Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI)

Coral Triangle Draft Issue Papers Initiative Version 2 Townsville Workshop 10-14 November 2008

5 November 2008

To: CTI Townsville Workshop participants CTI Coordinating Committee CTI marine resource managers and scientists

Dear Colleagues

The Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University and the Australian Institute of Marine Science, both based in Townsville, Australia, have been asked to provide scientific expertise to the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI). As part of our contribution, in early September, we circulated 16 background papers on issues related to achieving the goals of the CTI. The updated versions of these papers are provided here.

These papers will remain living documents and available on the web at www.coralcoe.org.au/events/ctiworkshop/issuespapers.html. We welcome further contributions and discussion to enhance their relevance and quality. We will continue to update these papers to ensure they assist in the development and implementation of the CTI, encourage strong research collaborations and forge productive relationships for the future.

The draft background papers have been written by a range of international experts including from the Coral Triangle countries. Our thanks to these authors.

Many thanks also to WWF and the Queensland Department of Tourism, Regional Development and Industry for their financial support in the development of these papers.

Sincerely,

Terry Hughes Ian Poiner Director Chief Executive Officer ARC Centre of Excellence Australian Institute of Marine Science for Coral Reef Studies James Cook University

PO Box 643 Email: [email protected] Townsville Qld. 4810 Telephone: +61 (0)7 4725 1824 Australia Facsimile: +61 (0)7 4781 6722 DRAFTVersion2

Draftbackgroundpapersversion2

5November2008

TableofContents

1.Sustainingecosystemsandlivelihoods:ecosystemͲbasedmanagementandtheCoralTriangle...... 2

2.ExistingandpotentialnonͲspatialmanagementoptionsintheCoralTriangle ...... 8

4.Ecologicalresilienceand“shiftingbaselines”...... 4

5.Datasufficiencyanddealingwithuncertainty...... 24

6.HowhumanusesandvaluescanmatterfortheCTI ...... 28

7.Participatorymarineresourcemanagementplanning...... 33

8.ClimateChangeThreatstoCoralReefsintheCoralTriangle ...... 37

9.Threatofclimatechangetofishandfisheries...... 47

10.CapacitybuildingformarineresourcemanagementincludingMPAs ...... 53

11.ObjectivesandmultipleͲusezoningforanetworkofMPAsfortheCoralTriangle ...... 57

12.ConnectivityandthedesignofmarineprotectedareanetworksintheCoralTriangle ...... 63

13.Incorporatinginformationaboutmarinespeciesofconservationconcernandtheirhabitatsintoa networkofMPAsfortheCoralTriangleregion...... 69

14.DesigninganetworkofMPAsfortheCoralTriangle...... 77

15.LongͲtermbiophysicalmonitoringofanetworkofMarineProtectedAreasintheCoralTriangle... ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..84

16.Humanadaptationtoclimatechange ...... 88

17.“Atleastdonoharm”:CoralTriangleInitiativecontributingtoLivelihoodsandPovertyReduction ...... 93

18.OutbreaksofCrownͲofͲThornsseastarsaddtocoraldepletioninthecoraltriangle...... 98

1 POBox643 Email:[email protected] TownsvilleQld.4810 Telephone:+61(0)747251824 Australia Facsimile:+61(0)747816722 DRAFTVersion2

1.Sustainingecosystemsandlivelihoods:ecosystemǦbased managementandtheCoralTriangle

Alino,P.M.1,Fernandes,L.2,Hughes,T.3,M.E.Lazuardi4,J.M.L.Tan5,Tanzer,J.6

5/11/08

Outlineoftheissue

SocioǦeconomicandecologicalcommonalityoftheCoralTriangle The“CoralTriangle”(CT)regionislocatedaroundtheequatorattheconfluenceoftheWestern PacificandIndianOceans(seeMap1).Coralandreeffishdiversitywerethetwomajorcriteriaused byscientiststodefinetheboundariesofthisregionwhichcoverallorpartoftheExclusiveEconomic Zonesof:Indonesia,Malaysia,PapuaNewGuinea,thePhilippines,theSolomonIslandsandTimorͲ Leste(theCT6).ThesecountrieshavelaunchedaCoralTriangleInitiativethataimstotransform marineresourcemanagementwithintheentiretyoftheirwaters,evenbeyondthisbiologicalspace. Althoughtheareacoversonly1.6%oftheworld’soceans,theCTrepresentstheglobalepicenterof marinelifeabundanceanddiversitycontaining: x morethan75%ofallknowncoralspecies, x morethan3,000fishspecies, x thegreatestextentofmangroveforestsintheworld, x 33%oftheworld’scoralreefs,and x spawningandjuvenilegrowthareasfortheworld’slargesttunafishery.

Thereisoceanographicconnectivity,asharedpalaeontologichistory,commonalityinspeciesranges andecologicalsimilaritiesacrosshabitatswithintheCoralTriangle.

TheCTcountriesalsoshareeconomicconnections,tradeflows,commonthreatsandsocioͲeconomic challenges.Theyshareconcernstodowith,forexample,thetradeofendangeredspeciesandthe depletionofhigherlevelcarnivoresforthelivefoodfishtradewhicharecausingthedepletionofthe sharksandgroupersandresultinginfishingdownthefoodchain.ThesesocioͲeconomic commonalitiesaretruedespiterealandsignificantculturalandsocialdifferencesbetween,andeven within,countries. 1TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines. [email protected] 2MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0)747251824;[email protected] 3Director,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity 4ScienceandMonitoringCoordinator,RajaAmpatProgram,ConservationInternationalIndonesia, 5ViceͲChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 6CoralTriangleFacilitator,AustralianGovernmentDepartmentoftheEnvironment,Water,Heritageandthe Arts,TheNatureConservancy,WWF.[email protected] 2

DRAFTVersion2

Attheintersectionofbiologyandpeopleisthechallenge.Thebiogeographicalconditionswithinthe CTaresuchthat,withadequatemanagement,theregioncouldmaintainitsexceptionalproductivity inthefaceoffuturepressuresanddisturbancesincludingclimatechange.Thismakesitpotentially oneoftheplanet’smostimportantmarine“foodbowls”aswellasagloballyimportant“refuge”for marinelife.

Also,forthesereasons: x NopartoftheCoralTriangleregionisasuniqueorproductiveasthewhole. x DegradationofanypartoftheCoralTrianglehaspotentialimpactsacrossthewhole. x NopartoftheCoralTrianglecanbemanagedaseffectively,inthelongterm, withouteffectiveresourcemanagementacrossthewhole.

Theseexceptionalmarineandcoastallivingresourcesprovideextremelyimportantbenefitstothe ~200millionpeoplewhoresidewithintheCoralTriangle,aswellasmanymillionsmoreoutsidethe region:

x Thevalueofthecoralreefs,mangroves,andassociatednaturalhabitatsintheCTis estimatedtototalUS$2.3billionannually. x OneͲthirdoftheinhabitantswithintheCTliveincoastalcommunitiesanddependdirectlyon localmarineandcoastalresourcesfortheirincomeandfoodsecurity. x Healthyreefsystemsandmangroveforestsprotectcoastalcommunitiesfromstormsand tsunamis,reducingcasualties,reconstructioncosts,andtheneedforinternationalaid. x TunaspawningandnurserygroundssupportamultiͲbilliondollartunaindustry,providingan importantfoodsourcefortensofmillionsofconsumersworldwide,andprovidingthousands ofjobsforinhabitantswithintheregion. 3

DRAFTVersion2

x OtherwildͲcaughtmarineproducts(e.g.,snapper,grouper,becheͲdeͲmer,shrimp)aresold tolocalmarketsandexportedworldwide,generatinghundredsofmillionsofdollarsin annualrevenue,aswellasprovidingimportantfoodsources. x ProductivecoralreefsystemsprovideformostoftheUS$800+millionannualtradeinlive reeffoodfish(primarilysupplyingmarketsinChina). x ProductivecoralreefsystemsalsoprovideforamajorshareofthemultiͲmilliondollar annualtradeinlivereefaquariumfish(supplyingmarketsworldwide). x HealthymarineresourcescontributetoagrowingnatureͲbasedtourismindustryinthe region(e.g.divetourism),generatingtensofmillionsofdollarsannuallyandthousandsof jobs.

LeadersoftheCT6haveacknowledgedthesevaluesacrosstheCTandareaimingtomaintainthem viatheCoralTriangleInitiative.

EcosystemǦbasedmanagementoftheCoralTriangle AdoptingaregionͲwideecosystemͲbasedmanagementapproachtodealingwiththeescalating pressuresandthreatsoffersamoreeffectiverangeoftoolsandoptionstodecisionͲmakersand privatesectorresourceusersthanonebasedonfragmentedinstitutionalarrangements,individual resourcesorstocksorsiteͲspecificactionsthatdonottakeintoaccountissuesofinterrelatedness andconnectivity.

EcosystemͲbasedmanagementrecognizesthathumansareanintegralcomponentofecosystems, andthevalueofsustainingthegoodsandservices(suchasfisheriesandtourism)providedby ecosystemsforhumanwellͲbeing.EcosystemͲBasedManagement(EBM)isbasedonmanagement andgovernanceapproachesthat:

x Integrateecological,social,andeconomicgoals,recognizingtheirstronginterdependencies x ConsidersmultiͲscaleecologicalprocesses,thatoftentranscendpoliticalboundaries x Acknowledgesinterconnectednessbetweenair,landandsea x Addressesthecomplexityofnaturalprocessesandsocialsystems x Usesanadaptivemanagementapproachadapttouncertaintiesandrisks,and x Engagestherangeofstakeholders,includingtheprivatesector,inacollaborativeprocessto defineproblemsandseekequitablesolutions.

WithinonepartoftheCoralTriangle,anecosystemapproachisalreadybeingimplemented. ConservationInternationalincollaborationwithTheNatureConservancyandWWFhasbeen developinganEcosystemͲBasedManagementPrograminBirdHeadsSeascape.Theactivitiesin thiseffortinclude,forexample,aMarineRapidAssessmentSurveyinCendrawasihBayandFakͲfak ͲKaimana(2006),aseasurfacetemperaturestud,aconnectivitystudyandastudyonspawning aggregationsites(SPAGS).

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? TheCoralTriangleisfacingrapidlyexpandingpopulations,economicgrowthandthepressuresof internationaltrade.Fishandothermarineresourcesareaprincipalsourceoffood,livelihoodsand exportrevenuesinalloftheCTcountries.Tuna,livereeffishandshrimp,forexample,supplyafastͲ growingdemandinJapan,theUS,Europe,Chinaandelsewhere.

DRAFTVersion2

Thesefactorsaregeneratingincreasedpressuresonmarineandcoastalresources,including:overͲ fishing,unsustainablefishingpractices,landͲbasedsourcesofmarinepollutionandcoastalhabitat destruction.Overlayingthesepressuresareexternalthreatssuchasclimatechange.Thecurrent statusofmarineandcoastalresourcesacrosstheregion,andfutureprojections,arealarming.For example:

x Morethan80%ofthecoralreefsacrosstheSoutheastAsiaportionoftheCTareatrisk (undermediumandhighpotentialthreat),andoverhalfareathighriskͲͲprimarilyfrom fishingͲrelatedpressuresandcoastaldevelopment. x Manyofthecommercialpelagicfishstocks–particularlyspeciesoftunaandsharkͲarealso depleted,withsomeheadingtowardcollapse. x Manycoastalfisheriesacrosstheregionaredepleted,withsomefisheriesalreadycollapsed orheadingtowardcollapse. x Hazardsassociatedwithclimatechange(suchasmasscoralbleaching,oceanacidification, sealevelrise,increasedintensityofstormandcycloneeventsandflooding)willpose increasingthreatsinthecomingdecadestomarineandcoastalresources.

MarineandcoastalresourcesareacornerstonefortheCTeconomiesandfortheCTsocieties.The growingthreatstotheseresourcesmustbetakenseriously,andmustbeactedupon.Transformation changesarerequiredratherthanmerelyincrementalchanges.Theyinclude,forexample:

x thehighestpoliticallevelsofsupportandleadershipforthemultiͲlateralCTIwhichis translatedthroughoutcountries’governmentsatalllevelsandthroughtolocalcommunities;

x raisingsustainablemarineandcoastalresourcemanagementtothehighestandmost immediatepoliticalpriority;

x applyingnewandongoingnationalbudgetarysupporttoenableimplementationof sustainablemarineandcoastresourcemanagementaswellassourcingexternalsustainable financing;

x anewandpowerfulregionalcollaborationtoaddressthetransboundaryproblems(e.g. sharedtunastocks;livereeffoodfishtrade;illegal,unregulatedandunreportedfishing; broadscaleecoregionplanning;declinesinthreatenedspeciespopulationsandin biodiversity);and

x recognisingthatjointeffortscanbemutuallybeneficialandeconomicallyefficientbecause lessonslearnedandsuccessfulmanagementprogramscanbesharedacrossnations(and scaledͲup)ratherthanduplicated.

Insum,adoptingalargescaleecosystemapproachseekstoensurethatlocalandregionalactionsare partofabroad,integratedplanofaction,suchastheCTIdraftPlanofAction.

DRAFTVersion2

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Acomprehensive,ecologicallyrepresentative,fullyfunctioning,andregionͲwideCoralTriangleMPA NetworkcanhelpbuildresiliencetothepressuresandthreatsfacingtheCoralTriangle.Itcanhelp protectedtheresourcesandhencethevaluesofthoseresourcestothecountriesoftheCoral Triangle.Itcanbeacornerstoneuponwhichtheentiresuiteofmanagementinterventions,as identifiedinthedraftPlanofAction,canandmustbuild.

ButanMPAnetworkisnotapanacea.Othermanagementactionswillberequiredsuchas ecosystemͲbasedfisheriesmanagementandhumanadaptationtothreatssuchasclimatechange (seealsodraftbackgroundpapersonnonͲspatialmanagement,MPAobjectives,connectivity,MPA networkdesignandhumanadaptationtoclimatechange).

NoneͲtheͲless,therearemultipleobjectivesforanMPAnetworkcitedintheJakartadraftPlanof ActionthatmeananynetworkacrosstheCTwilllikelybemultipleͲuseandmultiͲscale.MultipleͲ scalenetworksofMPAsbasedontheprinciplesofEBMcannotonlyhelpprovideprotectionforkey habitatsandspeciesbuthelpputinplacea‘ecologicalinsurancepolicy’tohelptheregioncopewith majorthreatstoecosystemfunctionandproductivitysuchasthoseassociatedwithclimatechange. Properlydesignedandflexibleintimeandspacefullyfunctioningnetworkcanprovideanevolving frameworkforlongtermsustainability.

BackgroundReading

Arkema,KK,SCAbramson,andBMDewsbury.2006.MarineecosystemͲbasedmanagement:From characterizationtoimplementation.FrontiersinEcologyandtheEnvironment4:525Ͳ532.

ConventiononBiodiversity:EcosystemApproachSourcebook. http://www.cbd.int/ecosystem/sourcebook/

Guerry,AD.2005.IcarusandDaedalus:conceptualandtacticallessonsformarineecosystemͲbased management.FrontiersinEcologyandtheEnvironment3:202Ͳ211. Halpern,BS,KLMcLeod,AARosenberg,andLBCrowder.2008.Understandingcumulativeand interactiveimpactsasabasisforecosystemͲbasedmanagementandoceanzoning.Oceanand CoastalManagement51:203Ͳ211. Leslie,HLandKLMcLeod.2007.ConfrontingthechallengesofimplementingmarineecosystemͲ basedmanagement.FrontiersinEcologyandEvolution.5:540Ͳ548. Murawski,SA.2007.Tenmythsconcerningecosystemapproachestolivingmarineresource management.MarinePolicy31:381Ͳ690. Rosenberg,AAandKLMcLeod.2005.ImplementingecosystemͲbasedapproachestomanagement fortheconservationofecosystemservices.In:BrowmanHIandKIStergiou(eds)PoliticsandsocioͲ

DRAFTVersion2 economicsofecosystemͲbasedmanagementofmarineresources.MarineEcologyProgressSeries 300:270Ͳ274.

ScientificConsensusStatementonMarineEcosystemͲBasedManagement.Preparedbyscientists andpolicyexpertstoprovideinformationaboutcoastsandoceanstoU.S.policyͲmakersReleased onMarch21,2005

Sherman,K.etal.(eds.)(1993).LargeMarineEcosystems:Stress,Mitigation,andSustainability Washington,D.C.:AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience.

Someexistingprojects UNEPRegionalSeasProgramhttp://www.unep.org/regionalseas/

BismarkͲSolomonsLME http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/oceania/solutions_region/bismarck_solomon/i ndex.cfm

SuluͲSulaweisieLME http://www.wwf.org.my/about_wwf/what_we_do/marine_main/marine_ecoregions/ecoregions_su lu_sulawesi_marine_ecoregion/index.cfm

DRAFTVersion2

2.ExistingandpotentialnonǦspatialmanagementoptionsintheCoral Triangle Foale,S.1,Friedman,K.2Gomez,E.3,Nash,W.4,Tanzer,J.5

4/11/08

Outlineoftheissue NonͲspatialfisherymanagementtoolsincludesizelimits,gearrestrictions,speciesbans,andquotas; theseareinusethroughouttheCTtovaryingdegreesalready.Allofthesetoolscan,ofcourse,be usedinconjunctionwithspatialapproachessuchasseasonalclosures,permanentnoͲtakeareas, areaͲbasedgearrestrictionsorrotationalclosures(seealsoissuepaperonexistingspatial management).AsoutlinedintheJakartadraftoftheCTIPlanofActionandthebriefingpaperon ObjectivesandMultipleUseZoningforaNetworkofMPAs,noͲtakeareasshouldbeenvisagedas partofasuiteofmanagementapproaches,allofwhichcancontributetofisheriesmanagement(and toothergoals)ratherthanastheprimaryfisherymanagementtool.Mostexamplesofstableand productivefisheriesinAustralia,thePacific,andaroundtheworldsuccessfullyusenonͲspatial approaches,orcombinationsofspatialandothermanagementsystems(includingseveraltrochus fisheriesinPolynesiaandMicronesia,theWesternAustralianRockLobsterfisheryandNorthern PrawnTrawlFishery).

TherearealreadyinplaceavarietyofnonͲspatialmanagementsystemsforcommodityfisheries withintheCT6countries,butmanyhavelimitedornoefficacyduetocorruption,population pressureand/orpoverty.ThisisoneofthereasonsMPAsaresowidelyadvocated.

However,theimplementationorimprovementofnonͲspatialmanagementmeasuresforseveral highͲvaluecommodityfisheries(e.g.becheͲdeͲmer,trochus,pearlshells,andsharkͲfin)candeliver, and,insomecases(seeSPCPolicyBrief2/2008),alreadyhasdeliveredimprovementsinthe performance,andcashflow,oftheseimportantfisheries.Suchapproachesincludea)the enforcementofsizelimitsfortrochus(FoaleandDay1997)andbecheͲdeͲmer,andb)setting constituencyͲorwardͲormunicipalityͲbasedspeciesͲlevelquotas,basedonroutinelygenerated stockassessmentdata(Nashetal1995,Skewesetal2002).Enforcementofsizelimits,closed seasonsandquotasatpointsofsale,inmanycases,canbemorecosteffectivethanotherfishery managementmeasuressuchasnoͲtakeareas.Forsomespecies(e.g.trochus)however,noͲtake areas,canbemoreeffectiveandeasiertousethanforotherspecies(e.g.sharks).Insomecases, suchastheannualsixͲmonthclosedseasonforbecheͲdeͲmerinsomeprovincesofPapuaNew Guinea,anyresultantimprovementstofisheryperformancehavenotbeenmeasured.

Giventhevulnerabilityofthesharkfisheryitmaybewisertoconsidersomekindsofmoratoriauntil morereliablefisherymonitoringandmanagementregimescanbedevelopedandimplemented.

1ARCCoEforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity;[email protected] 2SPC_SecretariatofthePacificCommunity,BPD5Ͳ98848Noumea,NewCaledonia[email protected] 3GEFCRTRSEACoE,Univ.ofthePhilippinesMarineScienceInst.;[email protected] 4WorldfishCentre,Noumea.[email protected] 5CoralTriangleFacilitator,[email protected] 8

DRAFTVersion2

MoratoriahavealreadybeenappliedtocommodityfisheriesinSolomonIslands,Vanuatu,and TongainresponsetosevereoverͲfishing.Belletal(2008)showthattheseverityofoverfishing makesalargedifferencetotherateofrecoveryoffisheriesfollowingimplementationofmoratoria (seeFigure2fromtheirpaper,below).Forfisheriesthatarehighlyvulnerableand/oralreadyoverͲ fished,precautionaryapproaches,suchasearlyimplementationofmoratoria,areclearlypreferable tocontinuedfishingintheabsenceofgooddata.

NonͲspatialmeasures,ifsupportedwithappropriatelevelsofpoliticalandfinancialsupportto nationalfisheriesdepartments,couldeffectivelysloworevenreversetheprocessesof‘fishingdown thepricelist’(sequentialdepletionofcommodityfisheriesindecreasingorderofmarketvalue). Spatialmeasurescancontributetofisheriesmanagement,inthelongerterm,withlarvalspillover effectsandadultmovementfromwithinnoͲtakeareastooutside.Howeverthecontributionof spillovertofisheryproductionislikelytovaryagreatdealamongspecies,dependingonlarval dispersalpatternsandadultmobility,andthesize,numberandspacingofnoͲtakeclosures.While thereisasubstantialbodyofresearchonspillover(mainlyofadults)forreeffishinPhilippines,(e.g., RussandAlcala1966;Russetal.2003)thereisrelativelylittleworklookingatspilloverforthe importantcommodityfisheriesinthecoraltriangle(cfLincolnͲSmithetal2006,Ramohia2006).This isanimportantconsiderationifwerememberthatinMelanesia,fishingpressureonreeffishoutside 9

DRAFTVersion2 ofurbanareastendstobelimitedbycomparativelylowhumanpopulationdensities,asmostreef fishareharvestedforsubsistenceandlocalmarkets,andnotforexport.

Iflucrativecommodityfisheriescanbesustained,alongwiththewidelydistributedincomestreams theygenerate,theeconomicpressuresthatdrivefisherstomoveontomoreecologicallydestructive typesoffishingcanpotentiallybeaverted.

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? NonͲspatialfisherymanagementsystemsshouldideallybeimprovedorimplemented(wherethe needandthebenefitsaresupportedbyexistingresearch)inadditiontoanMPAnetwork.If,over themediumtolongterm,commodityfisheryproductivitycanbesustainedorevenincreased throughnonͲspatialmeasures,thentheresultantincomeflowstopoorruralpeoplewillbe maintained.ThiscanalsohelpreducethelikelihoodofnonͲcompliancewithanynoͲtakeareasthat isdrivenbydesperation.

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? ToachieveeffectivefisherymanagementgoalsbothspatialandnonͲspatialmanagementtoolsare needed;anMPAnetworkwouldnotbeadequatetothisgoal.Improvementstocommodityfishery performanceasaresultofimmediateenhancementstononͲspatialmanagementapproacheswill, forexample,reducetheeffectsofanydisplacedfishingeffort(duetonoͲtakeclosures)andmakeit easiertominimisetheimmediate,negativesocialandeconomicimpactofnoͲtakeclosuresifthey areimplemented.

Backgroundreading Formoreinformationaboutthesepaperscontact[email protected]unlessotherwise indicated. Abesamis,R.A.,A.C.AlcalaandG.R.Russ(2006)."HowmuchdoesthefisheryatApoIslandbenefit fromspilloverofadultfishfromtheadjacentmarinereserve?"FisheryBulletin104(3):360Ͳ375. Bell,J.D.,S.W.PurcellandW.J.Nash(2008)."RestoringsmallͲscalefisheriesfortropicalseaͲ cucumbers."Ocean&CoastalManagement51:589Ͳ593. Foale,S.J.andR.W.Day(1997)."Stockassessmentoftrochus(Trochusniloticus)fisheriesatWest Nggela,SolomonIslands,withnotesonmanagement."FisheriesResearch33:1Ͳ16. Kinch,J.(2004).AReviewoftheBecheͲdeͲmerFisheryandit'sManagementinPapuaNewGuinea. PortMoresby,MotuporeIslandResearchCentreͲUniversityofPapuaNewGuinea:133.(contact: [email protected])

DRAFTVersion2

LincolnͲSmith,M.P.,K.A.Pitt,J.D.BellandB.D.Mapstone(2006)."Usingimpactassessment methodstodeterminetheeffectsofamarinereserveonabundancesandsizesofvaluabletropical invertebrates."CanadianJournalofFisheriesandAquaticSciences63(6):1251Ͳ1266. Nash,W.,T.Adams,P.Tuara,O.Terekia,D.Munro,M.Amos,J.Leqata,N.Mataiti,M.Teopengaand J.Whitford(1995).TheAitutakiTrochusFishery:ACaseStudy.Noumea,SouthPacificCommission. Russ,G.R.,A.C.Alcala,A.P.Maypa,H.P.CalumpongandA.T.White(2004)."Marinereserve benefitslocalfisheries."EcologicalApplications14(2):597Ͳ606. SecretariatofthePacificCommunity(2008).SPCPolicyBrief2/2008.ARegionalApproachto InvertebrateExportFisheries.Noumea,SPC:4.

Someexistingdatasets PapuaNewGuineaCoastalFisheriesManagementandDevelopmentProject(PNGCFMDP): http://bluesquid.net/CFMDP.html.Atthissitethereareseveraldownloadablereportscontainingthe resultsofdetailedsurveysofcommodityfisheriesforthreeprovincesofPNG.Theresearchincludes bothfisheryandsocioͲeconomicdata.

Ramohia,P.(2006).FisheriesResources:CommerciallyImportantMacroinvertebrates.Solomon IslandsMarineAssessment:TechnicalReportoftheSurveyConductedMay13ͲJune17,2004.A. Green,P.Lokani,W.Atuetal.Brisbane,TheNatureConservancy:530.(contact:[email protected]) Skewes,T.,J.Kinch,P.Polon,D.Dennis,P.Seeto,T.Taranto,P.Lokani,T.Wassenberg,A. KoutsoukosandJ.Sarke(2002).ResearchforSustainableUseofBecheͲdeͲmerResourcesinMilne BayProvince,PapuaNewGuinea.Cleveland,CSIRODivisionofMarineResearch:40. (http://www.cmar.csiro.au/datacentre/torres/AFMA1980_2003/DVDVer101/Reports/r423.pdf) Skewes,T.,J.Kinch,P.Polon,D.Dennis,P.Seeto,T.Taranto,P.Lokani,T.Wassenberg,A. KoutsoukosandJ.Sarke(2003).DistributionandAbundanceofReefResourcesinMilneBay Province,PapuaNewGuinea:GiantClamsandOtherSpecies.CSIRODivisionofMarineResearch FinalReport.Cleveland,Australia,CSIRO:29.(contact:[email protected]) Allen,G.R.,J.P.Kinch,S.A.McKennaandP.Seeto,Eds.(2003).ARapidMarineBiodiversitySurvey ofMilneBayProvince:SurveyII(2000).RAPBulletinofBiologicalAssessment29.WashingtonD.C., ConservationInternational.(http://www.cimelanesia.org.pg/docs/Milne%20Bay_RAPII.pdf)

Pakoa,K.,K.Friedman,E.Tardy,F.Lasi,M.KronenandA.Vunisea(2008).StatusofTrochusFisheries inthePacificIslands.Noumea,SPC:1.(contact:[email protected];[email protected])

Someexistingprojects NationalCTIPlansofAction

Projectcompilinginformationonnationalprogramsandprioritiesineachcountrycoveringthe marine/coastalresourcessector(contactCTISecretariat,Mr.M.EkoRudianto(Eko): [email protected])

DRAFTVersion2

TheReefFisheriesObservatoryattheSecretariatofthePacificCommunity(SPC) (http://www.spc.int/Coastfish/sections/reef/PROCFish_Web/default.aspx)isanalysingandwriting updatafromextensivefisheryandsocioͲeconomicsurveysacrossthePacific,includingdatafrom PapuaNewGuinea,SolomonIslandsandanother15countriesandterritories.Contact:MrLindsay Chapman:[email protected]

DRAFTVersion2

3.ExistingspatialmanagementintheCoralTriangle Cinner,J.1,White,A.T.2,Aswani,S.3Tan,J.M.L4

4/11/08 Outlineoftheissue ThesixCoralTrianglecountries(CT6)haveevolvingsystemsofMPAsatthenationaland/orlocal levels(Figure1).TheCoralTriangleInitiative(CTI)linksthesesixcountries,whichhavepreviously notcooperatedasaunifiedgroup.Previously,Indonesia,MalaysiaandPhilippinescooperatedwith otherSoutheastAsiancountriestoproduceaRegionalActionPlanforanMPAnetworkinSoutheast Asiain2002.PapuaNewGuineaandtheSolomonIslandspreviouslylinkedwithPacificIsland nationsthroughnetworkssuchastheLocallyManagedMarineAreanetwork(LMMA).TheCTIaims tolearnfrom,builduponandscaleupexistingefforts.Abriefdescriptionofeachcountry’smarine protectedarea(MPA)programanditsnationalMPACommitmentsfollows.

Figure1.MPAsineachcountry,bysize,andtheCoralTriangleareaasdefinedbyagradientofdiversityof coralsandfish. EastTimor(noinformationexceptforNinoKonisSantanaNationalParkofwhichthemarine componentisinformallyknownasJakoMarinePark)

1ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,Townsville,QLD,4811,Australia. Email:[email protected].Phone+61074781Ͳ6751 2SeniorScientist,GlobalMarineTeam,TheNatureConservancy,Hawaii[email protected] 3DepartmentofAnthropologyandInterdepartmentalGraduatePrograminMarineScience,Universityof CaliforniaatSantaBarbara,CA93106Ͳ3210,USA.[email protected] 4ViceChairman,BoardofTrustees,WWFPhilippines 13

DRAFTVersion2

Indonesiahasestablished114MPAs(37withintheCoralTriangle),38ofwhichcontaincoralreefsas thedominanthabitat.LegallydesignatedMPAscurrentlycoveralmost70,000km2.Manyofthese NationalParksweredesignatedinthe1980’s.MostofIndonesia’sMPAsarecombinedwith terrestrialparks,andareadministeredbytheMinistryofForestry.AllMPAsareadministeredata nationallevelbutmanagedatadistrict(regional)level.TherearealsoagrowingnumberofvillageͲ levelMPAsthatarecoͲmanagedwiththedistrictandnationalgovernments.Monitoringofselected MPAsinIndonesia,bylargeNGOsworkingincollaborationwiththegovernmentmanagementunits, indicatesthatafewareasareshowingpositiveimpactsonfishstocksandcoralreefcondition.Itis estimatedthatlessthan20%ofIndonesia’sMPAsarefunctionallymeetingtheirmanagement objectives.IndonesianinstitutionsarejustbeginningtodevelopaMPAmonitoringand managementeffectivenesssystem.TheGovernmentcurrentlyaimstoprotect100,000km2by2010 and200,000km2by2020.BesidestheformallydeclaredMPAs,customarymanagementofmarine resourcesispresentinpartsofIndonesia,includingSangiheͲTalaud,Muluku,andAceh(seebelow).

