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Home , Akimiski Island, Banks Island, Bear Island (Nunavut), Black guan, Cape Breton Island, Cape Chidley Islands

112 FAMILY

Order : Gallinaceous

SuperfamilyCRACOIDEA: ,, and Allies

Family CRACIDAE: Curassowsand Guans

Genus ORTALIS Merrem Ortalida [accusative case] -- Ortalis [nominative] Merrem, 1786, Avium Rar. Icones Descr.2: 40. , by originaldesignation, motmot Linnaeus.

Ortalis vetula (Wagler).Plain . Penelopevetula Wagler, 1830, Isis von Oken, col. 1112. ( -- near city of Ve- racruz, Veracruz; Miller and Griscom, 38: 455, 1921.) . TropicalLowland EvergreenForest Edge, Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest, woodedresidential areas (0-1850 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident on the -Caribbeanslope from southernTexas (lower Rio GrandeValley) and Nuevo Le6n souththrough the lowlandsof easternMexico (including the Yucatan Peninsulaand Isla Cancun), , and easternGuatemala to northernHonduras (including Isla Utila in the ), and in the interior valleys of Chiapas,central ,and north-centralNicaragua; also northwestern (Guanacaste). Introducedand establishedon islandsoff the coastof (Sapelo, Blackbeard, and Little St. Simons). Notes.--The isolatedpopulation in northwesternCosta Rica was assignedto O. leuco- gastra by A.O.U. (1983, 1985) and Sibley and Monroe (1990).

Ortalis cinereicepsGray. Gray-headedChachalaca. Ortalida cinereicepsG. R. Gray, 1867, List Birds Brit. Mus., pt. 5, p. 12. (north-west coastof America = , Pearl Islands,.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, Gallery Forest,Secondary Forest (0-1100 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in easternHonduras (Olancho, Mosquitia), easternand central ,Costa Rica (except the dry northwest),Panama (including Isla del Rey in the Pearl Islands), and northwesternColombia. Notes.--The South American O. garrula (Humboldt, 1805) and O. cinereicepsconstitute a superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990); they are consideredby some(e.g., Blake 1977) as conspecific.The compositespecies may be called Chestnut-wingedChachalaca.

Ortalis ruficauda Jardine.Rufous-vented Chachalaca. Ortalis ruficaudaJardine, 1847, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (1) 20: 374. (Tobago.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest,Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge, SecondaryForest (0-1600 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident [ruficrissagroup] in northeasternColombia and extremenorth- westernVenezuela; and [ruficaudagroup] in northernVenezuela (south to the Arauca and Orinocorivers), and on MargaritaIsland andTobago. Introduced [ruficauda group] in the Lesser in the Grenadines(on Union and Bequia), where apparentlyestablished by the late 17th Century, but there have been no recentreports from Bequia. Early writings also alludedto its presenceon St. Vincent in the late 17th Century. Notes.--Also known as Rufous-tailedChachalaca. Groups: O. ruficrissaSclater and Sal- vin, 1870 [Rufous-ventedChachalaca] and O. ruficauda [Rufous-tippedChachalaca].

Ortalis wagleri Gray. Rufous-belliedChachalaca. Ortalida wagleri G. R. Gray, 1867, List Birds Brit. Mus., pt. 5, p. 12. (Californiaand Mexico = western Mexico.) FAMILY CRACIDAE 113

Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Gallery Forest (0-2000 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in western Mexico from southern , , and western Durango southto northernJalisco. Notes.--Also known asWagler's Chachalaca. Treatment of O. wagleri as'aspecies distinct from O. poliocephala follows Banks (1990a).

Ortalis poliocephala (Wagler). West Mexican Chachalaca. Penelopepoliocephala Wagler, 1830, Isis von Oken, col. 1112. (Mexico.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest Edge (0-1800 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident from southern and northeastern Jalisco and Michoacfin south to Morelos, westernPuebla, Oaxaca, and extreme westernChiapas (vicinity of Tonalfi). Notes.--See notes under O. wagleri.

