OUR SOLAR SYSTEM ...... 90 The Moon...... 91 Development of Lithosphere...... 91 Minerals & Rocks...... 92 Metallic Minerals...... 92 Non-Metallic Minerals...... 93 Rocks...... 93 Igneous Rocks...... 93 Sedimentary Rocks...... 93 Metamorphic Rocks...... 94 Interior of the Earth...... 94 Direct Sources...... 94 Indirect Sources...... 94 Earthquake...... 94 Why does the earth shake?...... 94 Earthquake Waves...... 95 Propagation of Earthquake Waves...... 95

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Contents V

Emergence of Shadow Zone...... 95 Measuring Earthquakes...... 96 Structure of the Earth...... 96 12. LAND FORMS ...... 99 Running Water...... 99 Youth...... 99 Mature...... 99 Old...... 100 Erosional landforms...... 100 Vallyes...... 100 Potholes and Pluge Pools...... 100 Incised or Entrenched Meanders...... 100 River Terraces...... 100 Depositional Landforms...... 100 Alluvial Fans...... 100 Deltas...... 100 Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars...... 100 Meanders...... 101 Groundwater...... 101 Erosional Landforms...... 102 Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and Limestone Pavements...... 102 Glaciers...... 102 Erosional Landforms...... 103 Horns and Serrated Ridges...... 103 Glacial Valleys/Troughs...... 103 Depositional Landforms...... 103 Eskers...... 103 Outwash Plains...... 104 Drumlins...... 104 Waves and Currents...... 104 High Rocky Coasts...... 104 Low sedimentary coasts...... 105 Erosional Landforms...... 105 Depositional landforms...... 105 Erosional Landforms...... 106 14. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE ...... 109 Composition and Structure of Atmosphere...... 109 Composition of the Atmosphere...... 109 Structure of the Atmosphere...... 110 Evaporation and Condensation...... 111

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INDIA - LOCATION

The mainland of India, extends from climate, soil types and natural vegetation in Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in the country. the south and Arunachal Pradesh in the east There is a general understanding among to Gujarat in the west. India’s territorial limit the countries of the world to select the further extends towards the sea upto 12 standard meridian in multiples of 7º30 of nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast. longitude. That is why 82º30 E has been (See the box for conversion). selected as the ‘standard meridian’ of India. Statute mile= 63,360 inches Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Nautical mile= 72,960 inches Mean Time by 5 hours and 30 minutes. 1 Statute mile= about 1.6 km (1.584 km) There are some countries where there 1 Nautical mile= about 1.8 km (1.852 km) are more than one standard meridian due to Our southern boundary extends upto their vast east-to-west extent. For example, 6º45 N latitude in the Bay of Bengal. If you the USA has seven time zones. work out the latitudinal and longitudinal Now, let us observe the extent and its extent of India, they are roughly about 30 implications on the Indian people. From the degrees, whereas the actual distance values of longitude, it is quite discernible that measured from north to south extremity is there is a variation of nearly 30 degrees, which 3,214 km, and that from east to west is only causes a time difference of nearly two hours 2,933 km. What is the reason for this between the easternmost and the difference? westernmost parts of our country. What is This difference is based on the fact that the use of the standard meridian? While the the distance between two longitudes sun rises in the northeastern states about two decreases towards the poles whereas the hours earlier as compared to Jaisalmer, the distance between two latitudes remains the watches in Dibrugarh, Imphal in the east and same everywhere. Jaisalmer, Bhopal or Chennai in the other parts of India show the same time. Why does From the values of latitude, it is this happen? understood that the southern part of the country lies within the tropics and the Name a few place in India through northern part lies in the sub-tropical zone or which the standard meridian passes? the warm temperate zone. This location is India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km responsible for large variations in land forms, accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s land

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2 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

surface area and stands as the seventh largest subjected to various vertical movements and country in the world. block faulting. The rift valleys of the Structure and Physiography Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi and the Satpura block mountains are some Current estimation shows that the earth examples of it. The Peninsula mostly consists is approximately 4600 million years old. of relict and residual mountains like the Based on the variations in its geological Aravali hills, the Nallamala hills, the Javadi structure and formations, Indian can be hills, the Veliconds hills, the Palkonda range divided into three geological divisions. These and the Mahendragiri hills, etc. The river geological regions broadly follow the physical valleys here are shallow with low gradients. features: Most of the east flowing rivers form (i) The Peninsular Block deltas before entering into the Bay of Bengal. (ii) The Himalayas and other Peninsular The deltas formed by the Mahanadi, the Mountains Krishna, the Kaveri and the Godavari are (iii)Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain important examples. The Peninsular Block The Himalayas and The northern boundary of the other Peninsular Mountains Peninsular Block may be taken as an irregular The Himalayas along with other the running from Kachchh along the western peninsular mountains are young, weak and flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi and flexible in their geological structure unlike the then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and the rigid and stable peninsular Block, Ganga as far as the Rajmahal Hills and the Consequently, they are still subjected to the Ganga delta. Apart from these, the Karbi interplay of exogenic and endogenic forces, Anglong and the Meghalaya Plateau the the resulting in the development of faults, folds northeast and Rajasthan in the west are also and thrust plains. These mountains are extensions of this block. The northeastern tectonic in origin, dissected by fast-flowing parts are separated by the Media fault in rivers which are in their youthful stage. West Bengal from the Chotanagpur plateau. Various landforms like gorges, V-shaped In Rajasthan, the desert and other desert-like valleys, rapids, waterfalls, etc. are indicative features overlay this block. of this stage. The Peninsula is formed essentially by Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain a great complex of very ancient gneisses and The third geological division of India granites, which constitutes as major part of comprises the plains form by the river Indus, it. Since the Cambrian period, the Peninsula the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Originally, has been standing like a rigid block with the it was a geo-synclinal depression which exception of some of its western coast which attained its maximum development during is submerged beneath the sea and some other the third phase of the Himalayan during the parts changed due to tectonic activity without third phase of the Himalayan mountain affecting the original basement. As a part of formation approximately about 64 million the Indo-Australian Plate, it has been years ago. Since then, it has been gradually

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India - Location 3

filled by the sediments brought by the of extensive alluvial deposits led to the Himalayan and Peninsular rivers. Average formation of the northern plains of India. depth of alluvial deposits in these plains The land of India displays great physical ranges from 1,000-2,000 m. variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau Physiography constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on ‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome the earth’s surface. It was supposed to be one of structure, process and the stage of of the most stable land blocks. The development. Himalayans and the Northern Plains are the Based on these macro variations, India most recent landforms. From the view point of geology, Himalayan Mountains form an can be divided into the follow physiographic divisions: unstable zone. The whole mountain system of Himalaya represents a very youthful (i) The Northern and Northeastern topography with high peaks, deep valleys Mountains and fast flowing rivers. The northern plains (ii) The Northern Plain are formed of alluvial deposits. The (iii)The Peninsular Plateau peninsular plateau is composed of igneous (iv)The Indian Desert and metamorphic rocks with gently rising (v) The Coastal Plains hills and wide valleys. (vi)The Islands. The Himalayan Mountains North and North Eastern Himalaya: The Himalayas, geologically young and structurally fold mountains stretch over the Formation of Physical features of north northern borders of India. These mountain and north-eastern Himalay is a result of ranges run in a west-east direction from the “Plate tectonics” According to Plate Tectonic Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas theory earth is divided into several plateau. represent the loftiest and one of the most The formation of Himalaya & north eastern rugged mountain barriers of the world. They mountain is due to convergent of two plates form an arc, which covers a distance of about Eurasia (North of Himalaya) and Gondwana 2,400 Km. (Indian subcontinents Australia, South Africa, Their width varies from 400 Km in South America). Both the plates came close Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh. to each other and tethys sediment called The altitudinal variations are greater in the geosynclines was pressed from two sides eastern half than those in the western half. gave birth to current Himalaya mountains. The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys in its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys sea and subsidence of the northern flank of lie between these ranges. The northern most the peninsular plateau resulted in the range is known as the Great or Inner formation of a large basin. In due course of Himalayas of the ‘Himadri’. It is the most time this depression, gradually got filled with continuous range consisting of the loftiest deposition of sediments by the rivers flowing peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres. from the mountains in the north and the It contains all the prominent Himalayan peninsular plateau in the south. A flat land

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4 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

peaks. The folds of Great Himalayas are There are large-scale regional variations asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part within the Himalayas. On the basis of relief, of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is alignment of ranges and other perennially snow bound, and a number of geomorphological features the Himalayas can glaciers descend from this range. be divided into the following sub-divisions: The range lying to the south of the Longitudinal division Himadri forms the most rugged mountain (i) Kashmir or Northwestern system and is known as Himachal or lesser Himalayas Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed (ii) Himachal and Uttaranchal of highly compressed and altered rocks. The Himalayas altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and the average width is of 50 Km. While (iii)Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and (iv)Arunachal Himalayas the most important rage, the Dhaula Dhar (v) Eastern Hills and Mountains and the Mahabharat ranges are also Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas prominent ones. This range consists of the It comprise a series of ranges such as famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and the Karakoram. Ladakh. Zaskar and Pir Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This region Panjal. The northeastern part of the Kashmir is well known for its hill stations. Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies Karewas between the Greater Himalayas and the Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial Karakoram ranges. Between the Great clay and other materials embedded with Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range, lies the moraines. The outer most range of the world famous valley of Kashmir and the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks. They famous Dal Lake. Important glaciers of South extend over a width of 10.50 Km and have Asia such as the Baltoro and Siachen are also an altitude varying between 900 and 1100 found in this region. The Kashmir Himalayas metres. These ranges are composed of are also famous for Karewa formations, which unconsolidated sediment brought down by are useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local rivers from the main Himalayans ranges variety of saffron. Some of the important located farther north. These valleys are passes of the region are Zoji La on the Great covered with thick gravel and alluvium. The Himalayas. Banihal on the Panjal, Photu La longitudinal valley lying between lesser on the Zaskar and Khardung La on the Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Ladakh range. Some of the important fresh Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun lakes such as Dal and Wular and salt water are some of the well-known Duns. lakes such as Pangong Tso and Moriri are also An Interesting Fact in Kashmir Valley, in this region. This region is drained by the the meanders in Jhelum river are caused by river Indus, and its tributaries such as the the local base level provided by the erstwhile Jhelum and the Chenab. The Kashmir and larger lake of which the present Dal lake is a northwestern Himalayas are well-known for small part. their scenic beauty and picturesque

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India - Location 5

landscape. The landscape of Himalayas is a m specially attracted to the British colonial major source of attraction for adventure administration, and subsequently, some of the tourists. Some famous places of pilgrimage important hill stations such as Dharamshala, such as Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Mussoorie, Shimla Kaosani and the Charar -e-Shariff, etc. are also located here cantonment towns and health resorts such as and large number of pilgrims visits these Shimla, Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora, places every year. Lansdowne and Ranikhet, etc. were Srinagar, capital city of the Jammu and developed in this region. Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum The two distinguishing features of this river. Dal Lake in Srinagar presents an region from the point of view of interesting physical feature. Jhelum in the physiography are the ‘Shiwalik’ and ‘Dun valley of Kashmir is still in its youth stage formations’. Some important duns located in and yet forms meanders- a typical feature this region are the Chandigarh- Kalka dun, associated with the mature stage in the Nalagarh dun, Dehra Dun, Harike dun and evolution of fluvial land form. the Kota dun, etc. Dehra Dun is the largest The southernmost part of this region of all the duns with an approximate length consists of longitudinal valleys known as of 35-45 km and a width of 22-25 km. In the ‘duns’. Jammu dun and Pathankot dun are Great Himalayan range, the valleys are important examples. mostly inhabited by the Bhotia’s. These are The Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalays nomadic groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the summer grasslands in the higher reaches) This part lies approximately between the during summer months and return to the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a tributary of valleys during winters. The famous ‘Valley Ghaghara) in the east. It is drained by two of flowers’ is also situated in this region. The major river systems of India, i.e. the Indus places of pilgrimage such as the Gangotri, and the Ganga. Tributaries of the Indus Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and include the river Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj, Hemkund Sahib are also situated in this part. and the tributaries of Ganga flowing through The region is also known to have five famous this region include the Yamuna and the Prayags (river confluences). Can you name Ghaghara. The northernmost part of the some other famous prayags in other parts of Himachal Himalayas is an extension of the the country? Ladakh cold desert, which lies in the Spiti The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas subdivision of district Lahul and Spiti. All the three ranges of Himalayas are prominent in They are flanked by Nepal Himalayas this section also. These are the Great in the west and Bhutan Himalayas in the east. Himalayan range, the Lesser Himalayas It is relatively small but is a most significant (which is locally known as Dhaoladhar in part of the Himalayas. Known for its fast- Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibha in flowing rivers such as Tista, it is a region of Uttaranchal) and the Shiwalik range from the high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga North to the South. In this section of Lesser (Kanchengiri), and deep valleys. The higher Himalayas, the altitude between 1,000-2,000 reaches of this region are inhabited by

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6 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Lepcha tribes while the southern part, these communities practice Jhumming. It is particularly the Darjeeling Himalayas, has a also known as shifting or slash and Figure: mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and Eastern Himalayas communities. Due to tribals from Central India. The British, taking rugged topography, the inter-valley advantage of the physical conditions such as transportation linkages are nominal. Hence, moderate slope, thick soil cover with high most of the interactions are carried through organic content, well distributed rainfall the duar region along the Arunachal-Assam throughout the year and mild winters, border. introduced tea plantations in this region. As The Eastern Hills and Mountains compared to the other sections of the These are part of the Himalayan Himalayas, these along with the Arunachal mountain system having their general Himalayas are conspicuous by the absence of alignment from the north to the south the Shiwalik formations. In place of Shiwaliks direction. They are known by different local here, the ‘duar formations’ are important, names. In the north, they are known as Patkai which have also been used for the Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and in the development of tea gardens. Sikkim and south as Mizo or Lushai hills. These are low Darjeeling Himalayas are also known for hills, inhabited by numerous tribal groups their scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna, practicing Jhum cultivation. particularly various types of orchids. Most of these ranges are separated from The Arunachal Himalayas each other by numerous small rivers. The These extend from the east of the Bhutan Barak is an important river in Manipur and Himalayas upto the Diphu pass in the east. Mizoram. The physiography of Manipur is The general direction of the mountain range unique by the presence of a large lake known is from southwest to northeast. Some of the as ‘Loktak’ lake at the centre, surrounded by important mountain peaks of the region are mountains from all sides. Mzoram which is Kangtu and Namcha Barwa. These rangers also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is are dissected by fast-flowing rivers from the made up of soft unconsolidated deposits. north to the south, forming deep gorges. Most of the rivers in Nagaland form the Brahmaputra flows through a deep gorge tributary of the Brahmaputra. While two after crossing Namcha Barwa. Some of the rivers of Mizoram and Manipur are the important rivers are the Kameng, the tributaries of Barak river, which in turn is Subansiri, the Dihang and the Lohit. the tributary of Meghna; the rivers in the These are perennial with the high rate eastern part of Manipur are the tributaries of fall, thus, having the highest hydro-electric of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of power potential in the country. An important the Irrawaddy of Myanmar. aspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is the The Northern Plains numerous ethnic tribal community inhabiting The northern plains are formed by the in these areas. Some of the prominent ones alluvial deposits brought by the rivers- the from west to east are the Monpa, Daffla, Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and the Nagas. Most of These plain extend approximately 3,200 km

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India - Location 7

from the east to the west. The average width sea level. The states of Haryana and Delhi of these plains varies between 150-300 km. form a water divide between the Indus and The maximum depth of alluvium deposits the Ganga river systems. As opposed to this, varies between 1,000-2,000 m. From the north the Brahmaputra river flows from the to the south, these can be divided into three northeast to the southwest direction before major zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the it takes an almost 90º southward turn at alluvial plains. The alluvial plains can be Dhubri before it enters into Bangladesh. further divided into the Khadar and the These river valley plains have a fertile alluvial Bhangar. soil cover which supports a variety of crops Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between like wheat, rice, sugarcane and jute, and 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at hence, supports a large population. the break-up of the slope. As a result of this, The Peninsular Plateau the streams and rivers coming from the Rising from the height of 150 m above mountain deposit heavy materials of rocks the river plains up to an elevation of 600-900 and boulders, and at times, disappear in this m is the irregular triangle known as the zone. South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, peninsular plateau. Delhi ridge in the with an approximate width of 10-20 km northwest, (extension of Aravalis), the where most of the streams and rivers re- Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the emerge without having any properly west and the Cardamom hills in the south demarcated channel, thereby, creating constitute the outer extent of the peninsular marshy and swampy conditions known as the plateau. However, an extension of this is also Tarai. This has a luxurious growth of natural seen in the northeast, in the form of Shillong vegetation and houses a varied wild life. Karbi-Anglong plateau. The peninsular India The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of is made up of a series of patland plateaus such old and new alluvial deposits known as the as the Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu Bhangar and Khadar respectively. These plateau, the Ranchi plateau, the Malwa plains have characteristic features of mature plateau, the Coimbatore plateau and the stage of fluvial erosional and depositional Karnataka plateau, etc. This is one of the landforms such as sand bars, meanders, oldest and the most stable landmass of India. oxbow lakes and braided channels. The The general elevation of the plateau is from Brahmaputra plains are known for their the west to the east, which s also proved by riverine islands and sand bars. Most of these the pattern of the flow of rivers. Name some areas are subjected to periodic floods and rivers of the peninsular plateau which have shifting river courses forming braided their confluence in the Bay of Bengal and the streams. Arabian sea and mention some landforms The mouths of these mighty rivers also which are typical to the east flowing rivers form some of the largest deltas of the world, but are absent in the west flowing rivers. for example, the famous Sunderbans delta. Some of the important physiographic features Otherwise, this is a featureless plain with a of this region are tors, block mountains, rift general elevation of 50-150 m above the mean valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, series

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8 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

of hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite Eastern Ghats comprising the discontinuous dykes offering natural sites for water storage. and low hills are highly eroded by the rivers The western and northwestern part of the such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the plateau has an emphatic presence of black Krishna, the Kaveri, etc. Some of the soil. This peninsular plateau has undergone important ranges include the Javadi hills, the recurrent phases of upliftment and Palconda range, the Nallamala hills, the submergence accompanied by crustal faulting Mahendragiri hills, etc. The Eastern and the and fractures. (The Bhima fault needs special Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri mention, because of its recurrent seismic hills. activities). These spatial variations have The Central Highlands brought in elements of diversity in the relief They are bounded to the west by the of the peninsular plateau. The northwestern Aravali range. The Satpura range is formed part of the plateau has a complex relief of by a series of scarped plateaus on the south, ravines and gorges. The ravines of Chambal, generally at an elevation varying between Bhind and Morena are some of the well- 600-900 m above the mean sea level. This known examples. forms the northernmost boundary of the On the basis of the prominent relief Deccan plateau. It is a classic example of the features, the peninsular plateau can be relict mountains which are highly denuded divided into three broad groups: (i) The and form discontinuous ranges. The extension Deccan Plateau (ii) The Central Highlands (iii) of the Peninsular plateau can be seen as far The Northeastern Plateau. as Jaisalmer in the West, where it has been The Deccan Plateau covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and This is bordered by the Western Ghats crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans. in the west, Eastern Ghats in the east and This region has undergone metamorphic the Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills processes in its geological history, which can in the north. Western Ghats are locally be corroborated by the presence of known by different names such as Sahyadri metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate, in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and gneiss, etc. Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and The general elevation of the Central Cardamom hills in Kerala. Western Ghats are Highlands ranges between 700-1,000 m above comparatively higher in elevation and more the mean sea level and it slopes towards the continuous than the Eastern Ghats. Their north and northeastern directions. Most of average elevation is about 1,500 m with the the tributaries of the river Yamuna have their height increasing from north to south. origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges. ‘Anaimudi’ (2,695 m), the highest peak of Banas is the only significant tributary of the Peninsular plateaus is located on the river Chambal that originates from the Anaimalai hills of the Western Ghats Aravalli in the west. An eastern extension of followed by Dodabetta (2,670 m) on the the Central Highland is formed by the Nilgiri hills. Most of the Peninsular rivers Rajmahal hills, to the south of which lies a have their origin in the Western Ghats. large reserve of mineral resources in the

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India - Location 9

Chotanagpur plateau. wood fossils park at Aakal and marine The Northeastern Plateau deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer (The approximate age of the wood fossils is In fact it is an extension of the main peninsular plateau, it is believed that due to estimated to be 180 million years). the force exerted by the northeastward Though the underlying rock structure movement of the Indian plate at the time of of the desert is an extension of the peninsular the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created plateau, yet, due to extreme arid conditions, between the Rajmahal hills and the its surface features have been carved by Meghalaya plateau. Later, this depression got physical weathering and wind actions. Some filled up by the deposition activity of the of the well pronounced desert land features numerous rivers. Today, the Meghalaya and present here are mushroom rocks, shifting Karbi Anglong plateau stand detached from dunes and oasis (mostly in its southern part). the main peninsular Block. The meghalaya On the basis of the orientation, the desert plateau is further sub-divided into three: (i) can be divided into two parts: the northern The Garo Hills; (ii) The Khasi Hills; (ii) The part is sloping towards Sindh and the Jaintia Hills, named after the tribal groups southern towards the Rann of Kachchh. Most inhabiting this region. An extension of this is of the rivers in this region are ephemeral. The also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of Assam. Luni river flowing in the southern part of the Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the desert is of some significance. Low Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral precipitation and high evaporation makes it resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, a water deficit region. There are some streams limestone and uranium. This area receives which disappear after flowing for some maximum rainfall from the south west distance and present a typical case of inland monsoon. As a result, the Meghalaya plateau drainage by joining a lake or playa. The lakes has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapunji and the playas have brackish water which is displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any the main source of obtaining salt. permanent vegetation cover. The Coastal Plains The Indian Desert India has a long coastline. On the basis To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies of the location and active geomorphological the Great Indian desert. It is a land of processes, it can be divided into two: (i) the undulating topography dotted with western coastal plains; (ii) the eastern coastal longitudinal dunes and barchans. This region plains. receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; The western coastal plains are an hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation example of submerged coastal plain. It is cover. It is because of these characteristic believed that the city of Dwaraka which was features that this is also known as Marusthali. once a part of the Indian mainland situated It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, along the west coast is submerged under this region was under the sea. This can be water. Because of this submergence it is a corroborated by the evidence available at narrow belt and provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours.

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10 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, The Islands Marmagao. Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some There are two major island groups in of the important natural ports located along India- one in the Bay of Bengal and the other the west coast. Extending from the Gujarat in the Arabian. The Bay of Bengal Island coast in the north to the Kerala coast in the groups consist of about 572 islands/islets. south, the western coast may be divided into These are situated roughly between 6ºN – following divisions- the Kachchh and 14ºN and 92ºE-94ºE. The two principal groups Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast in of islets include the Ritchie’s archipelago and Maharashtra. Goa coast and Malabar coast the Labrynth island. The entire group of in Karnataka and Kerala respectively. The island is divided into two broad categories- western coastal plains are narrow in the the Andaman in the north and the Nicobar middle and get broader towards north and in the south. They are separated by a water south. The rivers flowing through this coastal body which is called the Ten degree channel. plain do not form any delta. The Malabar It s believed that these islands are an elevated coast has got certain distinguishing features portion of submarine mountains. However, in the form of ‘Kayals’ (backwaters), which some smaller islands are volcanic in origin. are used for fishing, inland navigation and Barren island, the only active volcano in India also due to its special attraction for tourists. is also situated in the Nicobar islands. Every year the famous Nehru Trophy The coastal line has some coral deposits, Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada and beautiful beaches. These islands receive Kayal in Kerala. conventional rainfall and have an equatorial Some important mountain peaks in type of vegetation. Andaman and Nicobar islands are Saddle The islands of the Arabian sea include peak (North Andaman- 738 m), Mount Lakshadweep and Minicoy. These are Diavolo (Middle Andaman- 515 m), Mount scattered between 8ºN and 71ºE- 74ºE Koyob (South Andaman- 460 m) and Mount longitude. These islands are located at a Thuiller (Great Nicobar- 642 m). distance of 280 km- 480 km off the Kerala As compared to the western coastal coast. The entire island group is built of coral plain, the eastern coastal plain is broader and deposits. There are approximately 36 islands is an example of an emergent coast. There of which 11 are inhabited. Minicoy is the are well developed deltas here, formed by largest island with an area of 453 sq. km. The the rivers flowing eastward in to the Bay of entire group of islands is broadly divided by Bengal. These include the deltas of the the Eleventh degree channel, north of which Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the is the Amini Island and to the south of the Kaveri. Because of its emergent nature, it has Canannore Island. The islands of this less number of ports and harbours. The archipelago have storm beaches consisting of continental shelf extends up to 500 km into unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and the sea, which makes it difficult for the boulders on the eastern seaboard. development of good ports and harbours. Name some ports on the eastern coast.

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DRAINAGE SYSTEM

A river drains the water collected from the Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment of Bengal while 23 per cent comprising the area’. Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and The flow of water through well-defined the Periyar systems discharge their waters channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the in the Arabian Sea. network of such channels is called a ‘drainage On the basis of the size of the system’. The drainage pattern of an area is watershed, the drainage basins of India are the outcome of the geological time period, grouped into three categories: (i) Major river nature and structure of rocks, topography, basins with more than 20,000 sq. km. of slope, amount of water flowing and the catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins periodically of the flow. such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the An area drained by a river and its Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, tributaries is called a drainage basin. The the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc. (ii) boundary line separating one drainage basin Medium river basins with catchment area from the other is known as the watershed. between 2,000- 20,000 sq. km. incorporating The catchments of large rivers are called river 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the basins while those of small rivulets and rills Periyar, the Meghna, etc. (iii) Minor river are often referred to as watersheds. There is basins with catchment area of less than 2,000 however, a slight difference between a river sq. km. include fairly good number of rivers basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small flowing in the area of low rainfall. in area while the basins cover larger areas. The Narmada and Tapi are two large Indian drainage system may be divided rivers which are exceptions. They along with on various bases. On the basis of discharge many small rivers discharge their waters in of water (orientations to the sea), it may be the Arabian Sea. grouped into: (i) the Arabian Sea drainage; On the basis of the mode of origin, and (ii) the Bay of Bengal drainage. They are nature and characteristics, the Indian separated from each other through the Delhi drainage may also be classified into the ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water Himalayan drainage and the peninsular divide is shown by a line in Figure. Nearly drainage. Although it has the problem of 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of including the Chambal, the Betwa, the Son, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, etc. which are much older in age and origin

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12 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

than other rivers that have their origin in the Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form Himalayas, it is the most accepted basis of V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in classification. their mountainous course. While entering the Drainage systems of India plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow, lakes, flood plains, Indian drainage system consists of a braided channels, and deltas near the river large number of small and big rivers. It is mouth. In the Himalayan reaches, the course the outcome of the evolutionary process of of these rivers is highly tortuous, but over the three major physiographic units and the the plains they display a strong meandering nature and characteristics of precipitation. tendency and shift their courses frequently. Important Drainage Patterns River Kosi, also know as the ‘sorrow of (i) The drainage pattern resembling the Bihar’, has been notorious for frequently branches of a tree is known as changing its course. The Kosi brings huge “dendritic” the examples of which quantity of sediments from its upper reaches are the rivers of northern plain. and deposits in the plains. The course gets (ii) When the rivers originate from a hill blocked, and consequently the river changes and flow in all directions, the its course. drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’. Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage The rivers originating from the There are difference of opinion about Amarkantak range present a good the evolution of the Himalayan rivers. example of it. However, geologists believe that a mighty (iii)When the primary tributaries of river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma rivers flow parallel to each other and traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the secondary tributaries join them at Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards right angles, the pattern is known to Sind, and finally discharge into the Gulf as ‘trellis’. of Sind near lower Punjab during the (iv)When the rivers discharge their Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago. waters from all directions in a lake The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik or depression, the pattern is know and its lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits as ‘centripetal’. consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and conglomerates support this viewpoints. The Himalayan Drainage It is opined that in due course of time The Himalayan drainage system has Indo-Brahma river was dismembered into evolved through a long geological history. It three main drainage systems: (i) the Indus mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and the and its five tributaries in the western part; Brahmaputra rivers basins. Since these are fed (ii) the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries both by melting of snow and precipitation, in the central part: and (iii) the stretch of the rivers of this system are perennial. These riv- Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan ers pass through the giant gorges carved out tributaries in the eastern part. The by the erosional activity carried on simulta- dismemberment was probably due to the neously with the uplift of the Himalayas.