Malaysiahasestablished83MPAsofwhich51.8%or43MPAsincludecoralreefscoveringabout 14,168km2.SabahProvincehas5MPAsmanagedthroughtheSabahWildlifeDepartment(state government).ThetotalnoͲtakeportionofMPAsinMalaysiais2310km2(16%oftotalMPAarea). ThemanagementeffectivenessofMPAsinMalaysiaisconsideredgoodbyregionalstandardsgiven thatdestructivefishingisnotcommoninmostMPAsandfishingeffortisatleastpartiallycontrolled. Nevertheless,thereisnostandardmonitoringsystemthatincludesmeasuresformanagement effectivenessbeingimplementedatastateornationalscale.

PapuaNewGuineahasnationallydesignatedapproximately22MPAs(includingWildlife ManagementAreas,MarineParks,Historicreserves,andProvincialparks).InPapuaNewGuinea, inshoremarineresourcesareownedbycommunitiesthroughcustomarymarinetenure,ratherthan bythestate.Thiscustomaryownershipislegallyrecognizedandprovidesthebasisforanumberof localrestrictionssuchasfisheriesclosures,gearrestrictions,andspeciesavoidance,knownas customarymanagement.Withinthiscustomaryownershipandmanagementframework,MPA systemshavebeendevelopedthroughtheLMMAnetworksince2000.

Philippinesdeclareditsfirstnationalmarinepark(HundredIslands)in1940,followedbyMPA designationsatthelocalandnationalgovernmentlevelsinthe1970suptothepresent. Approximately1100MPAs,coveringabout200km2,aremanagedbymunicipalandcity governmentsthroughcoͲmanagementarrangements,allofwhichcontainnoͲtakeareassurrounded bysomeformofmanagedfishingarea.UndertheNationalProtectedAreasSystemActof1992,28 nationalMPAshavebeenproclaimedthatcoverabout15,500km2.ThePhilippineMarine SanctuaryStrategy,endorsedin2002,hasatargetof10%of“marinewaters”tobefullyprotected by2020inaMPAnetwork.TheSuluͲSulawesiMarineEcosystemareaofthesouthernPhilippinesis thefirstregional“seascape”1areatobesystematicallyplannedatalargescale.ThePhilippineshasa monitoringprotocolforMPAsthatisadoptedbymostimplementingorganizationsthatfeed informationintoanationalMPAdatabasecoordinatedbytheMPASupportNetwork(MSN),which involvesbothgovernmentsandNGOs. 1Seascapereferstolargeresourcemanagementareasdefinedbyecologicalandoceanographicaffinities.The SuluͲSulawesiSeascape,thefirstdefined“seascape”intheCoralTriangle,coversareasinsouthernPhilippines, SahahMalaysiaandCelebesSea,Indonesia 14

DRAFTVersion2

SolomonIslands,similartoPapuaNewGuinea,inshoremarineresourcesareownedby communitiesthroughcustomaryownership.Thiscustomaryownershipisrecognizedtovarying degreesingovernmentlawintheSolomonIslands(TheFisheriesAct1998).Inthepastdecade, manySolomonIslandscommunitieshaveestablishedMPAsontheirreefsasameansofmanaging andconservingtheirmarineresources.TheseMPAshaveoftenbeenestablishedinpartnershipwith NGOsoruniversitieswhoprovidescientificandmonitoringassistance.TheMinistryofEnvironment isincreasinglygettinginvolvedinMPAdesign,management,andfinanceandisnowbeginningto recognizevariouslocalinitiatives(e.g.,theRoviana/VonavonaMPAnetworkwasofficially recognizedbythegovernmentinAugust2008).Legislationisbeingdraftedtolegallyaccommodate locallyͲdriveninitiativesandthereisamovetowardsfocusingonlocalinitiativesinsteadof exclusivelydependingonNGOs.Therearenowover50communityͲbasedMPAsestablishedinthe SolomonIslands.AlthoughmanyoftheseMPAsaresmall(rangingfrom1km2to145km2),thevast majorityofthemareeffectivelyconservedandhavehighcompliancewithcommunitybased regulations.TheArnavonIslandsistheoldest(1995)andlargestcommunitymanagedMPAwith nationalrecognitionintheSolomonIslands.

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? TheneedformoreandbettermanagedMPAsishighlightedintheCTIdraftPlanofActionasakey goal(#3)thatneedstobeaddressedinallthecountriesoftheCoralTriangle.ButtheCTIproposed networkofMPAsiscertainlynotstartingfromscratch.Mostcountrieshaveexisting:1)systemsof protectedareas;2)plansfornetworksofMPAs;3)legalandinstitutionalmechanismsformarine andcoastalresourcesmanagement,and4)customaryorlocalpractices,allofwhichshouldbe recognizedbyandincorporatedintotheproposednetwork,whereappropriate.Atthesametime, therearelargediscrepancieswithinandamongthesixcountriesintermsofMPAsandnetwork design,plans,levelsofimplementationandmeansformonitoringandevaluation.

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Severalimportantquestionsneedtobeconsideredregardingthegoalofscalinguptonetworksof MPAsby2015.Theseinclude: x Isdevelopingastandardsystemofsocioeconomic,governanceandecologicalmonitoringto surveyMPAsthroughouttheCTregionviable?Ifso,howcanmonitoringbestincludenationally relevantprocesses(ecosystemandsocial)andpotentialforadaptationtoclimatechange? x WhatistheminimumacceptabledatarequiredtoplanfunctionalMPAnetworks(seeissue paperondataanduncertainty,also,MarineLearningPartnershipFinalReport,inpress,contact AlanWhite{[email protected]})? x Howcanthenumber,size,locationandspacingofnewMPAsbecoordinatedtomaximize resilience(e.g.byintegratingwithexistingandplannedspatialandnonͲspatialmanagement tools)?HowcanthisbedrivenbycountryͲlevelinitiativeswithadequateroomfornational flexibility? x CanenforcementofMPAsbeimprovedifcoordinatedatnetworkscales? x WhatareviablerevenuestreamsforMPAmanagementandhowmightnetworkͲscale coordinationhelptomaximizerevenue? x Howcanwebestbuildonlessonslearnedtodate? 15

DRAFTVersion2

Integratingcustomarymanagementandmarineconservation.InpartsoftheCoralTriangle, communitieshavecustomaryownershipovermarineresourcesandhaveestablishedcustomary managementpractices,particularlyinIndonesia,PapuaNewGuinea(PNG),andtheSolomon Islands.Thesepracticescanincludeexclusiveuserights,gearrestrictions,andfisheriesclosures. Customaryclosuresareoftenimplementedforshortperiods(severalweeksto12months—although insomecasestheycanlastforyearsorevenbepermanent),andaconcentratedeffortofafamily, clan,orthewidercommunitymaybeappliedtoharvesttheclosedareaafteritisopenedagain. Customaryclosuresinclude“fallow”rotationoffishingareasandtheclosureofcertainareasto allowoverͲfishedspeciestorecover.Theseareoftenverysmallinspatialscaleandgenerally operatewithintheareaownedbyaspecificclanorvillage.Althoughtenurearrangementsand customarymanagementpracticescreateaplatformforresourcemanagementinpartsofthecoral triangle,theyalsopresentuniquechallenges(suchascoordinatingatlargerspatialscales).Despite apparentsimilaritieswithMPAs,thepractices,motives,andexpectationsbehindcustomary managementareoftenverydifferentfromwhatconservationgroups,governments,andscientists wishtoachieve.AnexternallyͲderivedfocusonbiodiversityastheprimarydriverfordesigningMPAs maynotcoincidewithlocalexpectationsandformsofcustomarymanagement.Acknowledgingthis isimportantbecausemanyNGOinitiatedprojectshavealreadyfailedduetotheirinsistencein placingbiodiversityovertheneedsandexpectationsoflocalpopulations.Alternativemanagement toolsthatcanmeetlocalutilitariangoalsmustalsobeconsidered.

Thereareexamplesof‘hybrid’managementsystems,whichlinkcustomarypracticesand contemporaryconservationgoals,suchasintheMarovoandRovianaLagoonsintheSolomon Islands.InpartsofthePhilippines,localImamshaveusedtheIslamicprincipleofAlKhalifato reinforcelegalconservationmeasures,essentiallycreatinga“doublelayer”ofprotection.Figure2 presentssomekeyconsiderationsforplanningMPAswheremarinetenureandcustomary managementsystemsexist,buttheseconsiderationsaregenerallyapplicabletodevelopingMPAs withcommunities.

Figure2.Propertiesofsuccessful hybridmanagementinstitutions. Customary/traditionaland contemporarymanagementsystems canhavecontrasting:goals;social andecologicalbenefits;andspatial scales.Thesixprinciples(denotedas greyboxes)mayhelpovercomethese differencesasmanagers,scientists, andcommunitieshybridizethetwo systems.AdaptedfromCinner& Aswani2007.

DRAFTVersion2

Incontrasttothecountrieswherecustomarymanagementpracticesarestillcommonandhave potentialtofurthertheobjectivesofmarineconservation,themorepopulatedcountriesof Indonesia,MalaysiaandthePhilippinesdependprimarilyonstatutorylawbeingimplementedatthe localandnationalgovernmentlevelstofurthertheirimplementationofMPAsandrelated mechanismsformarineconservation.Inthesecountries,thereisatrendtodecentralizationof authoritytolocalgovernmentbodiesthatareincreasinglyplayinganactiveroleintheplanningand implementationofMPAsandMPAnetworks.ThistrendismostdevelopedinthePhilippineswhere municipalitiesandcitieshavefulljurisdictionovertheircoastalandmarineareasto15kmoffshore andareclosedtocommercialfishing.Enforcementisleftuptolocalgovernment.Ineffect,this constitutesabandoflocallymanagedareasthatcoverstwicethelengthoftheUScoastline.In Malaysiamostmanagementisunderthestate(provincial)governmentandinIndonesia,regional anddistrictgovernmentsareplayingamoreactiverole.Thistrendofdevolutionallowsfor managementplanningandimplementationprocessestobemoresensitivetolocalcustomsand encouragesgreaterstakeholderinvolvement,thustheprinciplesinFigure2arehighlyrelevantto communityͲbasedmanagementintheseareas.AlthoughinthePhilippinesandMalaysiacustomary managementsystemsseemtohavevanished,itisimportanttoconductsocialandecological researchincoastalcommunitiestotrulyunderstandwhetherornotthesesystemsarecompletely goneandifremnantscanbebuiltonandhybridizedwithgovernmentgoalstomanagemarine ecosystems

Backgroundreading Cheung,C.,P.Alino,A.Uychiaoco,H.Areco.2002.MarineProtectedAreasinSoutheastAsia.ASEAN RegionalCentreforBiodiversityConservation,DepartmentofEnvironmentandNatural Resources,LosBaños,Philippines.142pp.

Cinner,JandS.Aswani.2007.Integratingcustomarymanagementintomarineconservation. BiologicalConservation:140:201Ͳ216email:[email protected]

Burke,L.,E.SeligandM.Spalding.2002.ReefsatRiskinSoutheastAsia.Washington,D.C.:World ResourcesInstitute.

IUCNͲWorldConservationUnionWorldCommissiononProtectedAreas.5thWorldParksCongress Recommendation5.22. http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wpc2003/pdfs/english/Proceedings/recommendation.pdf

Kelleher,G.1999.GuidelinesforMarineProtectedAreas.IUCN,Gland,SwitzerlandandCambridge.

Miclat,E.,J.Ingles,J.Dumbap.(2006)PlanningacrossboundariesfortheConservationoftheSuluͲ SulawesiMarineEcoregion.Ocean&CoastalManagement.9Ͳ10:597Ͳ609

PetͲSoede,L.2006.MPAsinIndonesia:whatprogresshasbeenmadesince1984?MPANews8(1):3.

PartnershipforInterdisciplinaryStudiesofCoastalOceans(PISCO).2007.TheScienceofMarine Reserves.2ndEdition,UnitedStatesVersion.http://www.piscoweb.org/

DRAFTVersion2

Roberts,C.M.,B.Halpern,S.R.Palumbi,andR.R.Warner.2001.Designingmarinereservenetworks: Whysmall,isolatedprotectedareasarenotenough.ConservationBiologyInPractice2(3):12Ͳ 19.

Russ,G.R.,A.C.,Alcala,A.P.Maypa,H.P.CalumpongandA.T.White.“MarineReserveBenefitsLocal Fisheries”.EcologicalApplications14(2004):597Ͳ606.

UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgram(UNEP)andWorldConservationMonitoringCentre(WCMC) 2008.EstablishingnationalandregionalnetworksofMPAs—areviewofprogresswithlessons learned.UNEPandWCMC,draftreport,106p.

WCPA/IUCN2007.Establishingnetworksofmarineprotectedareas:aguidefordevelopingnational andregionalcapacityforbuildingMPAnetworks.FullTechnicalReport,IUCN.

WFC(WorldFishCenter)2007.CoralReefMPAsofEastAsiaandMicronesia.WorldFishCenter (REEFBASEProject),SeaAroundUsProject,JapanWildlifeResearchCenter.CD.

White,A.T.,Christie,P.,d’Agnes,H.,Lowry,K.andN.Milne2005.DesigningICMProjectsfor Sustainability:LessonsfromthePhilippinesandIndonesia.OceanandCoastalManagement48: 271Ͳ296.

White,A.T.,P.M.AlinoandA.T.Meneses2006.CreatingandManagingMarineProtectedAreasin thePhilippines.FisheriesImprovedforSustainableHarvestsProject,CoastalConservationand EducationFoundation,Inc.,andMarineScienceInstitute—UniversityofthePhilippines,Cebu City,Philippines.83p.

Wilkinson,C.,A.Caillaud,L.DeVantier,andR.South2006.StrategiestoReversetheDeclinein ValuableandDiverseCoralReefs,MangrovesandFisheries:TheBottomoftheJͲCurvein SoutheastAsia?OceanandCoastalManagement49:764Ͳ778.

WorldBank2006.ScalingupMarineManagement:theRoleofMarineProtectedAreas.Reportno. 36635ͲGLB.EnvironmentDepartment/SustainableDevelopmentNetwork.WorldBank, WashingtonD.C.,USA.100p.

Someexistingdatasets TheWFCͲREEFBASE(2007)databasewww.reefbase.org UNEPandWCMC2007.WorldDatabaseofProtectedAreas.www.unepͲwcmc.org/wdpa/ PhilippineMPADatabase(Philreefs2007www.philreefs.org/) CoastalConservationandEducationFoundation:www.coast.ph

Someexistingprojects NationalCTIPlansofAction

Projectcompilinginformationonnationalprogramsandprioritiesineachcountrycoveringthe marine/coastalresourcessector(contactCTISecretariat,Mr.M.EkoRudianto(Eko): [email protected]) 18

DRAFTVersion2

4.Ecologicalresilienceand“shiftingbaselines” LaurenceMcCook1,TerryHughes2,AngelAlcala3,DavidBellwood4,CarlFolke5,JamaluddinJompa6, JohnPandolfi7,BobSteneck8,HughSweatman9

5/11/08

Outlineoftheissue Ecologicalresiliencereferstothe“capacityofanecosystemtoresist,orrecoverorregeneratefrom disturbancesordamage,withoutchangesinstate(”phaseshifts”)soastomaintainkeyfunctions andprocesses.”Justlikehealthyhumansarebetterabletodealwithandrecoverfromdiseasesand injuries,resilientecosystemscancopewithstressesanddisturbances.

Muchmoreisknownabouttheresilienceofcoralreefsthanmostothertropicalmarineecosystems. Coralreefsaresubjecttofrequentdisturbancesanddamage,whichstressorkillcorals,often resultinginseaweedsoralgaecolonisingthedeadcoral.Healthycoralreefsareusuallyableto rebuildthemselvesafterdamage,withcoralsreͲestablishingdominance.Suchreefsareconsidered “resilient”,andcontinuetoprovidekeyecosystemgoodsandservices,suchasfishand attractivenesstotourists.

Disturbances overfishingofherbivores; extranutrients… B

Healthy, coraldominated state

Macroalgaldominated state

Diagramillustratingresilience:A.Healthyreef,symbolisedbytheballatpositionA,willrecoverfromdisturbancesand returntoitsusualstate.Humanimpactsmayreducetheresilienceofthesystem,makingitmorelikelyto“tip”overinto thealgaldominatedstate;thisisillustratedbytheballatpositionB,inashallowerbowl.InpositionC,thereefisdegraded, anditismuchmoredifficultandexpensivetoreturntheballtopositionA.

1PewFellowshipsPrograminMarineConservation; ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,Australia 2ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity. 3SillimanUniversityͲAngeloKingCenterforResearchandEnvironmentalManagement,Philippines 4ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity. 5TheBeijerInstitute,RoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences,Sweden 6CoralReefRehabilitationandManagementProgram,MinistryofMarineAffairsandFisheries,Indonesia 7TheUniversityofQueensland,Australia;ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,Australia 8SchoolofMarineSciences,UniversityofMaine,U.S.A.;ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies, Australia 9AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Australia 19

DRAFTVersion2

Humanimpactsoncoralreefs,suchasclimatechange,overͲfishing,destructivefishingandwater pollutioncanreducetheabilityofthereeftorecoverfromsuchdamage,makingitlessresilient.The reefwilloftenfailtorecoverfromdisturbances,andwillgraduallybecomedegraded,andunableto providefish,touristvalue,andmanyotherecosystemservices.

IntheCoralTriangle,humanactivitiesthatreducereefresilienceincludeoverͲfishing,fishing practicesthatdamagereefhabitats(suchasblastfishing,cyanidefishing,muroͲamifishing),water pollution,anddirectdestructionofreefs,suchasbyuncontrolledtourismorminingforbuilding materials.Waterpollutionoftenincludessedimentandnutrientrunofffromtheland,from agriculture,deforestationandsewage,otherchemicalpollution,andgarbageandlitter,suchas plasticbags.

Similarimpactscanoccurinotherecosystems.Mangroveforestsarealsovulnerabletowidespread clearing,forcoastaldevelopmentandaquacultureponds.Seagrassbedsarealsovulnerableto dredging,destructivefishingpracticessuchasblastfishingandtrawling,aswellaspollution. Unfortunately,formanyotherhabitats,suchasspongegardens,shoalsandmuddyorsandybottom areas,thereisinsufficientinformationaboutthebasicecologicalprocessesthatunderpinecosystem information.

Ecosystemmanagersseektoprotectandenhancetheresilienceofecosystems,byreducinghuman stressesandimpacts.Importantly,reducingonestresswilloftenhelptheecosystemrecoverfrom otherstresses.Forexample,protectingtheherbivorousfishesonacoralreefwillhelpprotectfrom seaweedovergrowthofcorals,evenwhennutrientrunofffromthelandiscausingincreasedgrowth ofseaweeds.Importantly,itismucheasier,andcheaper,tomaintaintheresilienceofahealthyreef, thantotrytorestorethereefoncedegraded.Whenrecoverydoesoccur,itmaytakemanyyearsor decades,duetotheslowgrowthofmosthardcorals.

“ShiftingBaselines”(alsoknownasslidingbaselines)referstothewaythatthereferencepoints againstwhichwecomparetheconditionofanecosystem,oftenundergochronic,slow,hardͲtoͲ noticechangesordegradation.Ifourreferencepointsorbaselinesaregraduallydegrading,thenwe willunderestimatehowseverelydegradedourecosystemsare.Forexample,ifthecurrent generationofreefusersorscientistshaveonlyeverseenareefwhichhasbeenoverͲfishedor exposedtorunoff,thentheymaynotrecognizethereefasdegraded.Eventhosereefsinaregion thatareinthebestconditionmaybesignificantlydegradedincomparisonwithwhatour grandfathersknew50yearsago.

Thereisincreasingevidencethatmany,apparentlyhealthycoralreefsandothertropicalecosystems aroundtheworldhavealreadybeensignificantlyalteredbyhumanactivities,suchasoverͲfishingof topͲpredatorslikesharks.Ifthebaselineshiftedbeforewereallyhadachancetochartit,thenwe canendupacceptingadegradedstateasnormalorhealthy.

Forexample,inthePhilippines,totalfishbiomassongoodreefshasdeclinedfromaround100Ͳ150 tonsperkm2to5Ͳ10tonsperkm2atpresent.Historicalbiomasshasbeenestimatedby extrapolationfromthefewremainingrelativelyunexploitedreefs,suchasTubbatahaReefinthe SuluSea.Withfullprotectionfor5Ͳ10yearssomefringingreefshavebeenabletoreturntoa biomassofonly50Ͳ60tons/km2. 20

DRAFTVersion2

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? x Resiliencesciencetellsusthatreducingtheimpactofonethreatorstresswilloftenalsoincrease theresiliencetootherthreats. x Also,thatthegreatestbenefitsaretobegainedfrommanagingallthethreatsandstresseson ecosystems,inanintegratedmanner. x Thusforexample,providingprotectionfromdestructivefishingandfromoverͲfishinginMPAs willoftenhelpfisheriesproductivity. x Inparticular,intheCT6,manyreefsandotherhabitatsareaffectedbyrunoffofchemicals, sedimentsandnutrientsfromtheland,aswellasbyactivitiesinthesea.Thismeansthatthe greatestbenefittoreefs,andtofoodsecurity,willcomefromcombinedeffortstoaddressland runoffandfishingpracticesatthesametime. x IntheCT6countries,manyreefshavenowbeendegradedforsometime,sothatmanypeople havebecomeusedtopoorcoralconditionandlowfishstocks.ItisimportantthattheCTI effortsincorporatethese“shiftingbaselines”andtheneedforincreasedefforttohelpreef recovery,nottojustmaintainthepresent,degradedcondition.Thiswilloftenmeanworkingto restoringprocesseswhichareimportanttoresilience.

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? MPAsgenerallyservetoprotectagainstoverͲfishinganddestructiveactivities,butmaynotbe effectivetoolsformanagingenvironmentalquality(e.g.waterpollution)andmaybeinsufficientto protecttheoverallecosystem(i.e.includingareasoutsideMPAs).Achievingresilientreefandother ecosystemsrequiresmuchmorethancarefuldesignofMPAnetworks.Itrequires: x Comprehensiveandintegratedmanagementofallthemajorstressorsintheregionandthe broaderseascape,includinginparticularwaterpollutionandrunofffromtheland; x EffectiveimplementationofprotectionwithinMPAͲdesignatedareas(e.g.effectivecompliance andenforcement); x Protectionandmanagementofcoralreefsshouldincludeprotectionoflinkedmarineecosystems suchasseagrassbedsandmangroves,becauseofthecloseecologicalrelationshipsamong theseecosystems; x ComplementarymanagementofareasoutsideMPAnetworks(e.g.carefulfisheriesmanagement inareasopentofishing,withemphasisonmaintainingprocessessuchasherbivoryand connectivity).Thisincludesprovisionofalternativelivelihoodoptionsforlocalcommunities whichdonotexacerbateenvironmentaldegradation;

DRAFTVersion2 x Increasedlevelsofprotectiontocompensatefortheeffectsofexistingdegradation(e.g. increasedproportionofprotectedareas,and/orincreasedlevelsofprotectionwithinprotected areas).Fromtheperspectiveofbuildingresilience,30Ͳ40%oftotalareashouldideallybe protectedinnoͲtakeareas; x Activeparticipationoflocal,andtraditionalorindigenouscommunitiesandlocalgovernment agencies,integratedwithinnationalgovernmentframeworksoflegislationandgovernance.The extentofinvolvementofdifferentlevelsofgovernmentandcommunityorganisationsmustbe appropriatetolocalcircumstances:whatworksinonecontextmaynotbeappropriatein others; x Understandingpastnaturalstatesprovidesmanagerswitha‘measureofsuccess’tousein evaluatingtheeffectivenessofmanagementactions.Italsoprovidesrestoration/rehabilitation goalsthat,evenifnotrealisticallyachievable,provideaframeworkforecosystem improvement.

Finally,becauseitiseasierandcheapertoprotectecosystemsnowtomaintainresiliencethanto restoredegradedecosystems,wherepossible,proactivemanagementwillalwaysbemuchmore costeffectivethanreactivemanagement,afterdegradation.Evenwheredegradationhasalready occurred,initiatingremediationeffortssoonerandmorestronglymaydramaticallyimprove outcomes.

Backgroundreading Ainsworth,C.H.,T.J.PitcherandC.Rotinsulu(2008)."Evidenceoffisherydepletionsandshifting cognitivebaselinesinEasternIndonesia."BiologicalConservation141(3):848Ͳ859.

AlcalaAC,RussGR(2006)NoͲtakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthePhilippines: Anewpeoplepowerrevolution.AMBIO35:245Ͳ254

Bellwood,D.R.,Hughes,T.P.,Folke,C.andNyström,M.(2004)Confrontingthecoralreefcrisis, Nature,429,827Ͳ833.

Hughes,T.P.etal.2003.Climatechange,humanimpacts,andtheresilienceofcoralreefs.Science 301,929Ͳ933

JacksonJ.B.C.ReefssinceColombus.CoralReefs16:S23ͲS32

JordanM.West,RodneyV.Salm(2003)ResistanceandResiliencetoCoralBleaching:Implicationsfor CoralReefConservationandManagement.ConservationBiology17:956Ͳ967

McCookLJ,FolkeC,HughesTP,NyströmM,OburaD,SalmR(2007)Ecologicalresilience,climate changeandtheGreatBarrierReef:Anintroduction.In:JohnsonJ,MarshallP:Climatechangeand theGreatBarrierReef.P.75Ͳ96

Pandolfi,J.M.,J.B.C.Jackson,N.Baron,R.H.Bradbury,H.M.Guzman,T.P.Hughes,C.V.Kappel,F. Micheli,J.C.Ogden,H.P.Possingham,E.Sala.2005.AreUScoralreefsontheslipperyslopeto slime?Science307:1725Ͳ1726. 22

DRAFTVersion2

Someexistingdatasets SillimanUniversityͲAngeloKingCenterforResearchandEnvironmentalManagement,Philippines hasadatabaseincluding,forexample,datafrom1996Ͳ2007fromtheSpratlyIslands.(contact:Angel Alcalaalsowww.su.edu.ph/suakcrem/index.htm)

TheReefsThroughTimeSeries(4thseries)underthePhilippineCoralReefInformationNetwork www.philreefs.org

Someexistingprojects CoastalConservationFoundation:www.coast.ph

OneOcean:oneocean.org/about_crmp/where_we_are.html

SillimanUniversityͲAngeloKingCenterforResearchandEnvironmentalManagement www.su.edu.ph/suakcrem/index.htm

Acknowledgements InvaluablecommentswereprovidedbyJMLTan,DrP.AlinoandDrK.Dobbs.

DRAFTVersion2

5.Datasufficiencyanddealingwithuncertainty PMAlino1,BPressey2,LFernandes3,JOliver4,HPossingham5,JMLTan6,BVallejoJr.7

5/11/08

Outlineoftheissue Thereisneverperfectdatafornaturalresourcemanagement.HowcanmanagersanddecisionͲ makersdealwithimperfectandincompleteinformation?Howcantheyassessiftheavailabledata isgoodenoughtotakeactionversuswaitingforbetterinformation?

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof ActionincludinganMPAnetwork? Thereisn’tperfectinformationavailabletoinformtheCTIdraftPlanofAction;norhastherebeen foranyothermarineconservationinitiative.Whilemuchisknownaboutthebroadbiophysical processesandtheoverallconditionsandpatternsofusewithregardtotheCoralTrianglethere remainsconsiderableuncertaintyandsignificantinformationgaps(e.g.finerscalemapsofcoralreef diversity,OTHER????).Whileeffortstoclosesuchgapsmustcontinue,thereisaneedforregional managementactionnowsothatthesignificantthreatstothesustainabilityoftheareaandits peoplescanbeeffectivelydiminished. ThroughthedevelopmentofadraftPlanofAction,thecountriesoftheCThaveindicatedthattheir preferenceistoactnow.Howbest,then,todealwiththeimperfectdata?Someoptions(not mutuallyexclusive)include:

1. Determiningwhichdatasetsarecrucialfordecisionmakersandwhichprovidebackground secondarysupport

1TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines, [email protected] 2ProgramLeader,ConservationPlanningforaSustainableFuture,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreof ExcellenceinCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,Q.+61(0)747816194,[email protected] 3MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0)747251824;[email protected] 4Director,ScienceCoordination,TheWorldFishCenter 5Director,AppliedEnvironmentalDecisionAnalysis,UniversityofQueensland,Brisbane,Q.Ph. +61(0)733659766;[email protected] 6ViceͲChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 7AssistantProfessor,InstituteofEnvironmentalScienceandMeteorology,VilladolidHall,CollegeofScience UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,1101Philippines.

DRAFTVersion2

2. Collationofexistingdataandinformationincludingdatamanagementtoensurethemost currentinformationisavailabletomanagers.

3. ProvisionofthecollateddataandinformationinamannerthatisusefultothedecisionͲ makersandmanagerswhowillbeimplementingthegoalsoftheCTI.Thismatchingof informationcollationeffortswithendͲusers(e.g.decisionͲmakers,managers)willworkbest ifthosedoingthecollationworkcloselywiththeendͲusers.

4. Investigatedatasufficiencyasabasisforconservationplanningversusthecostandtime requiredtocollectadditionaldata.DeviserulesͲofͲthumborprinciplesforplanningwith uncertaindata.

5. Designofmanagementsolutionstoincorporatetheuncertaintyand,ideally,tobeadaptive. Thislattermeansthatthedesignofthemanagementsolutionissuchthatinformationcan becollectedtodeterminethesuccessofthesolutionanddeterminehowmanagementcan beimproved(seealsoissuepaperonMPAdesign)

6. Toimprovethebasisformanagementinthefuture,thedraftPlanofActionalsoadvocates developmentofsystemstoenhanceinformationcollection.Thiscouldincludea combinationofsystemsfor

(a) systematicidentificationofthemostimportantdatagapsintheregionandwithin countriesagainstagreedcriteria

(b) targetedpriorityresearchtocollectthemostimportantinformationthatiscurrently absent–ideallyincollaborationwiththepotentialendͲusers(managersanddecisionͲ makers)and

Thetimingofthelatter(c)shouldnotbesooftenastocause(i)confusionwithresource usersastotherules,(ii)businessuncertaintynor(iii)failuretogivethenaturalsystemtime torespondtothemanagementinterventions.Thetimingofanyreviewofmanagement practiceshowevershouldbefrequentenoughtotaketimelyadvantageofnewinformation asitbecomesavailable.