Ortalis leucogastra (Gould). White-bellied Chachalaca. leucogastra Gould, 1844, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1843), p. 105. (Maza- tenango,Suchitepequez, ; Vaurie, 1968, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 138' 244.) Habitat.--Tropical DeciduousForest, Secondary Forest, Gallery Forest(0-1050 m; Trop- ical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in the Pacificlowlands from westernChiapas (vicinity of Tonalfi) southto northwesternNicaragua. Notes.--Although formerlyconsidered a race of O. vetula,this form may be allied to the South American O. motmot (Linnaeus, 1766) superspecies(Delacour and Amadon 1973). See notes under O. vetula.

Genus PENELOPE Merrem

PenelopeMerrem, 1786, Avium Rar. Icones Descr. 2: 39. Type, by subsequentdes- ignation (Lesson, 1828), Penelope rnarail "Linnaeus" [= Gmelin] -- Penelopeja- cupetnaMerrem = Phasianustnarail Milllet.

Penelopepurpurascens Wagler. Crested . Penelopepurpurascens Waglet, 1830, Isis von Oken, col. 1110. (Mexico = probably Veracruz.) Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Gallery Forest, Montane EvergreenForest (0-2000 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident from Sinaloa and southernTamaulipas south along both slopes of Middle America to , western , and northern Venezuela.

Genus Wagler ChatnaepetesWaglet, 1832, Isis von Oken, col. 1227. Type, by monotypy,Ortalida goudotii Lesson.

Chamaepetesunicolor Salvin. . Chamaepetesunicolor Salvin, 1867, Proc.Zool. Soc.London, p. 159. (Veragua,Panama = Calov6vora, Panama.) Habitat.--Montane Evergreen Forest (1000-3000 m; upper Tropical and Subtropical zones). Distributiøn'--Resident in the mountains of Costa Rica (north to Cordillera de Guana- caste) and western Panama (east to Coc16). 114 FAMILY

Genus PENELOPINA Reichenbach PenelopinaReichenbach, 1862, Avium Syst.Nat., Columbariae,p. 152. Type,by mono- typy, Penelopeniger Fraser.

Penelopinanigra (Fraser). Guan. Penelopeniger Fraser,1852, Proc.Zool. Soc.London (1850), p. 246, pl. 29. (No locality given = Guatemala.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Pine-Oak Forest (900- 3150 m; upperTropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountains of extreme eastern Oaxaca (),Chiapas, Guatemala, E1 Salvador,Honduras, and north-centralNicaragua. Notes.--Also known as Black Chachalaca.

GenusOREOPHASIS Gray OreophasisG. R. Gray, 1844, GeneraBirds 3: [485], col. pl. 121 and pl. [121]. Type, by monotypy,Oreophasis derbianus Gray.

Oreophasisderbianus Gray. . Oreophasisderbianus G. R. Gray, 1844, Genera Birds 3: [485], col. pl. 121 and pl. [121]. (Guatemala.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (1800-3100 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperate zones). Distribution.--Resident locally in the mountainsof Chiapasand Guatemala.

Genus Linnaeus Crax Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1' 157. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Ridgway, 1896), Crax rubra Linnaeus.

Crax rubra Linnaeus. Great . Crax rubra Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 157. Based on "The Red Peruvian Hen" Albin, Nat. Hist. Birds 3: 37, pl. 40. (in America = westernEcuador.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Tropical DeciduousForest (0-800 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident from southeasternSan Luis Potosf,southern Tamaulipas, Vera- cruz, and Oaxacasouth along both slopesof Middle America (includingthe YucatanPen- insula and Cozumel Island) to western Colombia and western Ecuador. Notes.--Crax rubra is part of a largecomplex including several South American that probablyconstitutes a superspecies(Delacour and Amadon 1973).