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Drainage System 13

Pleistocene upheaval in the western other important tributaries joining the right Himalayan, including the uplift of the Potwar bank of the Indus are the Khurram, the Tochi, Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the the Gomal. The Viboa and the Sangar. They water divide between the Indus and Ganga all originate in the Sulaiman ranges. The river drainage systems. Likewise, the down flows southward and receives Panjnad’ a little thrusting of the Malda gap area between the above Mithankot. The Panjnad is the name Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the during the mid-Pleistocene period, period, Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra Jhelum. It finally discharges into the Arabian systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal. Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus flows in India The river only through the Leh district in Jammu and Systems of the Himalayan Drainage Kashmir. The Himalayan drainage consists of The Jhelum an important tributary of the several river systems but the following are Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated the major river systems: at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south- The Indus system eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before It is one of the largest river basins of entering Pakistan through a deep narrow the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. gorge. It joins the Chenab near Jhang in km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km and a total Pakistan. The Chenab is the largest tributary length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km). The of the Indus. It is formed by two streams, Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India. Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga. (31º 15’ N latitude and 81º40’ E longitude) in The river flows for 1,180 km before entering the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m into Pakistan. in the Kailash Mountain range. In Tibet, it is The Ravi is another important tributary known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth. of the Indus it rises west of the Rohtang pass After flowing in the northwest direction in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it flows through the Chamba valley of the state. passes through Ladakh and Baltistan. It cuts Before entering Pakistan and joining the across the ladakh range, forming a Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, it drains the area spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and lying between the southeastern part of the Kashmir. It enters into Pakistan near Chillar Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges. in the Dardistan region. The Beas is another important tributary The Indus receives a number of of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the m above the mean sea level. The river flows Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras. It finally through the Kullu valley and forms gorges emerges out of the hills near Attock where it at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. It receives the Kabul river on its right bank. The

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14 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

enters the Punjab plains where it meets the river system is the largest in India having a Satluj near Harike. number of perennial and non-perennial rivers The Satluj originates in the Rakas lake originating in the Himalayas in the north and near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in the Peninsula in the south, respectively. The Tibet where it is known as Langchen Son is its major right bank tributary. The Khambab. It flows almost parallel to the Indus important left bank tributaries are the for about 400 km before entering India, and Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the comes out of a gorge at Rupar. It passes Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda. The through the Shipki La on the Himalayan river finally discharges itself into the Bay of ranges and enters the Punjab plains. It is an Bengal near the Sagar Island. antecedent river. It is a very important The Yamuna, the western most and the tributary as it feeds the canal system of the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source Bhakra Nangal project. in the Yamunotri glacier on the western The Ganga System slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is The Ganga is the most important river of India both from the point of view of its joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken on its right bank which originates basin and cultural significance. It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in from the Peninsular plateau while the the Uttarkashi district of Uttarankhand. Here, Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left water feeds the western it is known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in and eastern Yamuna and the Agra canals for irrigation purposes. narrow gorges. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known The Chambal rises near Mhow in the as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The northwards through a gorge up wards of Alaknanda consists of the Dhaul and the Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or dam has been constructed. From Kota, it Vishnu Prayag. The other tributaries of traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur Alaknanda such as the Pindar join it at Karna and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna. Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets The Chambal is famous for its badland it at Rudra Prayag. The Ganga enters the topography called the Chambal ravines. plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows first The Gandak comprises two streams, to the south, then to the south-east and east namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises before splitting into two distributaries, in the Nepal Himalayas between the namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli. The Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by central part of Nepal. It enters the Ganga Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins (1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna. (520 km). The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers lakh sq. km area in India alone. The Ganga of Mapchachungo. After collecting the waters

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Drainage System 15

of its tributaries- Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes The Brahmaputra System out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at The Brahmaputra, one of the largest Shishapani. The river Sarda (Kali or Kali rivers of the world, has its origin in the Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range meets the Ganga at Chhapra. near the Mansarovar lake. From here, it The Kosi is an antecedent river with its traverses eastward longitudinally for a source to the north of Mount Everest in Ti- distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat bet, where its main stream Arun rises. After region of southern Tibet, where it is known crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it as the Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier’. is joined by the Son Kosi from the West and The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank the Tamur Kosi from the east. It forms Sapt tributary of this river in Tibet. It emerges as Kosi after uniting with the river Arun. a turbulent and dynamic river after carving The Ramganga is comparatively a small out a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas river rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain. near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m). The river It changes its course to the southwest emerges from the foothills under the name direction after crossing the Shiwalik and of Siang or Dihang. It enters India west of enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing Najibabad. Finally, it joins the Ganga near southwest, it receives its main left bank Kannauj. The Damodar occupies the eastern tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where thereafter; it is known as the Brahmaputra. it flows through a rift valley and finally joins The Brahmaputra receives numerous the Hugli. The Barakar is its main tributary. tributaries in its 750 km long journey through Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’, the the Assam valley. Its major left bank Damodar has been now tamed by the tributaries are the Burhi Dihing, Dhansari Damodar Valley corporation, multipurpose (South) and Kalang whereas the important project. right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Kameng, Manas and sankosh. The Subansiri Milan glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where which has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent it is known as the Goriganga. Along the Indo- river. The Brahmaputra enters into Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows where it joins the Ghaghara. southward. In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it The Mahananda is another important on its right bank from where the river is tributary of the Ganga rising in the known as the Yamuna. It finally merges with Darjeeling hills. It joins the Ganga as its last the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of left bank tributary in West Bengal. Bengal. The Brahmaputra is well-known for The Son is a large south bank tributary floods, channel shifting and bank erosion. of the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak This is due to the fact that most of its plateau. After forming a series of waterfalls tributaries are large, and bring large quantity at the edge of the plateau, it reaches Arrah, of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its west of Patna, to join the Ganga. catchment area.

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16 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

The peninsular drainage system and deltaic deposits in these rivers, (iii) Slight The peninsular drainage system is older tilting of the peninsular block from northwest than the Himalayan one. This is evident from to the southeastern direction gave orientation the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, to the entire drainage system towards the and the maturity of the rivers. The Western Bay of Bengal during the same period. Ghats running close to the western coast act River systems of the peninsular drainage as the water divide between the major There are a large number of river peninsular rivers, discharging their water in systems in the peninsular drainage. A brief the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets joining account of the major peninsular river systems the Arabian Sea. Most of the major peninsular is given below: rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in west to east. The Chambal, the Sind, the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in the through Orissa to discharge its water into northern part of the peninsular belong to the the Bay of Bengal. It is 851 km long and its Ganga river system. The other major river catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakhs sq. systems of the peninsular drainage are- the km. Some navigation is carried on in the lower Mahanadi the Godavari, the Krishna and the course of this river. Fifty three per cent of Kaveri, Peninsular rivers are characterized by the drainage basin of this rivers lies in Madhya fixed course, absence of meanders and no Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent perennial flow of water. The Narmada and lies in Orissa. the Tapi which flow through the rift valley The Godavari is the largest peninsular are, however, exceptions. They meet in river system. It is also called the Dakshin Arabian sea. Ganga. It rises in the Nasik district of The Evolution of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the Peninsular Drainage System Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run through the Three major geological events in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, distant past have shaped the present Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. It drainage systems of peninsular India: (i) is 1,465 km long with a catchment area Subsidence of the western flank of the spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km 49 per cent peninsula leading to its submergence below of this, lies in Maharashtra, 20 per cent in the sea during the early tertiary period. Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and the Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical rest in Andhra Pradesh. The Penganga, the plan of the river on either side of the original Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra are watershed. (ii) Upheavel of the Himalayas its principal tributaries. The Godavari is when the northern flank of the peninsular subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches block was subjected to subsidence and the to the south of Polavaram, where it forms a consequent trough faulting. The Narmada picturesque gorge. It is navigable only in the and The Tapi flow in trough faults and fill deltaic stretch. The river after Rajamundri the original cracks with their detritus splits into several branches forming a large materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial delta.

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Drainage System 17

The Krishna is the second largest east Madhya Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent flowing peninsular river which rises near in Gujarat. Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its total length Luni is the largest river system of is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and Rajasthan, west of Aravali. It originates near the Bhima are its major tributaries. Of the Pushkar in two branches. i.e. the Saraswati total catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per and the Sabarmati, which join with each other cent lies in Maharashyra, 44 per cent in at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes Karnataka and 29 per cent in Andhra Pradesh. out of Aravali and is known as Luni. It flows The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills towards the west till Telwara and then takes 1,341m of Kogadu district in Karnataka. Its a southwest direction to join the Rann of length is 800 km and it drains an area of 81,155 Kuchchh. The entire river system is sq. km. Since the upper catchment area ephemeral. receives rainfall during the southwest River Catchment area sq. km monsoon season (summer) and the lower Sabarmati 21,674 part during the northeast monsoon season Mahi 34,842 (winter), the river carries water throughout Dhandhar 2,770 the year with comparatively less fluctuation than the other peninsular rivers. About 3 per Kalinadi 5,179 cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 Sharavati 2,029 per cent in Karnataka and 56 per cent in Tamil Bharathapuzha 5,397 Nadu. Its important tributaries are the Periyar 5,243 Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati. Smallar Rivers flowing towards the West The Narmada originates on the western The rivers flowing towards the Arabian flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height sea have short courses. Find out the smaller of about 1,057 m. Flowing in a rift valley rivers of Gujarat. The Shetruniji is one such between the Satpura in the south and the river which rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli Vindhyan range in the north. It forms a district. The Bhadra, originates near Aniali picturesque gorge in marble rocks and village in Rajkot district. The Dhadhar rises Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur. After near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district. flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous the Arabian sea south of Bharuch, forming a rivers of Gujarat. broad 27 km long estuary. Its catchment area The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak is about 98,796 sq. km. The Sardar Sarovar hills in Nasik district at an elevation of 670 Project has been constructed on this river. m. The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district The Tapi is the other important and falls in the Karwar Bay. The source of westward flowing river. It originates from Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar and Multai in the Betul district of Madhya traverses a course of 161 km. The Sharavati Pradesh. It is 724 km long and drains an area is another important river in Karnataka of 65,145 sq. km. Nearly 79 per cent of its flowing towards the west. The Sharavati basin lies in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka

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18 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

and drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km. longest river of Kerala, Bharathapuzha rises Goa has two important rivers which can be near Annamalai hills. It is also known as mentioned here. One is Mandovi and the Ponnani. It drains an area of 5,397 sq. km other is Juari. Compare its catchment area with that of the River Catchment area sq. km Sharavati river of Karnataka. The Periyar is the second largest river Subarnarekha 19.296 of Kerala. Its catchment area is 5,243 sq. km. Baitarni 12.789 You can see that there is a marginal difference Brahmani 39.033 in the catchment area of the Bhartapuzha and Penner 55.213 the Periyar rivers. Palar 17.870 Another river of Kerala worth Kerala has a narrow coastline. The mentioning is the Pamba river which falls in the Vemobanad lake after traversing a course of 177 km.

Gist of NCERT Indian Polity

ISBN: 9789351720249 Book Code: F21

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CLIMATE

Climate refers to the sum total of Rajasthan. In the coastal area the variation of weather conditions and variations over a rainfall is less. Whereas in the inner part of large area for a long period of time (more country the seasonal variation is more. Ac- than thirty years). Weather refers to the state cordingly the Indians show their unity in di- of the atmosphere over an area at any point versity in terms of food, clothing, housing of time. and culture. The elements of weather and climate are Factors determining the climate of India the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric India’s climate is controlled by a number pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation. of factors which can be broadly divided into You may have observed that the weather two groups- (a) factors related to location and conditions fluctuate very often even within relief, and (b) factors related to air pressure a day. But there is some common pattern over and winds. a few weeks or months, i.e. days are cool or (a) Factors related to Location and Relief hot, windy or calm, cloudy or bright, and Latitude: You know that the Tropic of wet or dry. On the basis of the generalized Cancer passes through the central part of monthly atmospheric conditions, the year is India in east-west direction. This, northern divided into seasons such as winter, summer part of the India lies in sub-tropical and or rainy seasons. temperate zone and the part lying south of During the summer season the desert the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone. area of Rajasthan witnesses 50º temperature The tropical zone being nearer to the equator, whereas Pahalgam sector of Jammu and experiences high temperatures throughout Kashmir has 20ºC temperature. During the year with small daily and annual range. winter nights Dras sector of Jammu and Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being Kashmir witnesses– 45ºC temperature where away from the equator, experiences extreme as Thiruvananthpuram has 20ºC. climate with high daily and annual range of Rainfall also varies in terms of quantity temperature. and distribution in the regions of Himalaya The Himalayan Mountains: The rainfall is in the from of snowy balls where towering mountain chain provides an as in the rest of part of India it is a general invincible shield to protect the subcontinent rain. Again annual rainfall varies from 400ºC from the cold northern winds. The Himalayas in the Meghalya to 10ºc in Ladakh and West also trap the monsoon winds, forcing them

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20 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

to shed their moisture within the Ghats. subcontinent. Distribution of Land and (b) Factors Water: India is flanked by the India Ocean Related to Air Pressure and Wind on three sides in the south and girdled by a To understand the differences in local high and continuous mountain-wall in the climates of India, we need to understand the north. As compared to the landmass, water mechanism of the following three factors: heats up or cools down slowly. This (i) Distribution of air pressure and differential heating of land and sea creates winds on the surface of the earth. different air pressure zones in different seasons in and around the Indian (ii) Upper air circulation caused by factors controlling global weather subcontinent. Difference in air pressure causes reversal in the direction of monsoon and the inflow of different air masses and jet streams. winds. Distance from the Sea: With a long (iii)Inflow of western cyclones generally coastline, large coastal areas have an equable known as disturbances during the climate. Areas in the interior of India are far winter season and tropical away from the moderating influence of the depressions during the south-west sea. Such areas have extremes of climate. That monsoon period into India, creating is why, the people of Mumbai and the Konkan weather conditions favourable to coast have hardly any idea of extremes of rainfall. temperature and the seasonal rhythm of The mechanism of these three factors can weather. On the other hand, the seasonal be understood with reference to winter and contrasts in weather at places in the interior summer seasons of the year separately. of the country such as Delhi, Kanpur and Mechanism of Amritsar affect the entire sphere of life. Weather in the Winter Season Altitude : Temperature decreases with Surface pressure and winds: In winter height. Due to thin air, places in the months, the weather conditions over India mountains are cooler than places on the are generally influenced by the distribution plains. For example, Agra and Darjeeling are of pressure in Central and Western Asia. A located on the same latitude, but temperature high pressure centre in the region lying to of January in Agra is 16ºC whereas it is only the north of the Himalayas during winter. 4ºC in Darjeeling. This centre of high pressure gives rise to the Relief: The physiography or relief of flow of air at the low level from the north India also affects the temperature, air towards the Indian subcontinent, south of the pressure, direction and speed of wind and mountain range. The surface winds blowing the amount and distribution of rainfall. The out of the high pressure centre over Central windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam Asia reach India in the form of a dry receive high rainfall during June-September continental air mass. These continental winds whereas the southern plateau remains dry to come in contact with trade winds over its leeward situation along the Western northwestern India. The position of this

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Climate 21

contact zone is not, however, stable. brought into India by the westerly jet stream. Occasionally, it may shift its position as far An increase in the prevailing night east as the middle Ganga valley with the temperature generally indicates an advance result that whole of northwestern and in the arrival of these cyclones disturbances. northern India up to the middle Ganga valley Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay comes under the influence of dry of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. These northwestern winds. tropical cyclones have very high wind Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation: velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil The pattern of air circulation discussed above Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa coast. is witnessed only at the lower level of the Most of these cyclones are very destructive atmosphere near the surface of the earth. due to high wind velocity and torrential rain Higher up in the lower troposphere, about that accompanies it. three km above the surface of the earth, a Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) different pattern of air circulation is The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone observed. The variations in the atmospheric (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone located at the pressure closer to the surface of the earth have equator where trade winds converge, and so, no role to play in the making of upper air it is a zone where air tends to ascend. In July, circulation. All of Western and Central Asia the ITCZ is located around 20ºN latitudes remains under the influence of westerly (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes called winds along the altitude of 9-13 km from the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough west to east. These winds blow across the encourages the development of thermal low Asian continent at latitudes north of the over north and northwest India. Due to the Himalayas roughly parallel to the Tibetan shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the south- highlands. These are known as jet streams. ern hemisphere cross the equator between Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path 40ºE and 60ºE longitudes and start blowing of these jet streams. As a result, jet streams from southwest to northeast due to the get bifurcated. On of its branches blows to Coriolis force. It becomes southwest the north of the Tibetan highlands, while the monsoon. In winter, the ITCZ moves south- southern branch blows in an eastward ward, and so the reversal of winds from direction, south of the Himalayas. It has its northeast to south and southwest, takes mean position at 25ºN in February at 200-300 place. They are called northeast monsoons. mb level. It is believed that this southern Mechanism of branch of the jet stream exercise an important Weather in the Summer Season influence on the winter weather in India. Surface Pressure and Winds: As the Western Cyclonic Disturbance and summer sets in and the sun shifts northwards, Tropical Cyclones: The western cyclone the wind circulation over the subcontinent disturbances which enter the Indian undergoes a complete reversal at both, the subcontinent from the west and the lower as well as the upper levels. By the northwest during the winter months middle of July, the low pressure belt nearer originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are the surface (termed as Inter Tropical

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22 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts northwards, the rainfall pattern during the southwest roughly parallel to the Himalayas between monsoon period. 20ºN and 25ºN. By this time, the westerly jet The Nature of Indian Monsoon stream withdraws from the Indian region. Monsoon is a familiar, though a little In fact, meteorologists have found an known climatic phenomenon. Despite the interrelationship between the northward observations spread over centuries, the shift of the equatorial trough (ITCZ) and the monsoon continues to puzzle the scientists. withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from Many attempts have been made to discover over the North Indian Plain. It is generally the exact nature and causation of monsoon, believed that there is a cause and effect but so far, no single theory has been able to relationship between the two. The ITCZ being explain the monsoon fully. A real a zone of low pressure attracts inflow of breakthrough has come recently when it was winds from different directions. The studied at the global rather than at regional maritime tropical air mass (mT) from the level. southern hemisphere, after crossing the Systematic studies of the causes of equator, rushes to the low pressure area in rainfall in the South Asian region help to the general southwesterly direction. It is this understand the causes and salient features moist air current which is popularly known of the monsoon, particularly some of its as the southwest monsoon. important aspects, such as: Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation: (i) The onset of the monsoon. The pattern of pressure and winds as mentioned above is formed only at the level (ii) Rain-bearing systems (e.g. tropical of the troposphere. An easterly jet stream cyclones) and the relationship flows over the southern part of the Peninsula between their frequency and in June, and has a maximum speed of 90 km distribution of monsoon rainfall. per hour. In August, it is confined to 15ºN (iii)Break in the monsoon. latitude, and in September up to 22ºN Onset of the Monsoon latitudes. The easterlies normally do not Towards the end of the nineteenth extend to the north of 30ºN latitude in the century, it was believed that the differential upper atmosphere. heating of land and sea during the summer Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical months is the mechanism which sets the stage Cyclones: The easterly jet stream steers the for the monsoon winds of drift towards the tropical depressions into India. These subcontinent. During April and May when depressions play a significant role in the the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of distribution of monsoon rainfall over the Cancer, the large landmass in the north of Indian subcontinent. The tracks of these Indian Ocean gets intensely heated. This depressions are the areas of highest rainfall causes the formation of an intense low in India. The frequency at which these pressure in the northwestern part of the depressions visit India, their direction and subcontinent. Since the pressure in the Indian intensity, all go a long way in determining Ocean in the south of the landmass is high as

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Climate 23

water gets heated slowly, the low attracts stream along the eastern coast of the southeast trades across the Equator. Africa. These conditions help in the northward shift The frequency of the tropical in the position of the ITCZ. The southwest depressions originating from the Bay of monsoon may thus, be seen as a continuation Bengal varies from year to year. Their paths of the southeast trades deflected towards the over India are mainly determined by the Indian subcontinent after crossing the position of ITCZ which is generally termed Equator. These winds cross the Equator as the monsoon trough. As the axis of the between 40ºE and 60ºE longitudes. monsoon trough oscillates, there are The shift in the position of the ITCZ is fluctuations in the track and direction of these also related to the phenomenon of the depressions, and the intensity and the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from amount of rainfall vary from year to year. its position over the north Indian plain, south The rain which comes in spells, displays a of the Himalayas. The easterly jet stream sets declining trend from west to east over the in along 15ºN latitude only after the western west coast, and from the southeast towards jet stream has withdrawn itself from the the northwest over the North Indian Plain region. This easterly jet stream is held and the northern part of the Peninsula. responsible for the burst of the monsoon in EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon India. Entry of Monsoon into India: The EI-Nino is a complex weather system southwest monsoon sets in over the Kerala that appears once every three to seven years coast by 1st June and moves swiftly to reach bringing drought, floods and other weather Mumbai and Kolkata between 10th and 13th extremes to different parts of the world. June. By mid- July, southwest monsoon The system involves oceanic and atmos- engulfs the entire subcontinent. pheric phenomena with the appearance of Rain-bearing warm currents off the coast of peru in the Systems and Rainfall Distribution Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many There seem to be two rain-bearing places including India. EI-Nino is merely an systems in India. First originate in the Bay of extension of the warm equatorial current Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of which gets replaced temporarily by cold Pe- north India. Second is the Arabian Sea current ruvian current or Humbolt current. This cur- of the southwest monsoon which brings rain rent increases the temperature of water on to the west coast of India. Much of the the Peruvian coast by 10ºC. This results in: rainfall along the Western Ghats is orographic (i) The distortion of equatorial as the moist air is obstructed and forced to atmospheric circulation; rise along the Ghats. The intensity of rainfall (ii) Irregularities in the evaporation of over the west coast of India is, however, sea water; related to two factors: (iii)Reduction in the amount of (i) The offshore meteorological planktons which further reduces the conditions. number of fish in the sea. (ii) The position of the equatorial jet The word EI-Nino means ‘Child Christ’

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24 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

because this current appears around showers which are a common Christmas in December. December is a phenomena in Kerala and coastal summer month in Peru (Southern areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are Hemisphere). known as mango showers since they EI-Nino is used in India for forecasting help in the early ripening of long range monsoon rainfall. In 1990-91, there mangoes. was a wild EI-Nino even and the onset of (ii)Blossom Shower: With this shower, southwest monsoon was delayed over most coffee flowers blossom in Kerala parts of the country ranging from five to and nearby areas. twelve days. (iii)Nor Westers: These are dreaded Break in the Monsoon evening thunderstorms in Bengal During the south-west, monsoon period and Assam. Their notorious nature after having rains for a few days, it rain fails can be understood from the local to occur for one or more weeks, it is known nomenclature of ‘Kalbaisakhi’, a as break in the monsoon. These dry spells calamity of the month of Baisakh. are quite common during the rainy season. These showers are useful for tea, Jute These breaks in the different regions are due and rice cultivation. In Assam, these to different reasons: storms are known as “Bordoiseela”. (i) In northern India rains are likely to (iv)Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds fail if the rain-bearing storms are not blowing in the Northern plains from very frequent along the monsoon Punjab to Bihar with higher intensity trough or the ITCZ over this region. between Delhi and Patna. (ii) Over the west coast the dry spells The Cold Weather Season are associated with days when Temperature: Usually, the cold weather winds blow parallel to the coast. season sets in by mid-November in northern The Rhythm of Seasons India. December and January are the coldest The climatic conditions of India can best months in the northern plain. The mean daily be described in terms of an annual cycle of temperature remains below 21ºC over most seasons. The meteorologists recognize the parts of northern India. The night following four seasons: temperature may be quite low, sometimes going below freezing point in Punjab and (i) The cold weather season Rajasthan. There are three main reasons for (ii) The hot weather season the excessive cold in north India during this (iii)The southwest monsoon season season: (iv)The retreating monsoon season. (i) States like Punjab, Haryana and Some Famous Local Rajasthan being far away from the Storms of Hot Weather Season moderating influenced of sea (i) Mango Shower: Towards the end experience continental climate. of summer. There are pre-monsoon (ii) The snowfall in the nearby

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Climate 25

Himalayan ranges creates cold wave they are clearly northeasterly over the Bay situation; and of Bengal. (iii)Around February, the cold winds During the winters, the weather in India coming from the Caspian Sea and is pleasant. The pleasant weather conditions, Turkmenistan bring cold wave along however, at intervals, get disturbed by with frost and fog over the shallow cyclonic depressions originating over northwestern parts of India. the east Medirranean Sea and travelling The Peninsular region of India, eastwards across West Asia, Iran, however, does not have any well-defined Afghanistan and Pakistan before the reach cold weather season. There is hardly any the northwestern parts of India. On their seasonal change in the distribution pattern way, the moisture content gets augmented of the temperature in coastal areas because from the Caspian Sea in the north and the of moderating influence of the sea and the Persian Gulf in the south. proximity to equator. For example, the mean Role of Westerly Jet Stream maximum temperature for January at Rainfall: Winter monsoons do not cause Thiruvanantapuram is as high as 31ºC, and rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It for June, it is 29.5ºC. Temperatures at the hills is because firstly, they have little humidity; of Western Ghats remain comparatively low. and secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation Pressure and Winds: By the end of on land, the possibility of rainfall from them December (22nd December), the sun shines reduces. So, most parts of India do not have vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in the rainfall in the winter season. However, there southern hemisphere. The weather in this are some exceptions to it: season is characterized by feeble high (i) In northwestern India, some weak pressure conditions over the northern plain. temperate cyclones from the In south India, the air pressure is slightly Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in lower. The isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 mb Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western pass through northwest India and far south, Uttar Pradesh. Although the amount respectively. is meager, it is highly beneficial for As a result, winds start blowing from rabi crops. The precipitation is in the northwestern high pressure zone to the low form of snowfall in the lower air pressure zone over the Indian Ocean in Himalayas. It is this snow that the south. sustains the flow of water in the Due to low pressure gradient, the light Himalayan Rivers during the winds with a low velocity of about 3-5 km summer months. The precipitation per hour begin to blow outwards. By and goes on decreasing from west to east large, the topography of the region influences in the plains and from north to south the wind direction. They are westerly or in the mountains. The average northwesterly down the Ganga Valley. They winter rainfall in Delhi is around 53 become northerly in the Ganga-Brahamputra mm. In Punjab and Bihar, rainfall delta. Free from the influence of topography, remains between 25 mm and 18 mm

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26 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

respectively. to the coast confirms that temperature does (ii) Central parts of India and northern not decrease from north to south rather it parts of southern Peninsula also get increases from the coast to the interior. The winter rainfall occasionally. mean daily minimum temperature during the (iii)Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in the summer months also remains quite high and northeastern parts of India also have rarely goes below 26ºC. rains between 25 mm and 50 mm Pressure and Winds: The summer during these winter months. months are a period of excessive heat and (iv)During October and November, falling air pressure in the northern half of the northeast monsoon while crossing country. Because of the heating of the over the Bay of Bengal, pick up subcontinent, the ITCZ moves northwards moisture and causes torrential occupying a position centred at 25ºN in July. rainfall over the Tamil Nadu coast, Roughly, this elongated low pressure southern Andhra Pradesh, southeast monsoon trough extends over the Thar Karnataka and southeast Kerala. desert in the north-west to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the east-southeast. The Hot Weather Season The location of the ITCZ attracts a surface Temperature: With the apparent circulation of the winds which are northward movement of the sun towards the southwesterly on the west coast as well as Tropic of Cancer in March, temperatures start along the coast of West Bengal and rising in north India. April, May and June Bangladesh. They are easterly or are the months of summer in north India. In southeasterly over north Bengal and Bihar. most parts of India, temperatures recorded It has been discussed earlier that these are between 30º-32ºC. In March, the highest currents of southwesterly monsoon are in day temperature of about 38ºC occurs in the reality ‘displaced’ equatorial westerlies. The Deccan Plateau while in April, temperature influx of these winds by mid-June brings ranging between 38ºC and 43ºC are found in about a change in the weather towards the Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. In May, the rainy season. heat belt moves further north, and in the In the heart of the ITCZ in the north- north-western part of India, temperatures west, the dry and hot winds known as ‘Loo’, around 48ºC are not uncommon. blow in the afternoon, and very often, they The hot weather season in south India continue to well into midnight. Dust storms is mild and not so intense as found in north in the evening are very common during May India. The Peninsular situation of south India in Punjab, Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and with moderating effect of the oceans keeps Uttar Pradesh. These temporary storms bring the temperatures lower than that prevailing a welcome respite from the oppressing heat in north India. So, temperatures remain since they bring with them light rains and a between 26ºC and 32ºC. Due to altitude, the pleasant cool breeze. Occasionally, The mois- temperatures in the hills of Western Ghats ture-laden winds are attracted towards the remain below 25ºC. In the coastal regions, periphery of the trough. A sudden contact the north-south extent of isotherms parallel between dry and moist air masses gives rise

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Climate 27

to local storms of great intensity. These local (i) The Arabian Sea branch storms are associated with violent winds, (ii) The Bay of Bengal branch. torrential rains and even hailstorms. Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea The Southwest Monsoon Season The monsoon winds originating over As a result of rapid increase of the Arabian Sea further split into three temperature in May over the northwestern branches: plains, the low pressure conditions over there (i) Its one branch is obstructed by the get further intensified. By early June, they Western Ghats. These winds climb are powerful enough to attract the trade the slopes of the Western Ghats from winds of Southern Hemisphere coming from 900-1200 m. Soon, they become cool, the Indian Ocean. and as a result, the windward side These southeast trade winds cross the of the Sahyadris and Western equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Coastal Plain receive very heavy Arabian Sea, only to be caught up in the air rainfall ranging between 250 cm and circulation over India. Passing over the 400 cm. After crossing the Western equatorial warm currents, they bring with Ghats, these winds descend and get them moisture in abundance. After crossing heated up. This reduces humidity in the equator, they follow a southwesterly the winds. As a result, these winds direction. That is why they are known as cause little rainfall east of the southwest monsoons. Western Ghats. This region of low The rain in the southwest monsoon rainfall is known as the rain-shadow season begins rather abruptly. One result of area. the first rain is that it brings down the (ii) Another branch of the temperature substantially. This sudden onset Arabian sea monsoon strikes the of the moisture-laden winds associated with coast north of Mumbai. Moving violent thunder and lightening, is often along the Narmada and Tapi river termed as the “break” or “burst” of the valleys, these winds cause rainfall in monsoons. extensive areas of central India. The The monsoon may burst in the first week Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm of June in the coastal areas of Kerala, rainfall from this part of the branch. Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra while in the Thereafter, they enter the Ganga interior parts of the country; it may be plains and mingle with the Bay of delayed to the first week of July. The day Bengal branch. temperature registers a decline of 5ºC to 8ºC (iii)A third branch of this monsoon between mid-June and mid-July. wind strikes the Saurashtra As these winds approach the land, their Peninsula and the Kachchh. It then southwesterly direction is modified by the passes over west Rajasthan and relief and thermal low pressure over the along the Aravallis, causing only a northwest India. The monsoon approaches scanty rainfall. In Punjab and the landmass in two branches: Haryana, it too jokns the Bay of