Workshopparticipantscouldaskthemselves,giventhenatural,social,economicandinstitutional systems(includingtherateofproductionofresearchandmonitoringoutcomes)oftheirvarious countries:

1. “Doweknowwhatinformationisavailable?”

2. “Doweknowwhatisthemostimportantinformationthatiscurrentlymissing?”

3. “HowshouldwedealwiththeinevitableuncertaintyindataonbiodiversityandsocioͲ economics?“

DRAFTVersion2

4. “Canweuseexpertopiniontocompensate,somewhat,forthedatagaps?How?”

5. “Canweuseroughstatisticalmodels,likedistancetopopulationcentres,toestimatesocioͲ economicvalues?”

6. “Howmuchcanbiophysicaldata,likecurrents,temperatureanddepth,substitutefor biologicaldata?”

7. “Oncewehaveahandleonuncertainty,howcanthatbeusedtoinformdecisions?”

8. “Whatwouldbeanappropriatetimeframeoverwhichtoreview,say,boundariesofany newMPAnetworkinthelightofnewinformation?“.

SimilarquestionscouldbeaskedofanynewmanagementinitiativeundertheCTI.

Backgroundreading Allison,G.W.,Gaines,S.D.,Lubchenco,J.&Possingham,H.P.(2003)Ensuringpersistenceofmarine reserves:catastrophesrequireadoptinganinsurancefactor.EcologicalApplications,13,S8ͲS24.

AppliedEnvironmentalDecisionAnalysis(AEDA)2008.Accountingforuncertaintyindesigning marinereserves.AEDAInfoSheet#3.1(Feb08)http://www.aeda.edu.au/aedaͲresearchͲthemes AEDA.2007.PlanningconservationnetworksinadynamicworldAEDAInfoSheet#2.2(Nov07) http://www.aeda.edu.au/aedaͲresearchͲthemes Burgman,M.A.,Possingham,H.P.,Lynch,A.J.J.,Keith,D.A.,McCarthy,M.A.,Hopper,S.D.,Drury, W.L.,Passioura,J.A.&Devries,R.J.(2001)Amethodforsettingthesizeofplantconservation targetareas.ConservationBiology,15,603Ͳ616.

Fernandes,L.,Day,J.Kerrigan,B.,Breen,D.,De’ath,G.,Mapstone,B.,Coles,R.,Done,T.,Marsh,H., Poiner,I.,Ward,T.,Williams,D.,Kenchington,K.(inreview)Aprocesstodesignanetworkofmarine noͲtakeareas:lessonsfromtheGreatBarrierReef(contact:[email protected])

Grantham,H.S.,Moilanen,A.,Wilson,K.A.,Pressey,R.L.,Rebelo,T.G.andPossingham,H.P.(inpress) Diminishingreturnoninvestmentforbiodiversitydatainconservationplanning.Conservation Letters

HalpernBS,ReganHM,PossinghamHPandMcCarthyMA(2006).Accountingforuncertaintyin marinereservedesignEcologyLetters,(2006)9:2–11.(contact:[email protected])

Mumby,PJ,KBroad,DRBrumbaugh,CPDahlgren,ARHarborne,AHastings,KEHolmes,CVKappel, FMicheli,JNSanchirico(2008)Coralreefhabitatsassurrogatesofspecies,ecologicalfunctions,and ecosystemservices.ConservationBiology,Volume22,No.4,941–951.

Pressey,R.L.,Cowling,R.M.&Rouget,M.(2003)Formulatingconservationtargetsforbiodiversity patternandprocessintheCapeFloristicRegion,SouthAfrica.BiologicalConservation,112,99Ͳ127.

DRAFTVersion2

Pressey,BL,Cabeza,M,Watts,ME,Cowling,RMandWilson,KA(2007)Conservationplanningina changingworld.TrendsinEcologyandEvolution,22:pp583Ͳ592

Rodrigues,ASLandTMBrooks(2007)Shortcutsforbiodiversityconservationplanning:the effectivenessofsurrogates.Annu.Rev.Ecol.Evol.Syst.38:713–37

Someexistingprojects Assessingrelativecostsandbenefitsofavailabledataforconservationplanning(contact: [email protected])

Incorporatinguncertaintyintoconservationplanningwithconsiderationofpatchdynamicsof resources(e.g.pelagicproductivity)anddisturbance(e.g.storms,coralbleaching)intheBismarck Sea(contact:[email protected])

DRAFTVersion2

6.HowhumanusesandvaluescanmatterfortheCTI Bunce,L.1,Cinner,J.2,Foale,S.3,Nash,W.4

4/11/08

Outlineoftheissue Theidentificationandlistingofthevarietyofhumanusesandvalueswillbeakey(andsignificant) componentoftheCTI(somesampleprojectsarelistedbelow).Usesthathavebeenorwillbe documentedincludethevarietyoftypesoffishingandnonͲfishingusesofresources.Valuesthat arepertinentincludelivelihoods/incomevalues,foodsecurity/accessandshorelineprotection,for example.Thispaperaimstoexplorehowissuesaroundhumanusesandvaluescaninfluence choicesaboutthebestmanagementoptionsandpotentialmanagementsuccess. WhiletheCT6countriesallsharemarineresourcessuchascoralreefswithexceptionallyhigh speciesrichness,thereissignificantvariationinbothpressureupontheresourcesandmanagement actionsandoptionsamongandwithinthem.Fishingpressurerelatestobothhumanpopulation density(seeTable1)andtheexistenceofalternativeeconomicopportunities,whilemanagement optionsaremediatedbyrightsofaccess,andavarietyofsocial,politicalandeconomicfactors, includingtheextenttowhichthestatecanbeconsidered‘weak’or‘strong’.Philippinesand IndonesiabothhavevastlyhigherhumanpopulationdensitiesthanthetwoMelanesiancountries (thoughthewesternhalfoftheislandofNewGuinea,whichhasanevenlowerpopulationdensity thanPNG,ispartofthestateofIndonesia).Thereisconsiderablevariationinrightsofaccessalso; customarylandandmarinetenureinstitutionsenjoyasignificantlygreaterlevelofrecognitionby thestateinPNGandSolomonIslandsthanintheSoutheastAsiancountries.

Table1.PopulationdensityandpercapitaGDPdatafortheCT6countries

Country Totalpopulation Populationdensity PercapitaGDP(US$)* (people/km2) PapuaNewGuinea 6,331,000 13 1,972

SolomonIslands 506,992 17 1,864

EastTimor 1,155,000 64 ND

Indonesia 231,627,000 117 3,725

Philippines 90,457,200 277 3,400

Malaysia 27,170,000 77 13,300

*NB:PercapitaGDPfiguresforSolomonIslandsandPNGdonottakeintoaccountthemonetaryvalueofthe subsistenceeconomyinthosecountries,whichissignificant.

1ConservationInternational:[email protected] 2ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity:[email protected] 3ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity:[email protected] 4WorldfishCentre,Noumea.[email protected] 28

DRAFTVersion2

PopulationPressureandAlternativeEconomicOpportunities

ThesignificantlylowerhumanpopulationdensitiesofPNGandSolomonIslandsmeanthat,generally speaking,overͲfishinghassofaronlyoccurredforasmallnumberofrelativelyvulnerableexport commodityfisheries(seeissuepaperonnonͲspatialmanagementapproaches).BecausefinͲfishare mostlyconsumedforsubsistenceorsolddomestically,populationsofthesearemostlyinrelatively goodshapeinthesecountries.InSoutheastAsia,thepictureissomewhatdifferent,withoverͲ harvestingofmanyspecies,includingfinͲfish,commonlyreported.Thesedifferencesinthelevelof pressureonfisherieshaveimportantimplicationsforthecapacityofdifferentpopulationswithinthe CoralTriangletoabsorbtheimmediateeconomiccostsassociatedwithincreasedconstraintson fishingeffort,whetherthroughspatialornonͲspatialmanagementinterventions.Forexample, becausetheyenjoyarelativelyhighleveloffoodsecurity,coastalsubsistencefarmersinthe SolomonIslandshavebeenabletoaccommodatetherecently(April2008)imposedtotalbanon harvestingofbecheͲdeͲmerinSolomonIslands,eventhoughformanyofthemitwasthemost significantsourceofcashincome.

Culturalattitudestocapitalistendeavour

Whenseekingalternativeorsupplementarylivelihoodsorsustainablefinancingtosupport conservation,tourismisoftendiscussedasanoption.Thisoptioncanbequitesuccessfulinsome situations.InpartsofMelanesia,however,therecanbeconstraintsontheuseoftourismtodefray theshortͲtermcostsofMPAs,intheformofculturalconstraintsonwidespreadengagementwith capitalistenterprise(Schoeffel1997,Foale2008,Fukuyama2008).InthePhilippines(andelsewhere intheCoralTriangle)thereareproblemswithequitabledistributionofthebenefitsfromdive tourismventures,whichinevitablygeneratesresentment(Fabinyi2008).

RightsofAccess

Traditionalrulesofaccesstocoastalwaters(customarymarinetenureͲCMT)arelargelyenshrined intheconstitutionsofPNGandSolomonIslands,whilestatesupportforCMTintheSoutheastAsian countriesismorelimited,thoughincreasingunderrecentdecentralisationschemesinPhilippines andIndonesia.

SomeclaimthattheCMTsystemisanimportantelementoftraditionalmanagementinstitutions, becauseitpreventstheoverͲfishingthathasbeenobservedin(inadequatelyregulated)openaccess systems.Thisisfamouslyreferredtoasthe‘TragedyoftheCommons’becauseitisinnoindividual fisher’sinteresttolimitfishingeffortinanopenaccessfisherywhileotherfishersarenotalso limitingtheirs.WhileitistruethatCMTrestrictsaccesstothegroupthatsharecustomaryrightstoa territory,itisstillpossibletoobserve‘micro’TragediesoftheCommonsevenwithinmarine territoriesdefinedundertheCMTsystem,particularlywheresocialcohesionislow,localleadership isweak,and/orthelimitstoresourcesareeithernotperceivedoronlypartiallyunderstood(Foale andManele2004).

Perceptionsoflimitstostocks

WhileextremepovertyanddesperationmaydriveoverͲfishinginregionswithhighhuman populationdensities,insparselypopulatedareasthelackofanappreciationofthelimitstofisheries 29

DRAFTVersion2

(Johannes2002)combinedwithexpandingmarketsandrisingcommoditypricescandothesamefor exportablespecies.Inthelattercase,however,theremaybemorescopeforinterventionsbasedon wellͲdesignedandculturallyinformededucationcampaignswhichinclude,amongotherthings,a clearexplanationofstockͲrecruitmentdynamicsandtheroleofoverͲfishinginrecruitmentfailure forfisheriesthatareexperiencingrisingpressure.ThismayinthefuturehelptoavoidlastͲresort measuressuchasthecompleteclosureofseverelyoverͲharvestedfisheriesbythegovernment, whichwehaverecentlyobservedinSolomonIslandsandVanuatu.

Gender,cultureandreligion

UseofmarineresourcesinmanypartsoftheCT6ishighlygendered.Womenoftenperformakey roleinsubsistencefishing,butoftentargetdifferentspeciesfrommen.Theyalsotendtohaveless accesstotransportandfishingtechnologythanmen,andassucharemorespatiallyconstrainedin theiractivities.ThishasimplicationsforthelocationofnoͲtakeclosures(seebelow).

Insomeplacesthereareaspectsofculturesuchastotemsandsacredplaceswhichcanresultina (usuallysmall)conservationeffect.Manytraditionalbeliefsandvaluesareundergoingconstant changehowever.Modernreligiousbeliefscanalsohavesomeconservationeffect,suchasthe prohibitiononconsumptionofturtles,andfishwithoutscalesbytheSeventhDayAdventistChurch.

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Usesandvaluesthatpertaintothemarineenvironmentarelikelytobeverydifferentamongthe differentCT6countries,withpovertyandlowlevelsoffoodsecuritylikelytocompriseasomewhat greaterchallengetoeffortstomanagefishingeffortindenselypopulatedlocations.

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Theothersideofthe‘twoͲedgedsword’ofCustomaryMarineTenure(inMelanesia)isthatbecause marineterritoriesrepresentalevelofexclusivityatafairlyfinespatialscale(typicallyhundredsof metrestokilometres),theincentive(intheoryatleast)foranygivengroupofreefownerstoaccept noͲtakeareaswithinpartoftheirterritorycanbecompromisedbytheextenttowhichtheyare likelytobesharingthebenefits(i.e.thespillover)withneighbouringgroupstowhoseterritories theymaynotenjoyanyrights(FoaleandManele2004).ThismeansthatanynetworkofMPAsmust benegotiatedwithmultiplecontiguousreefͲowninggroups,depending,ofcourse,onthematchor mismatchbetweenthescaleatwhichMPAsareecologicallyeffective,andthescaleatwhich customaryterritoriesaredivided.

EconomicandgenderissuesshouldbetakenintoaccountwhenzoningnoͲtakeareas.Wherea choiceexistsbetweenlocatinganoͲtakezoneatvariousdistancesfromavillage,themoredistant locationshouldbeselected,sothatwomen,who(unlikemen)commonlydonothaveaccessto motorisedtransport,cancontinuetoaccessnearbyreefsandmangrovesforsubsistencefishingand gleaning(Vunisea2008).Thesecloserlocationswouldintheoryultimatelybenefitfromspillover

DRAFTVersion2 fromthereserve.However,itshouldbekeptinmindthatMPAsarealsohardertoenforcethe furthertheyarefromtheresidence(s)ofthemanager(s).

Insum,MPAsaremorelikelytobeoptimallylocated,andindeedsuccessful,iftheirproposaland establishmentisprecededbycarefulandsystematicsocial,politicalandeconomicbaselineand feasibilitysurveys.Thisworkshouldincludeafocusonexistingperceptionsandbeliefsaboutlimits tofishstocks,andtheimpactsoffishing.Baselineresearchisalsovitalifthesocialandeconomic successoftheMPAsistobeaccuratelymeasured.Itisalsovitalthatpeopleareprovidedwithan accessibleformofthelatestresearchoutputsona)thetimescaleandb)theeconomicvalueof spillover(i.e.CPUEoutsideoftheclosure)thattheycanexpectfromtheMPAs,sothatexpectations arenotundulyinflated.

Backgroundreading BunceL,TownsleyP,PomeroyR,PollnacR(2000).SocioeconomicManualforCoralReef Management.AIMS,TownsvilleAustralia.264pages http://effectivempa.noaa.gov/docs/socio_manual.pdf(14.6Mb)

Fabinyi,M.(2008).“Divetourism,fishingandmarineprotectedareasintheCalamianesIslands, Philippines.”MarinePolicy32(6):898Ͳ904. Foale,S.J.(2008a)."ConservingMelanesia’sCoralReefHeritageintheFaceofClimateChange." HistoricEnvironment21(1):30Ͳ36. Foale,S.J.andB.Manele(2004)."SocialandpoliticalbarrierstotheuseofMarineProtectedAreas forconservationandfisherymanagementinMelanesia."AsiaPacificViewpoint45(3):373Ͳ386. Fukuyama,F.(2008).StateͲbuildinginSolomonIslands.WashingtonDC,JohnsHopkinsUniversity: 31.http://www.saisͲjhu.edu/faculty/fukuyama/publications.html Johannes,R.E.(2002)."DidIndigenousConservationEthicsExist?"SPCTraditionalMarineResource ManagementandKnowledgeInformationBulletin14:3Ͳ7. Schoeffel,P.(1997).Mythsofcommunitymanagement:sustainability,thestateandrural developmentinPapuaNewGuinea,SolomonIslandsandVanuatu.StateSocietyandGovernancein MelanesiaDiscussionPaper97/8.Canberra,ResearchSchoolofPacificandAsianStudies,Australian NationalUniversity.http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/melanesia/discussion_papers Vunisea,A.(2008)."The"cultureofsilence"andfisheriesmanagement."SPCWomeninFisheries InformationBulletin18:42Ͳ43. White,A.T.,P.Christie,H.D'Agnes,K.LowryandN.Milne(2005)."DesigningICMprojectsfor sustainability:lessonsfromthePhilippinesandIndonesia."Ocean&CoastalManagement48(3Ͳ6): 271Ͳ296.

DRAFTVersion2

Someexistingdatasets SolomonIslandsHouseholdIncomeandExpenditureReport: http://www.spc.int/prism/sbtest/Publication/Annual/HIESͲReport.htm

Hanson,L.W.,B.J.Allen,R.M.BourkeandT.J.McCarthy(2001).PapuaNewGuineaRural DevelopmentHandbook.Canberra,LandManagementGroup,DepartmentofHumanGeography, ResearchSchoolofPacificandAsianStudies,TheAustralianNationalUniversity.

Someexistingprojects GlobalSocioeconomicMonitoringInitiative(SoutheastAsiaRegion)islistingthemajorusesand availablestatisticsonlevelsofuse.ContactSheilaVergara,Chair,SocMonSoutheastAsia ([email protected]or[email protected])orProfessorMichaelPido,Palawan StateUniversity([email protected])

ADBRETA:REG42073Ͳ01StrengtheningcoastalandmarineresourcemanagementintheCoral TriangleofthePacific.http://www.adb.org/Documents/ADBBO/RETA/42073012.ASP

ADBRETA6446ͲREG:StrengtheningSoundEnvironmentalManagementintheBruneiDarussalam, Indonesia,MalaysiaandPhilippinesEastASEANGrowthArea.ApprovedinFebruary2008,theRETA willbeimplementedbySoutheastAsiaDepartmentofADB.

Fabinyi,M.(2008)."Divetourism,fishingandmarineprotectedareasintheCalamianesIslands, Philippines."MarinePolicy32(6):898Ͳ904.

DRAFTVersion2

7.Participatorymarineresourcemanagementplanning P.M.Alino1,LeanneFernandes2,BobPressey3,JMLTan4,AlanWhite5

5/11/08

Outlineoftheissue Includingtherightpeopleattherighttime(s)intherightamountandinthecorrectmanner throughoutanaturalresourceplanningandmanagementprocessenablesitssuccess.Whotheright peopleare,whenaretherighttimes,howmuchistherightamountandwhatisthecorrectmanner, ishighlysituationspecific.Thesemattersmustbeworkedoutthroughalocallysensitiveandscale specificplanningprocess.TheprocessfortheCTIwouldneedtoacknowledgethatdifferentCT6 countriesmayhavedifferentCTIprioritiesatdifferenttimesintermsofimplementingtheCTIPlan ofAction.

ThecruxoftheissueisthatplanningthatadequatelyinvolvesstakeholderssothatsufficientbuyͲin iscreated,mustoccuratappropriatescales.Thisimpliesthatnested(andcoordinated)layersof planningactivitiesoccursimultaneously.

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof ActionincludingdeliveryofanMPAnetwork? ForeachCTcountry,foreachCTIdraftPlanofActiongoal,objectiveandstrategytherewillbean ideallevel,type,amountandtimingofinteractionwithalltherelevantplayersthatwillenable success.However,resourcelimitationswillrequiresettingprioritiesregardingwhatamountof involvementcanhappen,withwho,howandwhen.PlanningforandimplementingtheCTImust alsocoordinateandcomplementefforts,includingconsultationandparticipatoryefforts,with existingplanningefforts.Sucheffortsincludelocal(municipallevelplanning,management,systems andprocesses),national(e.g.NationalBiodiversityActionPlanswhichincludesprioritysetting efforts)andregionalplans(e.g.theSuluͲSulaweisiMarineEcoregionalplanning,SolomonͲBismark SeaMarineEcoregionalplanning,theSouthChinaSeaStrategicActionPlan)(Ongetal.2002)

Therefore,theplanningfornaturalresourcemanagementprojects,suchasthoseintheCTIdraft PlanofAction,shouldincludeaplanforwhatisfeasiblewithregardtoparticipationand involvementinmanagement.Considerationcouldbegiventowhowillbeaffectedpositivelyor

1TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines, [email protected] 2MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0)747251824;[email protected] 3ProgramLeader,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReefStudies,JamesCook University61(0)747816194,[email protected] 4ViceͲChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 5SeniorScientist,GlobalMarineInitiative,TheNatureConservancy,Hawaii;[email protected] 33

DRAFTVersion2 negativelybytheplanningexercise,whocaninfluencetheplanningexercisepositivelyornegatively, whocanprovideinformation,andwhowillberesponsiblefortakingactiontoimplementthe planningexercise.

Theplanforinclusive,butstillfeasible,participationinmanagementcouldaddressthefollowing questions:

1. Whatareyoutryingtoachievethroughparticipationandinvolvementinyourmarine resourcemanagementproject?

2. Whoaretheprimarystakeholders?Stakeholdersmayinclude:

a. decisionͲmakersincluding(butnotlimitedto)relevantelectedandappointedofficial representativesatlocal,stateandnationalgovernmentlevels;

b. economicallyinvolvedstakeholders;

c. governmenttechnicalandadministrativepersonsatlocalandnationallevels;

d. ultimateresourcemanagers(e.g.selectedresourceusersandgovernmentpersons)

e. otherlocalcommunitymemberswhomaynotbeusingtheresource(asin(d) above)norotherwiseeconomicallyengaged(asin(b)above)

f. localandexternaltechnicalexperts

g. Assistingorganizations(e.g.NGOs,donors,academeetc.)

Whiletherewillbeoverlapbetweenthesegroups,itisimportantthatforanygiven situationthatthesegroupsbeconsideredandkeyorganizationsandindividualsare prioritizedforparticipation.

3. Towhatdegreecanorshouldthesevariousplayersbeinvolvedwhenconsideringtherisks andadvantagesofinvolvementinthemanagementprocess?Whatlevelofinvolvementis appropriateandpossiblegivenresources,timeconstraints,institutionalcultureandoverall objectivesoftheactivityorstrategy.

4. Whatwillbetheconcernsandviewsofthevariousstakeholders?

5. Whatwillbekeymessagestothesestakeholders(bothintermsofsharinginformation aboutwhatishappeningandprovidinganswerstopotentialquestions)?

6. Whatisthebestplanforwhotoinvolve,inwhatwayandatwhatpointsintimethroughout theplanningandmanagementprocess?Thisincludesidentificationofwhich consultation/communicationmechanismswillworkbestinwhichsituationsandatwhat pointsintime.

Throughoutthemanagementprocessitwillbeimportantthatthosebeingengagedareclearas tothedegreethattheywillbeabletoinformandinfluencethemanagementoutcomes;failed

DRAFTVersion2

expectationsshouldbeavoidedwherepossible.Hence,thisinformationcouldcomprisepartof thekeymessagestosharewithstakeholders.

ItisalsoimportanttonotoverͲengagestakeholdersuntiltheprospectsfortheirrelevant involvementareclearandwarranted.Manypastprojectsthathaveinvolvedstakeholders prematurelytotheappropriatetimefortheirengagement,havesquanderedthesupportand enthusiasmofstakeholdersthatisneededatthetimeoffullprojectimplementation(Whiteet al2005).

Backgroundreading Alcala,A.C.andRuss,G.R.(2006).NoͲtakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthe Philippines:Anewpeoplepowerrevolution.Ambio35(6):245Ͳ254.

Goven,H.,2008.Overview:Reclaiming“ProtectedAreas”asaLivelihoodToolforPacificIsland People.InCohen,P.,A.D.ValemeiandH.Goven.AnnotatedbibliographyofsocioͲeconomic andecologicalimpactsofMarineProtectedAreasinPacificIslandCountries.WorldFish BibliographyNo.1870.TheWorldFishCentre,Penang,Malaysia.36pp. www.pacific.reefbase.org

OngPS,AfuangLE,RoselleͲAmbalRG(2002)PhilippineBiodiversityConservationPriorities:ASecond iterationoftheNationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan.DENRͲPAWB,CIPhilippines, UPͲCIDSandFPE,QuezonCity,Philippines:113pp.

Pressey,R.L.&Bottrill,M.C.(inpress)Opportunism,threats,andtheevolutionofsystematic conservationplanning.ConservationBiology,inpress.

TalaueͲMcManus,L,ACYambao,SGSalmoIII,andPMAliño1999Bolinao,NorthernPhilippines: ParticipatoryPlanningforCoastalDevelopmentInDBuckles(ed)CultivatingPeace: ConflictandCollaborationinNaturalResourceManagement.IDRC/WorldBank http://www.idrc.ca/en/evͲ27979Ͳ201Ͳ1ͲDO_TOPIC.html(accessed3/11/08)

Vunisea,A.(2008)The“cultureofsilence”andfisheriesmanagement.SPCWomeninFisheries InformationBulletin#18–March2008 White,A.,Deguit,E.,Jatulan,W.,EismaͲOsorio,L.,2006.Integratedcoastalmanagementin Philippinelocalgovernance:evolutionandbenefits.CoastalManagement34,287Ͳ302. White,A.,P.AlinoandA.Meneses(2006).CreatingandManagingMarineProtectedAreasinthe Philippines.CebuCity,Philippines.

White,A.,R.ͲL.EismaͲOsorioandS.J.Green(2005).Integratedcoastalmanagementandmarine protectedareas:ComplementarityinthePhilippines.Ocean&CoastalManagement48:24.

White,A.T.,Christie,P.,d’Agnes,H.,Lowry,K.andMilneN.2005.DesigningICMprojectsfor sustainability:LessonsfromthePhilippinesandIndonesia.OceanandCoastalManagement48: 271Ͳ296.

White,A.T.,Hale,L.Z.,Renard,Y.andCortesi,L.editors.1994.CollaborativeandcommunityͲbased managementofcoralreefs.Hartford,Connecticut:KumarianPress.130p. 35

DRAFTVersion2

White,A.T.,Salamanca,A.andCourtney,C.A.2002.ExperiencewithMarineProtectedAreaPlanning andManagementinthePhilippines.CoastalManagement30:1Ͳ26.

White,A.T.andVogt,H.P.2000.Philippinecoralreefsunderthreat:Lessonslearnedafter25years ofcommunityͲbasedreefconservation.MarinePollutionBulletin40:537Ͳ550.

Younge,A.&Fowkes,S.(2003)TheCapeActionPlanfortheEnvironment:overviewofan ecoregionalplanningprocess.BiologicalConservation,112,15Ͳ28.

Someexistingprojects TheFisheriesImprovedforSustainableHarvest(FISH)Projecthttp://www.oneocean.org/

CoastalConservationandEducation,Foundation,CebuCity,Philippineshttp://www.coast.ph

Guide to participatory LMMA planning: http://www.lmmanetwork.org/Site_Page.cfm?PageID=64

MarineandMPANetworkLearningPartnershipresultsandpublications(c/oA.White,TNCandK. Newman,WWF)

CoralReefRehabilitationandManagementProgram(COREMAP) http://www.coremap.or.id/language/

Spatialpatternsofcustomarytenureanditsimplicationsforputtingmarineconservationplanning intopractice(contact:[email protected]or[email protected])

DRAFTVersion2

8.ClimateChangeThreatstoCoralReefsintheCoralTriangle

WillisB.L.1,DoveS.2,HoeghͲGuldbergO.2,LoughJ.M.3,McCullochM.4,MundayP.L.1,Pratchett M.S.1.,SalmR.5,vanOppenM.J.H.2

3/09/08

Outlineoftheissue Climate change poses enormous risks for coral reefs within the Coral Triangle (CT). The human implicationsoftheserisksaresignificant,importantandaddressedinseparatebackgroundpapersin thisseries(forexample,“9.Threatofclimatechangetofishandfisheries”,“16.Humanadaptation toclimatechange”).Thispaperfocusesonthebiophysicaldimensionsofclimatechange.

The CT lies at the heart of the “Maritime Continent” with a complex distribution of islands and shallowseasandsomeofthewarmestseasurfacetemperatures(SSTs)intheworld.This“boiler box”ofthetropicsisanareaofintensetropicalconvection,whichisadominantheatsourceforthe globalatmosphericcirculation.ItcontainscomplexoceancurrentsystemsthatlinkthePacificand Indian Oceans.Principal atmospheric circulation features are the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)separatingtheNorthernandSouthernHemispherecirculationsanditsextension,theSouth PacificConvergenceZone(SPCZ)inthesoutheastoftheCT.TheITCZliessouthoftheCTinJanuary andtothenorthinJuly.TheCThasamonsoonalclimatewithseasonalreversalofwindfieldsand muchofitsrainfallarisesfromintense,localizedthunderstorms.InterͲannualrainfallvariabilityis significantlymodulatedbyElNiñoͲSouthernOscillation(ENSO)eventswithpartsoftheCTtypically experiencing much drier conditions during El Niño years.Tropical cyclones (which do not form within~10ooftheequator)aresignificantweatherphenomenaprimarilyinthenorthernpartsofthe CT.

Observedclimatechange:ClimatechangeisnotafutureeventfortheCT,significantwarminghas already occurred.Averaged over the CT region, annual average, annual maximum and annual minimumSSTsinthemostrecent20years(1988Ͳ2007)are~0.3Ͳ0.4oCwarmerthanovertheearlier period, 1950Ͳ1969 (Figure 1).The current rate of warming for annual CT SSTs (~0.11oC/decade between 1950Ͳ2007) is slightly greater than the rate for the tropical oceans as a whole (0.08oC/decade) and comparable to that for global average land and sea temperatures (0.12oc/decade).CTSSTwarmingisalsogreaterforannualmaximumthanannualminimumSSTs. TherearespatialvariationswithintheCTintheobservedrateswithwarmingbeinggreatestinthe

1SchoolofMarineandTropicalBiology,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCook University,Townsville,QLD4811,Australia. 2CentreforMarineStudies,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,TheUniversityofQueensland, StLucia,QLD4067,Australia 3AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,PMB3,TownsvilleQLD4810,Australia 4ResearchSchoolofEarthSciences,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,AustralianNational University,Canberra,0200,Australia 5Director,CoastalMarineProgram,AsiaPacificRegion,TheNatureConservancy 37

DRAFTVersion2 northernCTEcoRegions1and2(~0.13Ͳ0.14oC/decade)andlowestinthesouthernEcoRegions7and 10(~0.08oC/decade).