SuperfamilyPHASIANOIDEA: ,, Turkeys, and

Family PHASIANIDAE: Partridges,Grouse, Turkeys, and Quail

SubfamilyPHASIANINAE: Partridgesand

GenusALECTORIS Kaup AlectorisKaup, 1829, Skizz. Entw.-Ges.Eur. Thierw., pp. 180, 193. Type,by monotypy, Perdix petrosa Auct. (not Gmelin) = Perdix barbara Bonnaterre.

Alectoris chukar (Gray). Chukar. Perdix Chukar J. E. Gray, 1830, in Hardwicke,Illus. Indian Zool. 1(2): pl. 54. ( = Srinagar,Kumaon, India.) FAMILY PHASIANIDAE 115

Itabitat.--Rocky hillsides, dry mountain slopes with grassy , open and flat desertwith sparsegrasses, and barren . Distribution.--Resident in from southeasternEurope and Minor east to southernManchuria, northernChina, Turkestan,and the westernHimalayas. Introducedwidely in and established,at least locally, from south-central , northern Idaho, and central and eastern south to southern Cal- ifornia, southern Nevada, northern Arizona, and western Colorado; also in the Hawaiian Islands(main islandsfrom eastward,but no longer on ). Notes.-- chukarwas long regardedas a subspeciesof A. graeca (Meisner, 1804) of ,but seeWatson (1962a, 1962b). Tetrao kakelik Falk, 1786 has been usedfor this speciesin Russianliterature but is indeterminate(Hartert 1917).

GenusFRANCOLINUS Stephens Francolinus Stephens,1819, in Shaw, Gen. Zool. 11(2): 316. Type, by tautonymy, Francolinusvulgaris Stephens-- Tetraofrancolinus Linnaeus.

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin). Gray . Tetrao pondicerianusGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 760. Based on the "Pondicherry " Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 2(2): 774. (in Coromandel = Pondicherry, India.) Itabitat.--Dry ,often near thicketsand large lawns; in native range, dry country with scrubor grass,cultivated fields, and desertscrub. Distribution.--Resident from eastern east to India and . Introducedand establishedin the Hawaiian Islands(in 1958, presentlyon Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and ) and in southernArabia and the Andaman,, Amirante, and .

Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus).Black Francolin. TetraoFrancolinus Linnaeus, 1766, Syst.Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 275. (in Italia, Orienta,, Asia = .) Itabitat.--Dry grasslandsand pastures;in native range, (primarily tall grass), scrubbyand brushy areas,marshes and, locally, clearingsin open forest. Distribution.--Resident from Cyprus, Asia Minor, and the east to southern (),northern Iran, India, and Assam. Introduced and establishedin the Hawaiian Islands (in 1959, now on Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii). Introductionsinto southwesternLouisiana (Calcasieu and Cameronpar- ishes) and southernFlorida (Palm County) have failed.

Francolinus erckelii (Rtippell). Erckel's Francolin. Perdix Erckelii Riippell, 1835, Neue Wirbelth., V6gel, p. 12, pl. 6. (Taranta Mts., northeasternEthiopia.) Habitat.--Grasslandsand openforest; in nativerange, scrub, brush, and openareas with scatteredtrees, primarily in hilly or mountainouscountry. Distribution.--Resident in eastern (Red Province), northern Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Introduced and establishedin the Hawaiian Islands (in 1957, now on all main islands from Kauai eastward,except Maul). Notes.--Crowe et al. (1992) placed this speciesin the genusPternistis Waglet, 1832.