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28 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Bengal branch. These two branches, governed by relief or topography. reinforced by each other, cause rains For instance the windward side of in the western Himalayas. the Western Ghats register a rainfall Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal of over 250 cm. Again, the heavy rainfall in the northeastern states can The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the be attributed to their hill ranges and coast of Myanmar and part of southeast the Eastern Himalayas. Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this (iii)The monsoon rainfall has a declining branch towards the Indian subcontinent. The trend with increasing distance from monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and the sea. Kolkata receives 119 cm Bangladesh from south and southeast instead during the southwest monsoon of from the south-westerly direction. From period, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76 here, this branch splits into two under the cm and Delhi 56 cm. influence of the Himalayas and the thermal (iv)The monsoon rains occur in wet low is northwest India. Its one branch moves spells of few days, duration at a time. westward along the Ganga plains reaching The wet spells are interspersed with as far as the Punjab plains. The other branch rainless interval known as ‘breaks’. moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the north These breaks in rainfall are related and the northeast, causing widespread rains. to the cyclonic depressions mainly Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills formed at the head of the Bay of of Meghalya. Mawsynram, located on the Bengal, and their crossing into the crest of Khasi hills, receives the highest mainland. Besides the frequency and average annual rainfall in the world. intensity of these depressions, the Here it is important to know why the passage followed by them Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this determines the spatial distribution season. There are two factors responsible for of rainfall. it: (v) The summer rainfall comes in a (i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated heavy downpour leading to parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch considerable run off and soil of southwest monsoon. erosion. (ii) It lies in the rain shadow area of the (vi)Monsoons play a pivotal role in the Arabian Sea branch of the south- agrarian economy of India because west monsoon. over three-fourths of the total rain Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall in the country is received during the southwest monsoon season. (i) Rainfall received from the southwest (vii)Its spatial distribution is also uneven monsoons is seasonal in character, which ranges from 12 cm to more which occurs between June and than 250 cm. September. (viii)The beginning of the rains (ii) Monsoonal rainfall is largely

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Climate 29

sometimes is considerably delayed depressions which originate over the over the whole or a part of the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the country. eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. These (ix)The rains sometimes end tropical cyclones are very destructive. The considerably earlier than usual, thickly populated deltas of the Godavari, causing great damage to standing Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred crops and making the sowing of targets. Every year cyclones bring disaster winter crops difficult. here. A few cyclonic storms also strike the coast of West Bengal, Bangladesh and Season of Retreating Monsoon Myanmar. A bulk of the rainfall of the The months of October and November Coromondal coast is derived from these are known for retreating monsoons. By the depressions and cyclones. Such cyclonic end of September, the southwest monsoon storms are less frequent in the Arabian Sea. becomes weak as the low pressure trough of Distribution of Rainfall the Ganga plain starts moving southward in response to the southward march of the sun. The average annual rainfall in India is The monsoon retreats from the western about 125 cm, but it has great spatial varia- Rajasthan by the first week of September. It tions. Areas of High Rainfall: The highest withdraws from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western rainfall occurs along the west coast, on the Ganga plain and the Central Highlands by Western Ghats, as well as in the sub- the end of the month. By the beginning of Himalayan areas is the northeast and the hills October, the low pressures covers northern of Meghalaya. Here the rainfall exceeds 200 parts of the Bay of Bengal and by early cm. In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills, November, it moves over Karnataka and the rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm. In the Tamil Nadu. By the middle of December, the Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining hills. centre of low pressure is completely removed The rainfall is less then 200 cm. Areas of Me- from the Peninsula. dium Rainfall: Rainfall between 100-200 cm is received in the southern parts of Gujarat, The retreating southwest monsoon east Tamil Nadu, northeastern Peninsula cov- season is marked by clear skies and rise in ering Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern temperature. The land is still moist. Owing Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga plain along to the conditions of high temperature and the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley and humidity, the weather becomes rather Manipur. oppressive. This is commonly known as the ‘October heat’. In the second half of October, Seasons Months Months the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly (According to the (According to the India Calendar) Indian Calendar) in northern India. The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in north India but Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June it is associated with rain in the eastern part Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August of the Peninsula. Here, October and Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October November are the rainiest months of the Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November- year. The widespread rain in this season is December Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February associated with the passage of cyclonic

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30 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Areas of Low Rainfall: Western Uttar Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana. Punjab, Jammu and the Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh, Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall 50-100 cm. below 50 cm. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.

Gist of NCERT Indian History

ISBN: 9789382732785 Book Code: F16

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NATURAL VEGETATION

Natural vegetation refers to a plant These forests are found in the western community that has been left undisturbed slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the over a long time. So as to allow its individual northeastern region and the Andaman and species to adjust themselves to climate and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and soil conditions as fully as possible. humid areas with an annual precipitation of India is a land of great variety of natural over 200 cm and mean annual temperature vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked above 220C. Tropical evergreen forests are with temperate vegetation; the Western well stratified, with layers closer to the Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands ground and are covered with shrubs and have tropical rain forests, the deltaic regions creepers, with short structured trees have tropical forests and mangroves; the followed by tall variety of trees. In these desert and semi desert areas of Rajasthan are forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m known for cacti, a wide variety of bushes and or above. There is no definite time for trees thorny vegetation. Depending upon the to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. variations in the climate and the soil, the As such these forests appear green all the year vegetation of India changes from one region round. Species found in these forests include to another. rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc. On the basis of certain common features The semi evergreen forests are found such as predominant vegetation type and in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such climatic regions, Indian forests can be forests have a mixture of evergreen and divided into the following groups: moist deciduous trees. The under growing Types of Forests climbers provide an evergreen character to these forests. Main species are white cedar, (i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi hillock and kail. Evergreen forests The British were aware of the economic (ii) Tropical Deciduous forests value of the forests in India, hence, large scale (iii)Tropical Thorn forests exploitation of these forests was started. The (iv)Montane forests structure of forests was also changed. The (v) Littoral and Swamp forests. oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were Tropical replaced by pine (chirs) which was needed Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests to lay railway lines. Forests were also cleared for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and

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32 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

coffee. The British also used timber of Rajasthan, vegetation cover is very scanty construction activities as it acts as an insulator due to low rainfall and overgrazing. of heat. The protectional use of forests was, Tropical Thorn Forests thus, replaced by commercial use. Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas Tropical Deciduous Forests which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These These are the most widespread forests consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It in India. They are also called the monsoon includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, forests. They spread over regions which Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants basis of the availability of water, these forests remain leafless for most part of the year and are further divided into moist and dry give an expression of scrub vegetation. deciduous. Important species found are babool, ber, and The Moist deciduous forests are more wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, pronounced in the regions which record etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 rainfall between 100-200 cm. These forests are m as the under growth. found in the northeastern states along the Montane Forests foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the In mountainous areas, the decrease in Western Ghats and Odissa. Teak, sal, temperature with increasing altitude leads to shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum a corresponding change in natural vegetation. and sandalwood etc. are the main species of Mountain forests can be classified into two these forests. types, the northern mountain forests and the Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas southern mountain forests. of the country, where rainfall ranges between The Himalayan ranges show a 70-100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a succession of vegetation from the tropical to transition to the moist deciduous, while on the tundra, which change in with the altitude. the drier margins to thorn forests. These Deciduous forests are found in the foothills forests are found in rainier areas of the of the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and temperate type of forests between an Bihar. In the higher rainfall regions of the altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m. Peninsular plateau and the northern Indian In the higher hill ranges of northeastern plain, these forests have a parkland landscape India, hilly areas of West Bengal and with open stretches in which teak and other Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees such trees interspersed with patches of grass are as oak and chestnut are predominant. common. Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also As the dry season begins, the trees shed well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine their leaves completely and the forest appears as a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a like a vast grassland with naked trees all highly valued endemic species grows mainly around Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, in the western part of the Himalayan range. axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in forests. In the western and southern part of construction activity. Similarly, the chinar

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Natural Vegetation 33

and the walnut, which sustain the famous Littoral and Swamp Forests Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this zone. India has a rich variety of wetland Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes of habitats. About 70 per cent of this comprises 2,225-3,048 m. At many places in this zone, areas under paddy cultivation. The total area temperate grasslands are also found. of wetland is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites- But in the higher reaches there is a Chilika Lake (Odissa) and Keoladeo National transition to Alpine forests and pastures. Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch and habitats under the Convention of Wetlands rhododendrons, etc. occur between 3,000- of International Importance (Ramsar 4,000 m. However, these pastures are used Convention). extensively for transhumance by tribes like The country’s wetlands have been the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas and grouped into eight categories, viz. (i) the the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover because of relatively higher precipitation than together with the lagoons and other wetlands the drier north-facing slopes. At higher of the southern west coast; (ii) the vast saline altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf tundra vegetation. of Kachchh; (iii) freshwater lakes and The southern mountain forests include reservoirs from Gujarats through Rajasthan the forests found in three distinct areas of (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the Pradesh; (iv) the delta wetlands and lagoons Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer of India’s east coast (Chilika Lake); (v) the to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain; (vi) sea level, vegetation is temperate in the the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the higher regions, and subtropical on the lower marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast regions of the Western Ghats, especially in India and the Himalayan foothills; (vii) the Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The lakes and rivers of the montane region of temperate forests are called Sholas in the Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the mangrove Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of forest and other wetlands of the island arcs the other trees of this forest of economic of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands significance include magnolia, laurel, Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt cinchona and wattle. Such forests are also marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges. estuaries. The Region Percentage They consist of a number of salt- Cover of the tolerant species of plants. Crisscrossed by Forest creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a wide variety (i)The region of high concentration > 40 of birds. (ii)The region of medium concentration 20-40 (iii)The region of low concentration 10-20 In India, the mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the (iv)The region of very low concentration < 10

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34 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

world’s mangrove forests. They are highly are good for forest growth. developed in the Andaman and Nicobar There is a lot of variation in actual forest Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. cover, which ranges from 9.56 per cent in Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, Jammu and Kashmir to 84.01 per cent in the Godavari and the Krishna deltas. These Andaman and Nicobar Islands. From the forests too, are being encroached upon, and table showing the distribution of forests in hence, need conservation. India, it is clear that there are 15 states where Forest cover in India the forest cover is more than one-third of the According to state records, the forest total area, which is the basic requirement for area covers 23.28 per cent of the total land maintaining the ecological balance. area of the country. The forest area is the On the basis of the percentage of the area notified and recorded as the forest land actual forest cover, the states have been irrespective of the existence of trees, while grouped into four regions. the actual forest cover is the area occupied Forest Conservation by forests with canopy. Forests have an intricate The former is based on the records of interrelationship with life and environment. the State Revenue Department, while the These provide numerous direct and indirect latter is based on aerial photographs and advantages to our economy and society. satellite imageries. In 2001, the actual forest Hence, conservation of forest is of vital cover was only 20.55 per cent. Of the forest importance to the survival and prosperity of cover, the share of dense and open forests man kind. was 12.60 per cent and 7.87 per cent Accordingly, the Government of India respectively. proposed to have a nation-wide forest Both forest area and forest covers vary conservation policy, and adopted a forest from state to state. Lakshadweep has zero policy in 1952, which was further modified percent forest area; Andaman and Nicobar in 1988. According to the new forest policy, Islands have 86.93 per cent. Most of the states the Government will emphasis sustainable with less than 10 per cent of the forest area forest management in order to conserve and lie in the north and northwestern part of the expand forest reserve on the one hand, and country. These are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, to meet the needs of local people on the Haryana and Delhi. other. Most of the forests in Punjab and The forest policy aimed at: Haryana have been cleared for cultivation. (i) bringing 33 per cent of the States with 10-20 per cent forest area are geographical areas under forest Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. In Peninsular cover; India, excluding Tamil Nadu, Dadra and (ii) maintaining environmental stability Nagar Haveli and Goa, the area under forest and to restore forests where cover is 20-30 per cent. The northeastern states ecological balance was disturbed; have more than 30 per cent of the land under (iii)conserving the natural heritage of forest. Hilly topography and heavy rainfall

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Natural Vegetation 35

the country, its biological diversity promotion of agro-forestry and community- and genetic pool; forestry. Agro-forestry is the raising of trees (iv)checks soil erosion, extension of the and agriculture crops on the same land desert lands and reduction of floods inclusive of the waste patches. It combines and droughts; forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the (v) increasing the forest cover through simultaneous production of food, fodder, social forestry and afforestation on fuel, timber and fruit. degraded land; Community forestry involves the raising (vi)increasing the productivity of forests of trees on public or community land such as to make timber, fuel, fodder and the village pasture and temple land, roadside, food available to rural population canal bank, strips along railway lines, and dependant on forests, and schools etc. encourage the substitution of wood; Community forestry programme aims at providing benefits to the community as a (vii)creating of a massive peoples whole. Community forestry provides a movement involving women to means under which the people of landless encourage planting of trees, stop classes can associate themselves in tree felling of trees, and thus, reduce raising and thus, get those benefits which pressure on the existing forest. otherwise are restricted for landowners. Based on the forest conservation policy Farm Forestry the following steps were initiated: Social Forestry Farm forestry is a term applied to the process under which farmers grow trees for Social forestry means the management commercial and non-commercial purposes on and protection of forests and afforestation their farm lands. on barren lands with the purpose of helping Wildlife in the environmental, social and rural development. Wildlife of India is a great natural The National Commission on heritage. It is estimated that about 4-5 per Agriculture (1976) has classified social cent of all known plant and animal species forestry into three categories. These are on the earth are found in India. There are Urban forestry, Rural forestry and Farm certain species that are at the brink of forestry. extinction. Urban forestry pertains to the raising Some estimates suggest that at least 10 and management of trees on public and per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and privately owned lands in and around urban 20 per cent of its mammals are on the centres such as green belts, parks, roadside threatened list. avenues, industrial and commercial green Let us now understand the different belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial and categories of existing plants and animal commercial green belts, etc. species. Based on the International Union for Rural forestry lays emphasis on Conservation of Nature and Natural

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36 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Resources (IUCN), we can classify as follows- Wildlife Conservation in India Normal Species: Species whose The protection of wildlife has a long population levels are considered to be normal tradition in India. Many stories of for their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, Panchtantra and Jungle Books, etc. have rodents, etc. stood the test of time relating to the love for Endangered Species: These are species wildlife. These have a profound impact on which are in danger of extinction. The young minds. In 1972, a comprehensive survival of such species is difficult if the Wildlife Act was enacted, which provides the negative factors that have led to a decline in main legal framework for conservation and their population continue to operate. The protection of wildlife in India. The two main examples of such species are black buck, objectives of the Act are; to provide crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion protection to the endangered species listed tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in in the schedule of the Act and to provide legal Manipur), etc. Vulnerable Species: These are support to the conservation areas of the species whose population has declined to country classified as National parks, levels from where it is likely to move into sanctuaries and closed areas. the endangered category in the near future This Act has been comprehensively if the negative factors continue to operate. amended in 1991, making punishments more The examples of such species are blue sheep, stringent and has also made provisions for Asiatic elephant, Gangetic dolphin etc. Rare the protection of specified plant species and Species: conservation of endangered species of wild Species with small population may move animals. There are 92 National parks and 492 into the endangered for vulnerable category wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of 15.67 if the negative factors affecting them continue million hectares in the country. Wildlife to operate. The examples of such species are conservation has a very large ambit with the Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic unbounded potential for the wellbeing of buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc. mankind. However, this can be achieved only Endemic Species: These are species when every individual understands its which are only found in some particular areas significance and contributes his bit. usually isolated by natural or geographical For the purpose of effective conservation barriers. Examples of such species are the of flora and fauna, special steps have been Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman initiated by the Government of India in wild pig, mithun in Arunachal Pradesh. collaboration with UNESCO’s ‘Man and Extinct Species: These are species which are Biosphere Programme’. Special schemes like not found after searches of known or likely Project Tiger (1973) and Project Elephant areas where they may occur. A species may (1992) have been launched to conserve these be extinct from a local area, region, country, species and their habitat in a sustainable continent or the entire earth. Examples of manner. such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink Project Tiger has been implemented head duck. since 1973. The main objective of the scheme

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Natural Vegetation 37

is to ensure maintenance of viable population the first of the fourteen biosphere reserves of tigers in India for scientific, aesthetic, of India, was established in September 1986. cultural and ecological values, and to preserve It embraces the sanctuary complex of areas of biological importance as natural Wyanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and heritage for the benefit, education and Mudumalai, the entire forested hill slopes of enjoyment of the people. Initially, the Project Nilambur, the Upper Nilgiri plateau, Silent Tiger was launched in nine tiger reserves, Valley and the Siruvani hills. The total area covering an area of 16,339 sq. km, which has of the biosphere reserve is around 5,520 sq. now increased to 27 tiger reserves, km. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve possesses encompassing 37,761 sq. km of tiger habitats different habitat types, unspoilt areas of distributed in 17 states. The tiger population natural vegetation types with several dry in the country has registered an increase from scrubs, dry and moist deciduous, semi 1,827 in 1972 to 3,642 in 2001-2002. evergreen and wet evergreen forests, Project Elephant was launched in 1992 evergreen shoals, grasslands and swamps. It to assist states having free ranging popula- includes the largest known population of two tion of wild elephants. It was aimed at en- endangered animal species, namely the suring long-term survival of identified viable Nilgiri Tahr and the Lion-tailed macaque. population of elephants in their natural habi- The largest south Indian population of tat. The project is being implemented in 13 elephant, tiger, gaur, sambar and chital as states. Apart from this, some other projects well as a good number of endemic and such as Crocodile Breeding Project, Project endangered plants are also found in this Hangul and conservation of Himalayan Musk reserve. The habitat of a number of tribal deer have also been launched by the Gov- groups remarkable for the traditional modes ernment of India. of harmonious use of the environment are Biosphere Reserves also found here. The topography of the NBR A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and is extremely varied, ranging from an altitude representative ecosystem of terrestrial and of 250 m to 2,650 m. About 80 per cent of the coastal areas which are internationally flowering plants reported from the Western recognized within the framework of Ghats occur in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve Programme. The Biosphere Reserve aims at The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve achieving the three objective as depicted in situated in Uttarakhand includes parts of Figure. There are 16 Biosphere Reserves in Chamoli, Almora, Pithoragarh and India. Four Biosphere Reserves. Namely (i) Bageshwar districts. The major forest types Nilgiri; (ii) Nanda Devi: (iii) Sunderbans; and of the reserve are temperate. A few important (iv) Gulf of Mannar have been recognized by species are silver weed and orchids like the UNESCO on World Network of latifolie and rhododendron. The biosphere Biosphere Reserves. reserve has a rich fauna, for example the snow Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve leopard, black bear, brown bear, musk deer, The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), snowcock, golden eagle and black eagle.

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38 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Major threats to the ecosystem are the collection of endangered plants for medicinal use, forest fires and poaching. List of Biosphere Reserves

Sl.No. Name of the Biosphere Total Reserve GeographicalLocation (States) Area (km2)

1. Nilgiri 5,520 Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Mudumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Struvant Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) 2. Nanda Devi 2,236.74 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora districts (Uttar Pradesh) and part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya) 3. Nokrek 820 Part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya) 4. Manas 2,837 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and Darrang districts (Assam) 5. Sunderbans 9,630 Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river system (West Bengal) 6. Gulf of Mannar 10,500 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu) 7. Great Nicobar 885 Southernmost Islands of the Andaman and Nicobar (A&N Islands) 8. Similipal 4,374 Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa) 9. Dibru Saikhowa 765 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts (Assam) 10. Dihang Dibang 5,111.5 Part of Siang and Debang valley in Arunachal Pradesh 11. Kanchenjunga 2,619.92 Parts of North and West Sikkim 12. Pachman 4,926.28 Parts of Betul. Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh. 13. Agasthya-malai 1,701 Agasthyamalai Hills in Kerala 14. Achanakmar- 3,835.51 Parts of Anupur and Dindori district of MP and parts of Bilaspur district of Amarkantak Chhatisgarh

Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve Heritiera fomes, a species valued for its It is located in the swampy delta of the timber. river Ganga in West Bengal. It extends over Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve a vast area of 9,630 sq. km. and consists of The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve mangrove forests, swamps and forested covers an area of 105,000 hectares on the islands. Sundarbans is the home of nearly 200 southeast coast of India. It is one of the Royal Bengal tigers.The tangled mass of roots world’s richest regions from a marine of mangrove trees provide safe homes for a biodiversity perspective. The biosphere large number of species, from fish to shrimp. reserve comprises 21 islands with estuaries, More than 170 birds species are known to beaches, forests of the near shore inhabit these mangrove forests.Adapting environment, sea grasses, coral reefs, salt itself to the saline and fresh water marshes and mangroves. Among the Gulf’s environment, the tigers at the park are good 3,600 plant and animal species are the globally swimmers, and they hunt scarce preys such endangered sea cow (Dugong / dugon) and as chital deer, barking deer, wild pig and six mangrove species, endemic to Peninsular even macaques. In the Sunderbans, the India. mangrove forests are characterized by

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SOILS

Soil is the most important layer of the horizons is the rock which is also known as earth’s crust. It is a valuable resource. the parent rock or the bedrock. Soil, which is Soil is the mixture of rock debris and a complex and varied entity, has always organic materials which develop on the drawn the attention of the scientists. earth’s surface. The major factors affecting Classification of Soils the formation of soil are relief, parent mate- India has varied relief features, rial, climate, vegetation and other life-forms landforms, climatic realms and vegetation and time. Besides these, human activities also types. These have contributed in the influence it to a large extent. Components of development of various types of soils in the soil are mineral particles, humus, water India. and air. The actual amount of each of these depend upon the type of soil. Some soils are On the basis of genesis, colour, deficient in one or more of these, while there composition and location, the soils of India are some others that have varied combina- have been classified into: (i) Alluvial soils, tions. (ii) Black soils, (iii) Red and Yellow soils, (iv) If we dig a pit on land and look at the Laterite soils, (v) arid soils, (vi) Saline soils, soil, we find that it consists of three layers (vii) Peaty soils, (viii) Forest soils. which are called horizons. ‘Horizon A’ is the ICAR has classified the soils of India into topmost zone, where organic materials have the following order as per the USDA soil taxonomy got incorporated with the mineral matter, nutrients and water, which are necessary for Sl.No. Order Area Percentage the growth of plants. ‘Horizon B’ is a (In Thousand transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and Hectares) ‘horizon C’, and contains matter derived (i) Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74 from below as well as from above. It has some (ii) Entisols 92131.71 28.08 organic matter in it, although the mineral (iii) Alfisols 44448.68 13.55 matter is noticeably weathered. ‘Horizon C’ (iv) Vertisols 27960.00 8.52 is composed of the loose parent material. This (v) Aridisols 14069.00 4.28 (vi) Ultisols 8250.00 2.51 layer is the first stage in the soil formation (vii) Mollisols 1320.00 0.40 process and eventually forms the above two (viii) Others 9503.10 2.92 layers. This arrangement of layers is known Total 100 as the soil profile. Underneath these three

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40 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Source: Soils of India. National Bureau Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning. and some parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper Publication Number 94 reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and Alluvial Soils the north western part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep. These soils are Alluvial soils are widespread in the also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black northern plains and the river valleys. These Cotton Soil’. The black soils are generally soils cover about 40 per cent of the total area clayey, deep and impermeable. They swell of the country. They are depositional soils, and become sticky when wet and shrink transported and deposited by rivers and when dried. So, during the dry season, these streams. Through a narrow corridor in soils develop wide cracks. Thus, there occurs Rajasthan, They extend into the plains of a kind of ‘self ploughing’. Because of this Gujarat. In the Peninsular region, they are character of slow absorption and loss of found in deltas of the east coast and in the moisture, the black soil retains the moisture river valleys. for a very long time, which helps the crops, The alluvial soils vary in nature from especially; the rain fed ones, to sustain even sandy loam to clay. They are generally rich during the dry season. in potash but poor in phosphorous. In the Chemically, the black soils are rich in Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also types of alluvial soils have developed, viz. contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous, Khadar and Bhangar. Khadar is the new nitrogen and organic matter. The colour of alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, the soil ranges from deep black to grey. which enriches the soil by depositing fine silts. Bhangar represents a system of older Red and Yellow Soil alluvium, deposited away from the flood Red Soil develops on crystalline igneous plains. Both the Khadar and Bhangar soils rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern contain calcareous concretions (Kankars). and southern part of the Deccan Plateau. These soils are more loamy and clayey in the Along the piedmont zone of the Western lower and middle Ganga plain and the Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red Brahamputra valley. The sand content loamy soil. Yellow and red soils are also decreases from the west to east. found in parts of Odissa and Chattisgarh and The colour of the alluvial soils varies in the southern parts of the middle Ganga from the light grey to ash grey. Its shades plain. The soil develops a reddish colour due depend on the depth of the deposition, the to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and texture of the materials, and the time taken metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it for attaining maturity. Alluvial soils are occurs in a hydrated form. The fine-grained intensively cultivated. red and yellow soils are normally fertile, Black Soil whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry upland areas are poor in fertility. They are Black soil covers most of the Deccan generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra, humus.

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Soils 41

Laterite Soil the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration Laterite has been derived from the Latin of water, and as such when irrigation is made word ‘Later’ which means brick. The laterite available, the soil moisture is readily available soils develop in areas with high temperature for a sustainable plant growth. Arid soils are and high rainfall. These are the result of characteristically developed in western intense leaching due to tropical rains. With Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic and rain, lime and silica are leached away, and topography. These soils are poor and contain soils rich in iron oxide and aluminum little humus and organic matter. compound are left behind. Humus content Saline Soils of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that They are also known as Usara soils. thrives well in high temperature. These soils Saline soils contain a larger proportion of are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, sodium, potassium and magnesium, and phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and thus, they are infertile, and do not support potash are in excess. Hence, laterites are not any vegetative growth. They have more suitable for cultivation; however, application salts, largely because of dry climate and poor of manures and fertilizers are required for drainage. They occur in arid and semi arid making the soils fertile for cultivation. regions, and in waterlogged and swampy Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra areas. Their structure ranges from sandy to Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree loamy. They lack in nitrogen and calcium. crops like cashew nut. Saline soils are more widespread in western Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in for use in house construction. These soils Sunderban areas of West Bengal. In the Rann have mainly developed in the higher areas of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings of the Peninsular plateau. The laterite soils salt particles and deposits there as a crust. are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly occurrence of saline soils. In the areas of areas of Odissa and Assam. intensive cultivation with excessive use of Arid Soils irrigation, especially in areas of green revolution, the fertile alluvial soils are Arid soils range from red to brown in becoming saline. Excessive irrigation with colour. They are generally sandy in structure dry climatic conditions promotes capillary and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt action, which results in the deposition of salt content is so high that common salt is obtained on the top layer of the soil. In such areas, by evaporating the saline water. Due to the especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are dry climate, high temperature and advised to add gypsum to solve the problem accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture of salinity in the soil. and humus. Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal. Lower horizons Peaty Soils of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers They are found in the areas of heavy because of the increasing calcium content rainfall and high humidity, where there is a downwards. The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in good growth of vegetation. Thus, large

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42 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

quantity of dead organic matter accumulates rate of removal of fine particles from the in these areas, and this gives a rich humus surface is the same as the rate of addition of and organic content to the soil. Organic particles to the soil layer. Sometimes, such a matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 balance is disturbed by natural or human per cent. These soils are normally heavy and factors, leading to a greater rate of removal black in colour. At many places, they are of soil. Human activities too are responsible alkaline also. It occurs widely in the northern for soil erosion to a great extent. As the part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal human population increases, the demand on and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa the land also increases. Forest and other and Tamil Nadu. natural vegetation is removed for human Forest Soils settlement, for cultivation, for grazing animal and for various other needs. As the name suggests, forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient Wind and water are powerful agents of rainfall is available. The soils vary in structure soil erosion because of their ability to remove and texture depending on the mountain soil and transport it. Wind erosion is environment where they are formed. They significant in arid and semi-arid regions. In are loamy and silty on valley sides and regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes, coarse-grained in the upper slopes. In the erosion by running water is more significant. snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they Water erosion which is more serious and experience denudation, and are acidic with occurs extensively in different parts of India, low humus content. The soils found in the takes place mainly in the form of sheet and lower valleys are fertile. gully erosion. Sheet erosion takes place on level lands after a heavy shower and the soil Soil Degradation removal is not easily noticeable. But it is In a broad sense, soil degradation can harmful since it removes the finer and more be defined as the decline in soil fertility, when fertile top soil. Gully erosion is common steep the nutritional status declines and depth of slopes. Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the the soil goes down the erosion and misuse. agricultural lands into small fragments and Soil degradation is the main factor leading make from them unfit for cultivation. A to the depleting soil resource base in India. region with a large number of deep gullies The degree of soil degradation varies from or ravines is called a badland topography. place to place according to the topography, Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal wind velocity and amount of the rainfall. basin. Besides this, they are also found in Soil Erosion Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The country The destruction of the soil cover is is losing about 8,000 hectare of land to described as soil erosion. The soil forming ravines every year. processes and the erosional processes of Deforestation is one of the major causes running water and wind go on of soil erosion. Plants keep soils bound in simultaneously. But generally, there is a locks of roots, and thus, prevent erosion. balance between these two processes. The They also add humus to the soil by shedding

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Soils 43

leaves and twigs. Forests have been denuded should be made to protect cultivable lands practically in most parts of India but their from encroachment by sand dunes through effect on soil erosion are more in hilly parts developing shelter belts of trees and agro- of the country. forestry. Lands not suitable for cultivation A fairly large area of arable land in the should be converted into pastures for irrigated zones of India is becoming saline grazing. Experiments have been made to because of over irrigation. The salt lodged stabilize sand dunes in western Rajasthan by in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to the Central Arid Zone Research Institute the surface and destroys its fertility. Chemical (CAZRI). The Central Soil Conservation fertilizers in the absence of organic manures Board, set up by the Government of India, are also harmful to the soil. Unless the soil has prepared a number of plans for soil gets enough humus, chemicals harden it and conservation in different parts of the country. reduce its fertility in the long run. This These plans are based on the climatic problem is common in all the command areas conditions, configuration of land and the of the river valley projects, which were the social behavior of people. Even these plans first beneficiaries of the Green Revolution. are fragmental in nature. Integrated land use According to estimates, about half of the total planning, therefore, seems to be the best land of India is under some degree of technique for proper soil conservation. degradation. Every year, India loses millions Water Resources of tones of soil and its nutrients to the agents Water is a cyclic resource with abundant of its degradation, which adversely affects supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per our national productivity. So, it is imperative cent of the earth’s surface is covered with it to initiate immediate steps to reclaim and but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per conserve soils. cent of the total water. In fact, a very small Soil Conservation proportion of fresh water is effectively Contour bunding, Contour terracing, available for human use. The availability of regulated forestry, controlled grazing, cover fresh water varies over space and time. cropping, mixed farming and crop rotation Water Resources of India are some of the remedial measures which are India accounts for about 2.45 per cent often adopted to reduce soil erosion. of world’s surface areas, 4 per cent of the Efforts should be made to prevent gully world’s water resources and about 16 per cent erosion and control their formation. Finger of world’s population. The total water gullies can be eliminated by terracing. In available from precipitation in the country in bigger gullies, the erosive velocity of water a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability may be reduced by constructing a series of from surface water and replenishable check dams. Specially attention should be groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this made to control headward extension of only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses. gullies. This can be done by gully plugging, Thus, the total utilizable water resource in terracing or by planting cover vegetation. the country is only 1,122 cubic km. In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts

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44 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Surface Water Resources about one-third of the total area in the coun- There are four major sources of surface try, have 60 per cent of the total surface wa- water. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and ter resource. Much of the annual water flow tanks. In the country, there are about 10,360 in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, the rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 Krishna, and the Kaveri has been harnessed, km each. The mean annual flow in all the but it is yet to be done in the Brahmaputra river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 and the Ganga basins. cubic km. However, due to topographical, Groundwater Resources hydrological and other constraints, only The total replenishable groundwater about 690 cubic km (32 per cent) of the avail- resources in the country are about 432 km. able surface water can be utilized. Water flow Table shows that the Ganga and the in a river depends on size of its catchment Brahmaputra basins, have about 46 per cent area or river basin and rainfall within its of the total replenishable groundwater re- catchment area. Given that precipitation is sources. The level of groundwater utilization relatively high in the catchment areas of the is relatively high in the river basins lying in Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Barak riv- north-western region and parts of south In- ers, these rivers, although account for only dia.