Projected climate change: Observed and projected global warming is greater at high than low latitudesandgreateronlandthanintheoceans.TheCT,despitelyinginthewarmestoceanregion on earth, will not be immune to significant warming nor to other changes in its physical environment,withsignificantconsequencesforitstropicalcoralreefsandassociatedecosystems. Evidence is emerging that tropical organisms may be more sensitive to the relatively smaller magnitudewarmingpredictedthantheirhigherͲlatitudecounterparts,asthelatterareadaptedto muchlargerrangesoftemperatures.ProjectinghowclimatewillchangebothgloballyandfortheCT dependsonseveralfactors,particularlyglobalandlocalresponsesthataretakenintheshortand longtermtocurbandstabilisegreenhousegasemissions.Inaddition,therearestilldifficultiesin applyingglobalclimatemodelstocorrectlymodelcurrentclimateoftheMaritimeContinent,which makesfutureprojectionsmorespeculativeforthisregionthaninotherpartsoftheworld.Changes in the following physical environmental variables will be of consequence for the CT’s coral reef ecosystems: x Sea surface temperatures: Annual, maximum and minimum SSTs in the CT have already significantlywarmedandareprojectedtobebetween1Ͳ3oCwarmerbytheendofthiscentury. Thereis,however,littlespatialdetailinthepatternofprojectedwarmingfromexistingmodels. x Ocean acidification: pH of the global oceans has already decreased by ~0.1 units due to absorption by the surface oceans of ~1/3 of the extra carbon dioxide injected into the atmosphere from fossil fuel burning and other human activities.This progressive ocean acidificationisprojectedtocontinue,withpHdecreasingby0.3Ͳ0.4unitsby2100.Projections indicatethatthearagonitesaturationstateandhencecoralcalcificationwillbecome“marginal” forcoralreefsoftheCTwithintheperiod2020Ͳ2050. x Rainfallandriverflow:TherearesomeindicationsthatequatorialPacificrainfall,especiallyin thevicinityoftheITCZ,willincreasebutthereareconflictingscenariosfromdifferentclimate models.Evenwithoutchangesinaveragerainfall,itseemslikelythatrainfalleventswillbecome moreextremeandthatinterͲannualvariabilityofmonsoonrainfallwillincrease.Importantly, theintensityofdroughtassociatedwithagivenrainfalldeficitwillbegreaterinawarmerworld. x Sealevel:Globalsealevelhasalreadyincreased(mainlythroughthermalexpansion)by~10to 20cmoverthe20thcentury.CurrentIPCC(2007)projectionssuggestafurther~30Ͳ60cmriseby 2100 but this is regarded as a very conservative estimate due to underestimation of the contribution of melting of land ice.The IPCC (2007) report also recognises the possibility of scaledͲupicesheetdischargesfrommeltingofthelargelandͲbasedicesheetsinAntarcticaand Greenland,whichwouldleadtosealevelrisesintheorderof+4mto+6m.However,becauseof uncertaintiesassociatedwiththepossibletimingofsuchevents,thesemuchhigherestimates arenotdirectlyincludedinpredictionsfor2100. x Tropicalcyclones:Thereisnoclearconsensusamongstglobalclimatemodelsastowhetherthe locationorfrequencyoftropicalcycloneswillchangeinawarmingworldbutthereisagreement thattheywillbecomemoreintense(withgreatermaximumwindspeedsandheavierrainfall), andthereissomeevidencethatthisisalreadyoccurring.

DRAFTVersion2 x ElNiñoͲSouthernOscillationevents:Thereisnoclearconsensusastohowthefrequencyand intensityofENSOeventswillchangeinawarmingworldthoughthisphenomenonislikelyto continueasasignificantsourceofinterͲannualclimatevariabilityintheCTregion. x Ocean circulation patterns: There is little information currently available about what may happentothecomplexoceancirculationpatternsoftheCTastheworldwarms.

In summary, although some aspects of future climate projections for the CT region are not well constrainedatpresent,SSTswillcontinuetowarm,seaͲlevelwillcontinuetorise,thesurfaceocean saturationlevelswillbecomeprogressivelylesshospitableforcoralreefdevelopmentandextreme events,whichareasourceoflocaliseddestructionforcoralreefs(egfloodsanddrought,tropical cyclones),willbecomemoreintense.Akeyissueistheunprecedentedrateatwhichthesechanges areoccurring.Anotherimportantissueisthat,fortheforeseeablefuture,thephysicalclimateand environmentoftheCTwillbechangingandwedonot,atpresent,knowwhattheendpointwillbe (i.e.itisnotsimplyachangetoanewclimateregimetowhichcoralreeforganismscanadapt).

Implicationsofclimatechangeforcoralpopulations

Thermalstressandbleaching:Thermalstressisoneofthekeythreatstocoralreefecosystemsin the coming decades.Most corals live within 1Ͳ2°C of their upper thermal limits. Beyond these thresholds, the association between corals and their symbiotic algae, commonly called zooxanthellae,breaksdown.Lossofzooxanthellaefromthepartnershipcausescoralstoturnwhite (i.e. bleaching; Figure 2), with dire consequences for the nutritional economy of the coral host. Approximately16%oftheworld’scoralreefsdiedduringthesevereglobalbleachingeventin1998. Climatechangemodelspredictthatlargescalemortalitycausedbybleachingwilloccurregularlyand potentiallyannuallyby2030insomereefregions.BranchingspeciesofAcropora,whichcurrently dominatemanycommunitiesintheCTandprovide3ͲdimensionalhabitatformanyreefͲassociated fishandinvertebrates,areamongthemostvulnerabletorisingtemperatures.Whilerapidgrowth ratesofthesespeciesaugmenttheirrecoverypotential,increasinglyfrequentandseverebleaching events will potentially outstrip their capacity to recover. Unless corals can adapt to predicted thermalregimes,coralreefecosystemswillchangedramatically(Figure2c). Potential for acclimatisation or adaptation to thermal stress: Some corals harbour thermally tolerantzooxanthellatypesatlowdensitiesinadditiontoamoresensitivedominanttype,providing a possible mechanism for short term acclimatisation to thermal stress.These thermally tolerant zooxanthellaemayrepopulatecoraltissuesfromsurvivingresidentpopulationsfollowingbleaching, protectingcoralsfromstarvation,reducingmortalityandenhancingtheirrecovery,althoughgrowth rates are reduced. Initially, these corals are less susceptible to bleaching in subsequent thermal stressevents,buttypicallytheyreverttotheiroriginalzooxanthellacommunitiesandtheirtolerance to temperatures predicted by moderate to extreme IPCC scenarios is unknown. Whether zooxanthellae, or the corals themselves can acquire increased thermal tolerance through genetic adaptationinresponsetoselectioniscurrentlynotknown.Thelonggenerationtimesofcoralsargue againsttheirpotentialtoadapttopredictedratesofoceanwarming.Littleisknownaboutsexual reproductioninzooxanthellae,buttheymayhavegreaterscopeforgeneticadaptationwithintime scalespredictedforclimatechangegiventheirlikelyshortgenerationtimes.

DRAFTVersion2

Ocean Acidification: Unlike in the atmosphere, where the main greenhouse gas, CO2, causes warming through its strong physical interaction with infrared radiation, CO2 is a highly reactive speciesintheoceans,whereitdissolvesinsurfacewatersandinitiatesaseriesofchemicalreactions that alter seawater chemisty. Rapidly rising levels of atmospheric CO2 have resulted in an overall increaseinseawateracidity(i.e.areductioninseawaterpH)inaprocessthathasbecomeknownas ‘ocean acidification’. Increasing ocean acidity also has a major impact on seawater carbonate equilibria,causingareductionintheconcentrationofcarbonateionsandhenceinthesaturation stateoftheoceans.Oceanacidificationwillthusinhibittheabilityofmanymarineorganismsthat producecarbonateskeletons,especiallycorals,tocalcify.Thisislikelytobeamoreseriousproblem than originally perceived, as experimental data now indicate that coral calcification rates are dependentonthedegreeofoverͲsaturationofcarbonateinseawater.Thusdoublingofatmospheric

CO2willresultinanapproximatelytwofoldreductionincarbonateionconcentration,which,inturn, willcauseasignificantreductionincoralcalcification.ThetropicalregionsoftheCTareexpectedto be particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification because corals are already calcifying in an environment close to their upper thermal limits and hence are especially sensitive to lower carbonateionconcentrationsfromdecreasingseawaterpH.Henceskeletonsarelikelytobecome morefragileandgrowthandrecoveryofcoralsispredictedtobecomeprogressivelyslower.

Increasingdisease:TheoutcomesofinteractionsbetweencoralsanddiseaseͲcausingpathogensare significantlyaffectedbythesurroundingenvironment.Warmingseas,increasingacidificationand risingintensityofstormspredictedbyclimatechangemodelsrepresentsourcesofstressthatwill increase the vulnerability of corals to disease.Increased temperatures may also increase the virulence of pathogens, compounding the likelihood of disease outbreaks.Links between high thermalanomaliesandoutbreaksofanumberofcoraldiseases(Figure3)highlightthepotentialfor significantlossesofcoralwithpredictedclimatechange.

Increasing storm damage: Coral reefs are naturally highly dynamic ecosystems, but increasingly frequentacutedisturbances,coupledwithhumaninducedchronicstressors,threatenthephysical framework of coral reefs in the region.Increased frequency and severity of injuries will further compromisetheresistanceofcoralstodiseaseandincreasethepotentialfordiseaseoutbreaks.

Implicationsofclimatechangeforfishandinvertebratepopulations

Decliningabundancewithlossofcriticalhabitat:Livecoralsandthecomplexphysicalstructures theyprovidearecriticalhabitatformanyreeffishesandinvertebrates.Extensivecorallosscaused by increasingly frequent and more severe coral bleaching events will cause local extinctions, and possiblyevenglobalextinction,ofsomespeciesthatdependonlivecoralforfoodand/orhabitat. Otherspecies,willsufferpopulationdeclinesduetothelossofsettlementhabitatandareductionin shelterfrompredators.Structuralcollapseofdeadcoralcolonieswillaffectmanysmallpreyspecies, withpotentialflowͲoneffectstolargercoralreeffishes,suchascoraltrout. Decliningphysiologicalperformanceandreproduction:Increasedoceantemperatureswilldirectly affectthephysiologicalperformanceandbehaviourofreeffishes,especiallyduringtheirearlylife history. Small temperature increases may favour larval development, but this is likely to be countered by negative effects on adult reproduction. Recruitment is typically variable, but it is 40

DRAFTVersion2 expectedtobecomeevenmoreunpredictable.ThiswillmakeoptimalharveststrategiesforcoralͲ reeffisheriesmoredifficulttoidentifyandpopulationsmoresusceptibletooverfishing. Shiftingdistributionalranges:Asubstantialnumberofspecieswillexhibitgeographicrangeshifts, potentially away from the CT, as oceans warm. Reef fishes differ in their thermal tolerance, consequentlysomespecieswillshifttheirrangesmorerapidlythanothers,withconsequencesfor community composition. Species that already have small ranges near the margins of reef developmentwillfaceanincreasedriskofextinctionduetorangecontractions.

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action?

Impacts of climate change on coral reef ecosystems will act synergistically with other stressors, particularly those relating to over-fishing and poor water quality. The key to increasing the capacity of coral reef ecosystems to cope with climate change is to enhance their resilience. The following recommendations, in relation to the goals of the draft PoA, aim to increase the resilience of the CT ecosystem primarily by controlling and reducing additional human-related stressors. It should be noted, however, that the only effective long- term strategy for reducing the physical threats of climate change will be concerted global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Goal 1. Priority seascapes: Large-scale areas prioritized for investment, management and action should be distant from sources of non-climate related stress, such as those associated with degraded coastal catchments, poor land use practises or uncontrolled urbanisation and development. Given current lack of knowledge regarding stress tolerance and functional roles for most coral reef species, high diversity areas with layers of functional redundancy should be prioritized. Goal 2. Ecosystem approach to management of fisheries and other marine resources: Coordinated governance of marine ecosystems and adjacent terrestrial ecosystems that drive water quality in coastal areas will help to reduce stressors and buffer reefs and fisheries from climate change impacts. Coordinated governance of all marine resource user groups is integral to maintaining regional biodiversity and fish stocks. It will be critical to work concurrently with global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to constrain the magnitude of global warming and ocean acidification below critical ecosystem thresholds. Goal 3. Marine Protected Area networks (MPAs): Placement of MPAs should consider thermal refugia, identified through analyses of current temperature and current patterns. Such regions could become important sources of larvae to replenish degraded reefs. Stewardship of local resources is critical for effective implementation of local MPAs and will depend on socio-economic adaptation of local communities to climate change (see issue paper 7 in this series). Goal 4. Climate change adaptation measures: Management practises cannot accelerate the adaptionofbiologicalsystemstoclimatechange,buttheycanremovehindrancesorbarriersthat would impede adaptation of coral reef populations. Understanding the links between ecosystem healthandbiophysicalstressorsassociatedwithclimatechange,particularlywarmingandacidifying oceans, increasing storm damage and rising sea levels, is critical to the development of new managementapproachesandshouldbeafocusforfutureresearchefforts(seeissuepaper16inthis series).Developmentofmanagementstrategiestocopewithincreasinglyfragilereefstructuresand coralsthatareincreasinglyvulnerabletobleaching,diseaseandpredatoroutbreakswillbecriticalto 41

DRAFTVersion2 the longͲterm persistence of reefͲassociated fish and invertebrate stocks.Towards this end, education programs to help affected communities understand current and projected ecosystem changesduetoclimatechangewillbeessential(seeissuepaper16inthisseries).

Goal5.Improvingthreatenedspeciesstatus:Theidentificationofbiophysicalthresholdsforkey speciesthatunderpinthereefecosystem,aswellasothertropicalcommunitieslikeseagrasses,isa critical knowledge gap that should be addressed with some priority.Coordinated governance arrangementsshouldbedevelopedformigratoryspeciestoimprovethreatenedspeciesstatus.

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Climatechangeimpactsonoceantemperature,chemistryandcirculationarenotreadilyreversible and MPA networks do not address the underlying physical causes of climate change.However, management strategies can contribute to ameliorating the impacts of physical, climateͲrelated changesbymaximisingtheresilienceofreefstothesethreats.Thiscanbestbeachievedthrough coordinated regional governance of marine resources, including an integrated network of MPAs. Such a network, in conjunction with coordinated management of coastal terrestrial regions, will serve to maintain biodiversity, protect areas of refugia, sustainably manage extractive activities, particularlyfishing,andimprovewaterqualitythroughbetterlandͲusepractices.Thebiophysical impacts of climate change also raise significant social and economic concerns, including compromised regional food security and decreased alternative livelihood opportunities through activitieslikeecotourism.Suchimpactswillsignificantlyinfluencethedegreetowhichtheregion’s burgeoninghumanpopulationcanadapt,highlightingtheneedforaneffectiveMPAnetwork.

ExtentofMPAnetworks.ItiscriticalthatfuturemanagementofcoralreefsystemsinCTcountries addressandalleviateclimateandnonͲclimatestressorsinpartnership.ExtensionofanMPAnetwork throughouttheCTregion,inthecontextoflocalvariationsinprojectedclimatechangerisks,will enhancetheresilienceoftheregionasawhole.

DesignofMPAnetworks.MPAscannotprotectreefsfromclimatechange,buttheycanincrease theircapacitytocopewiththeeffectsofclimatechange.Tothisend,thedesignofMPAnetworks mustcomplementregionaleffortsatmaximisingresilienceofthewholeecosystem.MPAsshould conservebiodiversityespeciallyofkeygroups,suchasherbivores,tomaintainthehealthofcoral reefs.Additionally,MPAsshouldbeplacednotonlyinhighlyvisitedsites,butalsoinsitesidentified as important refugia for fish and coral species, for instance thermal refugia where cooler local conditionsprotectagainstmasscoralbleaching.Theidentificationandprotectionofrefugiaiscritical forseedingmoreheavilyimpactedreefs,therebyenhancingtheresilienceofthesystemasawhole.

Implementation and management. Physical stressors resulting from climate change will be exacerbated by anthropogenic use of CT marine resources and reefs, for example: water pollution caused by agricultural, industrial and sewage runoff; overfishing, especially through destructive fishing practices involving cyanide and dynamite; and increased sedimentation and damage to reefs resulting from dredging for commercial developments and shipping access (e.g. Arceo et al. 2002). Hence it is critical that MPA management plans and implementation strategies minimise human-related stressors through the promotion of local 42

DRAFTVersion2 practices that support reef stewardship. Coastal zone management and adaptation programs that provide alternatives to habitat-destroying practices are essential to improve the quality of water flowing onto coral reefs. Ultimately, lobbying countries that are the highest producers of global greenhouse gases to reduce their emissions is the fundamental course of action required to minimise (and potentially reverse) emerging and predicted physical impacts of climate change on coral reef and tropical ecosystems that underpin CT economies.

Backgroundreading

ArceoHO,QuibilanMC,AliŸoPM,LimG,LicuananWY(2002)CoralbleachinginPhilippinereefs: coincidentevidencewithmesoscalethermalanomalies.BulletinofMarineScience69:579Ͳ593

BrunoJF,SeligER,CaseyKS,PageCA,WillisBL,HarvellCD,SweatmanH,MelendyAM.(2007) Thermalstressandcoralcoverasdriversofcoraldiseaseoutbreaks.PLoSBiol.5(6):1Ͳ8

HoeghͲGuldbergO,MumbyPJ,HootenAJ,SteneckRS,GreenfieldP,GomezE,HarvellCD,SalePF, EdwardsAJ,CaldeiraK,KnowltonN,EakinCM,IglesiasͲPrietoR,MuthigaN,BradburyRH,DubiA, HatziolosME(2007)Coralreefsunderrapidclimatechangeandoceanacidification.Science 318:1737Ͳ1742

IPCC,2007:ClimateChange(2007)ThePhysicalScienceBasis.ContributionofWorkingGroupIto theFourthAssessmentReportoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange[Solomon,S.,D. Qin,M.Manning,Z.Chen,M.Marquis,K.B.Averyt,M.TignorandH.L.Miller(eds.)].Cambridge UniversityPress,Cambridge,UnitedKingdomandNewYork,NY,USA,996pp.

JohnsonJEandMarshallPA(editors)(2007)ClimateChangeandtheGreatBarrierReef.Great BarrierReefMarineParkAuthorityandAustralianGreenhouseOffice,Australia,818pp.

Lough,J.M.(2008)ShiftingclimatezonesforAustralia’stropicalmarineecosystems.Geophysical ResearchLetters35,L14708,doi:10.1029/2008GL034634.

Lough,J.M.(inpreparation)WarmingwatersfortheCoralTriangle.

MarshallP,SchuttenbergH(2006)AReefManager’sGuidetoCoralBleaching.GreatBarrierReef MarineParkAuthority,Townsville,63pp

McLeodE,SalmR(2008)ClimatechangeprojectionsandadaptationstrategiesfortheCoralTriangle. WhitepaperpreparedfortheCTISecretariat.

MundayPL,JonesGP,PratchettMS,WilliamsAJ(2008)Climatechangeandthefutureforcoralreef fishes.FishandFisheries9:261Ͳ285.

Neale,R.andJ.Slingo(2003)Themaritimecontinentanditsroleintheglobalclimate:aGCMstudy. JournalofClimate16:834Ͳ848.

DRAFTVersion2

PratchettMS,MundayPL,WilsonSK,GrahamNAJ,CinnerJE,BellwoodDR,JonesGP,PoluninNVC, McClanahanTR(2008)EffectsofclimateͲinducedcoralbleachingoncoralͲreeffishes:ecologicaland economicconsequences.OceanographyandMarineBiology:AnAnnualReviewVol.46,pp.251Ͳ296.

RaymundoLJ,CouchCS,BrucknerAW,HarvellCD,WorkTM,WeilE,WoodleyCM,JordanͲDahlgren E,WillisBL,AebyGS,SatoY(2008)ACoralDiseaseHandbook:GuidelinesforAssessment, MonitoringandManagement.CoralReefTargetedResearchandCapacityBuildingforManagement Program,CurrieCommunications,Melbourne

Someexistingdatasets LoughJM(AustralianInstituteofMarineSciences):AnalysesofseasurfacetemperaturesintheCoral Triangle

Someexistingprojects HaapkylaJ,WillisBL(ARCCoEforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity: Coraldisease prevalenceintheWakatobiMarinePark,Indonesia)

DRAFTVersion2 a. Annual average SST 30.0 2100

2080

2060 29.5 2040

2020

C 29.0 o 1988-2007

28.5 1950-1969

y = 0.0106x + 28.35 R2 = 0.55 28.0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year

2100 b. Annual maximum SST 30.5 2080

2060 30.0 2040 2020

C 29.5 o 1988-2007

29.0 1950-1969 y = 0.011x + 28.87 R2 = 0.50 28.5 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year

29.5 c. Annual minimum SST

2100 29.0 2080

2060 2040 28.5 2020

1988-2007 C

o 28.0 1950-1969

27.5

y = 0.0081x + 27.77 R2 = 0.23 27.0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year Figure1:ObservedSSTvariationsfortheCoralTriangle,1950Ͳ2007(datafromHadlSST)fora) annualaverage,b)annualmaximum,andc)annualminimumSSTs.Dashedlineislineartrend;Grey linesarerespectivemeansfor1950Ͳ1969and1988Ͳ2007illustratingthesignificantwarmingthathas

DRAFTVersion2 alreadyoccurred.RedlinesgiveSSTvaluesfor2020through2100basedonprojectingthe1950Ͳ 2007warmingtrend.

Figure2.Predictedoceanwarmingwillcauseincreasinglyfrequentandmoreseverethermalstress forreefͲassociatedorganismsandcoralsareespeciallyvulnerable.Widespreadmortalityofcorals willhaveflowͲoneffectsforfishandinvertebratesthataredependentoncoralsforhabitatorasa foodsource.Ultimately,healthyreefsmayundergotransitionstodegraded,lowdiversityreefs: A) healthy reef with abundant fish life; B) bleached staghorn corals;C) severely degraded reef undergoingalgalcolonisationofdead staghorncorals.PhotoscourtesyoftheGreatBarrierReef MarineParkAuthority.

Figur

Figure3.Outbreaksofcoraldiseases,suchastheonesshownhere,aremorelikelytooccurwhen summerseatemperaturesriseabovenormalmaxima.A)Whitesyndromecausingtissuelossona platingAcropora.B)BlackbanddiseasecausingtissuelossonaplatingPachyseris.PhotosbyMeir SussmanandMikeFlavell.

Acknowledgements:ManythankstoP.M.Alino,R.Beeden,K.Dobbs,P.MarshallandL.Tanfor theirinput

DRAFTVersion2

9.Threatofclimatechangetofishandfisheries

MorganS.Pratchett1,JohannD.Bell2,PatrickLehodey3,PhilipL.Munday1,andShaunK.Wilson1

4/11/08 Outlineoftheissue Fish and fisheries are fundamental to food security and economic development in the Coral Triangle, and a major goal of the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI) is to promote long-term sustainable fisheries development. However, impacts of climate change on the key habitats that support fisheries (coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grasses), and the direct effects of climate change on fishes, could derail these plans by reducing local abundance and access to important stocks.

The key threats to CTI fisheries from climate change include: Changes to the distribution and abundance of tuna. Within the Coral Triangle, increasing water temperature is expected to lead to declines in abundance of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis). Recent modeling forecasts that skipjack tuna will be increasingly concentrated in the central Pacific as a result of climate change (Figure 1). If so, this will reduce the number and biomass of skipjack tuna within by CTI waters. Degradation of coral reefs and declines in coastal fisheries. Rising sea surface temperatures, combined with increasingly severe storms and ocean acidification, are expected to severely damage coral reef habitats. Degraded coral reefs support a lower abundance and diversity of fishes, which compounds existing pressures on fisheries associated with these ecosystems (e.g., over-exploitation) and further reduces the amount of fish that can be sustainably harvested from coastal waters in CTI countries.

Tonnes of fish per km2

FIGURE 1. a) Estimated distribution and abundance of skipjack tuna in the Pacific in 2000; and b) preliminary modeling of skipjack tuna distribution in 2050; based on the study ‘Forecasts of population trends for two species of tuna under an IPCC scenario’ presented by Lehodey et al. at the international symposium “Effects of Climate Change on World’s Oceans”, Gijon, Spain, 19-23 May 2008.

1ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,TownsvilleQLD4811,Australia. Email:[email protected],Ph.+61747815747. 2SecretariatforthePacificCommunity,BPD5,98848NoumeaCedex,NewCaledonia. 3MarineEcosystemsModelingandMonitoringbySatellitesCLS,SatelliteOceanographyDivision,Toulouse, France 47

DRAFTVersion2

Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis)

RelevancetothedraftCTIPlanofAction A major goal (Goal #2) of the draft CTI plan of action is to implement a multi-national, ecosystem- based management policy for major fisheries resources, recognizing the importance of fish and shellfish in sustaining human populations and supporting economic development throughout the region.

Food fishes – In the Coral Triangle, there is great reliance on fish for food, which mainly centered around coastal fisheries. Fish caught in near-shore habitats, including shallow-water coral reef environments, account for a significant proportion of the seafood consumed in the region (Figure 2). The major families of coastal fish used for food vary within and among countries (Table 1), but many of these stocks are facing over-exploitation. Increasing demands from rapidly growing human populations will only increase the pressure on coastal fisheries.

FIGURE 2. Proportional consumption of fish from different sources for the Solomon Islands, based on national annual per-capita consumption of 7kg of Tuna, 19kg of reef fish,and 6kg of Other other seafood. Data source: 2007 SPC Statistics and Demography Programme - Household Tuna Seafood income and expenditure surveys

TABLE 1. Variation in dominant families of coastal fishes caught within representative areas of the CTI. Data source: Russ et al. 2004, and Dalzell et al. 1996 Location Dominant Family ReefFish Phillipines (Apo) Carangidae (jacks), Acanthuridae (surgeonfish) Northern PNG Mugilidae (mullet) Southern PNG Lethrinidae (emperors) Solomon Is. Lutjanidae (snapper)

Climate change is projected to compound the existing stresses (such as over-exploitation) on coastal fisheries and further limit their capacity to provide the fish required for food security. In particular, increasing water temperatures and acidification are likely to reduce the area and quality of the coral reefs (Figure 3) that underpin much of the coastal fisheries production. Seagrasses, which also provide nursery and feeding habitats for many species, may also be affected. In addition, higher water temperatures are projected to directly affect the physiology and behaviour of coastal fishes, particularly during their early life history. This may lead to declines in abundance or redistribution of fish within the Coral Triangle.

DRAFTVersion2

a) b) c)

FIGURE 3. Healthy coral assemblages (a) are important for sustaining high diversity and abundance of coral reef fishes. Climate- induced coral bleaching (b) leads to structural collapse of the reef habitat (c). The loss of habitat structure provided by intact coral colonies impacts on most reef fishes, including large predatory fishes such as coral trout. Photos: P Marshall (GBRMPA) and SK Wilson

Commercial fisheries – In CTI countries, fisheries commodities produced for export are usually based on: 1. Pelagic oceanic fishes (mainly tuna), 2. Invertebrates collected from coastal habitats (sea cucumbers, trochus, spiny lobsters), and 3. Fishes caught over deep-reef slopes and sea mounts.

The potential benefits of tuna are not fully realized by some of the CTI countries, particularly PNG and Solomon Islands, due to the limited capacity of national fleets and infrastructure. Instead, much of the tuna in the western and central Pacific is caught by large purse seine and longline vessels owned by distant water fishing nations (DWFNs), mainly Japan, Taiwan, Korea and USA (Figure 4). The DWFNs typically pay PNG and Solomon Islands around 3-4% of the landed value of the catch in access fees. In 2001, of the total landed value of fish in the entire western and central Pacific was ~US$2 billion and access fees totaled ~US$60 million.

Increased use of pelagic oceanic fish stocks by CTI countries would be expected to reduce demands on coastal resources, spread the risks of over-exploitation, and provide more revenue for local economic development. A key strategy in facilitating increased access to pelagic resources for both smaller-scale commercial enterprises, and subsistence, may be the deployment of low-cost, anchored Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) in near-shore waters. While the ecological effects of FADs are unknown, it is clear that they provide better access to pelagic fishes in near shore waters

DRAFTVersion2

Figure 4. The percentage of tuna caught (all species combined) in the western and central Pacific by different groups of countries: AU NZ – Australia and New Zealand, PH ID- Philippines and Indonesia, DWFN – Distant water fishing nations, and PICT - Pacific Island Countries and Territories. DATA: Dr John Hampton, Oceanic Fisheries Programme, SPC.

Climate change could impede plans to increase national benefits from tuna by increasing the percentage of the catch taken by local operators. The projected movement of skipjack tuna to the east, as they follow the water temperatures and prey concentrations that optimize their survival and growth, may jeopardize the long-term profitability of national industrial fishing fleets and canneries developed within the CTI.

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation?

An important step in minimizing future effects of climate change on coastal fisheries is to reduce other direct stresses. This means:- i) Reducing and redistributing fishing effort through implementation of effective fishing closures and MPAs, gear restrictions, and/ or quotas on target stocks. This will require effective localized management measures designed to maintain spawning biomass within sustainable bounds. ii) Maintaining critical fish habitats by:

x preventing removal of, or physical damage to, the corals, seagrasses, and mangroves that provide the physically complex habitats that support fish and invertebrates; and

x improving water quality by preventing rubbish and pollutants from entering waterways, and minimizing nutrient inputs from land run-off.

Otheradaptations

DRAFTVersion2

To meet national aspirations to increase the economic benefits from tuna, under the scenario of skipjack tuna moving further east, CTI countries may wish to consider limiting harvests by DWFNs within their Exclusive Economic Zones.

To increase resilience to many of the uncertain effects of climate change on coastal fisheries, countries within the CTI could consider diversifying ways of catching and producing fish, and reducing reliance on highly vulnerable fish stocks. Identifying alternative sources of fish, and innovative ways to meet increasing demands for fish as food (such as low-cost inshore FADs to attract pelagic fish for subsistence and small pond aquaculture), is a critical step in building adaptive capacity to climate change.

Diversification of fisheries will also help sustain those people who rely most heavily on fish as the pressures from population growth and higher fuel costs increase. Vulnerability of coastal communities to the effects of climate change will also be reduced by developing supplies of food, and livelihoods, outside the fisheries sector.

Relevantprojects

The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) is coordinating a major project (with funding from AusAID) to assess the impact of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture in the Pacific. This project will identify the potential threats posed by climate change to fisheries and aquaculture in the region, and the adaptations needed to retain the benefits of fisheries as recognized by the Pacific Islands Framework for Action on Climate Change (PIFACC) 2006-2015. The primary goals of the SPC project are to assess: x Implications of climate change for national and regional plans to optimize the use of fisheries resources for food security, livelihoods and economic growth. x Adaptations and management needed to maintain the benefits of fisheries in the face of climate change; x Regional capacity to forecast and mitigate the effects of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture; and x Priorities for cost-effective development assistance to address the effects of climate change on fisheries. The SPC vulnerability assessment is being coordinated by Dr Johann Bell (Email: [email protected]), with significant contributions by many international scientists including the authors of this paper. It’s outcomes may also be of interest to other CT countries.

Backgroundreading

For information about of these publications, please contact Dr Morgan Pratchett (Email: [email protected])

Bell JD, Kronen M, Vunisea A, Nash WJ, Keeble G, Demmke A, Pontifex S, Andréfouët S (2008) Planning the use of fish for food security in the Pacific. Marine Policy (in press) doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2008.04.002. Lehodey P, Chai F, Hampton J (2003) Modelling climate-related variability of tuna populations from a coupled ocean–biogeochemical-populations dynamics model. Fisheries Oceanography Vol. 12, pp. 483-494. Munday PL, Jones GP, Pratchett MS, Williams A (2008) Climate change and the future of coral reef fishes. Fish and Fisheries Vol. 9, pp. 261-285.

