Rissa tridactyla -- (Linnaeus, 1758) ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- CHARADRIIFORMES -- LARIDAE Common names: Black-legged Kittiwake; Kittiwake; Mouette tridactyle European Red List Assessment European Red List Status VU -- Vulnerable, (IUCN version 3.1) Assessment Information Year published: 2015 Date assessed: 2015-03-31 Assessor(s): BirdLife International Reviewer(s): Symes, A. Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Tarzia, M., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L. Assessment Rationale European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) EU27 regional assessment: Endangered (EN)

This abundant small gull began undergoing rapid declines across the majority of its European breeding range since the 1980s. Extrapolated over a three generation period (39 years) these declines result in its classification as Vulnerable in Europe, and Endangered in the EU27 (where declines have been even more rapid). Occurrence Countries/Territories of Occurrence Native: Austria; Belgium; Denmark; Faroe Islands (to DK); Greenland (to DK); France; Germany; Greece; Iceland; Ireland, Rep. of; Italy; Lithuania; Netherlands; Norway; Svalbard and Jan Mayen (to NO); Poland; Portugal; Russian Federation; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; United Kingdom; Gibraltar (to UK) Vagrant: Belarus; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Estonia; Hungary; Latvia; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malta; Montenegro; Romania; Serbia; Ukraine Population The European population is estimated at 1,730,000-2,200,000 pairs, which equates to 3,460,000-4,410,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 421,000-422,000 pairs, which equates to 842,000-843,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Trend In Europe the population size is estimated and projected to decrease by 30-49% over the period from 1983, the start year of the reported trend for Iceland, which accounts for more than 30% of the European population) to 2020 (three generations). In the EU27 the population size is estimated and projected to decrease by 50-79% over the period from 1986, the start year of the reported trend for the UK, which accounts for more 90% of the EU27 population, to 2025. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Habitats and Ecology In Europe this species breeds on cliffs and coastlines in both Arctic and temperate regions. This species is migratory and disperses after breeding from coastal areas to the open ocean (Burger et al. 2013). It returns to its breeding grounds from January where it breeds from mid-May to mid-June in huge single- or mixed- species colonies (Burger et al. 2013) that often exceed 100,000 pairs (Snow and Perrins 1998, Burger et al. 2013). Non-breeders may also remain at sea during the breeding season (Snow and Perrins 1998). It nests on high, steep coastal cliffs with narrow ledges in areas with easy access to freshwater (Burger et al. 2013). The species moults on sandy beaches (Olsen and Larsson 2003) and on passage it may concentrate at sea on continental shelves, areas of upwelling (Burger et al. 2013) and at rich fish banks (Olsen and Larsson 2003). During the winter the species is highly pelagic, usually remaining on the wing out of sight of land (Burger et al. 2013). Its diet consists predominantly of marine invertebrates (e.g., squid and shrimps) and fish, although during the breeding season it may also take intertidal molluscs, crustaceans (Burger et al. 2013) (e.g., crayfish) (Flint et al. 1984), earthworms, small mammals and plant matter (e.g., aquatic plants, potato tubers and grain) (Burger et al. 2013). Many species of fish have been recorded in diet, but sandeels (Ammodytes), capelin (Mallotus villosus) and herring (Clupea harengus) are particularly important (Burger et al. 2013). Habitats & Altitude Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Sea Cliffs and Rocky Offshore Islands major breeding Marine Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline marginal breeding Marine Intertidal - Sandy Shoreline and/or Beaches, Sand Bars, Spits, Etc marginal breeding Marine Intertidal - Tidepools marginal breeding Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Pelagic major breeding Marine Neritic - Pelagic major non-breeding Marine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud suitable breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud suitable non-breeding Marine Oceanic - Epipelagic (m) suitable breeding Marine Oceanic - Epipelagic (m) suitable non-breeding Altitude Occasional altitudinal limits Threats The species is threatened by the depletion of food resources (e.g. through over-fishing) (Frederiksen et al. 2004, Nikolaeva et al. 2006), marine oil spills (Nikolaeva et al. 2006, Burger et al. 2013) and chronic oil pollution (Nikolaeva et al. 2006). It is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus (Melville and Shortridge 2006). The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c. 10° latitude from the polar edge of continent and within which 20–50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under doubling of CO2 levels (BirdLife International, unpublished data). It is caught as bycatch in longline fisheries, with significant numbers estimated to be caught off the western coast of Ireland and the U.K.. The species is considered a high risk for collision with offshore wind farms (Bradbury et al. 2014). The species is hunted in the Faroe Islands and in Greenland (Labansen et al. 2010, Burger et al. 2013, Thorup et al. 2014). Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Biological resource Fishing & harvesting Timing Scope Severity Impact use aquatic resources Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Medium Impact (unintentional effects: (large scale) Stresses [harvest]) Indirect ecosystem effects Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial animals Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact (motivation Declines unknown/ unrecorded) Stresses Species mortality Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Climate change & Habitat shifting & Timing Scope Severity Impact severe weather alteration Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Unknown Unknown Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects Climate change & Other impacts Timing Scope Severity Impact severe weather Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Causing/Could Medium Impact cause fluctuations Stresses Indirect ecosystem effects Energy production Renewable energy Timing Scope Severity Impact & mining Ongoing Minority (<50%) Causing/Could Low Impact cause fluctuations Stresses Indirect ecosystem effects; Species mortality Invasive and other Avian Influenza Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Virus (H subtype) Past, Likely to Unknown Rapid Declines Past Impact species, genes & Return diseases Stresses Species mortality Invasive and other Great Skua Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic (Catharacta skua) Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Causing/Could Medium Impact species, genes & cause fluctuations diseases Stresses Species mortality Invasive and other Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Causing/Could Medium Impact species, genes & cause fluctuations diseases Stresses Species mortality Invasive and other White-tailed Sea- Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic eagle (Haliaeetus Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Causing/Could Medium Impact species, genes & albicilla) cause fluctuations diseases Stresses Species mortality Pollution Industrial & military Timing Scope Severity Impact effluents (type Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Causing/Could Medium Impact unknown/ cause fluctuations unrecorded) Stresses Ecosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects; Species mortality Pollution Oil spills Timing Scope Severity Impact Past, Likely to Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Past Impact Return Stresses Species mortality Conservation Conservation Actions Underway The species is listed under the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement, but is not listed on the Bern Convention, the Convention of Migratory Species or on the EU Birds Directive Annexes. It is protected in some European countries by national legislation, including: France ( ‘Liste des espèces d’oiseaux protégées en France en application de l’article L. 411-1 du code de l’environnement et de la directive 79/409 du 2 avril 1979 concernant la conservation des oiseaux sauvages’); Portugal (D.L. 140/99 de 24 de Abril rectificado pelo D.L. 49/2005 de 24 de Fevereiro; Spain (species listed on the State Catalogue of Threatened Species as a species of “Special Interest” – Royal Decree 439/1990 & under regional legislation and included on the Galician Catalogue of Threatened Species: “Vulnerable” Decree 82/2007 of 19th of April). The species is categorised as Vulnerable in the Norwegian Red List and the All-Ireland Vertebrate Red Data Book (OSPAR, 2010). Population monitoring occurs across much of its breeding range, including Greenland, Norway (Anker- Nilssen et al. 2007), Iceland (Garðarsson 2006) France and the U.K.. The species is considered within the Nordic Action Plan for Seabirds.

Conservation Actions Proposed The species could benefit from regional level, international Species Action Plans, a regional monitoring strategy and further research on the effects on climate change and prey reductions. OSPAR recommends creating a network of hunting-free reserves in coastal areas. Monitoring of bycatch of this species through on board observer programmes is needed, and appropriate mitigation measures implemented where necessary. Sustainable manage fisheries to prevent over-fishing. Bibliography Anker-Nilssen, T. (ed.), Barrett, R.T., Bustnes, J.O., Christensen-Dalsgaard, S., Erikstad, K.E., Fauchald, P., Lorentsen, S.-H., Steen, H., Strøm, H., Systad, G.H. and Tveraa, T. 2008. SEAPOP studies in the Barents and Norwegian Seas in 2007. NINA Rapport 363. 92 pp Bradbury, G., Trinder, M., Furness, B., Banks, A.N., Caldow, R.W.G. and Hume, D. 2014. Mapping Seabird Sensitivity to Offshore Wind Farms. PLoS ONE 9 (9) e106366. Brazil, M. 2009. Birds of East Asia: eastern China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, eastern Russia. Christopher Helm, London. Burger, J., Gochfeld, M., Kirwan, G.M. and Christie, D.A. 2013. Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2013. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. and Sargatal, J. 1996. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Delany, S. and Scott, D. 2006. Waterbird population estimates. Wetlands International, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Flint, V.E., Boehme, R.L., Kostin, Y.V. and Kuznetsov, A.A. 1984. A field guide to birds of the USSR. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Frederiksen, M., Wanless, S., Harris, M.P., Rothery, P. and Wilson, L.J. 2004. The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black-legged kittiwakes. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 1129-1139. Fredriksen, M., Harris, M.P., Daunt, F., Rothery, P. and Wanless, S. 2004. Scale-dependent climate signals drive breeding phenology of three seabird species. Global Change Biology 10: 1214-1221. Gaston, A.J., Gilchrist, H.G. and Mallory, M.L. 2005. Variation in ice conditions has strong effects on the breeding of marine birds at Prince Leopold Island, Nunavut. Ecography 28: 331-344. Hammer, S., Jensen, J.K., Petersen, K.T., Bloch, D., Thorup, K. 2014. Færøsk Trækfugleatlas. The Faroese Bird Migration Atlas. Tórshavn: Faroe University Press. HELCOM (2013) Red List Rissa tridactyla Labansen, A.L., Merkel, F., Boertmann, D. and Nyeland, J. 2010. Status of the Black-Legged Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla) Breeding Population in Greenland, 2008. Polar Research 29 (3): 391–403. doi:10.1111/j. 1751-8369.2010.00169.x. Melville, D.S. and Shortridge, K.F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian- Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. Nikolaeva, N.G., Spiridonov, V.A. and Krasnov, Y.V. 2006. Existing and proposed marine protected areas and their relevance for seabird conservation: a case study in the Barents Sea region. In: Boere, G., Galbraith, C. and Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 743-749. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. Nordic Action Plan for Seabirds http://nordic.elibrary.imf.org/doc/ IMF931/21872-9789289321471/21872-9789289321471/Other_formats/Source_PDF/ 21872-9789289331111.pdf Olsen, K.M. and Larsson, H. 2004. Gulls of Europe, Asia and North America. Christopher Helm, London. Snow, D.W. and Perrins, C.M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Map (see overleaf)