Basinwise Ground water Potential and Utilization in India (Cubic Km/Year)

S.No. Name of Basin Total Replenishable Level of Ground water Resources Utilization (%) Groundwater 1. Brahmani with Baltarni 4.05 8.45 2. Brahmaputra 26.55 3.37 3. Chambal Composite 7.19 40.09 4. Kaveri 12.3 55.33 5. Ganga 170.99 33.52 6. Godavari 40.65 19.53 7. Indus 26.49 77.71 8. Krishna 26.41 30.39 9. Kuchchh and Saurashtra Including Luni 11.23 51.14 10. Chennai and South Tamil Nadu 18.22 57.68 11. Mahanadi 16.46 6.95 12. Meghna (Barak & Others) 8.52 3.94 13. Narmada 10.83 21.74 14. Northeast Composite 18.84 17.2 15. Pennar 4.93 36.6 16. Subarnarekha 1.82 9.57 17. Tapi 8.27 33.05 18. Western Ghat 17.69 22.88 Total 431.42 31.97

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Soils 45

The groundwater utilization is very high Demand of Water for Irrigation in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, In agriculture, water is mainly used for and Tamil Nadu. However, there are States irrigation. Irrigation is needed because of like Chhatisgarh, Orissa, Kerala, etc., which spatiotemporal variability in rainfall in the utilize only a small proportion of their country. The large tracts of the country are groundwater potentials. States like Gujarat, deficient in rainfall and are drought prone. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and North-Western India and Deccan plateau Maharashtra are utilizing their ground water constitute such areas. Winter and summer resources at a moderate rate. If the present seasons are more or less dry in most part of trend continues, the demands for water the country. Provisions of irrigation makes would need the supplies. And such situation, multiple cropping possible. It has also been will be detrimental to development, and can found that irrigated lands have higher cause social upheaval and disruptions. agricultural productivity than un-irrigated Water Demand and Utilization India has land. Further, the high yielding varieties of traditionally been an agrarian economy, and crops need regular moisture supply, which about two-third of its population have been is made possible only by a developed dependent on agriculture. Hence, irrigation systems. In fact, this is why that development of irrigation to increase green revolution strategy of agriculture agricultural production has been assigned a development in the country has largely been very high priority in the Five Year Plans, and successful in Punjab, Haryana and western multipurpose river valleys projects like the Uttar Pradesh. Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakund, Damodar, Valley, In Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Nagarjuna Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal Pradesh more than 85 per cent of their net Project, etc. have been taken up. In fact, India’s sown area is under irrigation. Wheat and rice water demand at present is dominated by are grown mainly with the help of irrigation irrigational needs. in these states. Of the total net irrigated area Agriculture accounts for most the sur- 76.1 per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in face and ground water utilization, it accounts Haryana are irrigated through wells and tube for 89 per cent of the surface water and 92 wells. This shows that these states utilize per cent of the groundwater utilization. While large proportion of their ground water the share of industrial sector is limited to 2 potential which has resulted in ground water per cent of the surface water utilization and depletion in these states. The share of area 5 per cent of the ground-water, the share of irrigated through wells and tube wells is also domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in sur- very high in the states given in table. face water utilization as compared to The over-use of ground water resources groundwater. The share of agricultural sec- has led to decline in ground water table in tor in total water utilization is much higher these states. In fact, over withdrawals in than other sectors. However, is future, with some states like Rajasthan, and Maharashtra development, the shares of industrial and has increased fluoride concentration in domestic sectors in the country are likely to ground-water, and this practice has led to increase. increase in concentration of arsenic in parts

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46 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

of West Bengal and Bihar. The result is that in 1997, 251 polluting Prevention of Water Pollution industries were located along the rivers and Available water resources are lakes. degrading rapidly. The major rivers of the The Water Cess Act, 1977, meant to country generally retain better water quality reduce pollution has also made marginal in less densely populated upper stretches in impacts. There is a strong need to generate hilly areas. In plans, river water is used public awareness about importance of water intensively for irrigation, drinking, domestic and impacts of water pollution. The public and industrial purposes. The drains carrying awareness and action can be very effective agricultural (fertilizers and insecticides), in reducing the pollutants from agricultural domestic (solid and liquid wastes), and activities, domestic and industrial discharges. industrial effluents join the rivers. The Watershed Management concentration of pollutants in rivers, Watershed management basically refers especially remains very high during the to efficient management and conservation of summer season when flow of water is low. surface and groundwater resources. It in- The Central Pollution Control Board volves prevention of runoff and storage and (CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution recharge of groundwater through various Control Boards has been monitoring water methods like percolation tanks, recharge quality of national aquatic resources at 507 wells, etc. However, in broad sense water- stations. The data obtained from these shed management includes conservation, re- stations show that organic and bacterial generation and judicious use of all resources- contamination continues to be the main source natural (like land, water, plants and animals) of pollution in rivers. The Yamuna river is and human with in a watershed. Watershed the most polluted river in the country management aims at bringing about balance between Delhi and Etawah. between natural resources on the one hand Other severely polluted rivers are: the and society on the other. The success of wa- tershed development largely depends upon Sabarmati at Ahmedabad, the Gomti at community participation. Lucknow, the Kali, the Adyar, the Cooum (entire stretches), the Vaigai at Madurai and The Central and State Governments the Musi of Hyderabad and the Ganga at have initiated many watershed development Kanpur and Varanasi. Groundwater and management programmes in the coun- try. Some of these are being implemented by pollution has occurred due to high nongovernmental organizations also. Haryali concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, is a watershed development project spon- fluoride and nitrates at different parts of the sored by the Central Government which aims country. at enabling the rural population to conserve The legislative provisions such as the water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) afforestation. The Project is being executed Act 1974, and Environment Protection Act by Gram Panchayats with people’s participa- 1986 have not been implemented effectively. tion. Neeru-Meeru (Water and You)

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Soils 47

programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Traditional rain water harvesting in rural Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken areas is done by using surface storage bodies up constructions of various water harvesting like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc. In structures such as percolation tanks, dug out Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting structures ponds (Johad), check dams, etc. through locally known as Kund or Tanka (a covered people’s participation. Tamil Nadu has made underground tank) are constructed near or water harvesting structures in the houses in the house or village to store harvested compulsory. No building can be constructed rainwater. without making structures for water There is a wide scope to use rainwater harvesting. harvesting technique to conserve water Watershed development projects in resource. It can be done by harvesting some areas have been successful in rainwater on rooftops and open spaces. rejuvenating environment and economy. Harvesting rainwater also decreases the However, are only a few success stories. In community dependence on groundwater for majority of cases, the programme is still in domestic use. Besides bridging the demand its nascent stage. There is a need to generate supply gap, it can also save energy to pump awareness regarding benefits of watershed groundwater as recharge leads to rise in development and management among people groundwater. These days rainwater in the country, and through this integrated harvesting is being taken up on massive scale water resource management approach water in many states in the country. Urban areas availability can be ensured on sustainable can specially benefit from rainwater basis. harvesting as water demand has already Rainwater Harvesting outstripped supply in most of the cities and Rain water harvesting is a method to towns. capture and store rainwater for various uses. Apart from the above mentioned It is also used to recharge groundwater aq- factors, the issue desalinization of water uifers. It is a low cost and eco-friendly tech- particularly in coastal areas and brackish nique for preserving every drop of water by water in arid and semi-arid areas, transfer guiding the rain water to bore well, pits and of water from water surplus areas to water wells. Rainwater harvesting increases water deficit areas through inter linking of rivers availability, checks the declining ground wa- can be important remedies for solving water ter table, improves the quality of problem in India (read more about inter groundwater through dilution of contami- linking of rivers). However, the most nants like fluoride and nitrates, prevents soil important issue from the point of view of erosion, and flooding and arrests salt water individual users, household and communities intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge is pricing of water. aquifers. Highlights of Rainwater harvesting has been practiced India’s National Water Policy, 2002 through various methods by different The National Water Policy 2002 communities in the country for a long time. stipulates water allocation priorities broadly

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48 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

in the following order: drinking water; groundwater. irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, • Both surface and groundwater industrial and other uses. The policy should be regularly monitored for stipulates progressive new approaches to quality. A phased programme water management. Key features include: should be undertaken for improving • Irrigation and multi-purpose projects water quality. should invariably include drinking • The efficiency of utilization in all the water component, wherever there is diverse uses of water should be no alternative source of drinking improved. water. • Awareness of water as a scarce • Providing drinking water to all resource should be fostered. human beings and animals should be • Conservation consciousness should the first priority. be promoted through education, • Measures should be taken to limit regulation, incentives and and regulate the exploitation of disincentives.

Gist of NCERT Indian Economy

ISBN: 9789351720256 Book Code: F22

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LAND USE AND AGRICULTURE

Different types of lands are suited to urban), infrastructure (roads, canals, different uses. Human beings thus, use land etc.), industries, shops, etc. are as a resource for production as well as included in this category. An residence and recreation. expansion in the secondary and Land-use records maintained by land tertiary activities would lead to an revenue department. The land use categories increase in this category of land-use. add up to reporting area, which is somewhat (iii)Barren and Wastelands: The land different from the geographical area. The which may be classified as a Survey of India is responsible for measuring wasteland such as barren hilly geographical area of administrative units in terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc. India. The difference between the two normally cannot be brought under concepts are that while the former changes cultivation with the available somewhat depending on the estimates of the technology. land revenue records, the latter does not (iv)Area under Permanent pastures and change and stays fixed as per Survey of India Grazing Lands: Most of this type measurements. land is owned by the village The land-use categories as maintained ‘Panchayat’ or the Government. in the Land Revenue are as follows: Only a small proportion of this land (i) Forests: It is important to note that is privately owned. The land owned area under actual forest cover is by the village panchayat comes different from area classified as under ‘Common Property forest. The latter is the area which Resources’. the Government has identified and (v) Area under Miscellaneous Tree demarcated for forest growth. The Crops and Goves (Not included is land revenue records are consistent Net sown Area): The land under with the latter definition. Thus, there orchards and fruit trees are included may be an increase in this category in this category. Much of this land is without any increase in the actual privately owned. forest cover. (vi)Culturable Waste-Land: Any land (ii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: which is left fallow (uncultivated) for Land under settlements (rural and more than five years is included in

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50 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

this category. It can be brought Secondly, since even the reporting area has under cultivation after improving it been relatively constant over the years, a through reclamation practices. decline in one category usually leads to an (vii)Current Fallow: This is the land increase in some other category. which is left without cultivation for Three categories have undergone one or less than one agricultural year, increases, while four have registered Fallowing is a cultural practice declines. Share of area under forest, are under adopted for giving the land rest. The nonagricultural uses and current fallow lands land recoups the lost fertility have shown an increase. The following through natural processes. observations can be made about these (viii) Fallow other than Current increases: Fallow: This is also a cultivable land (i) The rate of increase is the highest in which is left uncultivated for more case of area under non-agricultural than five years, it would be uses. This is due to the changing categorized as culturable wasteland. structure of Indian economy, which (ix)Net Area Sown: The physical extent is increasingly depending on the of land on which crops are sown and contribution from industrial and harvested is known as net sown services sectors and expansion of area. related infrastructural facilities. Also, an expansion of area under Land-use Changes in India both urban and rural settlements has Land-use in a region, to a large extent, added to the increase. Thus, the area is influenced by the nature of economic under non-agricultural uses is activities carried out in the region. However, increasing at the expense of while economic activities change over time, wastelands and agricultural land. land, like many other natural resources, is (ii) The increase in the share under fixed in terms of its area. At this stage, one forest, as explained before, can be needs to appreciate three types of changes accounted for by increase in the that an economy undergoes, which affect demarcated area under forest rather land-use. than an actual increase in the forest India has undergone major changes cover in the country. within the economy over the past four or five (iii)The increase in the current fallow decades, and this has influenced the land-use cannot be explained from changes in the country, These changes information pertaining to only two between 1960-61 and 2002-03 have been points. The trend of current fallow shown in Fig. There are two points that you fluctuates a great deal over years, need to remember before you derive some depending on the variability of meaning from this figure. Firstly, the rainfall and cropping cycles. percentage shown in the figure have been derived with respect to the reporting area. The four categories that have registered a decline are barren and wasteland, culturable

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Land use and Agriculture 51

wasteland, area under pastures and tree agriculture: crops and net area sown. (i) Agriculture is a purely land based The following explanations can be given activity unlike secondary and for the declining trends: tertiary activities. In other words, (i) As the pressure on land increased, contribution of land in agricultural both from the agricultural and output is more compared to its nonagricultural sectors, the contribution in the outputs in the wastelands and culturable other sectors. Thus, lack of access to wastelands have witnessed decline land is directly correlated with over time. incidence of poverty in rural areas. (ii) The decline in net area sown is a (ii) Quality of land has a direct bearing recent phenomenon that started in on the productivity of agriculture, the late nineties, before which it was which is not true for other activities. registering a slow increase. There are (iii)In rural areas, aside from its value indications that most of the decline as a productive factor, land has occurred due to the increases in ownership has a social value and area under nonagricultural use. serves as a security for credit, (Note: the expansion of building natural hazards or life contingencies, activity on agricultural land in your and also adds to the social status. village and city). An estimation of the total stock of agri- (iii) The decline in land under pastures cultural land resources (i.e. total cultivable and grazing lands can be explained land can be arrived at by adding up net sown by pressure from agricultural land. area, all fallow lands and culturable waste- Illegal encroachment due to land. It may be observed from Table that over expansion of cultivation on common the years, there has been a marginal decline pasture lands is largely responsible in the available total stock of cultivable land for this decline. as a percentage to total reporting area. There Agricultural Land Use in India has been a greater decline of cultivated land, Land resource is more crucial to the in spite of a corresponding decline of culti- livelihood of the people depending on vable wasteland.

Agricultural land-Use As a percentage of As a percentage to Total Reporting Area Cultivated land Categories 1960-61 2002-03 1960-61 2002-03 Culturable Wasteland 6.23 4.41 10.61 7.52 Fallow other than current fallow3.5 3.82 5.96 6.51 Current Fallow 3.73 7.03 6.35 11.98 Net Area Sown 45.26 43.41 77.08 73.99 Total Cultivable Land 58.72 58.67 100.00 100.00

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52 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Cropping Seasons in India: There are It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. three distinct crop seasons in the northern Farmers clear a patch of land and produce and interior parts of country, namely kharif, cereals and other food crops to sustain their rabi and zaid. The kharif season largely family. When the soil fertility decreases, the coincides with Southwest Monsoon under farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land which the cultivation of tropical crops such for cultivation. This type of shifting allows as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is Nature to replenish the fertility of the soil possible. The rabi season begin with the onset through natural processes; land productivity of winter in October-November and ends in in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer March-April. The low temperature does not use fertilizers or other modern conditions during this season facilitate the inputs. It is known by different names in cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops different parts of the country. It is jhumming such as wheat, gram and mustard. Zaid is a in north-eastern states like Assam, short duration summer cropping season Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland; Pamlou beginning after harvesting of rabi crops. The in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district of cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, Chattishgarh, and in Andaman and Nicobar vegetables and fodder crops during this Islands. season is done on irrigated lands. However, Jhumming: The ‘slash and burn’ this type of distinction in the cropping season agriculture is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and does not exist in southern parts of the Central America, ‘Conuco’ in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ country. Here, the temperature is high enough in Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’ to grow tropical crops during any period in in Indonesia, ‘Ray’ in Vietnam. the year provided the soil moisture is In India, this primitive form of available. Therefore, in this region same crops cultivation is called ‘Betwar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in can be grown thrice in an agricultural year Madhya Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in provided there is sufficient soil moisture. Andhra Pradesh, ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Primitive Subsistence Farming ‘Bringa’ in Orissa, ‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats, Based upon the characteristics of ‘Valre’ in South-Eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in physical environment technology and socio- the Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, cultural practices following farming system and ‘Jhumming’ in the North-Eastern region. can be identified. Intensive Substance Farming This type of farming is still practiced in This type of farming is practiced in areas few pockets of India. Primitive subsistence of high population pressure on land. It is agriculture is practiced on small patches of labour intensive farming, where high doses land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used dao and digging sticks, and family/ for obtaining higher production. community labour. This type of farming Though the ‘right of inheritance’ leading depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of to the divion of land among successive the soil and suitability of other environment generations has rendered land-holding size conditions to the crops grown. uneconomical, the farmers continue to take

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Land use and Agriculture 53

maximum output from the limited land in the input per unit area of cultivated land is higher absence of alternative source of livelihood. than protective irrigation. Rainfed farming Thus, there is enormous pressure on is further classified on the basis of adequacy agricultural land. of soil moisture during cropping season into Commercial Farming dry land and wetland farming. In India, the The main characteristic of this type of dry land farming is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm. farming is the use of higher doses of modern These regions grow hardy and drought inputs, e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar (fodder crops) and practice pesticides in order to obtain higher productivity. The degree of various measures of soil moisture conservation and rain water harvesting. In commercialization of agriculture varies from one region to another. For example, rice is a wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but soil moisture requirement of plants during rainy season. Such regions may face flood and in Orissa, it is a subsistence crop. Plantation is also a type of commercial farming. In this soil erosion hazards. These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, type of farming, a single crop is grown on a large area. The plantation has an interface of jute and sugarcane and practice aquaculture in the fresh water bodies. agriculture and industry. Plantations cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive Cropping Pattern inputs, with the help of migrant laboures. All Food grains: The importance of food the produce is used as raw material in grains in Indian agricultural economy may respective industries. be gauged from the fact these crops occupy Types of Farming about two-third of total cropped area in the On the basis of main source of moisture country. Food grains are dominant crops in all parts of the country whether they have for crops, the farming can be classified as irrigated and rainfed (barani). There is subsistence or commercial agricultural economy. On the basis of the structure of difference in the nature of irrigated farming as well based on objective of irrigation, i.e. grain the food grains are classified as cereals and pulses. protective or productive. The objective of protective irrigation is to protect the crops Cereals: The cereals occupy about 54 per from adverse of soil moisture deficiency cent of total cropped area in India. The which often means that irrigation acts as a country produces about 11 per cent cereals supplementary source of water over and of the world and ranks third in production above the rainfall. The strategy of this kind after China and U.S.A. India produces a of irrigation is to provide soil moisture to variety of cereals, which are classified as fine maximum possible area. Productive irrigation grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains (jowar, is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture maize, ragi) etc. Account of important cereals in the cropping season to achieve high has been given in the following paragraphs. productivity. In such irrigation the water Rice: Rice is a staple food for the

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54 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

overwhelming majority of population in Wheat: Wheat is the second most India. Though, it is considered to be a crop important cereal crop in India after rice. India of tropical humid areas, it has about 3,000 produces about 12 per cent of total wheat varieties which are grown in different agro- production of world. It is primarily a crop of climatic regions. These are successfully grown temperate zone. Hence, its cultivation in India from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and is done during winter i.e. rabi season. About from humid areas in eastern India to dry but 85 per cent of total area under this crop is irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, western concentrated in north and central regions of U.P. and northern Rajasthan. In southern the country i.e. Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa states and West Bengal the climatic Plateau and Himalayas up to 2,700 m altitude. conditions allow the cultivation of two or Being a rabi crop, it is mostly grown under three crops of rice in an agricultural year. In irrigated conditions. But it is rainfed crop in West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice Himalayan highlands and parts of Malwa called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’. But in plateau in Madhya Pradesh. About 14 per Himalayas and northwestern parts of the cent of the total cropped area in the country country, it is grown as a Kharif crop during is under wheat cultivation. Uttar Pradesh, southwest Monsoon season. Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya India contributes 22 per cent of rice Pradesh are five leading wheat producing production in the world and ranks second states. The yield level of wheat is very high after China. About one-fourth of the total (above 4,000 k.g. per ha) in Punjab and cropped area in the country is under rice Haryana whereas, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan cultivation. West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar and Bihar have moderate yields. The states Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu like Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and were five leading rice producing states in the Jammu and Kashmir growing wheat under country in 2002-03. The yield level of rice is rainfed conditions have low yield. high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh, Jowar: The coarse cereals together West Bengal and Kerala. In the first four of occupy about 16.50 per cent of total cropped these states almost the entire land under rice area in the country. Among these, jowar or cultivation is irrigated. Punjab and Haryana sorghum alone accounts for about 5.3 per cent are not traditional rice growing areas. Rice of total cropped area. It is main food crop in cultivation in the irrigated areas of Punjab semi-arid areas of central and southern India. and Haryana was introduced in 1970s Maharashtra alone produces more than half following the Green Revolution. Generally of the total jowar production of the country. improved varieties of seed, relatively high Other leading producer states of jowar are usage of fertilizers and pesticides and lower Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra levels of susceptibility of the crop to pests Pradesh. It is sown in both Kharif and rabi due to dry climatic conditions are responsible seasons in southern states. But it is a Kharif for higher yield of rice in this region. The crop in northern India where it is mostly yield of this crop is very low in rainfed areas grown as a fodder crop. South of Vindhyachal of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa. it is a rainfed crop and its yield level is very low in this region.

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Land use and Agriculture 55

Bajra: Bajra is sown in hot and dry lands of Deccan and central plateaus and climatic conditions in northwestern and northwestern parts of the country. Pulses western parts of the country. It is a hardy occupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped crop which resists frequent dry spells and area in the country. Being the rainfed crops drought in this region. It is cultivated alone of dry lands, the yields of pulses are low and as well as part of mixed cropping. This coarse fluctuate from year to year. Grain and tur cereal occupies about 5.2 per cent of total are the main pulses cultivated in India. cropped area in the country. Leading Grain: Grain is cultivated in subtropical producers of bajra are the states of areas. It is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, during rabi season in central, western and Rajasthan and Haryana. Being a rainfed crop, northwestern parts of the country. Just one the yield level of this crop is low in Rajasthan or two light showers or irrigations are and fluctuates a lot from year to year. Yield required to grow this crop successfully. It has of this crop has increased during recent years been displaced from the cropping pattern by in Haryana and Gujarat due to introduction wheat in Haryana, Punjab and northern of drought resistant varieties and expansion Rajasthan following the green revolution. At of irrigation under it. present, grain covers only about 2.8 per cent Maize: Maize is a food as well as fodder of the total cropped area in the country. crop grown under semi-arid climatic Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, conditions and over inferior soils. This crop Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan occupies only about 3.6 per cent of total are the main producers of this pulse crop. The cropped area. Maize cultivation is not yield of this crop continues to be low and concentrated in any specific region. It is sown fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated all over India except eastern and north- areas. eastern regions. The leading producers of Tur (Arhar): Tus is the second important maize are the states of Madhya Pradesh, pulse crop in the country. It is also known as Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan and red grain or pigeon pea. It is cultivated over Uttar Pradesh. Yield level of maize is higher marginal lands and under rainfed conditions than other coarse cereals. It is high in in the dry areas of central and southern states southern states and declines towards central of the country. This crop occupies only about parts. 2 per cent of total cropped area of India. Pulses: Pulses are a very important Maharashtra alone contributed about one- ingredient of vegetarian food as these are rich third of the total production of tur. Other sources of proteins. These are legume crops leading producer states are Uttar Pradesh, which increase the natural fertility of soils Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Per through nitrogen fixation. India is a leading hectare output of this crop is very low and producer of pulses and accounts for about its performance is inconsistent. one-fifth of the total production of pulses in Oilseeds: The oilseeds are produced for the world. The cultivation of pulses in the extracting edible oils. Dry lands of Malwa country is largely concentrated in the dry plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan,

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56 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Telangana and Rayalseema region of Andhra sunflowere are other important oilseeds Pradesh and Karnataka plateau are oilseeds grown in India. Soyabean is mostly grown growing regions of India. These crops in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. These together occupy about 14 per cent of total two states together produce about 90 per cent cropped area in the country. Groundnut, of total output of soyabean in the country. rapeseed and mustard, soyabean and Sunflower cultivation is concentrated in sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and adjoining in India. areas of Maharashtra. It is a minor crop in Groundnut: India produces about 17 northern parts of the country where its yield per cent the total of groundnut production is high due to irrigation. in the world. It is largely a rainfed kharif crop Fibre Crops: These crops provide us of dry lands. But in southern India, it is fibre for preparing cloth, bags, sacks and a cultivated during rabi season as well. It number of other items. Cotton and jute are covers about 3.6 per cent of total cropped two main fibre crops grown in India. area in the country. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Cotton: Cotton is a tropical crop grown Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra in kharif season in semi-arid areas of the are the leading producers. Yield of country. India lost a large proportion of groundnut is comparatively high in Tamil cotton growing area to Pakistan during Nadu where it is partly irrigated. But its yield partition. However, its acreage has increased is low in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. considerably during the last 50 years. India Rapeseed and Mustard: Rapeseed and grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as mustard comprise several oilseeds as rai, well as long staple (American) cotton called sarson, toria and taramira. These are ‘narma’ in north-western parts of the subtropical crops cultivated during rabi country. Cotton requires clear sky during season in north-western and central parts of flowering stage. India. These are frost sensitive crops and India ranks fourth in the world in the their yields fluctuate from year to year. But production of cotton after China. U.S.A. and with the expansion of irrigation and Pakistan and accounts for about 8.3 per cent improvement in seed technology; their yields of production of cotton in the world. Cotton have improved and stabilized to some extend. occupies about 4.7 per cent of total cropped About two-third of the cultivated area under area in the country. There are three cotton these crops is irrigated. These oilseeds growing areas, i.e. parts of Punjab, Haryana together occupy only 2.5 per cent of total and northern Rajasthan in north-west, cropped area in the country. Rajasthan Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west and contributes about one-third production while plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and other leading producers are Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu in South. Leading producers of Haryana, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. this crop are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Yields of these crops are comparatively high Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Per hectare in Haryana and Rajasthan. output of cotton is high under irrigated Other Oilseeds: Soyabean and conditions in north-western region of the