DRAFTVersion2

Pratchett MS, Munday PL, Wilson SK, Graham NAJ, Cinner JE, Bellwood DR, Jones GP, Polunin NVC, McClanahan TR (2008) Effects of climate-induced coral bleaching on coral-reef fishes: ecological and economic consequences. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review Vol. 46, pp. 251-296.

Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) Policy Briefs 1/2008 (Fish and Food Security) and 5/2008 (Fisheries and climate change)

DRAFTVersion2

10.Capacitybuildingformarineresourcemanagementincluding MPAs Foale,S.1,Russ,G.R.2Preston,G.3

4/11/08

Outlineoftheissue ‘Capacitybuilding’isatermthatmeansagreatmanythings.Inthecontextofmarineresource managementitcaninclude1)holdingworkshopsinvillages,2)supportingtalentedenvironmental leadership3)improvingcapacitythroughrestructuringandreformingfisheries,environmentand otherrelevantdepartmentsofnationalandprovincial(orstate)departments,4)teachinglocallyͲ relevantfisheriessciencetoschoolstudents,5)fundingpostgraduatescholarships,6)drafting ‘enablinglegislation’,7)businessmanagementtraining,8)supplyingboats,equipment,trainingand operatingbudgetsformonitoringandenforcement.Whichofthesedifferentapproacheswarrants fundingandsupportbyforeigncapitalwillinevitablyvaryconsiderablyamonglocations,andshould ideallybebasedonrelevantresearchonneedsandgapsinneeds.

TheBigInternationalNonͲGovernmentOrganisations(BINGOs)haveinthepastdevotedsubstantial fundingtovillageͲbasedworkshopͲformat‘awareness’work,andsimilarworkcontinuestobedone bynewerorganisationssuchastheLocallyManagedMarineArea(LMMA)Network.Reefcheck, LMMA,FSPIandotherconservationorganisationsteachlocalpeoplevariousreefresource monitoringmethodsaspartoftheirMPAprograms.

Supportandencouragementforlocalenvironmentalleadershipmaywellturnouttobeoneofthe mostfruitfulinvestmentsincapacityͲbuilding,iftheachievementsofseveralPapuaNewGuineaand SolomonIslandslocalleadersareanythingtogoby.Thefactthatmanyoftheregion’sinspiring leadersworkfortheBINGOsandnotforgovernment(andthatmostofthesewererecruitedfrom governmentdepartments)isaformofbraindrainthatdeservessomediscussion.Anadditional problemisthatwithingovernments,positionsinresourcesectordepartmentssuchasfisheriesand forestryarenotasprestigiousasinothers,suchasforeignaffairs,andtalentedpeopleareoftenlost inthiswayaswell.Shouldfisheries(andforestry)departmentsbesubsidisedbyaidgrantsinan efforttohelpthemretaingoodstaff?GiventhevastlygreatercapacityoftheBINGOstoadequately remuneratetalentedpersonnel,howisthepowerrelationshipbetweenBINGOs,largeregional organisationsandnationalgovernmentslikelytoevolveinthecontextoftheCTI?Whatmightbe theimplicationsforcapacitybuildingandcapacityretentionwithinCTcountries?

GovernancechallengesandinefficiencyhavebothbeensignificantproblemsinPNGandSolomon Islandsfisheriesdepartmentsinthepast.ThePNGNationalFisheriesAuthorityunderwentamajor restructureintheearly2000s,(aformofinstitutionalcapacitybuilding),whichtransformedthe

1ARCCoEforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity:[email protected] 2ProfessorofMarineBiology,DeptofMarineBiology,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellencein CoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity 3Gillett,PrestonandAssociatesInc.(http://gillettprestonassociates.com/):[email protected] 53

DRAFTVersion2 organisationfromonewhichin1999hadanetcosttogovernmentofabout2.5millionkinaper year,toonethat,fouryearslater,generatedaprofitof44millionkina(thefigurefor2007was52 million),mainlythroughimprovedcollectionoffisheryaccessrevenuesAroughlyanalogousNZAidͲ fundedprocess(SIMROS)isunderwayintheSolomonIslandsatpresent,althoughtheprospectsfor suchlargegainsareless,duetothesmallersizeoftheSolomonIslandstunafisheryandthe resourcesonwhichitisbased.

Oneknowledgecapacitygapthathasbeenidentifiedinsomesituationsisunderstandingof processesofstockreplacement;itisalsooneofthekeyunderpinnings(alongwithgovernance problemsatvariouslevels)ofpoorfisherymanagement(Foale2006a,b).IncorporatinglocallyͲ relevantfisherybiologyinformationintothesciencecurriculaofupperprimaryandsecondary schoolsisalongͲtermstrategythatmayyieldsubstantialbenefitsoverthemediumtolongterm.

Fundingofscholarshipsforundergraduateandpostgraduatestudentsoffisherymanagementand integratedcoastalmanagementislikelyalsotobeaproductiveuseofmoney,particularlyforthe smallercountriesoftheCT6.

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? LittleislikelytobeachievedundertheCTIinitiativewithoutacriticalmassofeffectivelocaland nationalsupportineachcountry(e.g.AlcalaandRuss2006).Localsupport,inturn,dependsupon communitiesandtheirleadersunderstandingtheimportanceofanintegratedsystemofmarine resourcemanagementtoolsinpreventingstockcollapseinfisheriesandecosystemdegradationon coralreefs.Theseunderstandingsdependoneducationaswellasadequategovernmentalcapacity atlocal,regionalandnationallevel,aswellasconvincingdemonstrationsoftheeconomicandother benefitsofanyproposedchangestoresourceexploitationarrangements.

Duetothevarietyoflevelsandsituationswithinwhichcapacitymaybeanissue,weconsider developmentofamenuapproachtocapacitybuildingtobeausefulconsideration(coupledwith needs/gapanalyses):

Whattopics?(fromthenaturalandsocialsciencetothelegaltothetechnicaltoprojectand teammanagement)

Whatlevel?(primary,secondary,tertiary,alternative?)

Whatdeliverymechanism?(learningͲbyͲdoing,workshops,lectures/classrooms, combinations)

Whatduration?(weeks,months,years)

Whatlocation?(inͲcountry,overseas,e.g.Australia)

DRAFTVersion2

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Avarietyofcapacitybuildingapproachesismorelikelytobesuccessfulthanone.Strengthening scienceeducationinschoolssothatthecurriculumincludeslocallyrelevantmaterialonfishery biologyandmarineecologywillatleastgenerateasuccessionofcohortsofenvironmentallyaware highschoolgraduateswithinarelativelyshorttime.Asthesepeoplemoveoutintocommunities theywillinevitablycontributetosomeincreasesinconservationbytheirknowledgeofthelimitsto fisheries,andtostockͲrecruitmentprocessesanddynamicsforeconomicallyimportantspecies.They willalsohaveasolidunderstandingoftheimportanceofnonͲspatialandspatialmanagementtools tomaintainingtheproductivityofthesefisheries.Howevertherelationshipbetweenknowledgeand behaviourcanneverbeassumedtobealinearone,andarangeofotherfactors,suchaseconomic pressures,governanceandsocialcohesion,whichalsoinfluencechoicesrelatingtothesustainable orunsustainableuseoffisheries,mustalsobetakenintoaccount.

Sustainedfinancial,trainingandlogisticsupportshouldalsogotothegovernmentfishery departmentsandagenciesoftheCT6,andnotjustto‘communities’,howevertheseareconceived. Innovativeinstitutionalsolutionsmustbefoundtoproblemswithsetting,monitoringandenforcing exportcommodityfisheryregulations,asgovernmentsplayakeyroleinmanagementofthese fisheries.

Backgroundreading Alcala,A.C.andRuss,G.R.(2006).NoͲtakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthe Philippines:Anewpeoplepowerrevolution.Ambio35(6):245Ͳ254. Ausaid(2008).TrackingDevelopmentandGovernanceinthePacific.Canberra,Ausaid:44. http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/pdf/track_devgov.pdf BunceL,TownsleyP,PomeroyR,PollnacR(2000).SocioeconomicManualforCoralReef Management.AIMS,TownsvilleAustralia.264pages http://effectivempa.noaa.gov/docs/socio_manual.pdf(14.6Mb)

Courtney,C.A.,A.T.WhiteandE.Deguit(2002)."BuildingPhilippineLocalGovernmentCapacityof CoastalResourceManagement."CoastalManagement30:27Ͳ45.(contact:[email protected]) Foale,S.J.(2006a)."Theintersectionofscientificandindigenousecologicalknowledgeincoastal Melanesia:implicationsforcontemporarymarineresourcemanagement."InternationalSocial ScienceJournal58(187):129Ͳ137.(contact:[email protected]) Foale,S.J.(2006b).IscoralreefconservationpossiblewithoutscienceeducationinMelanesia?Is scienceeducationpossiblewithoutdevelopment?Proceedings,10thInternationalCoralReef Symposium,Okinawa,JapaneseCoralReefSociety.(contact:[email protected]) Walmsley,S.F.andA.T.White(2003)."Influenceofsocial,managementandenforcementfactors onthelongͲtermecologicaleffectsofmarinesanctuaries."EnvironmentalConservation30(4):388Ͳ 407. 55

DRAFTVersion2

White,A.,E.Deguit,W.JatulanandL.EismaͲOsorio(2006)."Integratedcoastalmanagementin Philippinelocalgovernance:Evolutionandbenefits."CoastalManagement34(3):287Ͳ302.

Someexistingdatasets TheLMMA,whichworksinIndonesia,Philippines,PapuaNewGuinea,andSolomonIslands,post reportsontheirwork(whichincludesvariousformsofcapacitybuilding)here: http://www.lmmanetwork.org/

ReefbasePacificEducationResources:http://www.reefbase.org/pacific/education.aspx

ReefbaseManagementCapacitysearchpage: http://www.reefbase.org/global_database/default.aspx?section=m4

Someexistingprojects FoundationofthePeoplesoftheSouthPacificInternationalhttp://www.fspi.org.fj/

SolomonIslandsMarineResourcesOrganizationalStrengthening(SIMROS)project,fundedbyNZAID from2006Ͳ2009.SIMROSIIisduetofollowonin2009.andSolomonIslandsDiagnosticTrade IntegrationStudy(DTIS)(needcontacthere)

LMMAisalsoanongoingproject(http://www.lmmanetwork.org/)

MahonianaDari:http://www.mahonia.org/marineeducation.htmThisisamarineeducation organisationbasedinKimbeBay,WestNewBritain,PapuaNewGuinea.

GlobalCoralReefMonitoringNetwork(GCRMN):http://www.gcrmn.org/

ReefCheckͲhttp://www.reefcheck.org/

GEFLessonsLearnedProject(contact:[email protected])

ThePhilippineMarineSanctuaryStrategyhasinvolvedaseriesofnationalmultisectoralworkshops andtargetsatleast10%ofmunicipalwatersby2020:http://www.upmsi.ph/midas/docs/ting.pdf

DRAFTVersion2

11.ObjectivesandmultipleǦusezoningforanetworkofMPAsforthe CoralTriangle PMAlino1,LFernandes2,GRRuss3,JMLTan4,JMTanzer5

Draft5/11/08

Outlineoftheissue ThedraftCTIPlanofActionidentifies,asagoal,thedevelopmentofafullyͲfunctional,regionͲwide networkofmarineprotectedareas(MPA).Theseterms,networkandmarineprotectedarea,mean differentthingstodifferentpeople.Toachieveanyobjectives,theMPAnetworkneedstobe developedagainstaclearunderstandingof: a. Whatisintendedbythetermmarineprotectedareaandnetwork b. TheobjectivesoftheMPAnetwork c. Theprioritiesamongstthoseobjectives d. Theavailableprotectionlevels/zoningoptionsthatcanbeappliedindesigningthenetwork(see alsopaperondesigninganMPAnetwork). Withinallthediscussionspresentedinthispaper,weremaincognisantthatevenmultipleͲuse, multipleͲobjectiveMPAsarebutonetoolinthemarineresourcemanagementtoolbox(forexample, seeotherbackgroundpapersonnonͲspatialmanagementtools,humanadaptationtoclimate change,climatechangeandfisheries).

RelevanceoftheissuetothegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanofAction TheCoralTriangleInitiativedraftPlanofActionidentifiesfivegoalsaswellassubordinateobjectives orstrategiesthatwouldbenefitfromafunctionalnetworkofMPAsincludinganecosystem approachtofisheriesmanagement,foodsecurity,betterprotectionofthreatenedspecies,building resilience,includingresiliencetoimpactsofclimatechange,aswelltheMPAnetworkgoalitself. Otherconsiderationsforobjectivesaretodowithdesirabledegreesofrepresentation,resilience, profitability,accesstolocalusersandmore.

Forthepurposesofthisworkshop,anMPAisnotjustanoͲtakearea.Thefollowingisalistofsome ofthekindsofMPAsthatcouldbeusedtohelpachieveacrosstherangeofCTIdraftPlanofAction goals:nogo/noentryareasexceptforscientificresearch;notakeareas;seasonalclosures;other temporalclosures;areaswithgearrestrictionsforvariousreasons(e.g.limitingeffort,limitingbyͲ catch,protectionofthreatenedspecies;protectionofhabitat);local/traditionaluseonly(e.g. 1TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines, [email protected] 2MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0)747251824;[email protected] 3ProfessorofMarineBiology,DeptofMarineBiology,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellencein CoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity 4ViceͲChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 5CoralTriangleFacilitator,AustralianGovernmentDepartmentoftheEnvironment,Water,Heritageandthe Arts,WWFandTheNatureConservancy,[email protected], 57

DRAFTVersion2

LMMAs),tourismonlyorareaswithotherkindsoflimitations(e.g.prohibitinginterferencewith threatenedspecies).Theinternationalstandardforcategorisingprotectedareas,includingmarine protectedareas,encompassesthisrangeofkindsofprotection(seeTablebelow).

IUCN Category Main objective or purpose IA Strict Nature Reserve Managed mainly for science IB Wilderness Area Managed mainly to protect wilderness qualities II National Park Managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation III Natural Monument Managed mainly for conservation of specific natural/cultural features IV Habitat/Species Managed mainly for conservation through management Management Area intervention V Protected Landscape/ Managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation Seascape and recreation VI Managed Resource Managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural Protected Area ecosystems Insomecountries,variousmultisectoralconsultationshaveagreedonacommonbasisofdefinition ofterminologywiththetermMarineProtectedArea(MPA)asagenerictermofprotective management(Whiteetal.2006,Miclatetal.2004)

Analternativewayofconsideringboththedifferentkindsofcategoriesofprotectionandmarine protectedareasistohaveverylargeMPAswithinwhichthereisdifferentlevelsofprotection– otherwiseknownasmultipleͲusezoning.WithinsuchanMPA,noͲtakeareasornoͲtakezones comprisejustpartoftheoverallMPA.TheGreatBarrierReefMarineParkisanexampleofthis. WithintheCTregiontherearealsoexamplesofmultipleusezoningwithinmarineprotectedarea boundariesbutunderthebannerofIntegratedCoastalManagement[ICM].InthePhilippines,for example,thereistheSustainablePhilippineArchipelagicDevelopmentStrategywhichwasone impetusfortheformulationoftheIRRoftheExecutiveOrder533ontheICMinthePhilippines.

DRAFTVersion2

PreviousworksuggeststhatnoͲtakeareascanbeaneffective,ifnotsufficient,partofthesolution toissuesofoverͲfishing.ThefigurebelowshowsthepositiveimpactofnoͲtakeareasuponfish stocksinsidetheprotectedareas,anddatashowingthatfishcatchhasbeenmaintainedor increasedoutsidetheprotectedareas.

Figure:ChangesinbiomasswithinreservesandcatchoutsidereservesinthePhilippines(Alcala& Russ2006) Anetworkofmarineprotectedareas,asdistinctfromlotsofseparateMPAs,canbedefinedas comprisingareasthatareecologicallyconnectedandpossessaselfͲreplenishingfunction(seealso paper#10onconnectivity).

WiththisdefinitionofwhatanMPAnetworkcomprises,explicitidentificationofclearMPAnetwork objectivesagainsttheCTIdraftPlanofActiongoalswillenablebetterdesignofthenetworktohelp achievethesegoals.MPAswithpurelyfisheriesobjectivescouldbedesignedquitedifferentlyto MPAswhoseobjectivesareonlytodowithprotectionofthreatenedspeciesoroverallbiodiversity protection,andsoon.TheMPAnetworktosupporttheCTIdraftPlanofActionwillrequiremultiple objectives.DefiningthoseobjectivesclearlycanthenenableMPAnetworkdesigneffortstofocus onachievingthosemultipleobjectives.

DRAFTVersion2

ObjectivestoconsiderfortheCTIMPAnetworkshouldbedefinedwithconsiderationofthedraft PlanofActionandcouldaddress:

Enhancedprotectionoffisheriesresources Enhancedprotectionofthreatenedspecies Enhancedprotectionofspecies,habitatsandnaturalprocesses Provisionofasafetymarginagainsthumanandnaturaldisturbancesincludingclimate change Maximisingpositiveandminimisenegativeimpactsuponhumanusesandvalues

AnynetworkofMPAswillassistwithdealingwiththreatsandimpactsbutnotsufficeinisolation.A networkofMPAswillprovideapotentiallysignificantlevelofeffectiveresourcemanagementbut mustbedevelopedandimplementedasoneofasuiteofmanagementmeasuresaimedatensuring protectionandsustainableuse.1

WhatistherelevanceofthisissuewithregardtoanMPAnetworkin theCT? InthedesignofanMPAnetworkwithmultipleobjectives,theremaybedesigndecisionswhereby onedesignfavoursobjectiveAoverobjectiveB.Forthesereasons,itisimportantthattherelative priorityofthemultipleobjectivesisexplicit.ThendecisionͲmakerscanaligntheMPAnetwork designagainstthemostimportantMPAobjectives.

Anextstepmightbe,againsteachoftheprioritisedMPAobjectives,identifythetypesofprotection thatmightbemostuseful.Forexample: x Enhancedprotectionoffisheriesresources:notakeareas,limitedfishingareas,controlson destructivefishing,seasonalclosures x Enhancedprotectionofthreatenedspecies:limitsonpracticedthataredestructiveto threatenedspeciesandtheirhabitats(thismayincludenoͲtakeareas) x Enhancedprotectionofspecies,habitatsandnaturalprocesses:notakeareas,areaswithlimited fishingorcontrolsonthoseaspectsoffishingthataredestructivetootherspecies,habitatsand naturalprocesses x Provisionofasafetymarginagainsthumanandnaturaldisturbances:thismaymeanmoreofthe aboveoradditionallowerlevelprotectionbothas“insurance”,and x Maximisingpositiveandminimisingnegativeimpactsuponhumanusesandvalues:noͲtake areas,limitedfishingareas,controlsondestructivefishing,seasonaland/orothertemporal closures,zonesthatseparateconflictinguses.

1Seehttp://www.cbd.int/decisions/?dec=VII/28 60

DRAFTVersion2

GiventhemultipleͲusenatureofMPAsbeingdiscussedhere,theoverallboundaryoftheentiresuite ofMPAscouldbesetquitebroadly,ingeographicterms.Thatis,dothecountrieswishtoconsider theMPAnetworkas:

a) Alargesetofinterlinkedareaswhichhaveavarietyoftypesofprotectionwithinthemor

b) One(orseveral)largearea(s)withinwhichthereismultipleͲusezoning.

Withineachoftheseoptions,theJakartadraftPlanofActionreferstotheneedforaminimum amountofnonͲextractiveareasthatareecologicallylinked.FortheCTI,peaceparksand transboundarynetworksofvariouskindscanbeusedtohelpbuildconfidenceinworkingtogether andthusarecrucialindealingwiththemanygovernancechallenges.

Backgroundreading Abesamis,R.A.andRuss,G.R.(2005).DensityͲdependentspilloverfromamarinereserve:longͲterm evidence.EcologicalApplications15:1798Ͳ1812

Alcala,A.C.andRuss,G.R.(2006).NoͲtakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthe Philippines:Anewpeoplepowerrevolution.Ambio35(6):245Ͳ254. Day,J.C.,Hockings,MandJones,G(2003),‘MeasuringEffectivenessInMarineProtectedAreas– PrinciplesandPractice’,inProcWorldAquaticProtectedAreasCongress,Cairns,2002,publbyAust SocietyofFishBiology,Australia,2003.(contact:[email protected])

Day,J.C.(2002)‘Zoning–LessonsfromtheGreatBarrierReefMarinePark’,inOcean&Coastal Management45(139Ͳ156)(contact:[email protected])

GellF.R.andC.M.Roberts.2002.Thefisheryeffectsofmarinereservesandfisheryclosures.WWFͲ US,WashingtonDC.89pp. http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/wherewework/coastaleastafrica/ceapublications.htmlor http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/globalmarkets/fishing/publications.html

IUCNͲWCPAMarine(2007)“IUCNCategories–TheirApplicationInMarineProtectedAreas’, DiscussionpaperatIUCNWCPAMarineSummit,WashingtonDC, http://groups.google.com/group/wcpamarineͲsummit/web/preparingͲforͲtheͲiucnͲcategoriesͲ summit(seealsoDraftGuidelinesintoolbarontheright)

Miclat,E.andInglesJ.2004.StandardizedTermsandDefinitionsforuseinMarineProtectedArea (MPA)ManagementinthePhilippines.In:ThirdNationalWorkshopontheFormulationofthe PhilMARAST.(contact:[email protected]) OngPS,AfuangLE,RoselleͲAmbalRG(2002)PhilippineBiodiversityConservationPriorities:ASecond iterationoftheNationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan.DENRͲPAWB,CIPhilippines,UPͲCIDS andFPE,QuezonCity,Philippines:113pp.(contact:[email protected])

RussG.R.andAlcalaA.C.(2003)Marinereserves:ratesandpatternsofrecoveryanddeclineof predatoryfish,1983Ͳ2000.EcologicalApplications13:1553Ͳ1565.(contact:[email protected])

DRAFTVersion2

Russ,G.R.andAlcalaA.C.(2004).Marinereserves:longͲtermprotectionisrequiredforfullrecovery ofpredatoryfishpopulations.Oecologia138:622Ͳ627

RussG.R.andAlcalaA.C.(2004)Marinereservebenefitslocalfisheries.EcologicalApplications 14:597Ͳ606

Wells,SandDay,J(2005)‘ApplicationoftheIUCNProtectedAreaManagementCategoriesinthe MarineEnvironment’PARKS14(3):28Ͳ38,IUCN

White,A.,P.AlinoandA.Meneses(2006).CreatingandManagingMarineProtectedAreasinthe Philippines.CebuCity,Philippines.(contact:[email protected])

Existingprojects Day,JCandLaffoley,D.(2007)ChecklistforMPANetworks,IUCNThis‘SelfͲassessmentchecklist’at http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/checklist.pdf

LocallyManagedMarineAreashttp://www.lmmanetwork.org/

PALNetisaknowledgesharingplatformforpeopleworkingonprotectedareas. http://www.parksnet.org/

Acknowledgementsto:JonDayandHughPossinghamforinput.

DRAFTVersion2

12.Connectivityandthedesignofmarineprotectedareanetworksin theCoralTriangle

JonesG.P.1,AblanLagmanM.C.2,AlcalaA.C.3,AlmanyG.R.1,Botsford,L.W.4,DohertyP.J.5,GreenA.6, McCookL.J.7,MundayP.L.1,PlanesS.8,Russ,G.R.1,SaleP.F.9,SteneckR.S.10,ThorroldS.R.11,Treml E.A.12,vanOppenM.J.H.5andWillisB.L.1

5/11/08

Outlineoftheissue Connectivityusuallyreferstolinkagesbetweenpopulationsofmarineplantsandanimalsindifferent places.Moretechnicallyitis“thedemographiclinkingoflocalpopulationsthroughtheexchangeof individualsamongthemaslarvae,juvenilesoradults”(Saleetal.2005).Thetermislooselyusedas anumbrellatermwhichincludesthefullrangefromnoconnectivity(whereallpopulationsare effectivelyisolated=closedpopulations)tohighconnectivity(wheremostoftherecruitmentoccurs throughdispersalamongpopulations=openpopulations).Manycoralreeforganisms,including broadcastspawningcoralsandmostreeffishes,donotmovebetweendistantlocationsasadults, buthaveapelagiclarvalphasethatcanpotentiallytravelvastdistances.However,untilrecently,we hadlittleknowledgeofhowfarlarvaeactuallygo.Theextentofconnectivitycanhaveimportant implicationsthatdeterminethenaturalprocessesthatlimitgrowthofpopulations,theirresilience tonaturalandhumanͲinduceddisturbance,andtheappropriatescaleofmanagement.

Larvalconnectivityisreceivingmorescientificattentionduetoaglobalincreaseincoralreefmarine protectedarea(MPA)networks(Moraetal.2006;Woodetal.2008).NoͲtakemarineprotected areanetworkshavebeenwidelyadvocatedandembracedasoneofthemeanstomanagereefͲ fisheriesandconservecoralreefbiodiversity.MPAnetworksappeartobeparticularlyapplicableto 1SchoolofMarineandTropicalBiology,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCook University,Townsville,4811,Queensland,Australia. 2BiologyDepartment,DeLaSalleUniversityManila,2401TaftAvenue,Manila,Philippines1004 3SillimanUniversityͲAngeloKingCenterforResearchandEnvironmentalManagement(SUAKCREM) DumagueteCity,NegrosOriental6200Philippines 41Dept.ofWildlife,Fish,andConservationBiology,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,OneShieldsAve Davis,CA95616 5AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,PMB3,TownsvilleQLD4810,Australia 6TheNatureConservancy,57EdmonstoneSt,SouthBrisbane,Qld,4101,Australia 7GreatBarrierReefMarineParkAuthority,POBox1379,Townsville,Qld4810,Australia 8CentredeBiologieetd'EcologieTropicaleetMéditerranéenne,UniversitédePerpignan,52Av.PaulAlduyͲ 66860PerpignanCEDEX,France 9UnitedNationsUniversity,175LongwoodRoadSouth,HamiltonOn,L8P0A1,Canada 10SchoolofMarineSciences,UniversityofMaine,DarlingMarineCenter,193ClarksCoveRoad, Walpole,Maine04573,USA 11BiologyDepartmentMS#50,WoodsHoleOceanographicInstitution,WoodsHole,MA0254,USA ,Ph.D. 12WorldWildlifeFundFullerFellow,SchoolofIntegrativeBiology,121GoddardBuilding UniversityofQueensland,St.Lucia,QLD4072Australia 63

DRAFTVersion2 managingthecommunityͲscalefisheriesofdevelopingcountriesthatdependonreefresources (AlcalaandRuss2006)andfortheconservationofhighlydiverseandfragmentedhabitats,where specieslevelmanagementisnotpractical(Jonesetal.2007).Increasesintheabundanceand biomassofexploitedfisheswithinMPAboundariesarewellͲknown.However,itisalsoclearthat MPAnetworksalonecannotprotectnonͲexploitedspeciesfromexternalthreatssuchascoastal pollutionandclimatechange(e.g.Jonesetal.2004).Hence,MPAnetworksneedtobeintegrated witharangeofdifferentapproachestoprotectingcoralreefbiodiversityintheCoralTriangle(CT).

WhilemuchisknownaboutthebenefitsofnoͲtakecoralreefareastopopulationswithintheir boundaries,therearemanyquestionsthatrelatetotheextentofpopulationselfͲreplenishmentand connectivity.ArepopulationswithinindividualnoͲtakeareasselfͲsustainingandthereforeeffectively protected?DonoͲtakeareasexportlarvaeandproviderecruitmentsubsidiestoallreefsbeyond theirboundaries?Andistheresignificantlarvalexchangeamongprotectedpopulationsthatcould enhancetheresilienceoftheoverallnetwork?HowispopulationresilienceinMPAnetworks influencedbyhumanimpactsoncoralreefhealth?Scientistsarestillsearchingfortheanswerstoall ofthesequestionsandsomeoftheirworkisalreadybeingcarriedoutinthecountriesoftheCT(e.g. Jonesetal.2005,Almanyetal.2007,Tremletal.2008).Recentprogressishelpingusunderstand howexistingmarineprotectedareanetworksoperate,andhowMPAnetworkscanbedesignedin thefuturetoachieveparticularmanagementgoals.Aseriesofsixpapersinaspecialthemesection inthejournal“CoralReefs”tobepublishedin2009,provideanupͲtoͲdatesummaryofthecurrent knowledgeofconnectivityincoralreefenvironments(seeAlmanyetal.2009,Botsfordetal.2009, Jonesetal.2009,McCooketal.2009,Mundayetal.2009,Stenecketal.2009).

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action?

Knowledgeofcoralreefconnectivityiscriticaltothefollowinggoalslistedinthedraftmanagement plan.

x Priorityseascapes:Highconservationpriorityshouldbegiventoplacesthatareimportant sourcesoflarvaeandisolatedplacesthatarereliantonselfͲreplenishment.

x Ecosystemapproachtomanagementoffisheriesandothermarineresources:Appropriately sizedandspacedMPAsareonecriticalelementofecosystemmanagement.However,MPA designrequiresknowledgeoflinkagesamongMPAs,linkagesbetweenMPAsandfished areas,andlinkagesbetweenMPAsandadjacentecosystems.MPAnetworksalonearenot sufficientbythemselvesasfisherymanagementtools.

x MarineProtectedAreanetworks(MPAs):Connectivityisacriticalaspectofnetworkdesign, relevanttotheoptimalsize,number,spacingandplacingofnoͲtakeareas.

x Improvingthreatenedspeciesstatus:Knowledgeoflarvalandadultmovementsiscritical fordeterminingthesizeofMPAsdesignedtoactassanctuariesforthreatenedspecies.

DRAFTVersion2

Toachievethisknowledge,asignificantincreaseinthelevelofscientificresearchintheCTregion willberequired.TheCTcoralreefsarediverseandcomplexecosystems,andtofullyunderstand connectivity,weneedinformationonmorespeciesatmoreplacesandatmoretimes.Nosingle approachtostudyingconnectivitywillprovidealltheanswers.Werecommendthesupportof collaborativeprojectsthatcanapplyarangeofdifferentapproaches,includingbiophysical modelling,genetics,andadultandlarvaltagging.Theseprojectswillbemostsuccessfulifthey incorporateinͲcountryexpertise,localcommunitiesandknowledgeintothescientificprocess.

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation?