GenusTETRAOGALLUS J. E. Gray TetraogallusJ. E. Gray, in Hardwicke, 1832, Illus. Indian Zool., 2, pt. 11, pl. 46. Type, by monotypy, Tetraogallus nigellii J. E. Gray = Tetraogallus hirnalayensisG. R. Gray. 116 FAMILY PHASIANIDAE

Tetraogallushimalayensis G. R. Gray. . Tetraogallushirnalayensis G. R. Gray, 1843, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1842), p. 105. New name for figured in Jardineand Selby, 1828, Ill. Orn., pl. 141, as Lopho- phorus nigelli, not L. nigelli Jardineand Selby 1828, op. cit., pl. 76 (; restrictedto hills north of Simla by Meinertzhagen,1927, Ibis 3 (12th set.), p. 629.) Habitat.--Steep rocky slopeswith sparsevegetation, alpine meadows. Distribution.--Resident in south-centralEurasia in ,Turkestan, northern In- dia, and western . Introducedand established(1963 and subsequentyears) in northeasternNevada in the Ruby and East Humboldt mountains(Stiver 1984).

Genus PERDIX Brisson Perdix Brisson,1760, Ornithologie,1, pp. 26, 219. Type, by tautonymy,Perdix cinerea Brisson = Tetrao perdix Linnaeus.

Perdix perdix (Linnaeus).Gray Partridge. Tetrao Perdix Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 160. (in Europa•agris = southern Sweden.) Habitat.--Primarily cultivatedfields and grasslandswith hedgerows;in Old World, more widespreadin open country. Distribution.--Resident in Eurasia from the , southern , and north- ern Russiasouth to southernEurope, , northernIran, Turkestan,and Mongolia. Widely introducedin North America and establishedlocally from southernBritish Co- lumbia, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, southernOntario, south- western , , and south to northeasternCalifornia (formerly, neverdefinitely established), northern Nevada, northern Utah, northernWyoming, northeasternNebraska, , northern , extreme northern , central (formerly), west-centralOhio (formerly), northernNew York, and northernVermont. Many populationshave declinedor disappearedin recentdecades. Notes.--Alsoknown as HungarianPartridge or CommonPartridge and, in Old W•rld literature, as the Partridge.

Genus Bonnaterre CoturnixBonnaterre, 1791, Tabl. Encycl. M6th., Ornithol. 1(47): pl. lxxxvii. Type, by tautonymy,"Caille" Bonnaterre-- Tetrao coturnixLinnaeus.

Coturnixjaponica Temminck& Schlegel.Japanese Quail. Coturnixvulgaris japonica Temminckand Schlegel, 1849, in Siebold,Fauna Jpn., Aves, p. 103, pl. 61. (Japan.) Habitat.--Grasslands, marshes,cultivated fields and pastures. Distribution.--Breeds from northernMongolia andTransbaicalia east through Amurland to Ussuriland,, and the , and southto , , and Japan. from Transbaicalia(rarely) and central Japansouth to the northernIndochina , southernChina, and the Ryukyu Islands. Introduced and establishedin the Hawaiian Islands (in 1921, now on main islands from Kauai eastward,except Oahu). Notes.--Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus,1758) and C. japonica constitutea superspecies (Vaurie 1965).

Genus Brisson Gallus Brisson,1760, Ornithologie 1: 26, 166. Type, by tautonymy,Gallus Brisson= Phasianus gallus Linnaeus. FAMILY PHASIANIDAE 117

Gallus gallus (Linnaeus). Red . PhasianusGallus Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 158. (in India Orientali: Pouli candoretc. = Island of Pulo Condor,off the mouth of the Mekong .) Itabitat.--Forest undergrowth,second growth, scrub,and cultivatedlands. Distribution.--Resident from the Himalayas,southern China, and southto central India, , , and . Introducedin the HawaiianIslands (by early Polynesians,probably about 500 A.D.), now on Kauai, formerly on other main islands,with recentreintroductions not known to have becomeestablished except at WaimeaFalls Park, on Oahu;on islandsin (Little ),off PuertoRico (Mona, and possiblyCulebra, and in the Grenadines(Kick- 'em-Jenny);and in the ,and on many islandsof the and .

GenusLOPHURA Fleming Lophura Fleming, 1822, Philos. Zool. 2: 230. Type, by monotypy,Phasianus ignitus [Shaw]. GennaeusWaglet, 1832, Isis von Oken, col. 1228. Type, by monotypy,Phasianus nycthernerusLinnaeus.