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Land use and Agriculture 57

country. Its yield is very low in Maharashtra Tea: Tea is a plantation crop used as where it is grown under rainfed conditions. beverage. Black tea leaves are fermented Jute: Jute is used for making coarse whereas green tea leaves are unfermented. cloth, bags, sacks and decorative items. It is Tea leaves are fermented whereas green tea a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining leaves are unfermented. Tea leaves have rich eastern parts of the country. India lost large content of caffeine and tannin. It is an jute growing areas to East Pakistan indigenous crop of hills in northern China. It (Bangladesh) during partition. At present, is grown over undulating topography of hilly India produces about three-fifth of jute areas and well drained soils in humid and production of the world. West Bengal sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics. In India, accounts for about three-fourth of the tea plantation started in 1840s in Brahmaputra production in the country. Bihar and Assam valley of Assam which still is a major tea are other jute growing areas. Being growing area in the country. Later on, its concentrated only in a few states, this crop plantation was introduced in the sub- accounts for only about 0.5 per cent total Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjeeling, cropped area in the country. Jalpaiguri and Cooch districts). Tea is also Other Crops: Sugarcane, tea and coffee cultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri and are other important crops grown in India. Cardamom hills in Western Ghats. India is a Sugarcane: Sugarcane is a crop of leading producer of tea and accounts for tropical areas. Under rainfed conditions, it about 28 per cent of total production in the is cultivated in sub-humid and humid world. India’s share in the international climates. But it is largely an irrigated crop in market of tea has declined substantially. At India. In Indo-Gangetic plain, its cultivation present, it ranks third among tea exporting is largely concentrated in Uttar Pradesh. countries in the world after Sri Lanka and Sugarcane growing area in western India is China. Assam accounts for about 53.2 per cent spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat. In of the total cropped area and contributes southern India, it is cultivated in irrigated more than half of total production of tea in tracts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra the country. West Bengal and Tamil Nadu Pradesh. are the other leading producers of tea. India is the second largest producer of Coffee: Coffee is a tropical plantation sugarcane after Brazil. It accounts for about crop. Its seeds are roasted, ground and are 23 per cent of the world production of used for preparing a beverage. There are sugarcane. But it occupies only 2.4 per cent three varieties of coffee i.e. Arabica, robusta of total cropped are in the country. Uttar and liberica. India mostly grows superior Pradesh produces about two-fifth of quality coffee, Arabica, which is in great sugarcane of the country. Maharashtra, demand in great demand in International Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh market. But India produces only about 4.3 are other leading producers of this crop per cent coffee of the world and ranks sixth where yield level of sugarcane is high. Its after Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia yield is low in northern India. and Mexico. Coffee is cultivated in the

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58 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka, overcome this problem, Intensive Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and accounts for more than two third of total Intensive Agricultural Area Programme production of coffee in the country. (IAAP) were launched. But two consecutive Agricultural Development in India: droughts during mid-1960s resulted in food Agriculture continues to be an important crisis in the country. Consequently, the food sector Indian economy. In 2001 about 53 per grains were imported from other countries. cent population of the country was dependent New seed varieties of wheat (Mexico) on it. The importance of agricultural sector and rice (Philippines) known as high yielding in India can be gauged from the fact that varieties (HYVs) were available for about 57 per cent of its land is devoted to cultivation by mid-1960s. India took crop cultivation, whereas, in the world, the advantage of this and introduced package corresponding share is only about 12 per cent. technology comprising HYVs, along with In spite of this, there is tremendous pressure chemical fertilizers in irrigated areas of on agricultural land in India, which is Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, reflected from the fact that the land-human Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Assured supply ratio in the country is only 0.31 ha which is of soil moisture through irrigation was a almost of that of the world as a whole (0.59 basic pre-requisite for the success of this new ha). Despite various constrains, Indian agricultural technology. This strategy of agriculture has marched a long way since agricultural development paid dividends Independence. instantly and increased the food grains Strategy of Development: Indian production at very fast rate. This spurt of agricultural economy was largely subsistence agricultural growth came to be known as in nature before Independence It had dismal ‘Green Revolution’. performance in the first half of twentieth This also gave fillip to the development century. This period witnessed severe of a large number of agro-inputs, agro- droughts and famines. During portion about processing industries and small-scale indus- one-third of the irrigated land in undivided tries. This strategy of agricultural develop- India went to Pakistan. This reduced the ment made the country self-reliant in food proportion of irrigated area in Independent grain production. But green revolution was India. After Independence, the immediate initially confined to irrigated areas only. This goal of the Government was to increase food led to regional disparities in agricultural de- grains production by (i) switching over from velopment in the country till the seventies, cash crops to food crops; (ii) intensification after which the technology spread to the East- of cropping over already cultivated land; and ern and Central parts of the country. (iii) increasing cultivated area by bringing The Planning Commission of India cultivable and fallow land under plough. focused its attention on the problems of Initially, this strategy helped in increasing agriculture in rainfed areas in 1980s. It food grains production. But agricultural initiated agro-climatic planning in 1988 to production stagnated during late 1950s. To induce regionally balanced agricultural development in the country. It also

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Land use and Agriculture 59

emphasized the need for diversification of 1950-51 to 2000-01. Over these 50 agriculture and harnessing of resources for years, are irrigated more than once development of dairy farming, poultry, in an agricultural year has increased horticulture, livestock rearing and from 1.71 to 20.46 million ha. aquaculture. • Modern agricultural technology has Initiation of the policy of liberalization diffused very fast in various areas and free market economy in 1990s is likely of the country. Consumption of to influence the course of development of chemical fertilizers has increased by Indian agriculture. Lack of development of 15 times since mid-sixties. In 2001- rural infrastructure, withdrawal of subsidies 02, per hectare consumption of and price support, and impediments in chemical fertilizers in India was 91 availing of the rural credits may lead to inter- kg which was equal to its average regional and inter-personal disparities in consumption in the world (90 kg). rural areas. But in the irrigated areas of Punjab Growth of and Haryana, the consumption of Agricultural Output and Technology chemical fertilizers per unit area is There has been a significant increase in three to four times higher than that agricultural output and improvement in of the national average. Since the technology during the last fifty years. high yielding varieties are highly • Production and yield of many crops susceptible to pests and diseases, the such as rice and wheat has increased use of pesticides has increased at an impressive rate. Among the significantly since 1960s. other crops, the production of Problems of Indian Agriculture: Yet, sugarcane, oilseeds and cotton has there are some problems which are common also increased appreciably. India and range from physical constraints to ranks first in the production of institutional hindrances. A detailed pulses, tea, jute, cattle and milk. It is discussion on these problems follows: the second largest producer of rice, Dependence on Erratic Monsoon: wheat, groundnut, sugarcane and Irrigation covers and about 33 per cent of the vegetables. cultivated area in India. The crop production • Expansion of irrigation has played a in rest of the cultivated land directly depends very crucial role in enhancing on rainfall. agricultural output in the country. It Low productivity: The yield of the provided basis for introduction of crops in the country is low in comparison to modern agricultural technology such the international level. The vast rainfed areas as high yielding varieties of seeds, of the country, particularly drylands which chemical fertilizers, pesticides and mostly grow coarse cereals, pulses and farm machinery. The net irrigated oilseeds have very low yields. area in the country has increased Constraints of Financial Resources and from 20.85 million ha over the period Indebtedness: The inputs of modern

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60 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

agriculture are very expensive. Crop failures Lack of Commercialization: Most of the and low returns from agriculture have forced small and marginal farmers grow food grains, them to fall in the trap of indebtedness. which are meant for their own family Lack of Land Reforms: After consumption. Modernization and independence, land reforms were accorded commercialization of agriculture have priority, but these reforms were not however, taken place in the irrigated areas. implemented effectively due to lack of strong Vast Under-employment: In these political will. areas, there is a seasonal unemployment Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of ranging from 4 to 8 months. Even in the Landholding: There are a large number of cropping season work is not available marginal and small farmers in the country. throughout, as agricultural operations are not More than 60 per cent of the ownership labour intensive. holdings have a size smaller than one (ha). Degradation of Cultivable Land: One Furthermore, about 40 per cent of the farmers of the serious problems that arises out of have operational holding size smaller than faulty strategy of irrigation and agricultural 0.5 hectare (ha). The average size of land development is degradation of land holding is shrinking further under increasing resources. population pressure.

Gist of NCERT General Science

ISBN: 9789351720188 Book Code: F20

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MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

India is endowed with a rich variety of of deposition, accumulation and mineral resources due to its varied geological concentration in horizontal strata. structure. Bulk of the valuable minerals are Coal and some forms of iron ore products of pre-Paleozoic age mainly have been concentrated as a result associated with metamorphic and igneous of long periods under great heat rocks of the peninsular India. The vast alluvial and pressure. Another group of plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals sedimentary minerals include of economic use. gypsum. Potash salt and sodium salt. The mineral resources provide the coun- These are formed as a reulst of try with the necessary base for industrial evaporation especially in arid development. The availability of various regions. types of mineral and energy resources in the (iii)Another mode of formation country. involves the decomposition of Mode of Occurrence of Minerals surface rocks, and the removal of Minerals generally occur in these forms: soluble constituents, leaving a (i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks residual mass of weathered material minerals may occur in the cracks, containing ores. Bauxite is formed crevices, faults or joints. The smaller this way. occurrences are called veins and the (iv)Certain minerals may occur as larger are called lodes. In most alluvial deposits in sands of valley cases, they are formed when floors and the base of hills. These minerals in liquid/molten and deposits are called ‘placer deposits’ gaseous forms are forced upward and generally contain minerals, through cavities towards the earth’s which are not corroded by water. surface. They cool and solidify as Gold, silver, tin and platinum are they rise. Major metallic minerals most important among such like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. minerals. are obtained from veins and lodes. (v) The ocean waters contain vast (ii) In sedimentary rocks a number of quantities of minerals, but most of minerals occur in beds or layers. these are too widely diffused to be They have been formed as a result of economic significance. However,

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62 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

common salt, magnesium and resources occur to the east of a line linking bromine are largely derived from Mangalore and Kanpur. ocean waters. The ocean beds, too, Minerals are generally concentrated in are rich in manganese nodules. three broad belts in India. There may be Rat-Hole Mining. Do you know that most of the some sporadic occurrence here and there in minerals in India are nationalized and their isolated pockets. These belts are: extraction is possible only after obtaining due The North-Eastern Plateau Region. This permission from the government? But in most of belt covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Orissa the tribal areas of the north-east India, minerals are Plateau, West Bengal and parts of owned by individuals or communities. In Chhattsgarh. Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal mining in The South-Western Plateau Region: Jowai and Cherapunjee is done by family member This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and in the form of a long narrow tunnel, known as ‘Rat contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala. hole’ mining. This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite. Agencies It also contains high grade iron ore, Involved in the exploration of minerals manganese and limestone. This belt packs in coal deposits except naively lignite. In India, systematic surveying, prospecting and exploration for minerals is This belt does not have as diversified undertaken by the Geological Survey of India mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt. (GSI), Oil and Natural Gas Commission Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium, (ONGC), Mineral Exploration Corporation bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits. Ltd. (MECL), National Mineral Development The North-Western Region: This belt Corporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and part Mines (IBM), Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. of Gujarat and minerals are associated with (BGML), Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), Dharwar system of rocks. Copper, zinc have National Aluminum Company Ltd. (NALCO) been major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in and the Departments of Mining and Geology building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, in various states. marble. Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits Distribution of Minerals in India are also extensive. Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for cement industry. Most of the metallic minerals in India Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits. occur in the peninsular plateau region in the Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich sources old crystalline rocks. Over 97 percent of coal of salt. reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, The Himalayan belt is another mineral Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum belt where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and reserves are located in the sedimentary basins tungsten are known to occur. They occur on of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off- both the eastern and western parts. Assam shore region in the Arabian. New reserves valley has mineral oil deposits. Besides oil have been located in the Krishna-Goadavari resources are also found in off-shore-areas and Kaveri basins. Most of the major mineral near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).

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Mineral and Energy Resources 63

Ferrous Mineral: Ferrous minerals such districts. The districts of Chandrapur, as iron ore, manganese, chromite, etc., Bhandara and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, provide a strong base for the development Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnool, Cuddapah of metallurgical industries. Our country is and Anantapur districts of Andhra Pradesh, well-placed in respect of ferrous minerals Salem and Nilgiris- districts of Tamil Nadu both in reserves and production. are other iron mining regions. Goa has also Iron Ore: India is endowed with fairly emerged as an important producer of iron abundant resources of iron ore. It has the ore. largest reserve of iron ore in Asia. The two Manganese: Manganese is an important main types of ore found in our country are raw material for smelting of iron ore and also hematite and magnetite. It has great demand used for manufacturing Ferro alloys. in international market due to its superior Manganese deposits are found in almost all quality. The iron ore mines occur in close geological formations; however, it is mainly proximity to the coal fields in the north- associated with Dharwar system. eastern plateau region of the country which Orissa is the leading producer of adds to their advantage. Manganese. Major mines in Orissa are located The total reserves of iron ore in the in the central part of the iron ore belt of India, country were about 20 billion tones in the particularly in Bonai, Keudujhar, Sundergarh, year 2004-05. About 95 per cent of total Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir. reserves of iron ore is located in the States of Karnataka is another major producer Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and here the mines are located in Dharwar, Goa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Bellary, Belgaum, North Canara, Orissa, iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Chitradurg and in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. The Tumkur. Maharashtra is also an important important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, producer of manganese which is mined in Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu Nagpur Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts. The (Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh). Similar disadvantage to these mines is that they are hill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldest located far from steel plants. The manganese iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel belt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt in plants are located around them. Most of the Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla and important mines such as Noamundi and Gua Jhabua districts districts. Andhra Pradesh, are located in Poorbi and Pashchimi Goa, and Jharkhand are other minor Singhbhum districts. This belt further extends producers of manganese. to Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila. Dalli, Non-Ferrous Minerals: India is poorly Rajhara in Durg are the important mines of with non-ferrous metallic minerals except iron ore in the country. In Karnataka, iron bauxite. ore deposits occur in Sandur-Hospet area of Bauxite: Bauxite is the ore which is used Bellary district, Baba Budan hills and in manufacturing of aluminum. Bauxite is Kudremukh in Chikmagalur district and parts found mainly in tertiary deposits and is of Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur associated with laterite rocks occurring

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64 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

extensively either on the plateau or hill ranges Mica: Mica is mainly used in the of peninsular India and also in the coastal electrical and electronic industries. It can be tracts of the country. split into very thin sheets which are tough Orissa happens to be the largest and flexible. Mica in India is produced in producer of Bauxite. Kalahandi and Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan Sambalpur are the leading producers. The followed by Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and other two areas which have been increasing Madhya Pradesh. In Jharkhand high quality their production are Bolangir and Koraput. mica is obtained in a belt extending over a The patlands of Jharkhand in Lohardaga have distance of about 150 km, in length and about rich deposits. Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya 22 km, in width in lower Hazaribagh plateau. Pradesh and Maharashtra are other major In Andhra Pradesh. Nellore district produces producers. Bhavnagar, Jamnagar in Gujarat the best quality mica. In Rajasthan mica belt have the major deposits. Chhattisgarh has extends for about 320 kms from Jaipur to bauxite deposits in Amarkantak plateau while Bhilwara and around Udaipur. Mica deposits Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat in M.P. have also occur in Mysore and Hassan districts of important deposits of bauxite. Kolaba, Thane, Karnataka, Coimbatore. Tiruchirapalli, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune and Kolhapur in Madurai and Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra are important producers. Tamil Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Nadu. Karanataka and Goa are minor Purulia and Bankura in West Bengal. producers of bauxite. Energy Resources: Mineral fuels are Copper: Copper is an indispensable essential for generation of power, required metal in the electrical industry for making by agriculture, industry, transport and other wires, electric motors, transformers and sectors of the economy. Mineral fuels like generators. It is alloyable. Malleable and coal, petroleum and natural gas (known as ductile. It is also mixed with gold to provide fossil fuels), nuclear energy minerals, are the strength to jewellery. conventional sources of energy. These The Copper deposits mainly occur in conventional sources are exhaustible Singhbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghat resources. district in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu Coal: Coal is a one of the important and Alwar districts in Rajasthan. minerals which is mainly used in the Minor producers of Copper are generation of thermal power and smelting Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra of iron ore. Coal occurs in rock sequences Pradesh), Chitradurg and hasan districts mainly of two geological ages, namely (Karnataka) and South Arcot district (Tamil Gondwana and tertiary deposits. Nadu). Lignite is a low grade brown coal, Non-metallic Minerals: Among the which is soft with high moisture content. The non-metallic minerals produced in India, mica principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in is the important one. The other minerals Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of extracted for local consumption are limestone, electricity. Coal that has been buried deep dolomite and phosphate. and subjected to increased temperatures is

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Mineral and Energy Resources 65

bituminous coal. It is the most popular coal numerous by-products are processed in in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high petrochemical industries such as fertilizer, grade bituminous coal which has a special synthetic fibre, medicines, Vaseline, value for smelting iron in blast furnaces. lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics. Anthracite is the highest quality hard Most of the petroleum occurrences in coal. About 80 per cent of the coal deposits India are associated with anticlines and fault in India is of bituminous type and is of non- traps in the rock formations of the tertiary coking grade. The most important age. In regions of folding, anticlines or Gondwana coal fields of India are located in domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the Damodar Valley. crest of the up fold. The oil bearing layer is a They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt porous limestone or sandstone through and the important coal fields in this region which oil may flow. The oil is prevented from are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, rising or sinking by intervening non-porous Karanpura. layers. Jharia is the largest coal field followed Petroleum is also found in fault traps by Raniganj. The other river valleys between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, associated with coal are Godavari, Mahanadi being lighter usually occurs above the oil. and Sone. The most important coal mining About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum centres are Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent of Singrauli coal field lies in Uttar Pradesh), from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam. Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary in Orissa, Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee and rocks of the tertiary period. Oil exploration Bander in Maharashtra and Singareni and and production was systematically taken up Pandur in Andhra Pradesh. after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal was set up in 1956. Till then, the Digboi in Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. It is Assam was the only oil producing region but extracted from Darangiri, Cherrapunji, the scenario has changed after 1956. In recent Mewlong and Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum, years, new oil deposits have been found at Jaipur and Nazira in upper Assam, Namchik- the extreme western and eastern parts of the Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh) and Kalakot country. In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and (Jammu and Kashmir). Besides, the brown Moran are important oil producing areas. The coal or lignite occur in the coastal areas of major oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Gujarat and Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and Jammu and Kashmir. Lunej. Mumbai High which lies 160 km off Petroleum: Crude petroleum consists of Mumbai was discovered in 1973 and hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states production commenced in 1976. Oil and varying in chemical composition, colour and natural gas have been found in exploratory specific gravity. It is an essential source of wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin energy for all internal combustion engines in on the east coast. automobiles, railways and aircraft. Its Oil extracted from the well is crude oil

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66 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

and contains many impurities. It cannot be projects are Tarapur (Maharashtra), used directly. It needs to be refined. There Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), are two types of refineries in India: (a) field Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar based and (b) market based. Digboi is an Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara example of field based and Barauni is an (Gujarat). example of market based refinery. Non-Conventional Energy Sources: Natural Gas: The Gas Authority of India Fossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum, Limited was set up in 1984 as a public sector natural gas and nuclear energy use undertaking to transport and market natural exhaustible raw materials. Sustainable energy gas. It is obtained alongwith oil in all the oil resources are only the renewable energy fields but exclusive reserves have been sources like solar, wind, hydro-geothermal located along the eastern coast as well as and biomass. These energy sources are more (Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh), equitably distributed and environmental Tripura, Rajasthan and off-shore wells in friendly. The non-conventional energy Gujarat and Maharashtra. sources will provide more sustained, eco- Nuclear Energy Resources: Nuclear friendly cheaper energy after the initial cost energy as a viable source in recent times. is taken care of. Important minerals used for the generation Solar Energy: Sun rays tapped in of nuclear energy are uranium and thorium. photovoltaic cells can be converted into Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar energy, known as solar energy. The two rocks. Geographically, uranium ores are effective processes considered to be very known to occur in several locations along the effective to tap solar energy are photovoltaics Singbhum Copper belt. It is also found in and solar thermal technology. Solar thermal Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of technology has some relative advantages over Rajasthan, Durg district of Chhattisgarh, all other non-renewable energy sources. It is Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu cost competitive, environment friendly and district of Himachal Pradesh. Thorium is easy to construct. Solar energy is 7 per cent mainly obtained from monazite and ilmenite more effective than coal or oil based plants in the beach sands along the coast of Kerala and 10 per cent more effective than nuclear and Tamil Nadu. World’s richest monazite plants. It is generally used more in appliances deposits occur in Palakkad and Kollam like heaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc. The districts of Kerala, near Vishakhapatnam in western part of India has greater potential Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river delta for the development of solar energy in in Orissa. Gujarat and Rajasthan. Atomic Energy Commission was Wind Energy: Wind energy is established in 1948, progress could be made absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source only after the establishment of the Atomic of energy. The mechanism of energy Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which conversion from blowing wind is simple. The was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research kinetic energy of wind, through turbines is Centre in 1967. The important nuclear power converted into electrical energy. The

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Mineral and Energy Resources 67

permanent wind systems such the trade Geothermal Energy: When the magma winds, westerly’s and seasonal wind like from the interior of earth, comes out on the monsoon have been used as source of surface, tremendous heat is released. This energy. Besides these, local winds, land and heat energy can successfully be tapped and sea breezes can also be used to produce converted to electrical energy. Apart from electricity. this, the hot water that gushes out through India, already has started generating the gyser well is also used in the generation wind energy. It has an ambitious programme of thermal energy. It is popularly known as to install 250 wind-driven turbines with a Geothermal energy. This energy is now total capacity of 45 megawatts, spread over considered to be one of the key energy 12 suitable locations, specially in coastal ar- sources which can be developed as an eas. According to the estimation by Ministry alternate source. The hot springs and geysers of Power, India will be able to produce 3,000 are being used since medieval period. megawatts of electric from this source. The The first successful (1890) attempt to tap Ministry of non-conventional sources of en- the underground heat was made in the city ergy is developing wind energy in India to of Boise, Idaho (U.S.A.), where a hot water lessen the burden of oil import bill. The coun- pipe network was built to give heat to the try’s potential of wind power generation ex- surrounding buildings. This plant is still ceeds 50,000 megawatts; of which one fourth working. can be easily harnessed. In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bio-energy: Bio-energy refers to energy Maharashtra and Karnataka, favourable con- derived from biological products which ditions for wind energy exist. Wind power includes agricultural residues, municipal, plant at Lamba in Gujarat in Kachchh is the industrial and other wastes. largest in Asia. Another, wind power plant is located at Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu. Establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai and Rourkela were based on Tidal and Wave Energy: Ocean currents decision to develop backward tribal areas of are the store-house of infinite energy. Since the country. At present, government of India the beginning of seventeenth and eighteenth provides lots of incentives to industries century, persistent efforts were made to locating in backward area. create a more efficient energy system from the ceaseless tidal waves and ocean current. Major Industries Large tidal waves are known to occur The iron and steel industry is basic to along the west coast of India. Hence, India the industrial development of any country. has great potential for the development of The cotton textile Industry is one of our tidal energy along the coasts but so far these traditional industries. The sugar Industry is have not yet been utilized. based on local raw materials which prospered In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides even in the British period. ideal conditions for utilizing tidal energy. A The Iron and Steel Industry 900 mw tidal energy power plant is set up The development of the iron and steel here by the National Hydropower industry opened the doors to rapid industrial Corporation.

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68 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

development in India. Almost all sectors of under IISCO are located very close to the Indian industry depend heavily on the Damodar valley coal fields (Raniganj), Jharia, iron and steel industry for their basic and Ramgarh. Iron ore comes from infrastructure. Singhbhum in Jharkhand. Water is obtained The other raw materials besides iron ore from the Barakar River, a tributary of the and coking coal, essential for iron and steel Damodar. All the plants are located along the industry are limestone, dolomite, manganese Kolkata-Asansol railway line. Unfortunately, and fire clay. All these raw materials are gross steel production from IISCO fell considerably (weight losing), therefore, the best location in 1972-73 and the plants were taken over by for the iron and steel plants is near the source the government. of raw materials. In India, there is a crescent Visvesvaraiya shaped region comprising parts of Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL) Chhattisgarh, Northern Orissa, Jharkhand The third integrated steel plant, the and western West Bengal, which is extremely Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works, initially rich in high grade iron ore, good quality called the Mysore Iron and Steel Works, is coking coal and other supplementing raw located close to an iron ore producing area materials. of Kemangundi in the Bababudan hills. The Indian iron and steel industry Limestone and manganese are also locally consists of large integrated steel plants as well available. But this region has no coal. At the as mini steel mills. It also includes secondary beginning, charcoal obtained by burning producers, rolling mills and ancillary wood from nearby forests was used as fuel industries. till 1951. Afterwards, electric furnaces were Integrated Steel Plants installed which use hydroelectricity from the TISCO: The Tata Iron and Steel plant Jog Falls-hydel power project. The Bhadravati lies very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway river supplies water to the plant. This plant line and about 240 km away from Kolkata, produces specialized steels and alloys. which is the nearest port for the export of After independence, during the Second steel. The rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new inte- provide water to the plant. The iron ore for grated steel plants were set up with foreign the plant is obtained from Noamundi and collaboration: Rourkela in Orissa, Bhilai in Badam Pahar and coal is brought from Joda Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal. mines in Orissa. Coking coal comes from These were public sector plants under Jharia and West Bokaro coalfields. Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL). In 1973, the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was IISCO: The Indian Iron and Steel created to manage these plants. Company (IISCO) set up its first factory at Hirapur and later on another at Kulti. In 1937, Rourkela Steel Plant the Steel corporation of Bengal was The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in constituted in association with IISCO and set 1959 in the Sundargarh district of Orissa in up another iron and steel producing unit at collaboration with Germany. The plant was Burnpur (West Bengal). All the three plants located on the basis of proximity to raw

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Mineral and Energy Resources 69

materials, thus, minimizing the cost of Damodar Valley Corporation. transporting weight losing raw material. This Other Steel Plants: New steel plants plant has a unique locational advantage, as it which were set up in the Fourth Plan period receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and iron are away from the main raw material sources. ore from Sundargarh and Kendujhar. The All the three plants are located in South India. Hirakud project supplies power for the The Vizag Steel Plant, in Vishakhapatnam in electric furnaces and water is obtained from Andhra Pradesh is the first port based plant the Koel and Sankh rivers. which started operating in 1992. Its port Bhilai Steel Plant location is of advantage. The Bhilai Steel Plant was established The Vijaynagar Steel Plant at Hospet in with Russian collaboration in Durg District Karnataka was developed using indigenous of Chhattisgarh and started production in technology. This uses local iron ore and 1959. The iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara limestone. The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil mine, coal comes from Korba and Kargali coal Nadu was commissioned in 1982. fields. The water comes from the Apart from these major steel plants, Tanduladam and the power from the Korba there are more than 206 units located in Thermal Power Station. This plant also lies different parts of country. Most of these use on the Kolkata-Mumbai railway route. The scrap iron as their main raw material, and bulk of the steel produced goes to the process it in electric furnaces. Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam. The Cotton Textile Industry Durgapur Steel Plant: Durgapur Steel In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was Plant, in West Bengal, was set up in established in Mumbai. This city had several collaboration with the government of the advantages as a cotton textile manufacturing United Kingdom and started production in centre. It was very close to the cotton 1962. This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia producing areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra. coal belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi. Raw cotton used to be brought to Mumbai Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi port to be transported to England. Therefore, railway route. Hydel power and water is cotton was available in Mumbai city itself, obtained from the Damodar Valley Moreover, Mumbai even then was the Corporation (DVC). financial centre and the capital needed to Bokaro Steel Plant: This steel plant was start an industry was available there. As a set up in 1964 at Bokaro with Russian large town, providing employment collaboration. This plant was set up on the opportunities attracted labour in large principle of transportation cost minimization numbers. Hence, cheap and abundant labour by creating Bokaro-Rourkela combine. It too was available locally. The machinery receives iron ore from the Rourkela region required for a cotton textile mill could be and the wagons on return take coal to directly imported from England. Rourkela. Other raw materials come to Subsequently, two more mills, the Shahpur Bokaro from within a radius of about 350 km. Mill and the Calico Mill were established in Water and Hydel power is supplied by the Ahmedabad. By 1947, the number of mills in

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70 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

India went up to 423 but the scenario changed Mumbai and Ahmedabad in the second half after partition, and this industry suffered a of the nineteenth century, the cotton textile major recession. This was due to the fact that industry expanded very rapidly. The number the most of the good quality cotton growing of units increased dramatically. The Swadeshi areas had gone to West Pakistan and India movement gave a major impetus to the was left with 409 mills and only 29 per cent industry as there was a call for boycotting of the cotton producing area. all British made goods in favour of Indian After Independence, this industry goods. After 1921, with the development of gradually recovered and eventually the railway network other cotton textile flourished. In 1998, India had 1782 mills; of centres expanded rapidly. In southern India, which, 192 mills were in the public sector and mills were set up at Coimbatore, Madurai 151 mills in the cooperative sector. The largest and Bangalore. In central India, Nagpur, number, that is, 1,439 mills were in the private Indore, Solapur and Vadodra became cotton sector. textile centres. Cotton textile mills were set The cotton textile industry in India can up at Kanpur based on local investment. Mills be broadly divided into two sectors, the were also set up at Kolkata due to its port organized sector and the decentralized facilities. The development of hydro- sector. The decentralized sector includes electricity also favoured the location of the cloth produced in handlooms (including cotton textile mills away from the cotton Khadi) and power looms. The production of producing areas. The rapid development of the organized sector has drastically fallen this industry in Tamil Nadu is the result of from 81 per cent in the mid-twentieth century the abundant availability of hydel power for to only about 6 per cent in 2000. At present, the mills. Lower labour costs at centres like the power looms on the decentralized sector Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore produce more than 59 per cent and the hand and Tirunelveli also caused industries to be loom sector produces about 19 per cent of all located away from cotton producing areas. cotton cloth produced in the country. Thus, the cotton textile industry is Cotton is a “pure” raw material which located in almost every state in India, where does not lose weight in the manufacturing one or more of the locational factors have process, so other factors, like, power to drive been favourable. The importance of raw the looms, labour, capital or market may materials has given way to market or to a determine the location of the industry. At cheaper local labour force or it may be the present the trend is to locate the industry at availability of power. or close to markets, as it is the market that Presently, the major centres of the cotton decides what kind of cloth is to be produced. textile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Also the market for the finished produces is Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and extremely variable, therefore, it becomes Ujjain. All these centres are the traditional important to locate the mills close to the centres and are located close to the cotton market. producing regions. Maharashtra, Gujarat and After the first mills were set up in Tamil Nadu are the leading cotton producing