Wepropose10guidelinesforMPAnetworkdesigntomaximisethebenefitsofnoͲtakeMPAsfor sustainableharvestingandbiodiversityconservation,basedoncurrentknowledgeandexpert opinionconcerninglarvalretention,connectivityandpopulationresilience.Notethatwhileeach recommendationshouldbeviewedasanultimategoal,significantbenefitscanbeachievedby settinginterimtargets.Also,itisnotnecessarytoaddressall10guidelinesatoncetoachieve significantbenefits.WestressthatknowledgeofCTcoralreefconnectivityisincompleteand scientificopinionvaries.Theseguidelineswillbesubjecttochangeasnewinformationisobtained.

(1)Aimfor~30%oftotalreefareainnoͲtakeMPAs.Thisshouldensureadequateprotectionof spawningstocksinsideMPAs,sufficient%retentionoflarvaeforpersistencewithinMPAs,and sufficientlarvalexporttosupplementadjacentfishedareasandotherMPAs.Approachthisgoalby settinginterimtargetsandevaluatethebenefits.

(2)ManagelargeexploitedspeciesoutsideMPAs.Traditionalcatchquotas,sizelimitsandgear restrictionsarenecessarybecauselarvalsubsidiesfromMPAstoallfishedareascannotbe guaranteed.Gearrestrictionsarenecessarytoreduceimpacts,forexample,onbyͲcatchof threatenedspeciesoutsideMPAs.

(3)EstablishrepresentativeMPAsindifferent“bioregions”.Connectivityamong“bioregions” (biologicallyandphysicallydistinctareas)isexpectedtobelow.Therefore,eachbioregionmustbe partiallyrepresentedinMPAnetworkstosustainbiodiversity.

(4)EstablishmanyMPAsratherthan1largeMPAineach“bioregion”.OnelargeMPAcannot providerecruitmentsubsidiestoallfishedareas.SeveralMPAsminimisestheriskofanyone disturbanceaffectingallreefinMPAs.AlargenumberofsmallerMPAsisalsofarmorepractical, sincelocalcommunitiesaremorelikelytoacceptsuchadesign.

(5)DeliberatelyvarythesizeofindividualMPAs.Thiswilltakeaccountofnaturalvariationin populationsizesanddispersaldistanceswithinandamongspecies,soasbothlarvalretentionwithin MPAs,andlarvaldispersalfromMPAsintofishedareascanbeachieved.TherehasbeennoMPA thathasbeentoosmalltoprovidesomebenefitswithinboundaries.However,smallMPAsmaynot adequatelyprotectlargemobileanimals.

DRAFTVersion2

(6)DeliberatelyvarythespacingbetweenMPAs.Thiswilltakeaccountofnaturalvariationin dispersaldistanceswithinandamongspecies,contributingtobothconnectivityamongMPAsand dispersalintofishedareas.

(7)PrioritysitesforMPAs:(a)Remotelocations>20kmfromnearestotherreefhabitat,especially offͲshoreislands.(b)Uniqueplaceswithdistinctiveassemblagesofanimalsorplants.(c)Sites frequentlyusedbythreatenedspeciesand/orhotspotsforendemicspecies.(d)Larvalsourcesand upͲstreamsiteswithunusuallyhighcurrents.(e)Sitesknowntoberesilienttobleachingandother disturbances.

(8)MatchscaleofMPAnetworkstothescaleofhumancommunities.Larvalretentionshouldbe sufficientforlocalcommunitiestobenefitdirectlyfromtheirownMPAs,whichwillencourage complianceandexpansionofMPAnetworks.EnsurelocalcommunitiesinvolvedwithMPAdecision makingandenforcement.

(9)EvaluateMPAeffectivenessforfishedspeciesandbiodiversity.Quantitativemonitoringofcoral cover,fishandinvertebrateabundance(insideandoutsideMPAs)andcatch(outsideMPAs)is essentialtoassesswhetherMPAsareachievingtheirgoals,andasabasisforadaptivemanagement. Wherepossible,linkimplementationofMPAnetworkswithconnectivityresearch.

(10)LinkcoastalMPAdesignwithcoastalterrestrialreservesandlandmanagement.MPAswillbe ineffectiveinprotectingmarinebiodiversitywherecoralreefsarebeingdegradedfromcoastal pollution,sedimentationandotherexternalinfluences.

Backgroundreading

AlcalaAC,RussGR(2006)NoͲtakemarinereservesandreeffisheriesmanagementinthePhilippines: Anewpeoplepowerrevolution.Ambio35:245Ͳ254.Availablefrom[email protected]

AlmanyGR,BerumenML,ThorroldSR,PlanesS,JonesGP(2007)Localreplenishmentofcoralreef fishpopulationsinamarinereserve.Science316:742Ͳ744.Availablefrom [email protected]

AlmanyGR,ConnollySR,HeathDD,HoganJD,JonesGP,McCookLJ,MillsM,PresseyRL,Williamson DH(2009)Connectivity,biodiversityconservation,andthedesignofmarinereservenetworksfor coralreefs.CoralReefs(specialissue).Availablefrom[email protected]

BotsfordLW,CoffrothMͲA,JonesGP,ParisCB,PlanesS,ShearerTL,ThorroldSR,WhiteJW(2009) MeasuringconnectivityandestimatingresilienceofcoralreefmetapopulationsinMPAs:matching empiricaleffortstomodellingneedsCoralReefs(specialissue).Availablefrom [email protected]

JonesGP,McCormickMI,SrinivasanM,EagleJV(2004)Coraldeclinethreatensfishbiodiversityin marinereserves.ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofScience101:8251Ͳ8253.Availablefrom [email protected]

DRAFTVersion2

JonesGP,PlanesS,ThorroldSR(2005)Coralreeffishlarvaesettleclosetohome.CurrentBiology 15:1314Ͳ1318.Availablefrom[email protected]

JonesGP,SrinivasanM,AlmanyGR(2007)Populationconnectivityandconservationofmarine biodiversity.Oceanography20:100Ͳ111.Availablefrom[email protected]

JonesGP,AlmanyGR,RussGR,SalePF,SteneckRR,vanOppenMJH,WillisBL(2009)Larvalretention andconnectivityamongpopulationsofcoralsandreeffishes:history,advancesandchallenges. CoralReefs(specialissue).Availablefrom[email protected]

McCookLJ,AlmanyGR,DayJ,GreenA,JonesGP,LeisJM,PlanesS,RussGR,SalePF,ThorroldSR (2009)Managementunderuncertainty:guideͲlinesforincorporatingconnectivityintothe protectionofcoralreefs.CoralReefs(thisissue).Availablefrom[email protected]

MoraC,AndréfouëtS,CostelloMJ,KranenburgC,RolloA,VeronJ,GastonKJ,MyersRA(2006)Coral reefsandtheglobalnetworkofmarineprotectedareas.Science312:1750Ͳ1751.

MundayPL,LeisJM,LoughJM,ParisCB,KingsfordMJ,BerumenML,LambrechtsJ(2009)Climate changeandcoralreefconnectivity.CoralReefs(specialissue).Availablefrom [email protected]

SalePF,CowenRK,DanilowiczBS,JonesGP,KritzerJP,LindemanKC,PlanesC,PoluninNVC,RussGR, SadovyYJ,SteneckRS(2005)CriticalsciencegapsimpedeuseofnoͲtakefisheryreserves.Trends EcolEvol20:74Ͳ80.Availablefrom[email protected]

SteneckRS,AblanLagmanMC,AlcalaA,ArnoldSN,ButlerM,McCookLJ,ParisCB,RussGR,SalePF (2009)Thinkingandmanagingoutsidethebox:CoalescingconnectivitynetworkstobuildregionͲ wideresilienceincoralreefs.CoralReefs(specialissue).Availablefrom[email protected]

TremlEA,HalpinPN,UrbanDL,PratsonLF(2008)Modelingpopulationconnectivitybyocean currents,agraphͲtheoreticapproachformarineconservation.LandscapeEcology23:19Ͳ36. Availablefrom[email protected]

WoodLJ,FishL,LaughrenJ,PaulyD(2008)Assessingprogresstowardsglobalmarineprotection targets:shortfallsininformationandaction.Oryx42:340Ͳ351

Someexistingprojects

(1)JointARCCentreofExcellence(JCU)andTheNatureConservancy(Brisbane)projectinKimbeBay (PNG),includingthedesignofanMPAnetworkinrelationtopatternsoflarvalconnectivity(Contact G.Jones[email protected]orA.Green[email protected])

(2)JointARCCentreofExcellence(JCU)andTheNatureConservancy(Brisbane)projectatManus Island(PNG)fundedbyUSͲbasedNationalFishandWildlifeFoundation.ThisprojectusesbariumͲ markingmethodologytotagthelarvaeatspawningaggregationsites.(ContactG.Almany [email protected]orR.Hamilton[email protected]) 67

DRAFTVersion2

(3)WoodsHoleOceanographicInstitute,PackardFoundationfundedprojectondirectestimatesof connectivityinPNGusinglarvalmarkingandgeneticanalyses.(ContactS.Thorrold [email protected])

(4)ARCCentreofExcellence(JCU)andSUAKCREMprojectintheBohalSea,Philippines,including thedesignofanMPAnetworkinrelationtopatternsoflarvalconnectivity(ContactG.Russ [email protected])

(5)WorldWildlifeFullerFellowshipprojectfocusingRegionalMarineConservation:Merging seascapegeneticsandbiophysicalmodelingwithinagraphͲtheoreticframework.(ContactETreml [email protected])

(6)ARCDiscoveryGranttoE.Treml,H.Possingham&C.Riginos:Coralreefconnectivity:anempirical andtheoreticalsynthesis.(ContactETreml[email protected])

(7)PIREͲNSFGranttoE.Treml,K.Carpenter,P.Barber,P.Halpin:OriginsofHighMarineBiodiversity intheIndoͲMalayͲPhilippineArchipelago:TransformingaBiodiversityHotspotintoaResearchand EducationHotspot(ContactETreml[email protected])

DRAFTVersion2

13.Incorporatinginformationaboutmarinespeciesofconservation concernandtheirhabitatsintoanetworkofMPAsfortheCoral Triangleregion

Mark Hamann1, Michelle Heupel2, Vimoksalehi Lukoschek2, Helene Marsh1. (alphabetical order). 1School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University Townsville, 4811, Australia; 3Dept. Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.

5/11/08

Emailcontacts:[email protected],[email protected],[email protected], [email protected]

Outlineoftheissue Introduction:

The conservation status of a species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species continuing to exist either now or in the near future. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species produced by the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union of the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the best-known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. The IUCN Red List System lists the status of species at a global scale. Species are classified as threatened if they are listed as ‘Critically Endangered’, ‘Endangered’ or ‘Vulnerable’ by the IUCN or a similar system operating at a national scale. However, the information about many species occurring in the Coral Triangle is insufficient for their conservation status to be assessed. Such species are typically classified as ‘Data Deficient’. A ‘Data Deficient’ categorisation does not mean that the species is not threatened, but indicates that more research is needed for its status to be determined. The Global Marine Species Assessment, which began in late 2005, is the first global review of the threat of extinction for every marine vertebrate species, plants and selected invertebrates. The project involves a range of partners in compiling and analyzing all existing data on approximately 20,000 marine species, and will determine the risk of extinction according to the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria.

The term ‘species of conservation concern’ is more inclusive than the term ‘threatened species because it includes ‘Data Deficient’ species. In this briefing, we have concentrated on four groups of species of conservation concern: sharks and rays, sea snakes, marine turtles, and marine mammals.

These species have similar characteristics that need to be recognised for management, including their: x high social, cultural and economic values x vulnerability not only to short-term or acute impacts, but also to cumulative or chronic impacts; x high levels of mobility, requiring management efforts to be mounted at local, State, national, and international levels to ensure protection throughout their ranges; x slow rate of natural increase so that recovery is slow and increases in numbers take many decades to detect. 69

DRAFTVersion2

These characteristics increase the management challenge because it will be difficult to determine whether the Goal of the Coral Triangle Initiative ‘Threatened species status improved’ is being achieved in a management timeframe. In addition, there is considerable controversy about the effectiveness of using high profile species of conservation concern as a basis for designing marine protected areas. Nonetheless, because of their high social values they can be useful flagship species for the Initiative. In addition, marine protected areas are increasingly used as a tool to conserve marine megafauna especially the groups considered here.

Biodiversity significance within the Coral Triangle (CT) of marine species of conservation concern:

Sharks and Rays The Coral Triangle supports hundreds of species of sharks and rays and is an important global centre of endemism and a hotspot of shark and ray diversity. The fauna includes several iconic species including manta rays, whale sharks and reef sharks (grey reef, blacktip reef, whitetip reef). The life history strategies of sharks and rays makes them vulnerable to over-exploitation In addition, many of the species that are harvested in artisinal and commercial fisheries are poorly known or studied; some species have yet to be formally described. This lack of data combined with limited fisheries management renders these populations highly susceptible to over-exploitation and possible extinction.

Sea Snakes Sea snakes occur exclusively in the Indo-West Pacific region. The Coral Triangle supports the highest sea snake species diversity in the world. Over two-thirds of the world’s ~90 sea snake species occur in the region including all four major evolutionary sea snake lineages, each the result of an independent invasion of the marine environment. All sea snake species rely on shallow-water, near-shore habitats including coral reefs, inter-reefal rocky and soft sediment habitats, mangroves and estuaries, making them vulnerable to habitat loss and destruction. Very few studies have been conducted on sea snakes, and most published work has taken place in Australia. These studies indicate two important factors of conservation concern: (1) sea snake abundances has declined significantly at two locations where long-term surveys have been conducted: Ashmore Reef Region in the Timor Sea and the Swain Reefs in the southern Great Barrier Reef; (2) sea snake populations tend to be highly aggregated. Recent genetic studies indicate limited genetic connectivity (dispersal) among populations, suggesting that local populations will not easily recolonize if they become extinct. In February 2009, all sea snake species will be assessed for their threat of extinction for the first time under IUCN Red List Criteria. It is anticipated that some Australian endemic species will be listed as threatened and that many species that occur in the Coral Triangle will be listed as Data Deficient.

Marine Turtles The Coral Triangle contains globally significant nesting, foraging, migration and courtship areas for four of the world’s seven species of sea turtles: green, hawksbill, leatherback, olive ridley turtles and marginal foraging area for two other species: the flatback and loggerhead turtles. The region also encompasses >90% of nesting habitat for the PNG/Indonesia/Solomons leatherback population. At least five distinct populations of green turtles have 100% of their rookeries in the Coral Triangle, along with several minor rookeries that have not been sampled for genetics. Hawksbill and olive ridley nesting also occurs in the region. Migration paths for sea turtles through the Coral Triangle area are well documented for each of the turtle species nesting in the region. Nesting populations of green turtles in the region have declined by over 80% in some areas. Similarly, nesting hawksbill populations have declined by as much as 90% in areas such as Indonesia and the Solomon Islands. No data exists on foraging turtles in the CT and hence population characteristics such as sex ratios, growth and survivorship are not known. There is still much data lacking on population trends throughout the region for all species. The current global population status according the IUCN Red List follows: 70

DRAFTVersion2

Green turtles – Endangered Hawksbill turtles – Critically Endangered Olive Ridley turtles – Vulnerable Leatherback turtles – Endangered

Marine Mammals The Coral Triangle supports a diverse marine mammal fauna; more than 30 species of marine mammals spend at least parts of their lives in the region. Almost all of these animals are members of the order Cetacea—whales and dolphins. The cetacean fauna includes at least six species of great whales: blue, Bryde’s, fin, humpback, minke and sperm and more than 20 species of oceanic and coastal dolphins and small whales. The region also supports populations of one member of the order Sirenia (sea cows), the dugong, Dugong dugon. It is likely that some of the coastal species of marine mammals that occur in the Coral Triangle are genetically distinct from populations in other regions. There may also be different genetic stocks on either side of the Timor Trench. e.g. the Irrawaddy dolphin occurs in Indonesian waters of the Coral Triangle while a sister species, the Australian snubfin dolphin occurs in Australian waters and possibly those of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands; the stocks of dugongs that occur in Australian waters are genetically distinct from those that occur in Indonesian waters. The marine mammals of greatest conservation concern in the Coral Triangle are the coastal species, many of which are listed by the IUCN as ‘Data Deficient’. Some other species are listed as threatened e.g. the Malampaya Sound ‘subpopulation’ of the Irrawaddy dolphin is now officially assessed and listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN; the dugong is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ by the IUCN at a global scale.

Threats to marine species of conservation concern in Coral Triangle region: The species groups of conservation concern considered here are subject to similar threats including: x Direct harvest x Fisheries bycatch x Habitat loss/destruction x Climate Change x Lack of sufficient data regarding their taxonomic identity and population status.

In addition, the following are threats specifically for sea kraits (a type of sea snake) and marine turtles because they have to come on land to lay eggs: x Direct harvest of adults on nesting beaches (legal/illegal) x Direct harvest of eggs x Predation of eggs by both native and introduced species

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Goal 5 of the draft CTI Plan of Action states that targeted threatened species are no longer declining, and by a certain date, their status is no longer threatened. The first step towards achieving this goal should be to complete assessments to ascertain which species are present in the region and require protection. This could involve a compilation of all the most up-to-date information to: x Document the distribution and abundance of populations and species in the region; x Identify key locations or habitats that require protection; x Document the roles of the species, especially the top predators such as sharks and odontocete cetaceans, in the ecosystem and evaluate the ecosystem consequences of the depletion of their stocks on local production; x Evaluate the nature of the different threats and their impacts on different species and populations;

DRAFTVersion2

x Develop strong legislative, policy, and regulatory frameworks for EAFM (Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management) x Establish a fully functioning region-wide Coral Triangle MPA Network (CTMPAN); x Complete and implement an Early Action Climate Adaptation Plan for near-shore marine and coastal environments; x Develop conservation plans for the various species of conservation concern; x Embed these conservation plans for megafauna into an ecosystem management plan. It should be noted that because of the longevity of marine reptiles, marine mammals and sharks/rays, the ability to assess their status as ‘no longer threatened’ can take many decades so indicators of recovery may need to be developed to ensure populations are recovering to the desired goal.

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? Several important lessons were learned during the recent process which established an ecosystem wide system of no-take marine protected areas in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. (1) The use of the best available science to inform decisions and identify areas important to species is crucial. (2) A close working relationship between managers working in different jurisdictions is essential to identify priority nesting/breeding/foraging/migratory areas to ensure complementary zoning arrangements are put in place. This approach requires open communication and a trusting relationship between jurisdictions and across regions. (3) Community acceptance of the value of protecting the habitats of threatened species is a key aspect of successful zoning. A prioritized list of sites based on the best available scientific information will help the community to understand that not all locations are equal and hence greater protection is required in certain areas. (4) A balance must be sought between social and economic values held by stakeholders within the zoning region. This balance will be particularly important in the Coral Triangle because of the issues of food security.

It will not be feasible to protect the entire distribution of large, wide-ranging species of conservation concern in the Coral Triangle, but identification and protection of multiple sites, each of which consistently supports relatively high densities of the target species may provide ‘safe havens’ for these populations. It will be most effective to try to protect animals at a point in their life when they are highly vulnerable. Most of the species of conservation concern considered here are most vulnerable to adult mortality. It is also important to provide protection during periods when large numbers of individuals are present and easily targeted by fishers e.g. breeding aggregations. The designation of closure areas should be based on available data from the Coral Triangle region and from studies of the same or similar species in other regions. Protected areas should include multiple habitat types (e.g. inshore mangrove areas, seagrass beds, coral reef, nesting beaches etc) to ensure as many populations/life stages benefit as possible. Regions should be as large as possible to allow for movement of larger individuals, but should be placed in areas where enforcement is possible/probable to ensure their protection. Grech and Marsh (2008) developed a rapid approach to assess the risk to species of conservation concern in a region and evaluate options to ameliorate that risk. This approach relies on expert opinion and is a useful tool in data poor environments such as the Coral Triangle.

While MPAs are integral to species conservation, they are but one tool in the toolbox. Management actions should not rely solely upon highly protected areas for conserving species of conservation concern. The range of human-related mortality factors directly and indirectly affecting threatened species must be considered and appropriate actions undertaken to minimize these specific impacts 72

DRAFTVersion2 upon depleted populations. For example, as Foale et al. (this volume) have pointed out given ‘the vulnerability of the shark fishery it may be wiser to consider some kinds of moratoria until more reliable fishery monitoring and management regimes can be developed and implemented. Moratoria have already been applied to commodity fisheries in Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Tonga in response to severe over-fishing’.

Backgroundreading General

GlobalMarineSpeciesAssessmenthttp://sci.odu.edu/gmsa/

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species http://www.iucnredlist.org/

Sharks/rays Cavanagh, R.D., Kyne, P.M., Fowler, S.L., Musick, J.A., and Bennett, M.B. 2003. Conservation Status of Australian Chondrichthyans: Report of the IUCN Shark Specialist Group Australia and Oceania Regional Red List Workshop. 170 pp. University of Queensland – School of Biomedical Sciences, Brisbane, Australia. In PDF at: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/organizations/ssg/ssgpubs.htm

Last PR and Stevens JD 1994. Sharks and Rays of Australia. CSIRO, Australia.

Robbins WD, Hisano M, Connolly SR and Choat JH 2006. Ongoing collapse of coral-reef shark populations. Current Biology 16: 2314-2319.

Roberts CM 2000. Selecting marine reserve locations optimality versus opportunism. Bulletin of Marine Science 66: 581-592.

Stevens JD, Bonfil R, Dulvy NK and Walker PA 2000. The effects of fishing on sharks, rays and chimaeras (chondrichthyans), and the implications for marine ecosystems. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57: 476-494.

White WT, Last PR, Stevens JD, Yearsley GK, Fahmi and Dharmadi 2006. Economically Important Sharks and Rays of Indonesia. ACIAR Publishing, Canberra.

Sea Snakes Lukoschek, V., Heatwole, H., Grech, A., Burns, G. and Marsh, H. (2007) Distribution of two species of marine snakes, Aipysurus laevis and Emydocephalus annulatus, in the southern Great Barrier Reef: metapopulation dynamics, marine protected areas and conservation. Coral Reefs 26: 291-307

Lukoschek, V., Waycott, M. & Marsh, H. (2007) Phylogeography of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis (Hydrophiinae) indicates recent Pleistocene range expansion but low contemporary gene flow. Molecular Ecology 16: 3406-3422

Guinea ML (2007) Sea snakes of Ashmore Reef, Hibernia Reef and Cartier Island with comments on Scott Reef Dept. Environment, Heritage & Arts: Final Report Survey 2007, 1-20, unpublished.

Alcala AC, Maypa JP, Russ GR (2000) Distribution of the turtleheaded sea snake Emydocephalus sp. on coral reefs of the central Philippines. UPV Journal of Natural Sciences 5: 27-32.

DRAFTVersion2

Lukoschek, V. & Livingstone, S. (2008) Extinction risk of sea snakes to be assessed under IUCN Red List Criteria Reef Encounters 37: (In Press)

Marine Turtles Abreu-Grobois A and Plotkin P (2006) 'Marine turtle recovery group 2006 red list status assessment, olive ridley turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea.' Report to the IUCN SSC.

Dobbs K, Fernandes L, Slegers S, Jago B, Thompson L, Hall J, Day J, Cameron D, Tanzer J, Macdonald F, Limpus C. Incorporating marine turtle habitats into the marine protected area design for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Pacific Conservation Biology 2007; 13:293-302.

Hamann, M., Limpus, C., Hughes, G., Mortimer, J. and Pilcher, N. (2006) 'Assessment of the conservation status of the leatherback turtle in the Indian Ocean and South East Asia.' (IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU Secretariat: Bangkok).

Limpus, C. (1997) Marine Turtle Populations of South-East Asia and the Western Pacific Region: Distribution and Status. In 'Proc. of Works. on Marine Turtle Res. and Manage. in Indonesia. East Java, Indonesia, Nov. 1996, Wetlands International/PHPA/EA, Bogor'. (Eds Y. Noor, I. Lubis, R. Ounsted, S. Troeng and A. Abdullah).

Mortimer, J. and Donnelly, M. (2007) 'Marine turtle recovery group 2007 red list status assessment, hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata.' Report to the IUCN SSC.

Seminoff, J (2002) 'Marine turtle recovery group 2002 red list status assessment, green turtle, Chelonia mydas.' Report to the IUCN SSC.

Marine Mammals

Dobbs K, Fernandes L, Slegers S, Jago B, Thompson L, Hall J, Day J, Cameron D, Tanzer J, Macdonald F, Marsh H, Coles R. Incorporating dugong habitats into the marine protected area design for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Queensland, Australia. Ocean and Coastal Management 2008; 51:368-375.

GBRMPA (2000). Whale and dolphin conservation in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park: policy document. (GBRMPA: Townsville.) Available at http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/misc_pub/whale_dolphin downloaded on March 17 2008.

Grech A, and Marsh H. (2007) Prioritising areas for dugong conservation in a marine protected area using a spatially explicit population model. Applied GIS. 3(2), 1 14.

Grech, A., and Marsh, H. (2008) Rapid assessment of risks to a mobile marine mammal in an ecosystem-scale marine protected area, Conservation Biology 22: 711-720.

Grech, A., Marsh, H. and Coles,R. (2008) Using spatial risk assessment to evaluate and address the problem of marine mammal bycatch. Aquatic Conservation

IUCN (2008) IUCN Red List for cetaceans in 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.iucnredlist.org/

Marsh, H. 2006. Dugong dugon. In: IUCN 2007. 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. . 74

DRAFTVersion2

Marsh H. (2008) Marine mammals. In Hutchings. P., Kingsford, M. and Hoegh Guldberg, O. A Field guide to the Great Barrier Reef. CSIRO Publishing.

Marsh H, Penrose, H., Eros, C. and Hugues, J. (2002). Dugong : status reports and action plans for countries and territories. United Nations Environment Programme. Early Warning and Assessment Report Series 1, 162pp.

Perrin W.F., Reeves R.R., Dolar M.L.L., Jefferson T.A., Marsh H., Wang J.Y., and Estacion, J. (2005). Report of the Second Workshop on the Biology and Conservation of Small Cetaceans and Dugongs of South-East Asia. CMS Technical Series Publication No. 9. UNEP/CMS Secretariat, Bonn, Germany.

Someexistingdatasets Sharks/rays The most informed individual to contact regarding shark issues is Dr. William White at CSIRO in Hobart. ([email protected]) There are few or no data sets for most species.

Sea Snakes There are currently no existing datasets that will be directly relevant to designing a network of MPAs in the CT region. The 2009 IUCN Red List assessment of sea snakes will produce the most up-to-date and complete dataset on the status of sea snakes in the CTI region (Dr Suzanne Livingstone, [email protected]).

Marine Turtles x SEAFDEC Marine turtle database for Philippines, Indonesia & Malaysia x IOSEA & CMS IMAPS database of nesting sites and migration paths x Malaysian state fisheries agencies (Sabah) turtle tagging database x Philippines Government’s turtle tagging database x Indonesia Government department’s turtle tagging database (Contact: [email protected])

Marine Mammals Marsh et al. (2002) and Perrin et al.(2005) provide useful if rather dated overviews of the information available for coastal species of marine mammals. For more information contact: [email protected]

Someexistingprojects Sea Snakes There are several existing projects that are relevant to sea snakes and MPAs in the CTI. An IUCN workshop in Brisbane 2009 will assess extinction risk of all sea snake species against Red List Criteria. V. Lukoschek, A. Lane and K. Sanders are three of a team of advising sea snake experts. Contacts: [email protected]

Marine Turtles Considerable work is being undertaken in the Coral Triangle and globally looking at many of the issues. Where projects are complete and outputs, results and lessons learned are available in references and datasets they have been referenced in the above sections on “Background reading” or

DRAFTVersion2

“Datasets”. Some projects are ongoing and the deliverables are not easily accessible and could be pursued via websites, personal contacts etc.. For example a SEAFDEC funded/coordinated project is investigating the genetic population structure for hawksbill turtles and completion of the green turtle genetic projects (some of which are relevant to the Coral Triangle region). Results should be available in late 2008/early 2009. A ‘Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their habitats in the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia’ has been signed under the convention on Migratory Species. A dedicated secretariat that has been established to coordinate activities under the MoU can be contacted by emailing [email protected].

Marine Mammals There is considerable work being undertaken in the Coral Triangle and globally considering many of the issues relevant to this initiativeThere are many ongoing projects and Action Plans are being developed e.g. Action Plan for Dugong Conservation in Indonesia being coordinated by Hans de Iongh ([email protected]). The Ocean Park Conservation Foundation in Hong Kong funds many of these projects and could potentially provide a useful overview. A ‘Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Dugongs (Dugong dugon) and their habitats throughout their Range’ has been signed under the convention on Migratory Species. A dedicated Secretariat has yet to be established. Contact should be made by emailing [email protected].

Acknowledgments The assistance of Kristen Weiss and the input from Porfirio M. Alino, Kirstin Dobbs, and Lory Tan is gratefully acknowledged.

DRAFTVersion2

14.DesigninganetworkofMPAsfortheCoralTriangle PMAlino1,LFernandes2,EGame3,AGreen4,HPossingham5,BPressey6,JMLTan7

5/11/05

Outlineoftheissue Todevelopafullyfunctional,regionͲwidenetworkofmarineprotectedareasthatare comprehensive,adequate,ecologicallyrepresentativeanddesignedtoaddressthethreatofclimate change,asdesiredinthedraftCTIPlanofAction,thefirststepistodevelopconcretedesign principles(sometimecalled“operational”principles).Theseprinciplescouldincludeasetof biophysicaldesignprinciplesandasetofsocioͲeconomic,culturalandmanagementfeasibility designprinciples.Theycanbebestdevelopedagainstaclearunderstandingof: e. TheobjectivesofyourMPAnetwork f. Theprioritiesamongstthoseobjectives g. Theavailableprotectionlevels/zoningoptionsthatcanbeappliedindesigningthenetwork.

Anotherpaper(11)hasdiscussedissuesaroundMPAnetworkobjectives,prioritiesandzoning optionsandprovidesoneimportantbasisforthispaper.Manyoftheotherpapershavediscussed issuesthatneedtobeaddressedindevelopingoperationalprinciples.

WhilemuchliteratureandadviceaboundsingeneraltermsforMPAdesign,thereislessonMPA networksandlessthatisconcreteintermsofhowmuch,howfar,howmany,howbigandwhere(in termsofbiodiversity,habitats,usesetc).FurthermoremostoftheseissuesconcernstradeͲoffs,for exampletheoptimalecologicalsizeofamarinereservesystemmaynotbeconsistentwithother socioͲeconomicobjectives.Butevenfordatapoorsituations,somemoreconcreteguidelinesand casestudieshaverecentlybecomeareavailable(seeBackgroundReadingsection).