Lophura leucomelanos(Latham). Kalij . Phasianus!eucornelanos Latham, 1790, Index Ornithol. 2: 633. (India = .) Habitat.--Dense scrub,forest undergrowth,thickets, and woodedravines, in Hawaii in ohia-tree and koa forest, and on plantations. Distribution.--Resident in the Himalayas from western Nepal east to northernAssam and . Introduced and establishedin the Hawaiian Islands (on Hawaii in 1962, now in the North Kona and on the slopesof Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea).

Genus PHASIANUS Linnaeus PhasianusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 158. Type, by tautonymy,Phasianus colchicusLinnaeus (Phasianus, prebinomial specific name, in synonymy).

Phasianus colchicusLinnaeus. Ring-necked Pheasant. Phasianuscolchicus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 158. (in Africa, Asia -- Rion, formerly Phasis,Republic of Georgia) Habitat.--Croplands and windbreaks,meadows, and marsh edges;in Old World, also scrubbywastes, open woodlandand edges,grassy , oases, riverside thickets, and open mountainforest. Distribution.--Resident [colchicusgroup] from centralRussia, Transcaucasia, Turkestan, Mongolia, and Ussurilandsouth to northernIran, northernBurma, China, and Korea; and [versicolorgroup] in Japan( and Shikoku) and the SevenIslands of Izu. Introducedand established[colchicus group] in the Hawaiian Islands(about 1865, now on all main islandsfrom Kauai eastward),widely in North America from southernBritish Columbia(including ), central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southwestern Manitoba, centralMinnesota, central , central , southernOntario, south- western Quebec, , Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia south, at least locally,to southerninterior , northern , Utah, southernNew Mexico, northern and southeasternTexas, northwestern , , northern Missouri, central Illinois, central Indiana, southernOhio, Pennsylvania,northern Maryland, New Jersey,cen- tral , and North Carolina (Outer Banks), and in the Bahama Islands (Eleuthera, probably),Japan, ,and Europe; and [versicolorgroup] in the HawaiianIslands (locally on Hawaii, with smallernumbers on Kauai, Lanai, and possiblyMaui). Notes.--Known in Old World literature as the Pheasant.Groups: P. colchicus[Ring- neckedor CommonPheasant] and P. versicolorVieillot, 1825 [Greenor JapanesePheasant]. 118 FAMILY PHASIANIDAE

Within the colchicusgroup, the Asiatic complex may be a species,P. torquatusGmelin, 1789 [Ring-neckedPheasant], distinct from the more westernP. colchicus[Common or English Pheasant];most North American populationsare from torquatusstock, although birds from Europeancolchicus are mixed with torquatusin many areas.

Genus PAVO Linnaeus

Pavo Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 156. Type, by tautonymy,Pavo cristatus Linnaeus(Pavo, prebinomialspecific name, in synonymy).

Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. Common .

Pavo cristatusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 156. (in India orientali,Zeylona -- India.) Habitat--Open forest,forest edge, second growth, scrub, open areas with scatteredtrees, and cultivated lands. Distribution.--Resident throughoutIndia and on Sri Lanka. Introducedin the Hawaiian Islands (initially in 1860, now establishedon Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii) and the Bahamas (Exuma); local, semi-domesticatedpopulations also have persistedfor yearsin variousparts of the North American .

Subfamily TETRAONINAE: Grouse Notes.--Sometimesregarded as a family, the Tetraonidae(e.g., A.O.U. 1957). The tax- onomicarrangement is basedon Ellsworthet al. (1995, 1996).

GenusBONASA Stephens BonasaStephens, 1819, in Shaw, Gen. Zool. 11(2): 298. Type, by subsequentdesig- nation (A.O.U. Comm., 1886), Tetrao umbellusLinnaeus.