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Mineral and Energy Resources 71

states. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, is located in the cotton producing Telengana Karnataka, and Punjab are the other region, where most of the mills are spinning important cotton textile producers. mills producing yarn. The important centres Tamil Nadu has the largest number of are Hyderabad, Secundrabad, Warangal and mills and most of them produce yarn rather Guntur. than cloth. Coimbatore has emerged as the In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largest most important centre with nearly half the centre. Some of the other important centres mills located there. Chennai, Madurai, are Modinagar, Hathras, Saharanpur, Agra Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Thanjavur, and Lucknow. In West Bengal, the cotton Ramanathapuram and Salem are the other mills are located in the Hugli region. Howrah, important centres. In Karnataka, the cotton Serampur, Kolkata and Shyamnagar are the textile industry has developed in the cotton important centres. Production of cotton cloth producing areas in the north-eastern part of increased almost five times from 1950-51 to the state. Davangere, Hubli, Bellary, Mysore 1999-2000. Cotton textile has been facing and Bangalore are important centres. In tough competition from synthetic cloth. Andhra Pradesh, the cotton textile industry

INDIAN POLITY

Civil SFoerrvices Preliminary Examinations

ISBN: 9789381362310 Book Code: A14, ` 350

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SUGAR INDUSTRY

The sugar industry is the second most Maharashtra has emerged as a leading important agro-based industry in the sugar producer in the country and produces country. India is the largest producer of both more than one-third of the total production sugarcane and cane sugar and contributes of the sugar in the country. There are 119 about 8 per cent of the total sugar production sugar mills in the state in a narrow belt in the world. Besides, khandasari and gur or extending from Manmad in the north to jaggery are also prepared from sugarcane. Kolhapur in the south. There are 87 mills in This industry provides employment for more the cooperative sector. than 4 lakh persons directly and a large Uttar Pradesh is the second largest number of farmers indirectly. Sugar industry producer of sugar. The sugar factories are is a seasonal industry because of the concentrated in two belts- the Ganga-Yamuna seasonality of raw materials. doab and the taria region. The major sugar Development of the industry on mod- producing centres in the Ganga- Yamuna ern lines dates back to 1903, when a sugar doab are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, mill was started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshehr mills were started in other parts of Bihar and districts; while Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti, Uttar Pradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were Gonda, Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important in operation producing 11.34 lakh tones of sugar producing districts in the Tarai region. sugar. The number of sugar factories rose to In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are 506 and production to 176,99 lakh tones in located in Coimbatore, Vellore, 2000-01. Tiruvanamalai, Villupuram and Location of the Sugar Industry Tiruchchirappalli districts. Belgaum, Bellary, Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The Mandya, Shimoga, Bijapur, and Chitradurg ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 districts are the major producers in to 12 per cent depending on its variety. Its Karnataka. The industry is distributed in the sucrose content begins to dry during haulage coastal regions i.e. East Godawari, West after it has been harvested from the field. Godavari, Vishakhapatnam districts and Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon Nizamabad, and Medak districts of its being crushed within 24 hours of its Telangana alongwith Chittoor district of harvesting. Sugar factories hence, are located Rayalseema. within the cane producing regions. The other States which produce sugar

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Sugar Industry 73

are Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL), and Gujarat. Saran, Champaran, a public sector undertaking. It is responsible Muzaffarnagar, Siwan, Darbhanga, and Gaya for the manufacture and distribution of the are the important sugarcane producing dis- various petrochemicals like polymers, tricts in Bihar. The relative significance of chemicals, fibres and fibre intermediates. Punjab has declined, although Gurdaspur, Second is the Petrofils Cooperative Limited Jalandhar, Sangarur, Patiala and Amrtisar are (PCL), a joint venture of the Government of major sugar producers. In Haryana, sugar India and Weaver’s Cooperative Societies. It factories are located in Yamuna Nagar, produces polyester filament yarn and nylon Rohtak, Hissar and Faridabad districts. Sugar chips at its two plants located at Vadodara industry is comparatively new in Gujarat. and Naldhari in Gujarat. Third is the Central Sugar mills are located in the cane growing Institute of Plastic Engineering and tracts of Surat, Junagarh, Rajkot, Amreli, Technology (CIPET), involved in imparting Valsad and Bhavnagar districts. training in petrochemical industry. Petrochemical Industries Polymers are made from ethylene and This group of industries has been propylene. These materials are obtained in growing very fast in India. A variety of the process of refining crude oil. Polymers products come under this category of are used as raw materials in the plastic industries. In 1960s, demand for organic industry. Among polymers, polyethylene is chemicals increased so fast that it became a widely used thermoplastic. Plastic is first difficult to meet this demand. At that time. covered into sheets, power, resin and pellets, Petroleum refining industry expanded and then used in manufacturing plastic rapidly. Many items are derived from crude products. Plastic products are preferred petroleum, which provide raw materials for because of their strength, water and chemical many new industries; these are collectively resistance and low prices. Production of known as petrochemical industries. This plastic polymers started in India in the late group of industries is divided into four sub- fifties and the early sixties using other organic groups; (i) polymers, (ii) synthetic fibres, (iii) chemicals. The National Organic Chemicals elastomers, and (iv) surfactant intermediate. Industries Limited (NOCIL), established in Mumbai is the hub of the petrochemical private sector in 1961, started the first industries. Cracker units are also located in naphtha based chemical industry in Mumbai. Auraiya (Uttar Pradesh), Jamnagar, Later, several other companies were formed. Gandhinagar, and Hajira (Gujarat), The plants located at Mumbai, Barauni, Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Haldia Mettur, Pimpri and Rishra are major (West Bengal) and Vishakhapatnam (Andha producers of plastic materials. Pradesh). About 75 per cent of these units are in Three organizations are working in the small scale sector. The industry also uses petrochemical sector under the administrative recycled plastics, which constitutes about 30 control of the Department of Chemicals and per cent of the total production. Petrochemicals. First is the Indian Synthetic fibres are widely used in the

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74 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

manufacturing of fabrics because of their quality certification. A majority of the inherent strength, durability, wash ability, multinational companies operating in the area and resistance to shrinkage. Industries of information technology have either manufacturing nylon and polyester yarns are software development centres or research located at Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar, development centres in India. However, in Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna. Acrylic the hardware development sector, India is staple fibre is manufactured at Kota and yet to make any remarkable achievements. Vadodara. A major impact of this growth has been Though plastics have becomes on employment creation, which is almost inseparable items in our daily use and they doubled every year. have affected our life style. But due to its Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization non-biodegradable quality it has emerged as (LPG) and Industrial Development in India the greatest threat to our environment. The new Industrial Policy was Hence, use of plastic is being discouraged in announced in 1991. The major objectives of different states of India. this policy were to build on the gains already Knowledge based Industries made, correct the distortions or weaknesses The advancement in information that have crept in, maintain a sustained technology has had a profound influence on growth in productivity and gainful the country’s economy. The Information employment and attain international Technology (IT) revolution opened up new competitiveness. possibilities of economic and social Within this policy, measures initiated transformation. The IT and IT enabled are: (1) abolition of industrial licensing, (2) business process outsourcing (ITESBPO) free entry to foreign (technology, (3) foreign services continue to be on a robust growth investment policy, (4) access to capital path. Indian software industry has emerged market, (5) open trade, (6) abolition of as one of the fastest growing sectors in the phased manufacturing programme, and (7) economy. Exports of the Indian software and liberalized industrial location programme. services sector were Rs. 78,230 crore in 2004- The policy has three main dimensions: 05 which is approximately 30-32 per cent privatization and globalization. increase from the previous year. The software The industrial licensing system has been industry has surpassed electronic hardware abolished for all except six industries related production. The Indian government has to security, strategic or environmental created a number of software parks in the concerns. At the same time, the number of country. industries reserved for public sector since The IT software and services industry 1956 have been reduced from 17 to 4. account for almost 2 per cent of India’s GDP. Industries related to atomic energy India’s software industry has achieved a substances specified in the schedule of the remarkable distinction for providing quality Department of Atomic Energy as well as products. A large number of Indian software Railways have remained under the public companies have acquired international sector. The government also have decided

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Sugar Industry 75

to offer a part of the shareholdings in the Globalization means integrating the public enterprises to financial institutions, economy of the country with the world general public and workers. The threshold economy. Under this process, goods and limits of assets have been scrapped and no services along with capital, labour and industry required prior approval for resources can move freely from one nation investing in the delicensed sector. They only to another. The thrust of globalization has need to submit a memorandum in the been to increase the domestic and external prescribed format. competition through extensive application of In the new industrial policy, Foreign market mechanism and facilitating dynamic Direct Investment (FDI) has been seen as a relationship with the foreign investors and supplement to the domestic investment for suppliers of technology. In Indian context, achieving a higher level of economic this implies: (1) opening of the economy to development. FDI benefits the domestic foreign direct investment by providing industry as well as the consumers by facilities to foreign companies to invest in providing technological upgradation, access different fields of economies activity in India; to global managerial skills and practices, (2) removing restrictions and obstacles to the optimum use of natural and human entry of multinational companies in India; (3) resources, etc. Keeping all this in mind, allowing Indian companies to enter into foreign investment has been liberalized and foreign collaboration in India and also the government has permitted access to an encouraging them to set up joint ventures automic route for Foreign Direct Investment. abroad; (4) carrying out massive import The government has also announced changes liberalization programs by switching over in the industrial location policies. Industries from quantitative restrictions to tariffs in the are discouraged in or very close to large cities first place and then bringing down the level due to environmental reasons. of import duties considerably; and (5) instead The industrial policy has been of a set of export in incentives, opting for liberalized to attract private investor both exchange rate adjustments for promoting domestic and multinationals. New sectors export. like, mining, telecommunication, highway Industrial Region and Districts construction and management have been Major Industrial Regions (8) thrown open to private companies. In spite 1. Mumbai-Pune Region, of all these concessions, Foreign Direct Investment has not been up to the expectation. 2. Hugli Region, There has been a big gap between approved 3. Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Region, and actual foreign direct investment, even 4. Gujarat Region, though the numbers of foreign collaborations 5. Chotanagpur Region, are increasing. Larger parts of this investment 6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region, have gone to domestic appliances, finance, 7. Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region and services, electronics and electrical equipment, and food and dairy products. 8. Kollam-Tiruvantapuram Region.

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76 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Minor Industrial Regions (13) wider. Major share of both domestic 1. Ambala-Amritsar, investment as well as foreign direct 2. Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor, investment went to already developed states. For example, out of the total proposed 3. Indore-Dewas-Ujjain, investment by the industrial entrepreneurs 4. Jaipur-Ajmer, during 1991-2000 nearly one fourth (23 per 5. Molhapur-South Kannada, cent) was for industrially developed 6. Northern Malabar, Maharashtra, 17 per cent for Gujarat, 7 per 7. Middle Malabar, cent for Andhra Pradesh, and about 6 per 8. Adilabad-Nizamabad, cent for Tamil Nadu while Uttar Pradesh, the state with the largest population has only 8 9. Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur, per cent. In spite of several concessions, seven 10. Bhojpur-Munger, north-eastern states could get less than 1 per 11. Durg-Raipur, cent of the proposed investment. In fact, 12. Bilaspur-Korba, and economically weaker states could not 13. Brahmaputra valley. compete with the developed states in open Industrial Districts (15) market in attracting industrial investment proposals and hence they are likely to suffer 1. Kanpur, from these processes. 2. Hyderabad, Industrial Regions in India 3. Agra, Industries are not evenly distributed in 4. Nagpur, the country. They tend to concentrate on 5. Gwalior, certain locations because of the favourable 6. Bhopal, locations factors. 7. Lucknow, Several indices are used to identify the clustering of industries, important among 8. Jalpaiguri, them are: (i) the number of industrial units, 9. Cuttak, (ii) number of industrial workers, (iii) 10. Gorakhpur, quantum of power used for industrial 11. Aligarh, purposes, (iv) total industrial output, and (v) 12. Kota, value added by manufacturing etc. 13. Purnia, Major industrial regions of the country are given below in some details. 14. Jabalpur, and Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region 15. Bareilly. It extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune A breakup of foreign collaboration and in adjoining districts of Nasik and approval reveals that the major share went Solapur. Besides, industrial development has to core, priority sectors while infrastructural been rapid in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, sector was untouched. Further, gap between Sangli and Jalgaon districts. Development of developed and developing states has become this region started with the location of cotton

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Sugar Industry 77

textile industry in Mumbai. Mumbai, with coalfields of the Damodar Valley and iron cotton hinterland and moist climate favoured ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau, the location of cotton textile industry. contributed to the industrial development of Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided the region. Cheap labour available from impetus to the growth of Mumbai port. thickly populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar Machineries were imported through this port. Pradesh and Orissa also contributed to its Hydro-electricity was developed in the development. Kolkata, being the capital city Western Ghat region to meet requirements of British India (1773-1911), attracted the of this industry. British capital. The establishment of first jute With the development of cotton textile mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of industry, chemical industry also developed. modern industrial clustering in this region. Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field The major concentration of jute industry and erection of nuclear energy plants added is at Howrah and Bhatapara. The partition additional pull to this region. of the country in 1947 adversely affected this Besides, engineering goods, petroleum industrial region. Cotton textile industry also refining, petrochemicals, leather, synthetic grew along with jute industry, paper, and plastic goods, drugs, fertilizers, electrical, engineering, textile machinery, electrical, shipbuilding, electronics, software, transport chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertilizer and equipments and food industries also petrochemical industries have also developed developed. Important industrial centres are within this region. Factory of the Hindustan Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane, Trombay, Motors Limited at Konnagar and diesel Pune, Pimpri, Nasik, Manmad, Solapur, engine factory at Chittaranjan are landmarks Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli. of this region. Location of petroleum refinery Hugli Industrial Region at Haldia has facilitated the development of a variety of industries. Important, industrial Located along the Hugli river, this centres of this region are Kolkata, Haora, region extends from Bansberia in the north Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Shibpur, Nahati, to Birlanagar in the south for a distance of Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, about 100 km. Industries also have developed Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansberia, in Mednipur in the west. Kolkata- Howrah Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc. from the nucleus of this industrial region. However, industrial growth of this region Historical, geographical, economic and has slowed down in comparison to other political factor have contributed much to its regions. Decline of the jute industry is one of development. It developed with the opening the reasons. of river port on Hugli. Kolkata, emerged as a leading centre of the country, Later, Kolkata Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region was connected with interior parts by railway This region witnessed most rapid lines and road routes. Development of tea industrial growth in post-Independence plantations in Assam and northern hills of period. Till 1960, industries were confined West Bengal, the processing of indigo earlier to Bangalore, Salem and Madurai districts but and jute later coupled with the opening of now they have spread over all the districts

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78 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram. Since, this The industrial structure is now region is away from the coalfields, its diversified. Besides, textiles (cotton, silk and development is dependent on the Pykara synthetic fabrics) and petrochemical hydroelectric plant, which was built in 1932. industries, other industries are heavy and Cotton textile industry was the first to take basic chemicals, motor, tractor, diesel roots due to the presence of cotton growing engines, textile machinery, engineering, areas. Along with cotton mills, loom industry pharmaceuticals. Dyes, pesticides, sugar, spread very rapidly. Several heavy dairy products and food processing. Recently, engineering industries converged at largest petroleum refinery has been set up at Bangalore. Aircraft (HAL), machine tools, Jamnagar. Important industrial centres of this telephone (HTL) and Bharat Electronics are region are Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, industrial landmarks of this region. Important Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar, industries are textiles rail wagons, diesel Rajkot, Valsad and Jamnagar. engines, radio, light engineering goods, Chotanagpur Region rubber goods, medicines, aluminum, sugar, This region extends over Jharkhand, cement, glass, paper, chemicals, film, northern Orissa and western West Bengal cigarette, match box, leather goods, etc. and is known for the heavy metallurgical Petroleum refinery at Chennai, iron and steel industries. This region owes its development plant at Salem and fertilizer plants are recent to the discovery of coal in the Damodar developments. Valley and metallic and non-metallic in Gujarat Industrial Region Jharkhand and northern Orissa. Proximity of The nucleus of this region lies between coal, iron ore and other minerals facilitated Ahmedabad and Vadodara but this region the location of heavy industries in this region. extends upto Valsad and Surat in the south Six large integrated iron and steel plants at and to Jamnagar in the west. Development Jamshedpur, Burnpur-Kulti, Durgapur, of this region is also associated with the Bokaro and Rourkela are located within this location of the cotton textile industry since region. To meet the power requirement, 1860s. This region became an important textile thermal and hydroelectric plants have been region with the decline of the cotton textile constructed in the Damodar Valley. Densely industry at Mumbai. populated surrounding regions provide Located in cotton growing area, this cheap labour and Hugli region provides vast region has double advantage of the proximity market for its industries. Heavy engineering, of raw materials as well as of market. The machine tools, fertilizers, cement, paper, discovery of oil fields led to the establishment locomotives and heavy electrical are some of of petrochemical industries around the important industries in this region. Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Jamnagar. The Important centres are Ranchi, Dhanbad, port at Kandla helped in the rapid growth of Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribag, Jamshedpur, this region. Petroleum refinery at Koyali Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Asansol and provided raw materials to a host of Dalmianagar. petrochemical industries.

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Sugar Industry 79

Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region Besides, there are cotton, woolen and syn- This industrial region extends from thetic fabrics, hosiery, sugar, cement, machine Vishakhapatnam district to Kurnool and tools, tractor, cycle, agricultural implements, Prakasam districts in the south. Industrial chemical and vanaspati industries which have development of this region hinges upon developed on large scale. Software industry Vishakhapatnam and districts in the south. is a recent addition. To the south lies the Industrial development of this region hinges Agra-Mathura industrial area which upon Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam specializes in glass leather goods. Mathura ports and developed agriculture and rich with an oil refinery is a petrochemical complex. Among industrial centres, mention reserves of minerals in their inter lands. be made Gurgaon, Delhi, Shahdara, Coalfields of the Godavari basin provide Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, energy. Ship building industry was started Ambala, Agra and Mathura. at Vishakhapatnam in 1941. Petroleum refinery based on imported petroleum Kollam-Tiruvanantapuram Region facilitated the growth of several The industrial region is spread over petrochemical industries. Sugar, textile, jute, Tiruvanantapuram, Kollam, Alwaye, paper, fertilizer, cement, aluminum and light Ernakulam and Alappuzha districts. Planta- engineering are principal industries of this tion agriculture and hydropower provide region. One lead-zinc smelter is functioning industrial base to this region. Located far in Guntur district. Iron and steel plant at away from the mineral belt of the country, Vishakhapatnam uses the Bailadila iron ore. agricultural products processing and market Vishakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vijaynagar, oriented light industries predominate the Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and Kurnool are region. important industrial centres. Among them, cotton textile, sugar, rub- Gurgaon-Delhi-Merrut Region ber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertilizer and fish-based industries are important. Food Industries located in this region have processing, paper, coconut coir products, shown very fast growth in the recent past. aluminum and cement industries are also sig- This region is located far away from the min- nificant. Location of petroleum refinery at eral and power resources, and therefore, the Kochi has added a vista of new industries to industries are light and market-oriented. this region. Important of petroleum centres Electronics, light engineering and electrical are Kollam, Tiruvanantapuram, Alluva, goods are major industries of this region. Kochi, Alappuzha, and Punalur.

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TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

The use of transport and communication Central Government are known as the depends upon our need to move things from National Highways. These roads are meant place of their availability to the place of their for inter-state transport and movement of use. defence men and material in strategic areas. Land Transport These also connect the state capitals, major Road Transport: India has one of the cities, important ports, railway junctions, etc. The length of the National Highways has largest road networks in the world with a total length of 33.1 lakh km (2005). About 85 increased from 19,700 km in 1951 to 65,769 km in 2005. The National Highways per cent of passenger and 70 per cent of freight traffic are carried by roads every constitute only two per cent of the total road length but carry 40 per cent of the road traffic. year. Road transport is relatively suitable for shorter distance travel. The National Highways Authority of Road transport in modern sense was India (NHAI) was operationalized in 1995. It is an autonomous body under the Ministry very limited in India before World War-II. The first serious attempt was made in 1943 of Surface Transport. It is entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance when ‘Nagpur Plan’ was drawn. This plan and operation of National Highways. This is could not be implemented due to lack of coordination among the princely states and also the apex body to improve the quality of the roads designated as National Highways. British India. After Independence, twenty- year road plan (1961) was introduced to Indian Road Network (2005) improve the conditions of roads in India. Sl. Road Length in %of However, roads continue to concentrate in No. Category Km and around urban centres. Rural and remote total areas had the least connectivity by road. road For the purpose of construction and length maintenance, roads are classified as National 1. National Highways 65,769 2 Highways (NH), State Highways (SH), Major 2. State Highways 1,28,000 4 District Roads and Rural Roads. 3. Major District Roads4,70,000 14 National Highways: The main roads 4. Rural Rods 2,65,000 80 which are constructed and maintained by the Total 33,13,769 100

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Transport and Communication 81

State Highways: These are constructed in high altitude mountainous terrain joining and maintained by state governments. They Chandigarh with Manali (Himachal Pradesh) join the state capitals with district and Leh (Ladakh). This road runs at an headquarters and other important towns. average altitude of 4,270 metres above the These roads are connected to the National mean sea level. Highways. These constitute 4 per cent of total This organization has completed over road length in the country. 40,450 km of roads by March 2005. Apart In order to consolidate his empire from the construction and maintenance of Shershah Suri built the road from Indus Valley roads in strategically sensitive areas, the BRO (Pakistan) to Soner Valley in Bangal. This was also undertakes snow clearance in high coordinating Kolkata to Peshawar later on altitude areas. The international highways are named as Grand Trunk Road during the meant to promote the harmonious British period. In the present time it has been relationship with the neighbouring countries divided into two part between Amritsar to by providing effective links with India. Kolkata. (a) National Highway (NH-I) from The distribution of roads is not uniform Delhi to Amritsar. (b) National Highway in the country. Density of roads (length of (NH-2) Delhi to Kolkata. roads per 100 square km of area) varies from District Roads: These roads are the only 10.48 km in Jammu and Kashmir to connecting link between District 387.24 km in Kerala with a national average Headquarters and the other important nodes of 75.42 km. The density of road is high in in the district. They account for 14 per cent most of the northern states and major of the total road length of the country. southern states. It is low in the Himalayan Rural Roads region, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Why does this variation occur? Nature of terrain These roads are vital for providing links and the level of economic development are in the rural areas. About 80 per cent of the the main determinants of density of roads. total road length in India are categorized as Construction of roads is easy and cheaper in rural roads. There is regional variation in the the plain areas while it is difficult and costly density of rural because these are influenced in hilly and plateau areas. Therefore, not only by the nature of the terrain. the density but also the quality of roads is Other Roads relatively better in plains as compared to Other roads include Border Roads and roads in high altitude areas, rainy and International Highways. The Border Road forested regions. Organization (BRO) was established in May National Highways Development Projects 1960 for accelerating economic development NHAI has taken up some major projects and strengthening defence preparedness in the country under different phases: through rapid and coordinated improvement of strategically important roads along the Golden Quadrilateral: It comprises northern and north-eastern boundary of the construction of 5,846 km long 4/6 lane, high country. It is a premier multifaceted density traffic corridor, to connect India’s construction agency. It has constructed roads four big metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-

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82 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Chennai-Kolkata. With the construction of the hill states, north eastern states, central Golden Quadrilateral, the time-distance and parts of India and Rajasthan. cost of movement among the mega cities of Rural Roads:These roads received India will be considerably minimized. special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri North-South and East-West Corridors: Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under this scheme North-South corridor aims at connecting special provisions are made so that every Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir and village in the country is linked to a major Kaniyakumari in Tamil Nadu (including town in the country by an all season Kochi-Salempur) with 4,076 km long road. motorable road. The East-West Corridor has been planned to Konkan Railway:Konkan Railway was connect Silchar in Assam with the port town a great achievement of Indian railway in of Porbandar in Gujarat with 3,640 km of 1998. It is 760 km long track extending from road length. Roha in Karnataka to Mangalore. This Rail Transport railway crosses 146 rivers, 2000 bridges and Indian Railway was introduced in 1853, 91 tunnels, has longest tunnels of the Asia when a line was constructed from Bombay having 6.5 km in length. It is joint enterprise to Thane covering a distance of 34 km. of Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra government. Indian Railways is the largest government undertaking in the country. The Indian Railways Zone length of Indian Railways network is 63,221 Railway Zone Headquarters km. Its very large size puts lots of pressure Central Mumbai CST on a centralized railway management system. Eastern Kolkata Thus, in India, the railway system has been divided into sixteen zones. Table shows the East Central Hajipur zone-wise performance of Indian Railways. East Coast Bhubaneshwar Areas around towns, raw material Northern New Delhi producing areas and of plantations and other North Central Allahabad commercial crops, hill stations and North Eastern Gorakhpur cantonment towns were well-connected by North East Frontier Maligaon railways from the British colonial era. These (Guwahati) were mostly developed for the exploitation North Western Jaipur of resources. After the Independence of the Southern Chennai country, railway routes have been extended South Central Secundrabad to other areas too. The most significant South Eastern Kolkata development has been the development of South East Central Bilaspur Konkan Railway along the western coast South Western Hubli providing a direct link between Mumbai and Western Mumbai Mangalore. Railway continuous to remain the main means of transport for the masses. (Church Gate) Railway network is relatively less dense in West Central Jabalpur

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Transport and Communication 83

Water Transport famous Nehru Trophy Boat Race Waterways is an important mode of (VALLANKALI) is also held in the transport for both passenger and cargo traffic backwaters. in India. It is the cheapest means of transport National Highway-7 is the longest and and is most suitable for carrying heavy and traverses 2,369 km between Varanasi and bulky material. It is a fuel-efficient and eco- Kanyakumari via Jabalpur, Nagpur, friendly mode of transport. The water Hyderabad, Bangalore and Madurai. Delhi transport is of two types-(a) inland and Mumbai are connected by National waterways, and (b) oceanic waterways. Highway-8, while National Highway-15 Inland Waterways covers most of Rajasthan. Oceanic Routes It was the chief mode of transport before the advent of railways. It, however, India has a vast coastline of approximate faced tough competition from road and 7,517 km, including islands. Twelve major and railway transport. Moreover, diversion of 185 minor ports provide infrastructural river water for irrigation purposes made support to these routes. Oceanic routes play them non navigable in large parts of their an important role in the transport sector of courses. India has 14,500 km of navigable India’s economy. Approximately 95 per cent waterways, contributing about 1% to the of India’s foreign trade by volume and 70 country’s transportation. It comprises rivers, per cent by value moves through ocean canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. At present, routes. Apart from international trade, these 3,700 km of major rivers are navigable by also used for the purpose of transportation mechanized flat bottom vessels, out of which between the islands and the rest of the only 2,000 km are actually used. Similarly, country. out of 4,300 km of the network of navigable Air Transportation canal, only 900 km is navigable by mechanized Air Transport is the fastest means of vessels. movement from one place to the other. It has For the development, maintenance and reduced distances by minimizing the travel regulation of national waterways in the time. It is very essential for a vast country country, the Inland Waterways Authority like India, where distances are large and the was set up in 1986. The authority has declared terrain and climatic conditions are diverse. three inland waterways as National Air transport in India made a beginning Waterways as given in the table. in 1911 when airmail operation commenced Inland Waterways Authority has also over a little distance of 10 km between identified ten other inland waterways, which Allahabad and Naini. But its real development could be upgraded. The backwaters (Kadal) took place in post-Independent period. The of Kerala has special significance in Inland Airport Authority of India is responsible for Waterway. Apart from providing cheap providing safe, efficient air traffic and means of transport, they are also attracting aeronautical communication services in the large number of tourists in Kerala. The Indian Air Space. The authority manages 126

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84 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

airports including 11 international, 86 In addition, Pawan Hans Limited mainly domestic and 29 civil enclaves at defence air provides helicopter services to petroleum fields. sector and for tourism. The air transport in India is managed Oil and Gas Pipelines: Pipelines are the by two corporations, Air India and Indian most convenient and efficient mode of Airlines after nationalization. Now many transporting liquids and gasses over long private companies have also started distances. Even solids can also be transported passenger services. by pipelines after converting them into History of Indian Airlines slurry. Oil India Limited (OIL) under the administrative set up of the Ministry of 1911 - Air transport in India was Petroleum and Natural Gas is engaged in the launched between Allahabad and exploration, production and transportation Naini. of crude oil and natural gas. It was 1947 - Air transport was provided by incorporated in 1959 as a company. Asia’s four major companies namely first cross country pipeline covering a Indian National Airways. Tata distance of 1,157 km was constructed by OIL Sons Limited, Air Services of from Naharkatiya oilfield in Assam to India and Deccan Airways. Barauni refinery to Bihar. It was further 1951 - Four more companies joined the extended up to Kanpur in 1966. Another services, Bharat Airways, extensive network of pipeline has been Himalayan Aviation Limited, constructed in the western region of India of Airways India and Kalinga which Ankleshwar-Koyali, Mumbai High- Airlines. Koyali and Hazira-Vijapur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) 1953 - Air transport was nationalized are most important. Recently, a 1256 km long and two Corporations. Air India pipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) with International and Indian Airlines Mathura (U.P.) has been constructed. It were formed. Now Indian supplies crude oil from Gujarat to Punjab Airlines is known as ‘Indian’. (Jalandhar) via Mathura. OIL is in the process Air India: Air India provides of constructing of 660 km long pipeline from International Air Services for both passengers Numaligarh to Siliguri. and cargo traffic. It connects all the continents Communication Networks: Human of the world through its services. In 2005, it beings have evolved different methods of carried 12.2 million passengers and 4.8 lakh communication over time. In earlier times, metric tonnes of cargo. About 52 per cent of the messages were delivered by beating the the total air traffic was handled only at drum or hollow tree trunks, giving Mumbai and Delhi airports. In 2005, domestic indications through smoke or fire or with the movement involved 24.3 million passengers help of fast runners. Horses, camels, dogs, and 20 lakh metric tonnes of cargo. Pawan birds and other animals were also used to Hans is the helicopter service operating in send messages. Initially, the means of hilly areas and is widely used by tourists in communication were also the means of north-eastern sector.