ProtectedareasshouldalsobedesignedtoaccommodatefuturenaturalandhumanͲinduced disturbances.Mainresponsestothreatsanddisturbancesinclude: 1TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines. [email protected] 2MarineResourceManagementCoordinator,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreofExcellenceinCoralReef Studies,JamesCookUniversityandtheAustralianInstituteofMarineScience,Townsville,Q.Australia.Ph.+61 (0)747251824;[email protected] 3ConservationPlanningSpecialist,TheNatureConservancy,[email protected] 4SeniorScientist,TropicalMarineConservationProgram,AsiaPacificRegion,TheNatureConservancy,51 EdmondstoneSt,SouthBrisbane,Q.4101[email protected] 5Director,AppliedEnvironmentalDecisionAnalysis,UniversityofQueensland,Brisbane,Q.Ph. +61(0)733659766;[email protected] 6ProgramLeader,ConservationPlanningforaSustainableFuture,AustralianResearchCouncilCentreof ExcellenceinCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,Q.+61(0)747816194,[email protected] 7ViceͲChairman,WWFPhilippines,[email protected] 77

DRAFTVersion2

x largertargetsforprotectionifoccurrencesoftheresourceareunlikelytoberetained outsidetheprotectedarea,thatis,buildinaninsurancefactor(Alisonetal.2003;Gameet al.2008a,2008b); x allelsebeingequal,chooseareaslessexposedtothethreat(s);and x prioritise(intime)protectionhighlyirreplaceableand/orhighlythreatenedresourcesor features. Thedesignprincipleswillbemostusefuliftheyarequantitativesothat,whenapplied,theyprovide specificguidelinesfordesigninganMPAnetworkandformeasuringsuccessofthenetworkagainst thedesignprinciples.

RelevanceoftheissuetothegoalsoftheCTIPlanofAction MPAnetworkobjectivesanddesignprinciplesmustbeexplicit.Bybeingexplicit,theMPAnetwork cansupportachievementacrosstheCTIdraftPlanofActiongoalsanddevelopclearermeasuresof achievement.

Explicitnesshasseveraladvantages:makesitclearwhatplannersandmanagersareaimingfor; allowspeopletoestimatetherequirementsforachievingobjectives(includingsocioͲeconomic benefitsandcosts);allowsindividualareastobeidentifiedthatfunctionaspartsofacoherent, integratedregionalsystem;allowsprogresstowardsobjectivestobemeasured.Explicitobjectives canbeachievedforminimumcostusingasuiteofmathematicaltools,fromthecomplextoasimple spreadsheet.

TheMPAnetworkcanhelp:tosustainfisheries;improvefoodsecurity;buildresilienceagainst climatechange;protectthreatenedspecies;withapplyingaseascapesapproachaswellas contributetobiodiversityprotection.Determiningtherelativepriorityofthesetypesofobjectives willinformanyMPAnetworkdesign.

RelevanceoftheissuewithregardtoanMPAnetworkintheCT TheMPAnetworkcomponentofthedraftActionPlanalreadyidentifiesthatcertainpercentagesof areasmustbesetaside;whatthosepercentagesareisnotyetdefined.Norareotherdesign principlesabouthowbig,howfarapartandsoon.

Thereareinformationgapsregardingtheplants,animalsandhabitatsoftheCoralTriangle, thereforeanyMPAnetworkshouldattempttorepresentexamplesofwhatisnotknownaswellas whatisknown.ToenableanMPAnetworktorepresentbothwhatisandisn’tknownintheCoral Trianglethen,itcouldbeagreedthatitisnecessarytoidentifybiologicallydistinctareasthatcanbe usedasthebasisfordesigningthenetwork.Muchofthiscanbeachievedusingexistingbiophysical dataasasurrogate(seealsopapernumber5ondealingwithinsufficientdata).Thiswouldthen allowforacomprehensivedescriptionofthebiodiversityofanareaintheabsenceofcomplete knowledge.SomeexampleshavealreadybeendevelopedfortheCoralTriangle(forexamplesee Figurebelow).

DRAFTVersion2

Whatdescriptionsofbiologicallydistinctareashavealreadybeendevelopedandwhichshouldthe MPAnetworkshouldbebuiltupon,whilestillensuringthedesignprinciplesareadequatetoinsure againstimperfectionsinthedescriptionofbiodiversitythatisused.Ideallytheprinciplesshouldbe abletocopewithwhatisknow(e.g.regardingconnectivity)andwithuncertaintyaboutthe ecosystemandhowitmayrespondtofuturethreats(e.g.potentialhabitatshiftsinresponseto climatechange).TheprinciplesshouldalsoaddressthemultitudeofsocioͲeconomicvaluesand usesincludingenvironmentalgovernanceregimesandmore.Theprinciplesshouldaimtoensure comprehensiveandrepresentativeexamplesoftheentirerangeofbiologicaldiversityintheCTare includedwithintheMPAnetworkdespitedatagaps.Anyprinciplesdevelopedwillbeabestguess: thereisnotperfectinformationtoensureaperfectsetofprinciples.

Concretedesignprinciples,developedwithconsiderationoftheMPAnetworkobjectives,could answerthefollowingquestions.

A. FordesigningthenoͲtakecomponentoftheMPAnetwork:

BIOPHYSICALOPERATIONALDESIGNPRINCIPLES

i. Whatminimumamount(%)ofprotectionshouldoccurforeachbiologicallydistinct area?

ii. Whatlevelofreplicationshouldoccurforeachbiologicallydistinctarea?

iii. Wherehabitatinformationisavailableonhabitattypeswithinbiologicallydistinctarea (e.g.coralreefs),howmuchofeachhabitattypeshouldbeprotected? 79

DRAFTVersion2

iv. ShouldtheMPAnetworkavoidfragmentationofhabitatasfaraspossible(e.g.include wholereefsunitsinsteadofpartsofreefswherepossible)?

v. HowtoincludeexistingnoͲtakeMPAsinconsiderationofaCTͲwideMPAnetwork?

vi. Howtoaddressavailableinformationaboutecologicalprocesses(e.g.spawning, breeding,foragingoraggregationsites)

vii. Howtoaddressconnectivity?Thatis,whatshouldbethedistancebetweenMPAsfor themtofunctionasanetwork,andhowshouldtheybearranged?

viii. Howtoconsiderbiophysicallyspecialand/oruniqueplaces?

ix. Howshouldwedealwiththreatsthatcan,orcannot(climatechange)bestopped?

x. Howshouldwedealwithalreadydegradedareas?

xi. Whatminimumsizeshouldbeused?

SOCIOͲECONOMIC,CULTURALANDMANAGEMENTFEASIBILITYOPERATIONALDESIGNPRINCIPLES

xii. Howbesttocomplementhumanusesandvalues?

xiii. Howtoconsiderallthecostsandbenefits?

xiv. Howtobestincorporateexistingmanagementandmarinetenurearrangements?

xv. Howtooptimisecompliance(sustainabilityofmanagementarrangements)inthe design?

B. ForeachtypeofareaͲbased/zoningprotectionofthebroaderMPAnetworkthatisnotnoͲtake thesamequestionsneedtobeansweredasabove.Differentprinciplesmayalsoberequired dependingonthemanagementframework(eg.governmentversuscommunityͲbasedMPAs).

Throughoutthisprocess,decisionsmayneedtobemaderegardingthescaleatwhichanyMPA networkshouldbedesignedandimplemented–itmaybedifferentfordifferentobjectives.

ItispossiblethattoachievecollectivelyagreedresourcemanagementgoalsacrosstheCT,onesetof biophysicaloperationalprincipleswillneedtobeappliedacrosstheentireCTarea.However,each countryisdifferent(andareaswithincountriesaredifferent)socially,economicallyandculturally. ForthesereasonsitislikelythatthesocioͲeconomic,culturalandmanagementfeasibility operationalprincipleswillbedifferent,atleast,percountry.Itmayevenbenecessarytohave differentsocioͲeconomic,culturalandmanagementfeasibilityoperationalprincipleswithindifferent areaswithinonecountry.Alternatively,workshopparticipantsmayconsideritpossibletodevelop justtwosetoftheseprinciplesforSouthEastAsiaandforMelanesia.

BystartingtodefinesomeoftheseprinciplesattheTownsvilleWorkshop,wewillbesupportingthe CoralTriangleInitiative’sdraftActionPlangoalforMPAs.

DRAFTVersion2

Varioustypesofsoftwareareavailablethatmightbeusefulasdecisionsupporttoolsfortostart implementingthekindsofoperationalprinciplesdiscussedabove.Theusefulnessofthesoftware willdependonthedegreetowhichtheprinciplesareexplicitandquantitative,andthedataare availabletoinformtheprinciples.

Marinereservedesignsoftwarecanbeexcellenttoolsforprocessinglargeamountsofinformation (Moilanenetal.2008).However,itisimportanttorememberthattheyaredecisionsupporttools andnotthedecisionmakers.FinaldecisionsregardingtheMPAdesignwillbemadebylocal mangersandstakeholders.

Backgroundreading

Airime,S.,J.E.Dugan,K.D.,Lafferty,H.Leslie,D.A.McArdle,R.R.Warner.2003.Applyingecological criteriatomarinereservedesign:acasestudyfromtheCaliforniaChannelIslands.Ecological Applications13(1)S170ͲS184(contact:[email protected])

Allison,G.W.,Gaines,S.D.,Lubchenco,J.&Possingham,H.P.(2003)Ensuringpersistenceofmarine reserves:catastrophesrequireadoptinganinsurancefactor.EcologicalApplications,13,S8ͲS24. (contact:[email protected])

Day,JCandLaffoley,D.(2007)ChecklistforMPANetworks,IUCN(contact:[email protected]) orhttp://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/biome/marine/checklist.html

DobbsK,FernandesL,SlegersS,JagoB,ThompsonL,HallJ,DayJ,CameronD,TanzerJ,Macdonald F,LimpusC.2007.Incorporatingmarineturtlehabitatsintothemarineprotectedareadesignforthe GreatBarrierReefMarinePark.PacificConservationBiology13:293Ͳ302.(contact: [email protected])

DobbsK,FernandesL,SlegersS,JagoB,ThompsonL,HallJ,DayJ,CameronD,TanzerJ,Macdonald F,MarshH,ColesR.2008.Incorporatingdugonghabitatsintothemarineprotectedareadesignfor theGreatBarrierReefMarinePark,Queensland,Australia.OceanandCoastalManagement51:368Ͳ 375.(contact:[email protected])

FernandesL,DayJ,LewisA,SlegersS,KerriganB,BreenD,etal.EstablishingrepresentativenoͲtake areasover1/3oftheGreatBarrierReef:largeͲscaleimplementationofMarineProtectedAreatheory withlessonsforglobalapplication.ConservationBiology2005:1733Ͳ1744.(contact [email protected])

Game,E.T.,E.McDonaldͲMadden,M.L.PuotinenandH.P.Possingham2008aShouldweprotect theweakorthestrong?Risk,resilienceandtheselectionofmarineprotectedareasConservation Biologyinpress.(contact[email protected]) Game,E.T.,M.E.Watts,S.WooldridgeandH.P.Possingham2008bPlanningforpersistencein marinereserves:aquestionofcatastrophicimportanceEcologicalApplications18:670Ͳ680.(contact [email protected]) GreenA.L.,MousP.J.2007.DelineatingtheCoralTriangle,itsecoregionsandfunctionalseascapes. ReportbasedonanexpertworkshopheldattheTNCCoralTriangleCenter,BaliIndonesia(AprilͲ 81

DRAFTVersion2

May2003),andonexpertconsultationsheldinJune–August2005.Version4.0(August2007). ReportfromTheNatureConservancy,CoralTriangleCenter(Bali,Indonesia)andtheGlobalMarine Initiative,IndoͲPacificResourceCentre(Brisbane,Australia).50pp.(contact:[email protected])

Green,A.L.,Lokani,P.,Atu,W.,Almany,J.(eds)2006SolomonIslandMarineAssessment:Technical reportofsurveyconductedMay13toJune17,2004.TNCPacificIslandCountriesReportNo.1/06. (contact: [email protected])

Green, A., Lokani, P., Sheppard, S., Almany, J., Keu, S., Aitsi, J., Warku Karvon, J., Hamilton, R & Lipsett-Moore, G. 2007 Scientific Design of a Resilient Network of Marine Protected Areas, Kimbe Bay, West New Britain, Papua New Guinea. TNC Pacific Island Countries Report No. 2/07. http://conserveonline.org/workspaces/pacific.island.countries.publications/kimbebaycontents/kimbe (contact: [email protected])

Mora,C.,Andréfouët,S.,Costello,M.J.,Kranenburg,C.,Rollo,A.,Veron,J.,Gaston,K.J.,Myers,R.A. 2006.Science.312:1750Ͳ1751(contact:[email protected]) McLeod,E.,Salm,R.,Green,A.,Almany,J.(inpress)Recommendationsfordesigningmarine protectedareanetworkstoaddresstheimpactsofclimatechange.FinalFrontiers.(contact: [email protected])

Pressey,R.L.,Watts,M.E.,Barrett,T.W.andRidges,M.J.(inpress).TheCͲPlanconservationplanning system:origins,applications,andpossiblefutures.In:Spatialmodelsforconservation.Eds.A. Moilanen,H.P.PossinghamandK.A.Wilson.OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford(contact: [email protected]).

Spalding,M.D.,Fox,H.E.,Allen,G.R.,Davidson,N.,Ferdana,Z.A.,Finlayson,M.,Halpern,B.S.,Jorge, M.A.,Lombana,A.,Lourie,S.A.,Martin,K.D.,McManus,E.,Molnar,J.,Recchia,C.A.,Robertson,J. 2007Marineecoregionsoftheworld:abioregionalizationofcoastalandshelfareas.Bioscience 57(7):573Ͳ583.(contact:[email protected])

Veron,J.E.N.,DeVantier,L.M.,Turak,E.,Green,A.L.,Kininmonth,S.,Allen,G.R.,StaffordͲSmith, M.G.,Mous,P.J.,Peterson,N.A.(Manuscript)Globalcoraldiversity:ablueprintforreef conservation.Submittedforpublication.(contact:[email protected])

WCPA/IUCN.2007.Establishingnetworksofmarineprotectedareas:Aguidefordevelopingnational andregionalcapacityforbuildingMPAnetworks.NonͲtechnicalsummaryreport. http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/nsmail.pdforcontact([email protected])

WCPA/IUCN2008.IUCNInformationPaper:towardsachieving2012MPAtargets. http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_information_paper.pdforcontact ([email protected])

West,J.M.,Salm,R.V.2003Resistanceandresiliencetocoralbleaching:implicationsforcoralreef conservationandmanagement.ConservationBiology17(4):956Ͳ967.(contact:[email protected])

DRAFTVersion2

Somedatasets TNCCTIDataAtlasProject(contact:[email protected])

WorldFishCentre(http://www.worldfishcenter.org/v2/index.html)

Someexistingprojects/resources Conservationplanningwithconnectivityforcoralreefs([email protected]) ConventiononBiologicalDiversityhttp://www.cbd.int/protected/work.shtmland http://www.cbd.int/decisions/?dec=VII/28

CͲPlan.Aconservationplanningsoftwaretool.(contact:[email protected]) MarineLearningPartnership.ContactAlanWhite([email protected]) Marxan(conservationplanningsoftware)http://www.uq.edu.au/marxan/

NeedSuluͲSulaweisi,BismarkͲSolomonSeareferenceshere

PALNetisaknowledgesharingplatformforpeopleworkingonprotectedareas. http://www.parksnet.org/

PlanningprinciplesforAustralia’sMPAswithinbioregionsoftheEEZ: http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/publications/general/pubs/goalsͲnrsmpa.pdf

WorldCommissiononProtectedAreas(WCPA)BestPracticeSeries.Inprep:"Designsfornature: regionalconservationplanning,implementationandmanagement”(contact: [email protected]) Acknowledgement:ThankstoNancyDahlͲTacconiforherinput.

DRAFTVersion2

15.LongǦtermbiophysicalmonitoringofanetworkofMarine ProtectedAreasintheCoralTriangle HughSweatman1,JamaluddinJompa2,CletoNanola3,GarryRuss4

4/11/08

Outlineoftheissue TheCTIaimstoimplementafullyfunctioningregionͲwideCoralTriangleMPANetwork(CTMPAN)by 2020,withthejointobjectivesofreducingpovertyandconservingtheregion’sbiodiversity.

ThebroadMPAobjectivesunderGoal#3ofthedraftCTIPlanofActionareclear,andotherpartsof thedraftCTIPlanofActionalsorefertousingMPAstoachieveotherobjectives.Buthowwillwe knowiftheCTMPANisachievingthem?

ThedraftCTIPlanofActionspecificallyidentifiestheneedfor“awellͲdefinedmonitoringprogramto assessmanagementeffectivenessovertimeofCTMPANsitesandnetworks”(Goal#3Strategy8).

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action? Asmentioned,aneffectiveMPANintheCThasbeenidentifiedasonetooltohelpachievemultiple goalswithinthedraftPlanofAction.Monitoringprogramscanprovidemeasuresofprogressagainst thesemultipleobjectives.Resultscanbeusedforinternalreviewofmanagementofprojectsthat implementandmanagetheCTMPANandtoreporttoagenciesandgovernments,NGOsandthe worldwidecommunity.Theycanalsobearegularsourceof“news”topromotecommunity knowledgeandinterest.

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? AregionalprogramtomonitortheeffectivenessoftheCTMPANwillberequired.Therearea numberofcoralreefmonitoringprogramsinseveralnationsoftheCT6(e.g.COREMAPinIndonesia, PhilreefsinthePhilippines)thatarealreadymonitoringsitesinMPAsandtheseprogramsshould formkeycomponentsoftheCTMPANmonitoring.

1AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,PMB3,TownsvilleMC,Qld4810Australia(+61747534470 [email protected]) 2ExecutiveSecretary,COREMAPII,(CoralReefRehabilitationandManagementProgram,Ministryof MarineAffairsandFisheries,DGofMarine,Coasts,andSmallIslands)Jl.TebetRayaNo.91.Jakarta. 3UniversityofthePhilippinesͲMindanao,DavaoCity,Philippines, 4SchoolofMarineandTropicalBiology,andARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCook University,Townsville,Queensland,4811,Australia. 84

DRAFTVersion2

Requirementsofmonitoringprograms

ThejointobjectivesofGoal#3meanthatbothbiologicalandsocioͲeconomicmonitoringwillbe required;thispaperwillfocusonbiologicalmonitoringassociatedwithassessingtheeffectivenessof MPAsinconservationofbiodiversityratherthantheirroleinreducingpoverty.

Alothasbeenwrittenaboutthedesignandimplementationofbiologicalmonitoringprogramsand itisclearthattherearesomegeneralprinciples,butnosinglebestoption.

Objectivesandmonitoring

Allauthorsagreethataclearstatementofthespecificobjectivesisakeytosuccessindesigninga monitoringprogram.Forinstance,thebroadobjectiveoftheCTItoconservetheregion’s biodiversityimpliesthatspeciesdiversitywithintheCTMPANshouldnotdecreaseoverthelong term(>10years).Alternatively,inviewofchangingclimateorincaseofmajornaturaldisturbing factorssuchastropicalstorms,themeasuremightbethatspeciesdiversityshoulddecreaseless thanincomparablesitesoutsidetheCTMPAN.Theabundancesofexploitedspecies(onepartofthe Network’scontributiontopovertyreduction)shouldalsobehigherwithintheCTMPANingeneral, andparticularlywithinnoͲtakezonesoftheCTMPAN,thaninothercomparableareas.

Thesearequalitativegoals;theyneedtoberefinedintoquantitativestatementsofhowbigthe differencesinbiodiversityshouldbe,howmuchgreatertheabundancesofexploitedspeciesshould beandafterhowmanyyears?(forinstance,thedraftCTIPlanofActionstatesthattheCTMPANwill befullyfunctionalby2020).

Theforthcomingworkshopcouldbeaforumfordiscussiontosetvaluesforthesegoalswhichwill thenfeedintothenextstage.

Howsuredoyouwanttobeaboutdetectingwhatlevelofchange?

Acriticalaspectofthedesignofamonitoringprogramisthatitmustbeabletodetectthekindsof changesthatarerelevanttotheobjectivesofthedraftCTIPlanofActionthisisthesubjectof “statisticalpower”.MonitoringprogramsareusuallylabourͲintensiveandthereforeexpensive;ifa programcannotdetectrelevantchangesthenthoseresourcesarewasted.Theabilityofaprogram todetectchangeswilldependonthesizeofthechangesthatareofinterestandhowvariablethe observationsareandtheamountofsampling(seeFieldetal2007andLegg&Nagy2006for commentsonstrategiestoincreasestatisticalpowerofmonitoringprograms).

Somecriticalinformation,particularlyaboutthevariabilityofdata,canonlybeestimated approximately(basedoninformationfromexistingprogramsintheCTandelsewhere)before monitoringstarts,sotheinitialdesignforaprogramisusuallyabestguess.Thismakesit particularlyimportantthattheresultsofearlysurveysareprocessedrapidlysothattheycanprovide betterestimatesofvariabilitythatcanbeincorporatedtoimprovethedesignandensurethatthe programcandetectrelevantchangesinthetimeframeoftheproject.Importantly,thiscanhelpto securepoliticalsupport,givesreassurancetodonororganizationsandrepresentsalogicalbasisfor additionalfundingrequests.

DRAFTVersion2

Datastorage,analysisandmanagement

Thispointstoageneralityaboutmonitoringprograms:whiledatacollectionusuallyreceivesmuch greaterattentionandthemajorityofresources,theeffectivemanagementofthelargequantitiesof monitoringdataandparticularly,thepromptandcomprehensiveanalysisandreportingofresults areatleastasimportantasthedatacollectionandfundingfortheseactivitiesmustbeconsidered accordingly.Thebiologistswhoorganisethefieldprogramandcollectthedataneedtoform effectivepartnershipswithadvancedbiometricianswhocanfullyanalysethecomplexdatasetsand adviseonsurveydesign.Thismayinvolveeitheremployingbiometriciansdirectlywithinthe program(potentiallyattheCoralTriangleCenterforMarineProtectedAreasproposedinthedraft CTIPlanofAction)orelsethroughcollaborationwithdepartmentsofstatisticsatuniversitiesinthe regionorinternationally.ThismaybeafieldofexpertisewherecapacitywithintheCTneedstobe increased(Goal#3,Strategy#4).

Surveymethods

Alothasbeenwrittenonsurveymethodsforcoralreefs(notablyEnglishetal.1997).Indicators suchaslivecoralcoverarerelativelyeasytomeasure,butmaygivelessinformationaboutthe likelihoodthatacoralcommunitywillpersistthanindicatorsthataremoreconcernedwith populationprocesses,suchasgrowth,reproductionandrecruitment.Theseareallmuchmore difficultandtimeͲconsumingtomeasurereliably.Environmentalstressestendtobeassociatedwith lessdiversecommunitiesbecausespeciesthataremoresusceptibletothestressoraremorelikely tobeeliminatedovertime,orelsedonotrecoverafterdisturbancesbecauserecruitsareunableto establishsuccessfully.However,measuringchangesspeciesdiversitydependsonanabilityto distinguishamongspecies;reliableidentificationsrequireextensivetrainingandfrequent comparisonsbetweenobserverstomaintainconsistency.

Thesurveymethodsthatarechosenshouldbeclearlyandcomprehensivelydocumentedin StandardOperatingProceduresthatareregularlyreviewedandupdated.Frequenttrainingand observercalibrationsessionsareimportanttoensurethatsurveymethodsareconsistentbetween sitesandovertime,sothechangesthatarerecordedreflectchangesintheenvironmentratherthan differencesamongobservers.

Somebackgroundreading Forinformationaboutdocumentscontact:[email protected]unlessotherwise indicated.

EnglishS,WilkinsonC,BakerV(eds)(1997)SurveyManualforTropicalMarineResources2nd Edition.AIMS,Townsville[especiallyChapter7]

FieldSA,O'ConnorPJ,TyreAJ,PossinghamHP(2007)Makingmonitoringmeaningful.Austral Ecology32:485Ͳ491

LeggCJ,NagyL(2006)Whymostconservationmonitoringis,butneednotbe,awasteoftime. JournalofEnvironmentalManagement78:194Ͳ199

DRAFTVersion2

M.P.LincolnͲSmith,K.A.Pitt,J.D.Bell,andB.D.Mapstone2006Usingimpactassessmentmethodsto determinetheeffectsofamarinereserveonabundancesandsizesofvaluabletropical invertebrates.Can.J.Fish.Aquat.Sci.63:1251–1266(contact:[email protected])

Pomeroy,ParksandWatson2004.HowisYourMPADoing?AGuidebookofNaturalandSocial IndicatorsforEvaluatingMarineProtectedAreaManagementEffectiveness.Gland,Switzerland andCambridge,UK.([email protected])

Wilkinson,C.,Green,A.,Almany,J.Dionne,S.2003.MonitoringCoralReefProtectedAreas.A practicalguideonhowmonitoringcansupporteffectivemanagementinMPAs.AIMS, Australia([email protected])andIUCNMarineProgram,Switzerland ([email protected]).

YoccozNG,NicholsJD,BoulinierT(2001)Monitoringofbiologicaldiversityinspaceandtime.Trends inEcology&Evolution16:446Ͳ453

Someexistingprojects COREMAPͲwww.coremap.or.id

PhilippinesMarineInformationandDataAcessSystemͲhttp://www.upmsi.ph/midas/.

PhilReefs–www.philreefs.org.BiophysicalmonitoringofMPAsinthePhilippines(under construction)

GEF’sCoralReefTargetedResearchandCapacityBuildingforManagementProjectissettingup monitoringsitesinthePhilippines: http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=64290415&theSitePK= 40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P078034

ReefCheckͲhttp://www.reefcheck.org/

Acknowledgments The input from Kirstin Dobbs and Porfirio Aliño is gratefully acknowledged.

DRAFTVersion2

16.Humanadaptationtoclimatechange AlinoPM1,Cinner,J2,Brown,K3

4/11/08 OverviewoftheIssue Climatechangeisexpectedtoincreasethefrequencyandintensityofextremeclimaticevents,such ashighͲintensitycyclonesandincreasedseasurfacetemperatures(whichcancausecoralstobleach anddie),inadditiontomoregradualchangessuchassealevelrise.Theseextremeeventscanhave profoundimpactsonecosystemssuchascoralreefsandthecommunitiesthatdependonthem.For example,estimatesofeconomiclossesfromrecentcoralbleachingeventshavebeenstaggering, rangingfromtensofmillionsofdollarsforasinglecountry($US6Ͳ27millioninthePhilippines)toas muchasUS$8billionofdollarsforthewiderIndianOcean.Theseimpactspotentiallyhaveprofound impactsforpeoplewhoearnalivelihood,andnationswhichgainincome,fromcoastalandmarine resources.Thisbriefingpaperhighlightskeycomponentsofsocialresiliencetheoryanddiscusses howthesecanbeintegratedintoaregionalActionPlan(e.g.CTIdraftActionPlan)toprioritizeearly climateadaptations.

Theimpactsofclimatechangearelikelytovaryfromplacetoplace,andfordifferentpeoplewithin society.Theseimpactsarelargelydeterminedbydifferinglevelsofvulnerability,whichisacritical componentofsocialresilience.Differencesinvulnerabilitycanbeassessedatdifferentscales, includingnational,regional,communityandevenhouseholdlevels.

Vulnerabilityinthiscontextisthelevelofsusceptibilitytoharmfromeventssuchascoralbleaching, cyclones,andsealevelrise.Vulnerabilityisoftenperceivedashavingdistinctcomponents,which includeexposure,sensitivityandadaptivecapacity(Figure1).

Figure1.Vulnerabilityiscomprisedofexposureand sensitivity(whichcapturethepotentialimpacts)and adaptivecapacity(whichcapturespeoples’abilityto copewithoradapttochange).

Exposureisthedegreetowhichasystemisstressed.Thiscanbecharacterizedbythemagnitude, frequency,durationandspatialextentofaclimaticeventsuchascoralbleachingoracyclone. Exposuremayvarybasedonfactorssuchasoceanographicconditions,prevailingwinds,and/or latitude,whichmaycausesomeareastohaveahigherlikelihoodofbeingimpactedbyeventssuch ascyclonesorcoralbleaching.Therearelimitedadaptationssocietiescanundertaketominimize exposure.Theseadaptationsprimarilyrelyonengineeringsolutions(e.g.levees,seawalls)orcoastal

1TheMarineScienceInstitute,UniversityofthePhilippines,Diliman,QuezonCity,Philippines, [email protected] 2ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,Townsville,QLD,4811,Australia. Email:[email protected].Phone+61074781Ͳ6751 3TyndallCentreforClimateChangeResearch,UniversityofEastAnglia,Norwich,UK

DRAFTVersion2 planning(e.g.,buildingawayfromdangerzones).Therearevarioussitesbeingestablishedwhich considersthesocialconcernsundertheLOICZ(LandOceanInteractionintheCoastalZone]program.

Sensitivityisthedegreetowhichthestressactuallymodifiesoraffectsasystem.Sensitivitymaybe affectedbythingssuchaslocalleveldependenceonmarineresources.Lowdependenceonmarine resourcesmaymeanthatclimaticeventssuchascoralbleachinghavealesserimpactoncoastal communities.Societies,governments,anddonorscandevelopanumberofadaptationstominimize sensitivitytoclimaticevents.Thesemightincludeearlywarningsystemsforcyclones,alternative livelihoodprogramstoreducedependenceonmarineresources,andminimizingorprohibitingthe useofgeartypesthatspecificallytargetfishesthataremorelikelytobeimpactedbyclimate change. Adaptivecapacityreferstotheconditionsthatenablepeopletoadapttoorcopewithchange.A numberofconditionscaninfluenceadaptivecapacity,includingamongothers:1)peoples’abilityto switchtononͲreefrelatedoccupations,2)socialcapital(thebondswithinacommunity),3)levelof wealth,4)accesstotechnology,5)accesstoinfrastructure,6)capacitytoanticipatechange,and developstrategiestorespond,and7)recognitionofcausalagentsimpactingecosystems(Figure2). Peoplewithlowadaptivecapacitymaynotbeabletoadapttochangesintheflowofecosystem goodsandservicesbroughtaboutbyclimatechange,managementstrategieswhichchangeaccess, oropportunitiescreatedbychange.

Buildingadaptivecapacitywillbeakeyfeatureinpreparingforclimatechangeinmanyareas throughouttheCoralTriangle.Adaptivecapacitycanbeassessedatnational,subͲnational, communityandhouseholdscales.ThereisnoonesetofagreedͲuponindicators,andmeasuressuch asGrossDomesticProduct(GDP)percapitaortheHumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)areoftenused asa“roughͲandͲready”indicatorofadaptivecapacity,althoughcompositeindicatorssuchasFigure 2maybemoreappropriate.

Adaptivecapacityiscurrentlyamajorfocusofresearchseekingtoidentifyadaptationstrategiesand buildbothsocialandecologicalresiliencetoclimatechange.

0.6 Infrastructure

0.5 Gear Diversity

0.4 Soc.Capital

0.3 Occ. Multiplicity

0.2 Mat. Style Life 0.1 Occ.Mobility 0 ResponseToDecline enda Buyu Shela Vipingo Tanjona Mazizini Bamburi Tampolo Kuruwitu St Martin Blue Bay Blue Mayungu Le Morne Mtangata Belombre Mijik Nyamanzi

Stone Town Human agency Grand AnseGrand Weighted Indicator Scores andtotal adaptive capacity Anse Volbert Anse Roche Caiman Dar EsDar Salaam NW MadagascarNW Ambodilaitry Area Pointe des Lascars des Pointe Pointe aux Piments MD MD KY TZ MD KY KY KY TZ MD MS TZ MS TZ TZ TZ MS KY KY SZ SZ MS MS SZ SZ

Figure2isanexampleofanadaptivecapacityindexdevelopedforadaptationtochangesincoralreefsystemsfor25 communitiesfromfivecountriesintheWesternIndianOcean(MD=Madagascar,TZ=Tanzania,KY=Kenya,MS=Mauritius, SZ=Seychelles).Thesescoresweredevelopedbasedondetailedsocioeconomicsurveysdesignedtoaddressadaptationto climatechange,andthefigureshowsthecontributionofeachindicatortoasite’stotaladaptivecapacityscore.Thisisan exampleofastudythathelpstodefinepriorityearlyclimateadaptationsaspartofaregionͲwideclimateadaptationplan fornearͲshoremarineandcoastalenvironments(fromMcClanahanetal.2008). 89

DRAFTVersion2

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation? OnewaytointegratehumanadaptationintoMPAnetworkdesign,planningandmanagementisto plotaspectsofvulnerabilityagainstadaptivecapacity.Thisrevealsfourdomainsorquadrantswhere differingconservationandpolicymayberequired:protectandpreserve;capacitybuilding;reliefand reorganization;andadaptandtransform(Figure3).

Protectedareasarelikelytobemosteffectiveandusefulinsiteswithhighsocialadaptivecapacity becauselocalcommunitiescanreadilyadapttochangesinaccessandtakeadvantageofnew opportunities,suchasincreasedtourism.Butdifferentiationinsocialorecologicalvulnerabilitymay helpinformthetypeofMPAandmanagementrequiredinanarea.

Regionswithhighvulnerabilityarelikelytofeeltheimpactsofclimatechangemost.Protectedareas mayalsobeimportantstrategytoconservemarineresourceintheseregions,butwillrequirea differentmanagementapproach.Forexample,theyshouldnotdependontourismrevenuefor funding,sincetouristsareunlikelytovisittheseareasaftermajorbleachingeventsandfundingmay fluctuateconsiderably.

Figure3.(A)Theoreticalmodelindicatinggradientsofsocialadaptivecapacityagainstvulnerabilitytoproduce fourquadrantsofdifferingconservationpriorities.(B)Acasestudyplotting28communitiesfromfivewestern IndianOceancountries.

CommunitieswithlowadaptivecapacityarepoorlyequippedtocopewithevenshortͲterm restrictionsonresourceuseimposedbynoͲtakeareas.Thesecommunitiesmaybeunwillingor unabletocomplywithnoͲtakemeasures.Intheseareas,othertypesofmanagementthathave lowersocialcostsmightbemoreappropriate(Figure3A).Theseregionsfirstrequirebuildingsocial resiliencethroughinvestmentsinpovertyalleviation,infrastructure,socialcapital,andalternative incomes.Oncelocalcapacityisenhanced,theseregionsaremorelikelytobeabletotakeadvantage oftheopportunitiesarisingfromconservationandsuccessfullyimplementmanagementstrategies. Priortothesedevelopments,managementoptionswithminimalsocialcostsarerequiredͲthese

DRAFTVersion2 mightincludemanagingfishinggearsthatspecificallytargetreeffishesthatareconsideredkeyto recoveryafterableachingevent(Figure4).Regionswithhighvulnerabilityandlowadaptivecapacity donotcurrentlyhavetheresourcesorabilitytoadapttoclimatechange.Theseregionsarea primaryconcernforhumandevelopmentandrequiregovernmentordonorassistancetoameliorate disasterrisk,strengthensocialsafetynets,diversifysourcesoflivelihoods,andreducedependence onlocalnaturalresources. 100 Piscivore

Pisc-Macro-Invert 80 Invert-Macro Figure4.ShowscatchdatafromthePNGartisanalfishery. Invert-Micro Fishspeciesarebrokendownbyfunctionalgroup. 60 Planktivore Groupsinredrepresentgroupsorspeciesthathave feedinghabits(e.g.herbivores)thatmayplayakeyrolein Detritivore 40 therecoveryofcoralreefs.Banninggearssuchasspear Percent catch of Key Species gunsmayhelptherecoveryofcoralreefsaftera 20 Scrapevator bleachingevent,buthaveasmallersocioeconomicimpact

Grazer-Macro onfishingcommunitiesthanafisheriesclosure.

0 Grazer Hand Line Gill Net Spear Gun

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsofthedraftCTIPlanof Action?

ForeachCTcountry,therewillbevaryinglevelsofexposure,sensitivity,andadaptivecapacity. ThesewillinfluencethetypesofconservationstrategiesthataremostappropriateandtheregionͲ wideearlyactionplanforadaptation.Itwillbeimportanttoidentifywhereresilienceisespecially lackingthroughtheproposedObjective1,Strategy1(mapping)oftheCTIdraftPlanofAction.Itwill alsobeimportanttoidentifylocalsourcesofresilienceandbuilduponthose.Buildingadaptive capacitywillrequireregionͲwidecoordinationofgovernments,informationproviders,anddonors.

Backgroundreading ForinformationabouttheseresourcescontactDrJoshCinner([email protected])

Adger,W.N.(2006)VulnerabilityGlobalEnvironmentalChange16:268–281

Adger,W.N.,T.Hughes,C.Folke,S.R.Carpenter,andJ.Rockström.(2005).SocialͲecological resiliencetocoastaldisasters.Science309:1036Ͳ1039.

FAO,2007Buildingadaptivecapacitytoclimatechange.Policiestosustainlivelihoodsandfisheries. NewdirectionsinfisheriesͲPolicyBriefNo.08Rome.www.sflp.org/briefs/eng/policybriefs.html

McClanahanT.R,J.Cinner,JMaina,N.A.J.Graham,T.M.Daw,S.M.Stead,A.Wamukota,K.Brown, M.Ateweberhan,V.Venus,&N.V.C.Polunin.(2008)Conservationactioninachangingclimate. ConservationLetters:1:53Ͳ59.email:[email protected]

DRAFTVersion2

TompkinsE.L,NicholsonͲColeS,HurlstonL,BoydE.,HodgeGB,ClarkeJ,GrayG,TrotzN,VarlackL. (2005).Survivingclimatechangeinsmallislands:Aguidebook.Norwich:TyndallCentreforClimate ChangeResearch,SchoolofEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofEastAnglia.www.tyndall.ac.uk

USIndianOceanTsunamiWarningSystemProgram,2007Howresilientisyourcoastalcommunity? Aguideforevaluatingcoastalcommunityresiliencetotsunamiandotherhazards.USAID, WashingtonDCwww.crc.uri.edu/download/CCRGuide_lowres.pdf

Someexistingprojects AsianDisastersNetworkResilienceCommunitieswork LOICZ(LandOceanInteractionintheCoastalZone)program(contact:[email protected])

DRAFTVersion2

17.“Atleastdonoharm”:CoralTriangleInitiativecontributingto LivelihoodsandPovertyReduction LeaM.Scherl1

4/11/08

OutlineoftheIssue

Povertyandbiodiversityarecriticalissuesofourtime.Itisestimatedthatbillionsofpeopleare livingonlessthanadollarworldwideandatthesametimetherateofspeciesextinctionis100Ͳ1000 timesthatabovenormal.ThissituationwillbesimilarwithintheCT6countries.Povertyand biodiversityarealsointerlinkedinacomplexnexusofsometimescontradictoryissuesthatplayout mostoftenatthelocallevel.Thisisbecause,itisinmanyplaceswherepovertyhaspersistedandis widespreadthatthereareremainingareaswithecosystemsthatareveryrichinbiodiversitya situationalsoencounteredwithintheCT6countries.Conservationeffortscouldcontributeto exacerbatingpovertyofcommunitiesthataredependantmaterially,culturallyorspirituallyonthose resources,iftheirwellͲbeingisnotproperlytakenintoaccount.

Conservationinitiativescangeneratesignificanteconomic,environmentalandsocialbenefits.These benefitsarerealizedatlocal,nationalandgloballevels,buttheoftendisproportionatenatureofthe distributionofsuchbenefitsneedstobeanalysedcarefully.Moreover,thereisaneedtostressthat giventhefactthatmanylocalcommunitieslivinginandaroundconservationareashavelimited developmentopportunities,thoseareasofferasomewhatstilluntappedopportunitytocontribute topovertyreductionwhilecontinuingwiththeirvitalfunctionofmaintaininghealthyecosystems. Increasingthebenefitsofconservationareasandreducingtheircoststolocalpeoplecanhelp mobilizepublicsupport,andreduceconflictsandtheenforcementcostsformanagement, particularlyinareasofwidespreadpoverty.

TheBaliPlanofActionTowardsHealthyOceansandCoastsfortheSustainableGrowthand ProsperityoftheAsiaͲPacificCommunity2callfor“managinglivingresourcessustainably.”Inthe globalcontext,thereareseveralspecificrecommendationsadoptedatthelastWorldParksCongress relatedtotheroleofProtectedAreasincontributingtoPovertyReduction3:Protectedareasshould strivetocontributetopovertyreductionatthelocallevel(eitherdirectlyorindirectly)andatthevery minimumnotcreate,contributeto,orexacerbatepoverty;Knowledgeaboutthelinkagebetween protectedareasandpovertyneedstobeimproved;Mechanismsforthepoortoshareactivelyin decisionͲmakingrelatedtoprotectedareasshouldbestrengthened.TheProgramofWorkon ProtectedAreasadoptedbytheConventionofBiologicalDiversity4insideitspreamble:“Callthe attentionofthepartiesandthedevelopmentagenciestointegrateintheirdevelopmentstrategies (forinstance:strategyforassistancetothecountries,strategyforpovertyreductionandnational anddevelopmentstrategies)objectivesrelatedtoprotectedareasandtoreflectthecontributionof protectedareasforsustainabledevelopment,asameanstoachievetheMillenniumDevelopment 1SeniorSocialScientist,AsiaPacificRegion,TheNatureConservancy:[email protected][Viewsexpressedinthis paperaretheauthor’s];CoͲchairProtectedAreas,EquityandLivelihoodsTaskforceoftheWorldCommission onProtectedAreasandCommissiononEnvironment,EconomicsandSocialPolicy(IUCN);AdjunctAssociate Professor,SchoolofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences,JamesCookUniversityofNorthQueensland.

2APEC2005 3IUCN2003ͲWorldParksCongressrecommendation#29onPovertyandPAs 4AtCBDCOP7in2004inKualaLampur 93

DRAFTVersion2

Goals,aninparticularObjective7”(ie;environmentalsustainability).InsidetheGeneralPurposeit readsthattheCBDshould:“……contributetoattaintheobjectivesoftheconventionofreducing significantlytheactuallossofbiodiversityataglobal,regional,nationalandsubͲnationallevelsand contributetopovertyreductionandthesearchforsustainabledevelopment”.Atthemostrecent CBDCOP9meeting1thedecisionrelatedto“ProcessfortheRevisionoftheStrategicPlan”2 recognizesthattherevisedandupdatedstrategicplanoftheconvention(tobeapprovedin2010) should:“Highlighttheimportanceofbiodiversityforpovertyreductionandtheachievementofthe MilleniumDevelopmentGoals,takingintoaccountthatconservationandsustainableuseof biodiversityshouldcontributetopovertyreductionatthelocallevelandnotharmthelivelihoodsof thepoor

The World Bank definition of poverty recognizes that this is a multi-dimensional concept. Defining poverty by income alone is widely recognized as too narrow an approach. To reduce poverty, greater income is important, but poverty reduction can also come from increasing opportunities for the poor through, for example, education and new livelihoods. It can come from empowering the poor in areas such as decision-making on public services and resource allocation. It can come from enhancing the security of poor people by reducing their risk from food shortages, natural disasters, health crises, and other catastrophic events. In a study to address the linkages between Marine Protected Areas and Poverty Reduction in the Asia-Pacific region the World Bank Definition of Poverty was adapted to the context of Marine Protected Areas3 and includes the dimensions and indicators showed in the table below. Table 1: Dimensions of Poverty and indicators relevant to addressing the links between Marine Protected Areas and Poverty Reduction

Opportunities Empowerment Security

Income Governancemechanisms Health

Housing Communityparticipation Socialcohesion

Luxurygoods Benefitsto Culturaltraditions

Fishcatch Accessandrights

Education

Alternativelivelihoods

A very important consideration in addressing the contribution of marine resources management to livelihoods and poverty reduction is related to governance systems that are put in place for managing these resources. Governance is about power, relationships, responsibility and accountability. It is about processes for decision-making, who decides, who has influence and how decision-makers are held accountable. It is also about mechanisms that are created to foster and harbour decision-making processes. IUCN in its new version of the Guidelines for Protected Areas Categories4 identify the

1HeldinBonn,May2008. 2COP9DecisionIX/9 3Leisher,C.,vanBeuring,P.andScherl,L.M.2007.Nature’sInvestmentBank:HowMarineProtectedAreas ContributetoPovertyReduction.TheNatureConservancy.

4ThoseGuidelineswererecentlylaunchedattheWorldConservationCongress,Barcelona,October2008 94

DRAFTVersion2 following four broad types of governance of protected areas, any of which can be associated with any management objective of the different I-VI IUCN Protected Areas categories.

Table2:Types1ofGovernanceofprotectedareas(IUCNGuidelines)

A.Governancebygovernment

B.Sharedgovernance

C.Privategovernance

D.Governancebyindigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunities

A diversity of governance systems in each country should at least be considered, if appropriate, and this will differ across the CT6 country and even within a country or a system. Insum,nolossofbiodiversityshouldatleastimplynolossoflivelihoodopportunities–conservation shouldnotbeundertakenattheexpenseofthepoor,theprincipleofatleast“donoharm”should beapplied–ie;Whereconservationactivitiesaffectpeopleatthelocallevel,thoseactivitiesshould strivetocontributetopovertyreductionand,attheveryminimum,donoharm.

It is important to recognize that in the CT6 countries the governments (different levels), NGOs, civil society groups and communities are already addressing a number of dimensions of the contribution of marine resource conservation to livelihoods and poverty reduction. There are, no doubt, already many governance systems in place in each country that take into account the participation of a myriad of stakeholders and address issues of transparency, accountability and equity, and many projects and activities which are investigating and incorporating ways to reduce poverty, including through the provision of alternative livelihoods’ options. A thorough understanding of all of these activities through a more systematic compilation and analysis of information would be critical to move forward with the Coral Triangle Initiative. As a step towards this process the following guiding questions to participants of the workshop are provided in the hope to stimulate discussion on ways forward and gain more information on what is already taking place.

WhatdoesthismeanforachievingthegoalsoftheCTIPlanofActionanddeliveringtangible benefitstolocalandindigenouscommunities?

ForeachCTcountry,foreachCTIdraftplanofActiongoal,objectiveandstrategythereisaneedto understandthelinksbetweenestablishmentandmanagementofconservationareasandthe potentialcostsandbenefitsthattheycangenerate;withimplicationsforConservaionAreasatleast causingnoharmand/orendeavoringtocontributetopovertyreduction2.Considerationsofthose dimensionswilldifferacrosstheCT6countriesandaccordingtothelevelofplanningand implementation–whetherataregional,country,systemorsitelevel.Someorallofthefollowing questionscouldbeaddressedduringtheseprocesses,whichwouldlendtodifferenttypesof activitiesthataretailoredtospecificcontextsandlevelsofintervention. 1Notethatgovernancetypesdescribethedifferenttypesofmanagementauthorityandresponsibilitythatcan existforprotectedareasbutdonotnecessarilyrelatetoownership. 2Thosewillneedtotakeintoaccountwhatisalreadyunderwayineachcountryandbuildfromthese experiences. 95

DRAFTVersion2

9 Howcanunderstandingofthelinkagesbetweenconservation(itsfunctionsandgovernance systems)andpoverty(reductionorexacerbation)bepromotedineachCTIcountry? 9 Whatisneededtoascertainatthesiteorecoregionallevelhowmarineconservationcanat theveryminimumdonoharmtorelevantstakeholdersandparticularlylocalcommunities? 9 Whatisneededtoascertainatthesiteorecoregionallevelhowmarineconservationcan contributetopovertyreductionwherethisisconsiderednecessaryforthesustainabilityof thenaturalresource,biodiversityandlivelihoods? 9 Howcanabalancedassessmentofbothbenefitsandcostsbeundertakenforaproper understandingoftheactualbenefits(ie.benefitsaftercostsaretakenintoaccount)ina particularareaorsystem? 9 Whatarethekeypovertyreductionbenefitsofamarineconservationsiteorsystemand whataretheirfactorsforsuccessindoingsointhatparticularlocationorsystem? 9 Whatgovernancemechanismscanweputinplacethatareaccountable,transparentand takesintoaccounttheinterestsofallstakeholders(includingthemostvulnerablegroups)in anequitablemanner? 9 Whatmechanismscanweputinplaceforequitablesharingofcostsandbenefitsacrossa rangeofstakeholders? 9 Whatmechanisms,ifappropriate,canbeputinplaceforpaymentofenvironmentalservices andhowcanitbeassuredthatthosewillbeequitablydistributed? 9 Howcantheeffortsofmanagingaparticularconservationsiteorecoregioncontributeto sustainabledevelopmentatalocal,nationalandregionallevel? 9 Howcantheecological,economic,socialandculturaldimensionsofconservationbe addressedsimultaneouslyintheonͲgoingmanagementofthemarineresourcestoensurea sustainedimpactonpovertyreduction–andalsoacknowledgingthatpovertyisamultiͲ dimensionalconcept(thethreepillarsofsustainabledevelopment)?

UsefulReferencesandresources:

AdamsW.MandJ.Hutton.2007.People,parksandpoverty:politicalecologyandbiodiversity conservation.ConservationandSociety5(2):147Ͳ183 Agrawal,AandRedford,K(2006)Poverty,DevelopmentandBiodiversityConservation:Shootingin theDark.WCSWorkingPaperno26.WildlifeConservationSociety,NewYork Duraiappah, Anantha K. (2004). Exploring the Links. Human well being, poverty and ecosystem services. International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) and United Nations EnvironmentalProgram(UNEP). GEF(2006).TheRoleofLocalBenefitsinGlobalEnvironmentalPrograms,GlobalEnvironment FacilityEvaluationOffice,WashingtonDC.) Indigenousandlocalcommunitiesandprotectedareas.Towardsequityandenhancedconservation http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/pag_011.pdf

DRAFTVersion2

Fisher,RJ;Maginnis,S;Jackson,W;Barrow,E;andJeanrenaud,S(2005)PovertyandConservation: Landscapes,PeopleandPower.IUCNGland. Governanceaskeyforeffectiveandequitableprotectedareasystems. http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/governance_of_protected_areas_for_cbd_pow_briefing_note_ 08_1.pdf Leisher,C.,vanBeuring,P.andScherl,L.M.(2007).Nature’sInvestmentBank:HowMarine ProtectedAreasContributetoPovertyReduction.TheNatureConservancy. www.nature.org/mpapovertystudy. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and Human WellͲbeing: Synthesis. Island Press,Washington,DC. NaughtonͲTreves,L;BuckHolland,M;Brandon,K(2005).TheRoleofProtectedAreasinConserving BiodiversityandSustainingLocalLivelihoods.AnnualReviewofEnvironmentandResources,30:219Ͳ 52 Poverty & Environment Initiative. (2005). Attacking Poverty While Improving the Environment: TowardsWinͲWinPolicyOptions.UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP)andtheEuropean Commission(EC). Poverty,Wealth&Conservationhttp://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/pm4_1.pdf. Scherl,L.M.Wilson,A.,Wild,R.,Blockhus,J.,Franks,P.,McNeely,J.,andMcShane,T.(2004,)Can ProtectedAreasContributetoPovertyReduction?OpportunitiesandLimitations.IUCN,Cambridge andGland(TranslatedPortugueseversion,2006). Scherl,LM.(2005)ProtectedAreasandLocalandIndigenousCommunities.InMcNeely,J.A.(ed.). Friendsforlife:NewPartnershipsinSupportofProtectedAreas,pp.101Ͳ112.IUCN,Gland, Switzerland SharingPower—LearningbydoingincoͲmanagementofnaturalresourcesthroughouttheworld http://cms.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/ceesp/ceesp_publications/sharing_power.cfm

Usefulwebsites:

MarineProtectedAreasandPovertyReductionStudyinAsiaͲPacific(TheNatureConservancy) www.nature.org/mpapovertystudy

LocallyManagedMarineAreaNetworkinthePacificandSEAsia(www.LMMAnetwork.org).

PovertyandConservationLearningGroupwww.povertyandconservation.info

BioSocisthemonthlybulletinofthePovertyandConservationLearninggroupͲPCLG,highlightingkeynew researchonbiodiversityandsociety,povertyandconservation.Toreceiveit, www.povertyandconservation.info/en/biosoc.php

DRAFTVersion2

18.OUTBREAKSOFCROWNǦOFǦTHORNSSEASTARSADDTO CORALDEPLETIONINTHECORALTRIANGLE.

MorganS.Pratchett1,AndrewH.Baird1,HughP.A.Sweatman2,IanMiller2,StuartCampbell3,and FraserA.Hartley3

5/11/08

Outlineoftheissue

The coral-feeding crown-of-thorns seastar (Acanthaster planci) is a natural inhabitant on coral reefs throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans and mostly occurs at very low densities (typically <1 seastar per hectare). However, this species periodically experiences massive population explosions referred to as “outbreaks”. Each individual seastar is capable of consuming up to 40cm2 of live coral per day and the combined feeding activities of hundreds and thousands of these starfish on a single reef causes rapid and extensive devastation of coral reef habitats. Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars (up to 20,000 seastars per hectare) have been occurring throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans since at least the 1960’s, and represent the principal cause of long-term coral loss at many locations in the Pacific, including Australia’s Great Barrier Reef (GBR), southern Japan, Palau, Guam and Fiji. Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars have also been reported from several locations throughout the Coral Triangle over the last 2 decades, but have never appeared to cause the levels of devastation recorded in other nearby regions (especially, the GBR and southern Japan). However, there has been a recent spate of outbreaks in both Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (Figure 1), which have caused extensive coral loss. Most recently (in 2008) there was a major infestation of A. planci reported near Halmahera, Indonesia, which reduced coral cover to <5% on approximately 20% of reefs. In many areas, outbreaks are occurring for the first time in recorded history.

1ARCCentreofExcellenceforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversity,TownsvilleQLD4811,Australia. Email:[email protected],Ph.+61747815747 2AustralianInstituteofMarineScience,PMB3,TownsvilleMC,Queensland4810,Australia. 3TheWildlifeConservationSociety,MarinePrograms,Bronx,NewYork10460,USA 98

DRAFTVersion2

Figure 1. Outbreak of Acanthaster planci on the Great Barrier Reef, where outbreaks appear to occur more frequently in areas open to fishing

The Coral Triangle represents a diversity hotspot for coral reef species and many of the species within this region have life history traits, such as limited ranges or habitat specialization, which make them vulnerable to extinction. Coral loss caused by outbreaks of A. planci may pose a significant threat to coral reef biodiversity within the Coral Triangle, but few countries have monitoring programs to quantify the abundance of these crown-of-thorns seastars and the damage caused.

RelevancetothedraftCTIPlanofAction

Sustainable long-term exploitation of coastal marine resources is critically dependant upon the health of ecosystems (e.g., coral reef ecosystems) that sustain important fisheries species. Coral reef environments are facing global degradation due to the combined impact of climate change, coral disease, destructive fishing and over-exploitation, pollution, and sedimentation. Coral depletion caused by crown-of-thorns compounds these other agents of coral reef degradation to further jeopardize biodiversity and sustainable fisheries.

Within the Coral Triangle, the threat posed by outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars to coral health and reef condition is currently greater than that affected by climate change and coral bleaching. Many equatorial reefs, particularly those located in the Coral Triangle, have as yet, been largely unaffected by climate-induced coral bleaching. Meanwhile, reports of outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars have increased rapidly within this region, which may be attributable to either increased research activity and or real increases in their occurrence.

DRAFTVersion2

Figure 2. Reported outbreaks of crown-of-thorns sea stars (since 2002) within Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines.

Outbreaks of A. planci can cause massive and widespread coral depletion. For example, at Green Island in 1962 outbreak populations of A. planci killed 80% of scleractinian corals across the entire reef, from the shallow reef crest (<2 meters depth) down to a depth of 40 meters. The critical question is what causes outbreaks. The life-history dynamics of this species (e.g., phenomenal fecundity and early maturation) makes them very prone to massive population fluctuations, but this does not explain when and where outbreaks actually occur. A variety of factors have been proposed to initiate outbreaks of A. planci, including high levels of terrestrial run-off, or temporary increases in sea surface temperatures, which could both lead to increases in the survival of larval sea stars. In addition, depletion of natural predators (such as large carnivorous reef fishes) by fishing may increase survivorship of juvenile seastars once they have settled on the reef. On the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), recent research has shown that there have been fewer outbreaks within area protected from fishing (Sweatman 2008). There is no definitive evidence that heavily exploited coral reef fishes, such as coral trout (Plectropomus spp.), are significant predators of crown-of-thorns seastars, but the proportion of reefs that had outbreaks of A. planci on the GBR were 3.75 times higher where fishing was permitted (Figure 3).

100

DRAFTVersion2

WhatdoesthismeanforMPAnetworkdesign,managementand implementation?

If crown-of-thorns outbreaks are attributable to anthropogenic activities (e.g., Brodie et al. 2005), then there is definite need to try and manage effects of outbreaks on coral reef ecosystems. Even if outbreaks are largely a natural phenomenon, the threat of coral reef degradation to coastal fisheries, and food security provides appropriate incentive to manage and mitigate against all sources of coral mortality. Minimizing coral loss is also critical to maximizing the adaptive potential and resilience of coral reef ecosystems to future unknown disturbances, such as climate change.

An important step in minimizing future effects of crown-of-thorns starfish within the coral triangle is to:- i) Urgently address low and declining water quality throughout the region. The primary steps to improve water quality are to ensure appropriate treatment of sewage and reducing the release of raw or poorly treated sewage into coastal ecosystems, as well as minimizing land runoff due to farming, coastal development and forest clearing, by building physical barriers to sediment displacement or minimizing clearing during periods of high rainfall. ii) Enhance protection of large carnivorous fishes, which are highly prone to over-fishing. Implementation of effective Marine Protected Areas to reduce fishing on large predatory fishes may reduce the likelihood of outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars by 73% (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Occurrence of outbreaks (1994– 2004) in the mid-shelf region of the GBR where most outbreaks occur; number of reefs with outbreaks (black bars) and without outbreaks (white bars). Outbreaks are much more prevalent on reefs that are open to fishing versus reefs that are closed to fishing (no-take) by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) zoning.

101

DRAFTVersion2

Otheradaptations

In many areas affected by outbreaks of A. planci (or during initial increases in seastar densities) there have been attempts to kill or remove individual sea stars to halt or minimize effects on coral communities. The most effective method of killing individual seastars is to inject them with sodium bisulphate, whereby 140 grams of sodium bisulphate is mixed with 1 litre of sea water and then injected into seastars using DuPont Velpar Spot Guns with long needles. Localized control efforts (through collection and injection of individual starfish) may be effective in reducing or delaying effects of outbreaks, but is not feasible and rarely effective over large reef areas. Because starfish can quickly move from one area to another, control of a specific area must be an ongoing effort with almost daily monitoring and controls.

In at least two cases, the end of an outbreak of crown-of-thorns seastars has coincided with the appearance of several diseased individuals. The symptoms of this disease, which include numerous dermal lesions, collapsed spines, and a debilitated water vascular system (Figure 4), are suggestive of attack by a highly virulent Vibrio bacteria. Research is currently underway in the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies to better understand the role of pathogens in regulating population of A. planci (especially at very high densities), which may ultimately lead to the development of an appropriate biological control for outbreaks of A. planci.

Figure 4. An infected crown-of-thorns sea star (left) exhibiting dermal lesions and collapsed spines, indicative of a disease. The adjacent starfish (right) is healthy.

Relevantprojects

The Wildlife Conservation Society in collaboration with Dr Andrew Baird has recently instigated a review on the recent and historical occurrence of A. planci outbreaks throughout Indonesia and PNG. 102

DRAFTVersion2

This project has revealed however, that while outbreaks of crown-of-thorns seastars are widespread, most outbreaks are not adequately reported. For example, it is not possible distinguish localized aggregations of A. planci from extensive regional outbreaks in current anecdotal reports. A central role of this project is therefore to instigate a centralized mechanism for reporting sudden increases in the abundance of A. planci and provide advice on studying outbreaks to establish likely causes. Critical information pertaining to the occurrence of outbreaks (including localized densities of seastars measure using prescribed sampling protocols, as well as maximum diameter measurements for a sample of 50-100 individuals) is very simple to collect and will contribute greatly to increasing understanding of proximal causes for outbreaks.

A definitive outcome of the Coral Triangle Initiative might be to expand this project to encompass the entire coral triangle and establish a necessary structure for reporting and responding to new reports of outbreaks throughout the region. Genetic sampling of outbreak populations is also required to establish the connectivity of populations of A. planci within the coral triangle and to better understand the dynamics and origin of outbreaks. Such studies are now viable, following the recent development of microsatellite markers for A. planci (Yasuda et al., 2006) and should be a research priority.

Backgroundreading

For information about of these publications, please contact Dr Morgan Pratchett (Email: [email protected])

Brodie J, Fabricius K, De’Ath G, Okaji K (2005) Are increased nutrient inputs responsible for more outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish? An appraisal of the evidence. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51: 266-278

Bruno JF, Selig ER (2007) Regional decline of coral cover in the Indo-Pacific: Timing, extent, and subregional comparisons. PLoS One 2(8): e711

Pratchett MS (2005) Dynamics of an outbreak population of Acanthaster planci at Lizard Island, northern Great Barrier Reef (1995-1999). Coral Reefs 24: 453-462

Sweatman HPA (2008) No-take reserves protect coral reefs from predatory starfish. Current Biology 18: 598-599.

103

ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies Australian Institute of Marine Science James Cook University PMB 3, Townsville MC Townsville Townsville 4810, Queensland 4811 Queensland Australia Australia

Phone: 61 7 4781 4000 Tel: (07) 4753 4444 Fax: 61 7 4781 6722 Fax: (07) 4772 5852 Email: [email protected]