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Transport and Communication 85

transportation. Invention of post office, Mass Communication System telegraph, printing press, telephone, satellite, Radio: Radio broadcasting started in etc. has made the communication much faster India in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay. and easier. Development in the field of science Since then, it gained immense popularity and and technology has significantly contributed changed the socio cultural the life of people. in bringing about revolution in the field of Within no time, it made a place in every communication. household of the country. Government took People use different modes of this opportunity and brought this popular communication to convey the messages. On mode of communication under its control in the basis of scale and quality, the mode of 1930 under the Indian Broadcasting System. communication can be divided into following It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and categories: to Akashwani in 1957. Personal Communication System: All India Radio broadcasts a variety of Among all the personal communication sys- programmes related to information, tem internet is the most effective and ad- education and entertainment. Special news vanced one. It is widely used in urban areas. bulletins are also broadcast at specific It enables the user to establish direct contact occasions like session of parliament and state through e-mail to get access to the world of legislatures. knowledge and information. It is increasingly Television (T.V.): Television used for e-commerce and carrying out money broadcasting has emerged as the most transactions. The internet is like a huge cen- effective audio-visual medium for tral warehouse of data, with detailed infor- disseminating information and educating mation on various items. The network masses. Initially, the T.V. services were through internet and e-mail provides an ef- limited only to the National Capital where it ficient access to information at a compara- began in 1959. After 1972, several other tively low cost. It enables us with the basic centres became operational. In 1976, TV was facilities of direct communication. delinked from All India Radio (AIR) and got Three types of Indian Railway on the a separate identity as Doordarshan (DD). basis of breadth of Rails After INSAT-IA (National Television- DD1) 1. Broad guage- distance --- two rails became operational, Common National 1.616 mts total length of Broad Programmes (CNP) were started for the guage in India. entire network and its services were 2. Meter guage- Distance between two extended to the backward and remote rural rail in one meter. Total length of areas. meter ganage in India is 13,290 km, Satellite Communication: Satellites are account 21.02% of total length of mode of communication in themselves as well country. as they regulate the use of other means of 3. Narrow gauge- Distance between communication. However, use of satellite in two rail is 0.762 mts/0.610 mts. Total getting a continuous and synoptic view of length is 3,124 km, accounts 4,49% larger area has made satellite communication of total length.

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86 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

very vital for the country, due to the International Trade economic and strategic reasons. Satellite The exchange of goods among people, images can be used for the weather forecast, states and countries is referred to as trade. monitoring of natural calamities, surveillance The market is the place where such exchanges of border areas, etc. On the basis of take place. Trade between two countries is configuration and purposes, satellite system called international trade. It may take place in India can be grouped into two: Indian through sea, air or land routes. While local National Satellite System (INSAT) and Indian trade is carried in cities, towns and villages, Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS). state level trade is carried between two or The INSAT, which was established in more states. Advancement of international 1983, is a multipurpose satellite system for trade of a country is an index to its economic telecommunication, meteorological prosperity. It is, therefore, considered the observation and for various other data and economic barometer for a country. programmes. As the resources are space bound, no country can survive without international The IRS satellite system became trade. Export and import are the components operational with the launching of IRS-IA in of trade. The balance of trade of a country is March 1988 from Vaikanour in Russia. India the difference between its export and import. has also developed her own Launching When the value of export exceeds the value Vehicle PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle). of imports, it is called a favourable balance These satellites collect data in several spectral of trade. On the contrary, if the value of bands and transmit them to the ground imports exceeds the value of exports, it is stations for various uses. The National termed as unvfavourable balance of trade. Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) at India has trade relations with all the Hyderabad provides facilities for acquisition major trading blocks and all geographical of data and its processing. These are very regions of the world. Among the useful in the management of natural commodities of export, whose share has been resources. increasing over the last few year till 2004-05 are agriculture and allied products (2.53 per Region Imports cent), ores and minerals (9.12 per cent), gems 2003-04 2004-05 and jewellery (26.75 per cent) and chemical West Europe 85,88 1,08,71 and allied products (24.45 per cent), East Europe 43 85 engineering goods (35.63 per cent) and CIS and Baltic states 5,79 8,32 petroleum products (86.12 per cent). Asia and Oceania 1,24,76 1,70,28 Table: India’sMajor Trading Partner’s Africa 14,69 16,80 Percentage share in total trade America 31,82 40,20 (Export + Import) Latin American Countries5,35 8,55 Country 2000-01 2003-04 Source : India 2006 U.S.A. 13.0 10.3 U.K. 5.7 3.7

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Transport and Communication 87

Belgium 4.6 3.7 reduction in import duties, de-licensing and Germany 3.9 3.5 change from process to product patents. Japan 3.8 2.7 Asia and Oceania accounted for 47.41 Switzerland 3.8 3.3 per cent of India’s export followed by West Hong Kong 3.7 2.8 Europe (23.80 per cent) and America (20.42). Similarly, India’s imports were highest from U.A.E. 3.4 6.2 Asia and Oceania (35.40 per cent) followed China 2.5 6.4 by West Europe (22.60 per cent) and America Singapore 2.5 3.4 (8.36 per cent) in 2004-05. Malaysia 1.9 1.7 The U.S.A. is India’s largest trading Total 48.6 47.7 partner and the most trading partner and the Source : Economic Survey 2005-06 most important destination of India’s export. Other countries in order of significance The commodities imported to India include the U.K., Belgium, Germany, Japan, include petroleum and petroleum products Switzerland, Hong Kong, the U.A.E., China, (41.87 per cent), pearls and precious stones Singapore and Malaysia. (29.26 per cent), inorganic chemicals (29.39 Most of India’s foreign trade is carried per cent), coal, coke and briquettes (94.17 per through sea and air routes. However, a small cent), machinery (12.56 per cent). Bulk portion is also carried through land route to imports as a group registered a growth neighbouring countries like Nepal, Bhutan, accounting for 39.09 per cent of total imports. Bangladesh and Pakistan. This group includes fertilizers (67.01 per Ports cent), cereals (25.23 per cent), edible oils (7.94 per cent) and newsprint (5.51 per cent). Today Indian ports are handling large International trade has under gone a sea volumes of domestic as well as overseas change in the last fifteen years. Exchange of trade. Most of the ports are equipped with commodities and goods have been modern infrastructure. Previously the superseded by the exchange of information development and modernization was the and knowledge. India has emerged as a responsibility of the government agencies, software giant at the international level and but considering the increase in function and it is earning large foreign exchange through need to bring these ports at par with the the export of information technology. international ports, private entrepreneurs have been invited for the modernization of Direction of Trade ports in India. The capacity of Indian ports India has trade relations with most of increased from 20 million tonnes of cargo the countries and major trading blocks of the handling in 1951 to more than 500 million world. tonnes at present. India aims to double its share in the Kandla Port situated at the head of Gulf international trade within the next five years. of Kuchchh has been developed as a major It has already started adopting suitable port to cater to the needs of western and measures such as import liberalization, north western parts of the country and also

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88 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

to reduce the pressure at Mumbai port. The yarn, granite stone, molasses, etc. Karnataka port is specially designed to receive large is the major hinterland for this port. quantities of petroleum and petroleum Kochchi Port situated at the head of products and fertilizer. The offshore terminal Vembanad Kayal, popularly known as the at Vadinar has been developed to reduce the “Queen of the Arabian Sea,” is also a natural pressure at Kandla port. harbor. This port has an advantageous Demarcation of the boundary of the location being close to the Suez-Colombo hinterland would be difficult as it is not fixed route. It caters to the needs of Kerala, over space. In most of the cases, hinterland southern- Karnataka and south western Tamil of one port may overlap with that of the Nadu. other. Kolkata Port is located on the Hulgi Mumbai is a natural harbor and the river, 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal. biggest port of the country. The port is Like the Mumbai port, this port was also situated closer to the general routes from the developed by the British. Kolkata had the countries of Middle East, Mediterranean initial advantage of being the capital of British countries, North Africa, North America and India. The port has lost its significance Europe where the major share of country’s considerably on account of the diversion of overseas trade is carried out. The port is 20 exports to the other ports such as km long and 6-10 km wide with 54 berths Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip and its satellite and has the country’s largest oil terminal. port, Haldia. M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P. and parts Kolkata port is also confronted with the of Rajasthan constitute the main hinterlands problem of silt accumulation in the Hugli of Mumbai ports. river which provides a link to the sea. Its Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Sheva hinterland covers U.P, Bihar, Jharkhand, was developed as a satellite port to relieve West Bengal, Sikkim and the north-eastern the pressure at the Mumbai port. It is the states. Apart from this, it also extends ports largest container port in India. facilities to our neighbouring land-locked Marmagao Port, situated at the entrance countries such as Nepal and Bhutan. of the Zuari estuary, is a natural harbor in Haldia Port is located 105 km Goa. It gained significance after its downstream from Kolkata. It has been remodeling in 1961 to handle iron-ore exports constructed to reduce the congestion at to Japan. Construction of Konkan railway has Kolkata port. It handles bulk cargo like iron considerably extended the hinterland of this ore, coal, petroleum, petroleum products and port. Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra fertilizers, jute, jute products, cotton and constitutes its hinterland. cotton yarn, etc. New Mangalore Port is located in the Paradwip Port is situated in the state of Karnataka and caters to the needs of Mahanadi delta, about 100 km from Cuttack. the export of iron-ore and iron-concentrates. It has the deepest harbor specially suited to It also handles fertilizers, petroleum handle very large vessels. It has been products, edible oils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, developed mainly to handle large-scale

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Transport and Communication 89

export of iron-ore. Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Foreign tourist’s arrivals in the country Jharkhand are the parts of its hinterland. witnessed an increase of 23.5 per cent during Visakhapatnam Port in Andhra Pradesh the year 2004 as against the year 2003, thus is a land-locked harbor, connected to the sea contributing Rs. 21,828 crore of foreign by a channel cut through solid rock and sand. exchange. Over 2.6 million foreign tourists An outer harbor has been developed for visit India every year. More than 15 million handling iron-ore, petroleum and general people are directly engaged in the tourism cargo. Andhra Pradesh is the main hinterland industry. Tourism also promotes national for this port. integration, provides support to local Chennai Port is one of the oldest ports handicrafts and cultural pursuits. It also helps on the eastern coast. It is an artificial harbor in the development of international built in 1859. It is not much suitable for large understanding about our culture and ships because of the shallow waters near the heritage. Foreign tourists visit India for coast. Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry are its heritage tourism, eco tourism, adventure hinterland. Ennore, a newly developed port tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism in Tamil Nadu, has been constructed 25 km and business tourism. north of Chennai to relieve the pressure at Rajasthan, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir and Chennai port. Tuticorin Port was also temple towns of south India are important developed to relieve the pressure of Chennai destinations of foreign tourists in India. port. It deals with a variety of cargo including There is vast potential of tourism coal, salt, food grains, edible oils, sugar, development in the north-eastern states and chemical and petroleum products. the interior parts of Himalayas, but due to Tourism as a Trade strategic reasons these have not been encouraged so far. However, there lies a Tourism in India has grown bright future ahead for this upcoming substantially over the last three decades. industry.

GEOGRAPHY

Civil SFoerrvices Preliminary Examinations

ISBN: 9789381362303 Book Code: A15, ` 315

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OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

Our Solar system consists of eight years, it is 8.311 minutes of a year. Out of the planets. The nine planet 2003 UB313 has also eight planets, mercury, venus, earth and mars been recently sighted. The nebula from which are called as the inner planets as the lie our Solar system is supposed to have been between the sun and the belt of asteroids the formed, started its collapse and core other five planets are called the outer planets. formation some time 5-5.6 billion ago and the Alternatively, the first four are called planets formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), made up of rock and metals, and have 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller relatively high densities. The rest five are bodies like asteroids and comets and huge called Jovian or Gas Giant planets. Jovian quantity of dust-grains and gases. means Jupiter-like. Most of them are much A light year is a measure of distance and larger than the terrestrial planets and have not of time. Light travels at a speed of 300,00 thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and km/second. Considering this, the distances hydrogen. All the planets were formed in the the light will travel in one year is taken to be same period sometime about 4.6 billion years one light year. This equals to 9.461x1012 km. ago. Some data regarding our solar system The mean distance between the sun and the are given in the box below. earth is 149,598,000 km. In terms of light

The Solar System

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Distance 0.387 0.723 1.000 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.182 30.058 Density 5.44 5.245 5.517 3.945 1.33 0.70 1.17 1.66 Radius# 0.383 0.949 1.000 0.533 11.19 9.460 4.11 3.88 Satellites 0 0 1 2 16 about 18 about 17 8 * Distance from the sun is astronomical unit i.e. average mean distance of the earth is 149,598,000 km = 1 @ Density in gm / cm3 # Radius : Equatorial radius 6378.137 km = 1

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Our Solar System 91

The Moon impact’ or what is described as “the big splat”. The moon is the only natural satellite of A body of the size of one to three times that the earth. Like the origin of the earth, there of mars collided into the earth sometime have been attempts to explain how the moon shortly after the earth was formed. It blasted was formed. In 1838, Sir George Darwin a large part of the earth into space. This suggested that initially, the earth and the portion of blasted material then continued moon formed a single rapidly rotating body. to orbit the earth and eventually formed into The whole mass became a dumb-bell-shaped the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago. body and eventually it broke. It was also Development of Lithosphere suggested that the material forming the moon The earth was mostly in a volatile state was separated from what we have at present during its primordial stage. Due to gradual the depression occupied by the Pacific Ocean. increase in density the temperature inside has However, the present scientists do not accept increased. As a result the material inside either of the explanations. It is now generally started getting separated depending on their believed that the formation of moon, as a densities. This allowed heavier materials (like satellite of the earth, is an outcome of ‘giant iron) to sink towards the centre of the Geological Time Scale earth and the lighter EonsEra Period Epoch Are/Years Life/Major Extents ones to move Quaternary Holocene 0 - 10.000 Modern Man Plestocene 10.000-2 million Home Saptens towards the surface. Catnozoic Tertiary Pitocene 2 -5 million Early Human Ancestor With passage of time (From 65 Miocene 5 - 24 million Ape : Flowering Plants million years and Trees it cooled further and to the Oligocene 24 - 37 Ma Anthropoid Ape solidified and present Eocene 37 - 68 million Rabbits and Hare times) Palaeocene 57 - 65 million Small Mammals: condensed into a Rats - Mice smaller size. This Mesozoic Cretaceous 65 - 144 million Extinction of Dinosaurs 65-245 Jurassic 144-208 million Age of Dinosaurs later led to the million Triassic 208 - 245 million Frogs and turtles Mammals development of the Permtan 245 - 286 million Repttle dominate-replace outer surface in the amphibtans Carboniferous 286-360 million First Reptiles: form of a crust. Palaeozotc Vertebrates: Coal beds 245-570 Devonian 360-408 million Amphibtans During the million Stlurtan 408-438 million First trace of life on land: formation of the Plants Ordovtctan 438-505 million first Fish moon, due to the Cambrtan 505-570 million No terrestrial Life: Marine Invertebrate giant impact, the Proterozoic 570-2,500 million earth was further Soft-bodied arthropods Archean 2,500-3,800 million heated up. It is Blue green Algae: through the process Pre Untcellular bacteria Cambratan 3,800-4,800 million Oceans and Continents of differentiation Hadean 570 million form-Ocean and -4,800 - Atmosphere are rich in that the earth million Carbon dioxide forming material got Origin of 5,000 million Origin of the sun separated into

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92 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

different layers. Starting from the surface to hot magma in the interior of the earth. When the central parts, we have layers like the crust, magma cools, crystals of minerals appear and mantle, outer core and inner core. From the a systematic series of minerals are formed in crust to the core, the density of the material seq-uence to solidify so as to form rocks. increases. Minerals such as coal, petro-leum and Minerals & Rocks natu-ral gas are orga-nic substances found in The earth is composed of various kinds solid, liquid and gaseous forms respectively. of elements. These elements are in solid form Besides these main minerals, other in the outer layer of the earth and in hot and minerals like chlorite, calcite, magne-tic, molten form in the interior. About 98 per cent haematite, bauxite and barite are also present of the total crust of the earth is composed of in some quantities in the rocks. eight elements like oxygen, silicon, The Major Elements of the Earth’s Crust aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium Sl. No. Elements By Weight (%) and magnesium, and the rest is constituted by titanium hydrogen, phosphorus, 1. Oxygen 46.60 manganese, sulphur, carbon, nickel and other 2. Silicon 27.72 elements. 3. Aluminum 8.13 These substances are recognized as 4. Iron 5.00 minerals. Thus, a mineral is a naturally 5. Calcium 3.63 occurring inorganic substance, having an 6. Sodium 2.83 orderly atomic structure and a definite 7. Potassium 2.59 chemical composition and physical properties. 8. Magnesium 2.09 A mineral is composed of two or more elements. But, sometimes single element 9. Others 1.41 minerals like sulphur, copper, silver, gold, Metallic Minerals graphite etc. are found. These minerals contain metal content The elements in the earth’s crust are and can be sub-divided into three types: rarely found exclusively but are usually (i) Precious metals: gold, silver, combined with other elements to make platinum etc. various substances. (ii) Ferrous metals: iron and other Though the number of elements making metals often mixed with iron to form up the lithosphere are limited they are various kinds of steel. combined in many different ways to make (iii)Non-ferrous metals: include metals up many varieties of minerals. There are at like copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminum least 2,000 minerals that have been named etc. and identified in the earth crust; but almost Hardness- relative resistance being all the commonly occurring ones are related scratched; ten minerals are selected to to six major mineral groups that are known measure the degree of hardness from 1-10. as major rock forming minerals. They are: 1. talc; 2. Gypsum; 3. calcite; 4. The basic source of all minerals is the

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Our Solar System 93

fluorite; 5. apatite; 6. felspar; 7. quartz; 8. solid form it is igneous rock. The process of topaz; 9. corundum; 10. Diamond. Compared cooling and solidification can happen in the to this for example, a fingernail is 2.5 and earth’s crust or on the surface of the earth. glass or knife blade is 5.5. Igneous rocks are classified based on Non-Metallic Minerals texture. Texture depends upon size and These minerals do not contain metal arrangement of grains or other physical content. Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are conditions of the materials. If molten material examples of non-metallic minerals. Cement is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral is a mixture of non-metallic minerals. grains may be very large. Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in small and smooth Rocks grains. Intermediate conditions of cooling The earth’s crust is composed for rocks. would result in intermediate sizes of grains A rock is an aggregate of one or more making up igneous rocks. Granite, gabbro, minerals. Rock may be hard or soft and in pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccias and tuff varied colours. For example, granite is hard, are some of the examples of igneous rocks. soapstone is soft. Gabbro is black and Sedimentary Rocks quartzite can be milky white. Rocks do not have definite composition of mineral The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from constituents. Feldspar and quartz are the the Latin word sedimentum, which means most common minerals found in rocks. settling. Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the earth’s surface are As there is a close relation between rocks exposed to denudational agents, and are and landforms, rocks and soils, a geographer broken up into various sizes of fragments. requires basic knowledge of rocks. There are Such fragments are transported by different many different kinds of rocks which are exogenous agencies and deposited. These grouped under three families on the basis of deposits through compaction turn into rocks. their mode of formation. They are: (i) Igneous This process is called lithification. In many Rocks- solidified from magma and lava; (ii) sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits Sedimentary Rocks- the result of deposition retain their characteristics even after of fragments of rocks by exogenous lithification. Hence, we see a number of layers processes; (iii) Metamorphic Rocks- formed of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like out of existing rocks undergoing sandstone, shale etc. recrystallisation. Depending upon the mode of formation, Igneous Rocks sedimentary rocks are into three major As igneous rocks form out of magma groups: (i) mechanically formed- sandstone, and lava from the interior of the earth, they conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc. are are known as primary rocks. The igneous examples; (ii) organically formed- geyserites, rocks (Ignis- in Latin means ‘Fire’) are formed chalk, limestone, coal etc. are some examples; when magma cools and solidifies. You (iii) chemically formed- chert, limestone, already know that magma is. When magma halite, potash etc. are some examples. in its upward movement cools and turns into

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94 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

Metamorphic Rocks of 12 km. This and many deep drilling projects The word metamorphic means ‘change have provided large volume of information of form’. These rocks form under the action through the analysis of materials collected at of pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) different depths. changes. Metamorphism occurs when rocks Volcanic eruption forms another source are forced down to lower levels by tectonic of obtaining direct information. As and when processes or when molten magma rising the molten material (magma) is thrown onto through the crust comes in contact with the the surface of the earth, during volcanic crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are eruption it becomes available for laboratory subjected to great amounts of pressure by analysis. However, it is difficult to ascertain overlying rocks. Metamorphism is a process the depth of the source of such magma. by which already consolidated rocks undergo Indirect Sources recrystallisation and reorganization of Analysis of properties of matter materials within original rocks. indirectly provides information about the Interior of the Earth interior. We know through the mining The earth’s radius is 6,370 km. No one activity that temperature and pressure can reach the center of the earth and make increase with the increasing distance from the observations or collect samples of material. surface towards the interior in deeper depths. Under such conditions, you may wonder Another source of information are the how scientists tell us about the earth’s interior meteors that at time reach the earth. The and the type of materials that exist at such other indirect sources include gravitation, depths. Most of our knowledge about the magnetic field, and seismic activity. interior of the earth is largely based on Earthquake estimates and inferences. Yet, a part of the The study of seismic waves provides a information is obtained through direct complete picture of the layered interior. An observations and analysis of materials. earthquake in simple words in shaking of the Direct Sources earth. This is a natural event. It is caused due The most easily available solid earth to release of energy, which generates waves material is surface rock or the rocks we get that ravel in all directions. from mining areas. Gold mines in South Africa Why does the earth shake? are as deep as 3-4 km. Going beyond this The release of energy occurs along a depth is not possible as it is very hot at this fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal depth. Besides mining, scientists have taken rocks. Rocks along a fault tend to move in up a number of projects to penetrate deeper opposite directions. As the overlying rock depths to explore the conditions in the crustal strata press them, the friction locks them portions. Scientists world over are working together. However, their tendency to move on two major projects such as “Deep Ocean apart at some point of time overcomes the Drilling Project” and “integrated Ocean friction. As a result, the blocks get deformed Drilling Project”. The deepest drill at Kola, and eventually, they slide past one another in Arctic Ocean, has so far reached a depth

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Our Solar System 95

abruptly. This causes a release of energy, and materials. S-waves arrive at the surface with the energy waves travel in all directions. The some time lag. point where the energy is released is called These are called secondary waves. An the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it important fact about S-waves is that they can is called the hypocenter. The energy waves travel only through solid materials. This travelling in different directions reach the characteristic of the S-waves is quite surface. The point on the surface, nearest to important. the focus, is called epicenter. It is the first It has helped scientists to understand one to experience the waves. It is a point the structure of the interior of the earth. directly above the focus. Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas Earthquake Waves refraction makes waves move in different All natural earthquakes take place in the directions. The variations in the direction of lithosphere. It is sufficient to note here that waves are inferred with the help of their the lithosphere refers to the portion of depth record on seismograph. The surface waves up to 200 km from the surface of the earth. are the last to report on seismograph. These An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records waves are more destructive. They cause the waves reaching the surface. Note that the displacement of rocks, and hence, the curve shows three distinct sections each collapse of structures occurs. representing different types of wave Propagation of Earthquake Waves patterns. Earthquake waves are basically of Different types of earthquake waves two types- body waves and surface waves. travel in different manners. As they move or Body waves are generated due to the release propagate, they cause vibration in the body of energy at the focus and move in all of the rocks through which they pass. P- directions travelling through the body of the waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the earth. Hence, the name body waves. The wave. body waves interact with the surface rocks This exerts pressure on the material in and generate new set of waves called surface the direction of the propagation. As a result, waves. These waves move along the surface. it creates density differences in the material The velocity of waves changes as they travel leading to stretching and squeezing of the through materials with different densities. material. Other three waves vibrate perpen- The denser the material, the higher is the dicular to the direction of propagation. The velocity. Their direction also changes as they direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpen- reflect or refract when coming across dicular to the wave direction in the vertical materials with different densities. plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests There are two types of body waves. in the material through which they pass. Sur- They are called P and S-waves. P-waves move face waves are considered to be the most faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. damaging waves. These are also called ‘primary waves’. The Emergence of Shadow Zone P-waves are similar to sound waves. They Earthquake waves get recorded in travel through gaseous, liquid and solid seismographs located at far off locations.

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96 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

However, there exist some specific areas Structure of the Earth where the waves are not reported. Such a The Crust zone is called the ‘shadow zone’. The study It is the outermost solid part of the of different events reveals that for each earth. It is brittle in nature. The thickness of earthquake, there exists an altogether the crust varies under the oceanic and different shadow zone. continental areas. Oceanic crust is thinner as It was observed that seismographs lo- compared to the continental crust. The mean cated at any distance within 105º from the thickness of oceanic crust is 5 km whereas epicenter, recorded the arrival of both P and that of the continental is around 30 km. The S-waves. However, the seismographs located continental crust is thicker in the areas of beyond 145º from epicenter, record the ar- major mountain systems. It is as much as 70 rival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. km thick in the Himalayan region. Thus, a zone between 105º and 145º from epicenter was identified as the shadow zone It is made up of heavier rocks having for both the types of waves. The entire zone density of 3 g/cm3. This type of rock found beyond 105º does not receive S-waves. The in the oceanic crust is basalt. The mean shadow zone of S-wave is much larger than density of material in oceanic crust is 2.7 g/ that of the P-waves. The shadow zone of P- cm3. waves appears as a band around the earth The Mantle between 105º and 145º away from the The portion of the interior beyond the epicenter. The shadow zone of S-waves is not crust s called the mantle. The mantle extends only larger in extent but it is also a little over from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 40 per cent of the earth surface. km. The upper portion of the mantle is called Measuring Earthquakes asthenosphere. The word astheno means The earthquake events are scaled either weak. It is considered to be extending upto according to the magnitude or intensity of 400 km. It is the main source of magma that the shock. The magnitude scale is known as finds its way to the surface during volcanic the Richter scale. The magnitude relates to eruptions. It has s density higher than the the energy released during the quake. The crust’s (3.4 g/cm3). The crust and the magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers, uppermost part of the mantle are called 0-10. The intensity scale is named after lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10-200 Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The inten- km. The lower mantle extends beyond the sity scale takes into account the visible dam- asthenosphere. It is in solid state. age caused by the event. The range of inten- The Core sity scale is from 1-12. As indicated earlier, the earthquake Though the actual quake activity lasts wave velocities helped in understanding the for a few seconds, its effects are devastating existence of the core of the earth. The core provided the magnitude of the quake is more mantle boundary is located at the depth of than 5 on the Richter scale. 2,900 km. The outer core is in liquid state while the inner core is in solid state. The desnity of material at the mantle core bound-

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Our Solar System 97

ary is around 5 g/cm3 and at the centre of explosive if somehow water gets into the the earth at 6,300 km. the density value is vent; otherwise, they are characterized by around 13 g/cm3. The core is made up of very low-explosivity. The upcoming lava moves heavy material mostly constituted by nickel in the form of a fountain and throws out the and iron. It is sometimes referred to as the cone at the top of the vent and develops into knife layer. cinder cone. Volcanoes and Volcanic landforms Composite Volcanoes A volcano is a place where gases, ashes These volcanoes are characterized by and/or molten rock material- lava- escape to eruptions of cooler and mokre viscous lavas the ground. A volcano is called an active than basalt. These volcanoes often result in volcano if the materials mentioned are being explosive eruptions. Along with lava, large released or have been released out in the quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes recent past. The layer below the solid crust find their way to the ground. This material is mantle. It has higher density than that of accumulates in the vicinity of the vent the crust. The mantle contains a weaker zone openings leading to formation of layers, and called asthenosphere. It is from this that the this makes the mounts appear as composite molten rock materials find their way to the volcanoes. surface. The material in the upper mantle Caldera portion is called magma. Once it starts These are the most explosive of the moving towards the crust or it reaches the earth’s volcanoes. They are usually so explo- surface, it is referred to as lava. The material sive that when they erupt they tend to col- that reaches the ground includes lava flows, lapse on themselves rather than building any pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and tall structure. The collapsed depressions are dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, called calderas. Their explosiveness indicates sulphur compounds and minor amounts of that the magma chamber supplying the lava chlorine, hydrogen and argon. is not only huge but is also in close vicinity. Volcanoes Flood Basalt Provinces Volcanoes are classified on the basis of These volcanoes outpour highly fluid nature of eruption and the form developed lava that flows for long distances. Some parts at the surface. Major types of volcanoes are of the world are covered by thousands of as follows: sq. km. of thick basalt lava flows. There can Shield Volcanoes be a series of flows with some flows attaining thickness of more than 50 m. Individual flows Barring the basalt flows, the shield may extend for hundreds of km. The Deccan volcanoes the largest of all the volcanoes on Traps from India, presently covering most the earth, The Hawaiian volcanoes are the of the Maharashtra plateau, are a much large most famous examples. These volcanoes are flood basalt province. It is believed that mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that initially the trap formations covered a much is very fluid when erupted. For this reason, larger area than the present. Mid-Ocean these volcanoes are not steep. They become Ridge Volcanoes: These volcanoes occur in

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98 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid- the surface. The Karnataka plateau is spotted ocean ridges more than 70,000 km long that with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of stretches through all the ocean basins. The these, now exfoliated, are examples of central portion of this ridge experiences laccoliths or batholiths. frequent eruptions. Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills Volcanic Landforms As and when the lava moves upwards, Intrusive Forms: The lava that is a portion of the same may tend to move in a released during volcanic eruptions on cooling horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak develops into igneous rocks. The cooling may plane. It may get rested in different forms. take place either on reaching the surface or In case it develops into a saucer shape, also while the lava is still in the crustal concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith. portion. Depending on the location of the A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are found at the base of synclines or at the top of classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the anticline in folded igneous country. Such surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the wavy materials have a definite conduit to crust). The lava that cools within the crustal source beneath in the form of magma portions assumes different forms. These chambers (subsequently developed as forms are called intrusive forms. batholiths). These are called the phacoliths. Batholiths: A large body of magmatic The near horizontal bodies of the material that cools in the deeper depth of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, crust develops in the form of large domes. depending on the thickness of the material. They appear on the surface only after the The thinner ones are called sheets while the denudational processes remove the overlying thick horizontal deposits are called sills. materials. They cover large areas, and at Dykes: When the lava makes its way times, assume depth that may be several km. through cracks and the fissures developed These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular cooled portion of magma chambers. to the ground. It gets cooled in the same Laccoliths: These are large dome- position to develop a wall-like structure. Such shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and structures are called dykes. These are the connected by a pipe-like conduit from below. most commonly found intrusive forms in the It resembles the surface volcanic domes of western Maharashtra area. These are composite volcano, only these are located at considered the feeders for the eruptions that deeper depths. It can be regarded as the led to the development of the Deccan traps. localized source of lava that finds its way to

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LAND FORMS

After weathering processes have had In the middle stages, streams cut their beds their actions on the earth materials making slower, and lateral erosion of valley sides up the surface of the earth, the geomorphic becomes severe. Gradually, the valley sides agents like running water, ground water, are reduced to lower and lower slopes. The wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion. divides between drainage basins are likewise Erosion causes changes on the surface of the lowered until they are almost completely earth. Deposition follows erosion and flattened leaving finally, a lowland of faint because of deposition too, changes occur on relief with some low resistant remnants called the surface of the earth. monad nocks standing out here and there. A landmass passes through stages of This type of plain forming as a result of stream development somewhat comparable to the erosion is called a peneplain (an almost plain). stages of life- youth, mature and old age. The characteristics of each of the stages of Running Water landscapes developing in running water regimes may be summarized as follows: In humid regions, which receive heavy rainfall running water is considered the most Youth important of the geomorphic agents in Streams are few during this stage with bringing about the degradation of the land poor integration and flow over original surface. There are two components of running slopes showing shallow V-shaped valleys water. One is overland flow in general land with no floodplains or with very narrow surface as a sheet. Another is linear flow as floodplains along trunk streams. Streams streams and rivers in valleys. Most of the divides are broad and flat with marshes, erosional landforms made by running water swamp and lakes. Meanders if present are associated with vigorous and youthful develop over these broad upland surfaces. rivers flowing along gradients. With time, These meanders may eventually entrench stream channels over steep gradients turn themselves into the uplands. Waterfalls and gentler due to continued erosion, and as a rapids may exist where local hard rock bodies consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating are exposed. active deposition. Mature In the early stages, down-cutting During this stage streams are plenty dominates during which irregularities such with good integration. The valleys are still as waterfalls and cascades will be removed. V-shaped but deep; trunk streams are broad

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100 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

enough to have wider floodplains within aided by the abrasion of rock fragments. Such which streams may flow in meanders con- large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls fined within the valley. The flat and broad are called plunge pools. These pools also help inter stream areas and swamps and marshes in the deepening of valleys. Waterfalls are of youth disappear and the stream divides also transitory like any other landform and turn sharp. Waterfalls and rapids disappear. will recede gradually and bring the floor of Old the valley above waterfalls to the level below. Smaller tributaries during old age are Incised or Entrenched Meanders few with gentle gradients. Streams meander But very deep and wide meanders freely over vast floodplains showing natural found cut in hard rocks. Such meanders are levees, oxbow lakes, etc. Divides are broad called incised or entrenched meanders. and flat with lakes, swamps and marshes. River Terraces Most of the landscape is at or slightly above River terraces are surfaces marking old sea level. valley floor or floodplain levels. River EROSIONAL LANDFORMS terraces are basically products of erosion as Vallyes they result due to vertical erosion by the Valleys start as small and narrow rills; stream into its own depositional floodplain. the rills will gradually develop into long and DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS wide gullies; the gullies will further deepen, Alluvial Fans widen and lengthen to give rise to valleys. Alluvial fans are formed when streams Depending upon dimensions and shape, flowing from higher levels break into foot many types of valleys like V-shaped valley, slope plains of low gradient. Alluvial fans in gorge, canyon, etc. can be recognized. A humid areas show normally low cones with gorge is a deep valley with very steep to gentle slope from head to toe and they appear straight sides and a canyon is characterized as high cones with steep slope in arid and by steep step-like side slopes and may be as semi-arid climates. deep as a gorge. A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as well as its bottom. In Deltas contrast, a canyon is wider at its top than at Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop its bottom. In fact, a canyon is a variant of at a different location. The load carried by gorge. Valley types depend upon the type the rivers is dumped and spread into the sea. and structure of rocks in which they form. It this load is not carried away far into the For example, canyons commonly form in sea or distributed along the coast, it spreads horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and and accumulates as a low cone. gorges form in hard rocks. Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars Potholes and Pluge Pools Floodplain is a major landform of river Over the rocky beds of hill-streams deposition. The flood plains in a delta are more or less circular depressions called called delta plains. potholes form because of stream erosion Natural levees are found along the

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Land Forms 101

banks of large rivers. They are low, linear islands of sand, gravel and pebbles develop and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along on the floor of the channel and the water the banks of rivers, quite often cut into flow is divided into multiple threads. These individual mounds. During flooding as the thread-like streams of water rejoin and water spills over the bank, the velocity of the subdivide repeatedly to give a typical braided water comes down and large sized and high pattern. specific gravity materials get dumped in the Groundwater immediate vicinity of the bank as ridges. They Here the interest is not on groundwater are nearer the banks and slope gently away as a resource. Our focus is on the work of from the river. The levee deposits are coarser groundwater in the erosion of landmasses than the deposits spread by flood waters and evolution of landforms. The surface away from the river. When rivers shift water percolates well when the rocks are laterally, a series of natural levees can form. permeable, thinly bedded and highly jointed Point bars are also known as meander and cracked. After vertically going down to bars. They are found on the convex side of some depth, the water under the ground meanders of large rivers and are sediments flows horizontally through the bedding deposited in a linear fashion by flowing planes, joints or through the materials waters along the bank. themselves. It is this downward and Meanders horizontal movement of water which causes In large flood and delta plains, rivers the rocks to erode. Physical or mechanical rarely flow in straight courses. Loop-like removal of materials by moving groundwater channel patterns called meanders develop is insignificant in developing landforms. That over flood and delta plains. is why; the results of the work of As meanders grow into deep loops, the groundwater cannot be seen in all types of same may get cut-off due to erosion at the rocks. But in rocks like limestone or inflection points and are left as ox-bow lakes. dolomites rich in calcium carbonate, the Braided Channels: When rivers carry surface water as well as groundwater coarse material, there can be selective through the chemical process of solution and deposition of coarser materials causing precipitation deposition develop varieties of formation of a central bar which diverts the landforms. These two processes of solution flow towards the banks; and this flow and precipitation are active in limestone’s or increases lateral erosion on the banks. As the dolomites occurring either exclusively or valley widens, the water column is reduced inter-bedded with other rocks. Any and more and more materials get deposited limestone or dolomite region showing typical as islands and lateral bars developing a landforms produced by the action of number of separate channels of water flow. groundwater through the processes of Deposition and lateral erosion of banks are solution and deposition is called Karst essential for the formation of braided pattern. topography after the typical topography Or, alternatively, when discharge is less and developed in limestone rocks of Karst region load is more in the valley, channel bars and in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea.

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102 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

The karst topography is also alternating beds of rocks (shales, sandstones, characterized be erosional and depositional quartzite’s) with limestones or dolomites in landforms. Indian subcontinent is full of between or in areas where limestone’s are example of glaciers. It can be seen in dense, massive and occurring as thick beds, mountainous area of Uttaranchal, Himachal cave formation is prominent. Pradesh, Jammu Kashmir. The source of Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars: Bhagirathi river is Gangotri glacier called Stalactites hang as icicles of different ‘Gaumukh’. The source of Alakananda river diameters. Normally they are broad at their is Alkapuri glacier. Where Alakhanda joins bases and taper towards the free ends Bhagirathi at Devprayag it ows nomenclature showing up in variety of forms. Stalagmites as “The Ganga”. rise up from the floor of the caves. In fact, EROSIONAL LANDFORMS stalagmites form due to dripping water from Pools, Sinkholes, the surface or through the thin pipe, of the Lapies and Limestone Pavements stalactite, immediately below it. Stalagmites may take the shape of a column, a disc, with Small to medium sized round to sub- either a smooth, rounded bulging end or a rounded shallow depressions called swallow miniature crater like depression. The holes form on the surface of limestone’s stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse to through solution. It might collapse leaving a give rise to columns and pillars of different large hole opening into a cave or a void below diameters. (collapse sinks). The term do line is sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks. Glaciers Solution sinks are more common than collapse Masses of ice moving as sheets over the sinks. Quite often the surface run-off simply land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier goes down swallow and sink holes and flow if a vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains as underground streams and re-emerge at a at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows distance downstream through a cave down the slopes of mountains in broad opening. When sink holes and do-lines join trough-like valleys (mountain and valley together because of slumping of materials glaciers) are called glaciers. The movement along their margins or due to roof collapse of glaciers is slow unlike water flow. The of caves, long, narrow to wide tranches movement could be a few centimeters to a called valley sinks or Uvalas form. Gradually, few meters a day or even less or more. most of the surface of the limestone is eaten Glaciers move basically because of the force away by these pits and trenches, leaving it of gravity. extremely irregular with a maze of points, We have many glaciers in our country grooves and ridges or lapis. Especially, these moving down the slopes and valleys in ridges or lapis form due to differential Himalayas. Higher reaches of Uttaranchal, solution activity along parallel to sub-parallel Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, joints. The lapie field may eventually turn into are places to see some of them. River somewhat smooth limestone pavements. Bhagirathi is basically fed by melt waters Caves: In areas where there are from under the snout (Gaumukh) of the

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Land Forms 103

Gangotri glacier. In fact, Alkapuri glacier glaciers cut head ward until their cirques feeds waters to Alakananda river. Rivers meet, high, sharp pointed and steep sided Alkananda and Bhagirathi join to make river peaks called horns form. The divides between Ganga near Deoprayag. cirque side walls or head walls get narrow Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because of progressive erosion and turn into because of friction caused by sheer weight serrated or saw- toothed ridges sometimes of the ice. The material plucked from the land referred to as arêtes with very sharp crest by glaciers (usually large-sized angular and a zigzag outline. blocks and fragments) get dragged along the Glacial Valleys/Troughs floors or sides of the valleys and cause great Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U- damage through abrasion and plucking. shaped with broad floors and relatively Glaciers can cause significant damage to even smooth, and steep sides. The valleys may un-weathered rocks and can reduce high contain littered debris or debris shaped as mountains into low hills and plains. moraines with swampy appearance. There As glaciers continue to move, debris may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or gets removed, divides get lowered and formed by debris within the valleys. There eventually the slope is reduced to such an can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one extent that glaciers will stop moving leaving or both sides of the main glacial valleys are only a mass of low hills and vast outwash quite often truncated to give them an appear- plains along with other depositional features. ance like triangular facets. Very deep glacial The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn and troughs filled with sea water and making up the highest peak in the Himalayas, Everest shorelines (in high latitudes) are called are in fact horns formed through headword fjords/fiords. erosion of radiating cirques. Depositional Landforms Erosional Landforms The unasserted coarse and fine debris Cirque: The cirques quite often are dropped by the melting glaciers is called found at the heads of glacial valleys. The glacial till. accumulated ice cuts these cirques while Moraines: They are long ridges of de- moving down the mountain tops. They are posits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with long ridges of debris deposited at the end very steep concave to vertically dropping (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral moraines form high walls at its head as well as sides. A lake along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys. of water can be seen quite often within the The moraine in the centre of the glacial val- cirques after the glacier disappears. Such ley flanked by lateral moraines is called me- lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes. There dial moraine. can be two or more cirques one leading into Eskers another down below in a stepped sequence. When glaciers melt in summer, the water Horns and Serrated Ridges flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down Horns form through head ward erosion along the margins or even moves through of the cirque walls. It three or more radiating holes in the ice. These waters accumulate

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104 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

beneath the glacier and flow like streams in are accomplished by waves. When waves a channel beneath the ice. Such streams flow break, the water is thrown with great force over the ground (not in a valley cut in the onto the shore, and simultaneously, there is ground) with ice forming its banks. Very a great churning of sediments on the sea coarse materials like boulders and blocks bottom. Constant impact of breaking waves along with some minor fractions of rock drastically affects the coasts. Storm waves debris carried into this stream settle in the and tsunami waves can cause far-reaching valley of ice beneath the glacier and after the changes in a short period of time than normal ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge breaking waves. As wave environment called esker. changes, the intensity of the force of breaking Outwash Plains waves changes. The plains at the foot of the glacial Other than the action of waves, the mountains or beyond the limits of continental coastal landforms depend upon (i) the ice sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial configuration of land and sea floor; (ii) deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans whether the coast is advancing (emerging) which may join to form outwash plains of seaward or retreating (submerging) gravel, silt, sand and clay. landward. Assuming sea level to be constant, two types of coasts are considered to explain Drumlins the concept of coastal landforms: (i) high, Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge- rocky coasts (submerged coasts); (ii) low, like features composed mainly of glacial till smooth and gently sloping sedimentary with some masses of gravel and sand. The coasts (emerged coasts). long axes of drumlins are parallel to the High Rocky Coasts direction of ice movement. They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers in height. One end of the drumlins facing the appear to have been drowned with highly glacier called the stoss end is blunter and irregular coastline. The coastline appears steeper than the other end called tail. The highly indented with extension of water into drumlins form due to dumping of rock debris the land where glacial valleys (fjords) are beneath heavily loaded ice through fissures present. The hill sides drop off sharply into in the glacier. The stoss end gets blunted due the water. Shores do not show any to pushing by moving ice. Drumlins give an depositional landforms initially. Erosion indication of glacier movement. features dominate. Waves and Currents Along with rocky coasts, waves break with great force against the land shaping the Coastal processes are the most dynamic hill sides into cliffs. With constant pounding and hence most destructive. by waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave- Some of the changes along the coast take cut platform in front of the sea cliff. Waves place very fast. At one place, there can be gradually minimize the irregularities along erosion in one season and deposition in the shore. The materials which fall off, and another. Most of the changes along the coast removed from the sea cliffs, gradually break

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Land Forms 105

into smaller fragments and roll to roundness, Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic will get deposited in the offshore. After a changes irrespective of supply of sediments. considerable period of cliff development and Large rivers which bring lots of sediments retreat when coastline turns somewhat build deltas along low sedimentary coasts. smooth, with the addition of some more Erosional Landforms material to this deposit in the offshore, a Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks wave-built terrace would develop in front of Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms wave-cut terrace. As the erosion along the usually found where erosion is the dominant coast takes place a good supply material shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep becomes available to long shore currents and and may range from a few m to 30 m or even waves to deposit them as beaches along the more. At the foot of such cliffs there may be shore and as bars (long ridges of sand and/ a flat or gently sloping platform covered by or shingle parallel to the coast) in the near rock debris derived from the sea cliff behind. shore zone. Bars are submerged features and Such platforms occurring at elevations above when bars show up above water, they are the average height of waves is called a wave- called barrier bars. Barrier bar which get cut terrace. The lashing of waves against the keyed up to the headland of a bay is called a base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets spit. When barrier bars and spits form at the smashed against the cliff along with lashing mouth of a bay and block it, a lagoon forms. waves create hollows and these hollows get The lagoons would gradually get filled up widened and deepened to form sea caves. by sediments from the land giving rise to a The roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs coastal plain. recede further inland. Retreat of the cliff may Low sedimentary coasts leave some remnants of rock standing Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers isolated as small islands just off the shore. appear to extend their length by building Such resistant masses of rock, originally parts coastal plains and deltas. The coastline of a cliff or hill are called sea stacks. Like all appears smooth with occasional incursions of other features, sea stacks are also temporary water in the form of lagoons and tidal creeks. and eventually coastal hills and cliffs will The land slopes gently into the water. disappear because of wave erosion giving rise Marshes and swamps may abound along the to narrow coastal plains, and with onrush of coasts. Depositional features dominate. deposits from over the land behind may get When waves break over a gently sloping covered up by alluvium or may get covered sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get up by shingle or sand to form a wide beach. churned and move readily building bars, Depositional landforms barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons Beaches and Dunes would eventually turn into a swamp which would subsequently turn into a coastal plain. Beaches are characteristic of shorelines The maintenance of these depositional that are dominated by deposition, but may features depends upon the steady supply of occur as patches along even the rugged materials. shores. Most of the sediment making up the

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106 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

beaches comes from land carried by the lifting and removal of dust and smaller streams and rivers or from wave erosion. particles from the surface of rocks. In the Beaches are temporary features. The sandy transportation process sand and silt act as beach which appears so permanent may be effective tools to abrade the land surface. The reduced to a very narrow strip of coarse impact is simply sheer force of momentum pebbles in some other season. Most of the which occurs when sand is blown into or beaches are made up of sand sized materials. against a rock surface. It is similar to Beaches called shingle beaches contain sandblasting operation. The wind action excessively small pebbles and even cobbles. creates a number of interesting erosional and Just behind the beach, the sands lifted depositional features in the deserts. and winnowed from over the beach surfaces Erosional Landforms will be deposited as sand dunes. Sand dunes Pediments and Pedi plains forming long ridges parallel to the coastline Landscape evolution in deserts is are very common along low sedimentary coasts. primarily concerned with the formation and extension of pediments. Gently inclined rocky Bars, Barriers and Spits floors close to the mountains at their foot with A ridge of sand and shingle formed in or without a thin cover of debris, are called the sea in the off-shore zone (from the pediments. Such rocky floors from through position of low tide waterline to seaward) the erosion of mountain front through a lying approximately parallel to the coast is combination of lateral erosion by streams and called an off-shore bar. An off-shore bar sheet flooding. which is exposed due to further addition of Erosion starts along the steep margins sand is termed a barrier bar. The off-shore of the landmass or the steep sides of the bars and barriers commonly from across the tectonically controlled steep incision features mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay. over the landmass. Once, pediments are Sometimes such bars get keyed up to one end formed with a steep wash slope followed by of the bay when they are called spits. Spits cliff or free face above it, the steep wash slope may also develop attached to headlands/hills. and free face retreat backwards. This method The barriers, bars and spits at the mouth of of erosion is termed as parallel retreat of the bay gradually extend leaving only a small slopes through back wasting. opening of the bay into the sea and the bay So, through parallel retreat of slopes, the will eventually develop into a lagoon. The pediments extend backwards at the expense lagoons get filled up gradually by sediment of mountain front, and gradually, the coming from the land or from the beach itself mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg (aided by wind) and a broad and wide which is a remnant of the mountain. That’s coastal plain may develop replacing a lagoon. how the high relief in desert areas is reduced Winds to low featureless plains called Pedi plains. Wind is one of the two dominant agents Playas: Plains are by far the most in hot deserts. Winds cause deflation, prominent landforms in the deserts. In basins abrasion and impact. Deflation includes with mountains and hills around and along,

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the drainage’s towards the center of the basin transportation itself, the materials get sorted. and due to gradual deposition of sediment When the wind slows or begins to die down, from basin margins, a nearly level plain forms depending upon sizes of grains and their at the centre of the basin. In times of sufficient critical velocities, the grains will begin to water, this plain is covered up by a shallow settle. water body. So, in depositional landforms made by Such types of shallow lakes are called wind, good sorting of grains can be found. as playas where water is retained only for Since wind is there everywhere and wherever short duration due to evaporation and quite there is good source of sand and with often the playas contain good deposition of constant wind directions, depositional salts. The playa plain covered up by salts is features in arid regions can develop called alkali flats. anywhere. Deflation Hollows and Caves Sand Dunes Weathered mantle from over the rocks Dry hot deserts are good places for sand or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune movement of wind currents in one direction. formation are equally important. There can This process may create shallow depressions be a great variety of dune forms. called deflation hollows. Deflation also cre- Barchans ates numerous small pits or cavities over rock Crescent shaped dunes called barchans surfaces. with the points or wings directed away from The rock faces suffer impact and abra- wind direction i.e., downwind, form where sion of wind-borne sand and first shallow the wind direction is constant and moderate depressions called blow outs are created, and and where the original surface over which some of the blow outs become deeper and sand is moving is almost uniform. Parabolic wider fit to be called caves. dunes form when sandy surfaces are partially Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily covered with vegetation. That means susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with are worn out quickly leaving some remnants wind direction being the same. Seif is similar of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the to barchans with a small differences. Seif has shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and only one wing or point. This happens when a broad and rounded pear shaped cap above. there is shift in wind conditions. The long Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a wings of seifs can grow very long and high. table top and quite often, the remnants stand Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand out like pedestals. is poor and wind direction is constant. They Depositional Landforms appear as long ridges of considerable length Wind is a good sorting agent. but low in height. Transverse dunes are Depending upon the velocity of wind, aligned perpendicular to wind direction. different sizes of grains are moved along the These dunes form when the wind direction floors by rolling or saltation and carried in is constant and the source of sand is an suspension and in this process of elongated feature at right angles to the wind

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108 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

direction. They may be very long and low in individual characteristics. Most of the dunes height. When sand is plenty, quite often, the in the deserts shift and a few of them will regular shaped dunes coalesce and lose their get stabilized especially near human habitations.

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COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

Composition and Structure of Atmosphere Krypto Kr 0.001 Atmosphere is a mixture of different Xenon Xe 0.00009

gases and it envelopes the earth all round. It Hydrogen H2 0.00005 contains life-giving gases like oxygen for Gases: Carbon dioxide is humans and animals and carbon dioxide for meteorologically a very important gas as it plants. The air is an integral part of the earth’s is transparent to the incoming solar radiation mass and 99 per cent of the total mass of the but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial atmosphere is confined to the height of 32 radiation. It absorbs a part of terrestrial km from the earth’s surface. The air is radiation and reflects back some part of it colourless and odourless and can be felt only towards the earth’s surface. It is largely when it blows as wind. responsible for the green house effect. The Composition of the Atmosphere volume of other gases is constant but the The atmosphere is composed of gases, volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in water vapour and dust particles. Table shows the past few decades mainly because of the details of various gases in the air, particularly burning of fossil fuels. This has also increased in the lower atmosphere. The proportion of the temperature of the air. Ozone is another gases changes in the higher layers of the important component of the atmosphere atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will found between 10 and 50 km above the be almost in negligible quantity at the height earth’s surface and acts as a filter and absorbs of 120 kin. Similarly, carbon dioxide and the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun water vapour are found only up to 90 km and prevents them from reaching the surface from the surface of the earth. of the earth. Constituent Formula Percentage Water Vapour: Water vapour is also a by Volume variable gas in the atmosphere, which de- creases with altitude. In the warm and wet Nitrogen N 78.08 2 tropics, it ‘may account for four percent of Oxygen O 20.95 2 the air by volume, while in the dry and cold Argon Ar 0.93 areas of desert and polar regions, it may be

Carbond dioxideCo2 0.93 less than one percent of the air. Water va- Neon Ne 0.002 pour also decreases from the equator, to- Helium He 0.0005 wards the poles. It also absorbs parts of the

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110 Gist of NCERT (Geography)

insolation from the sun and preserves the this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for earth’s radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blan- every 165m of height. This is the most ket allowing the earth neither to become ‘too important layer for all biological activity. cold nor too hot. Water vapour also contrib- The zone separating the tropsophere utes to the stability and instability in the air. from stratosphere is known as the Dust Particles: Atmosphere has a tropopause. The air temperature at the sufficient capacity to keep small solid tropopause is about minus 80°C over the particles, which may originate from different equator and about minus 45°C over the poles. sources and include sea salts, fine soil, smoke- The temperature here is nearly constant, and soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated hence, it is called the tropopause. The strato- particles of meteors. Dust particles are sphere is found above the tropopause and generally concentrated in the lower layers of extends up to a height of 50 km. One impor- the atmosphere; yet, convectional air currents tant feature of the stratosphere is that it con- may transport them to great heights. The tains the ozone layer. This layer absorbs ul- higher concentration of dust particles is found traviolet radiation and shields life on the earth in subtropical and temperate regions due to from intense, harmful form of energy. dry winds in comparison to equatorial and The mesosphere lies above the polar regions. Dust and salt particles act as stratosphere, which extends up to a height- hygroscopic nuclei around which water of 80 km. In this layer, once again, vapour condenses to produce clouds. temperature starts decreasing with the Structure of the Atmosphere increase in altitude and reaches up to minus 100°C at the height of 80 km. The upper limit The atmosphere consists of different of mesosphere is known as the mesopause. layers with varying density and temperature. The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400 Density is highest near the surface of the earth km above the mesopause. It contains and decreases with increasing altitude. The electrically charged particles known as ions, column of atmosphere is divided into five and hence, it is known as ionosphere. Radio different layers depending upon the waves transmitted from the earth are temperature condition. They are: reflected back to the earth by this layer. troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, Temperature here starts increasing with ionosphere and exosphere. height. The uppermost layer of the The troposphere is the lowermost layer atmosphere above the ‘ionosphere is known of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 as the exosphere. This is the highest layer but km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km very little is known about it. Whatever near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. contents are there, these are extremely Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at rarefied in this layer, and it gradually merges the equator because heat is transported to with the outer space. Although all layers of great heights by strong convectional currents. the atmosphere must be exercising influence This layer contains dust particles and water on us, geographers are concerned with the vapour. All changes in climate and weather first two layers of the atmosphere. take place in this layer. The temperature in

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Composition and Structure of Atmosphere 111

Water in the Atmosphere: The air Evaporation and Condensation contains water vapour. It varies from zero The amount of water vapour in the to four percent by volume of the atmosphere atmosphere is added or withdrawn due to and plays an important, role in the weather evaporation and condensation respectively. phenomena. Water is present in the Evaporation is a process by which water is atmosphere in three forms namely — transformed from liquid to gaseous state. gaseous, liquid and solid. The moisture in the Heat is the main cause for evaporation. The atmosphere is derived from water bodies temperature at which the water starts through evaporation and from plants through evaporating is referred to as the latent heat transpiration. Thus, there is a continuous of vapourisation.Increase in temperature exchange of water between the atmosphere, increases water absorption and retention the oceans and the continents through the capacity of the given parcel of air. Similarly, processes of evaporation, transpiration; if the moisture content is low, air has a condensation and precipitation. potentiality of absorbing and retaining Water vapour present in the air is moisture. Movement of air replaces the known as humidity. It is express saturated layer with the unsaturated layer. equantitatively in different ways. The actual Hence, the greater the movement of air, the amount of the water vapour present in the greater is the evaporation. atmosphere is known as the absolute The transformation of water vapour into humidity. It is the weight of water vapour water is called condensation. Condensation per unit volume of air and is expressed in is caused b the loss of heat. When moist air is terms of grams per cubic metre. The ability cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity of the air to hold water vapor depends to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess entirely on its temperature. The absolute water vapour condenses into liquid form. If humidity differs from place to place on the it directly condenses into solid form, it is surface of the earth. The percentage of known as sublimation. In free air, moisture present in the atmosphere as condensation results from cooling around compared to its full capacity at a given very small particles termed as hygroscopic temperature is known as the relative condensation nuclei. Particles of dust, smoke humidity. With the change of air temperature, and salt from the ocean are particularly good the capacity to retain moisture increases or nuclei because they absorb water. decreases and the relative humidity is also Condensation also takes place when the moist affected. It is greater over the oceans and least air comes in contact with some colder object over the continents.The air containing and it may also take place when the moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is close to the dew point. temperature is said to be saturated. It means Condensation, therefore, depends upon the that the air at the given temperature Is amount of cooling and the relative humidity incapable of holding any additional amount of the air. Condensation is influenced by the of moisture at that stage. The temperature at volume of air, temperature, pressure and which saturation occurs in a given sample of humidity. air is known as dew point.

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