Bonasa umbellus (Linnaeus). Ruffed Grouse. Tetrao urnbellusLinnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 275. Based on "The Ruffed Heath-cockor Grous" Edwards,Glean. Nat. Hist. 1: 79, pl. 248. (in Pensylvania= easternPennsylvania.) Habitat.--Forest, mainly mixed deciduous-coniferousand deciduous,in both wet and relatively dry situations,from boreal forest and northernhardwood-ecotone to easternde- ciduous forest and oak-savanna woodland. Distribution.--Resident from central , northern , southwesternMackenzie, northern Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, northern , southern Quebec, southern Labrador, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia south to northwestern California, northeasternOregon, central and easternIdaho, centralUtah, northwesternCol- orado, westernand northernWyoming, southernAlberta, southernSaskatchewan, southern Manitoba(absent from prairieregions of threepreceding provinces), northern , central and southeasternMinnesota, Iowa, northern Illinois (at least formerly), central In- diana,, in the Appalachiansto northernGeorgia, western South Carolina, and western North Carolina, and to northeasternVirginia; also locally southto westernSouth Dakota (Black Hills), northeasternKansas, northern , central Missouri, westernTennessee, and northeastern . Introduced and established on Anticosti Island and in .

Genus CENTROCERCUS Swainson

Centrocercus[subgenus] Swainson, 1832, in Swainsonand Richardson,Fauna Bor.- Amer. 2 (1831): 358, 496. Type, by originaldesignation, Tetrao urophasianusBon- aparte. FAMILY PHASIANIDAE 119

Centrocercusurophasianus (Bonaparte). Sage Grouse. Tetrao urophasianusBonaparte, 1827, Zool. J. 3: 213. (Northwesterncountries beyond the ,especially on the Missouri = North Dakota.) Habitat.--Foothills, plains,rocky plateaus, and mountain slopes where sagebrush is pres- ent. Distribution.--Residentlocally (formerly widespread)from centralWashington, Mon- tana, southeasternAlberta, southwesternSaskatchewan, southwestern North Dakota, western , and extreme northwesternNebraska southto easternCalifornia, south-central Nevada,southern Utah, andwestern Colorado, formerly north to southernBritish Columbia, south to northern and southeast to extreme western Oklahoma. Notes.--The isolatedpopulations of the GunnisonBasin of Coloradorepresent a distinct unnamedspecies (Hupp and Braun 1991, Young et al. 1994).

Genus FALCIPENNIS Elliot FalcipennisElliot, 1864, Proc.Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia16: 23. Type,by monotypy, Falcipennishartlaubi Elliot = Tetraofalcipennis Hartlaub. CanachitesStejneger, 1885, Proc.U.S. Natl. Mus. 8: 410. Type, by originaldesignation, Tetrao canadensis Linnaeus. Notes.--Canachiteshas been consideredgenerically distinct (Peters 1934, A.O.U. 1957, Ellsworth et al. 1995) or mergedwith Dendragapus(Short 1967, A.O.U. 1983); the latter treatmentwould makeDendragapus paraphyletic (Ellsworth et al. 1996). Yamashina(1939) recommendedits mergerwith Falcipennis,as have Dickermanand Gustafson(1996).

Falcipenniscanadensis (Linnaeus). Spruce Grouse. Tetrao canadensisLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1' 159. Basedon "The Black and SpottedHeath-cock" Edwards, Nat. Hist. Birds 3:118, pl. 118. (in = Churchill,Manitoba; restricted by Todd, 1963, Birds LabradorPeninsula, p. 252.) Habitat.-•Coniferousforest, primarily spruce and pine, especiallywith denseunderstory of grassesand shrubsor regeneratingburns. Distribution.--Resident[canadensis group] from northernAlaska, northern Yukon, north- em Mackenzie, southwesternKeewatin, northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, northern Que- bec, and Labrador southto coastal and south-centralAlaska, central British Columbia, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southernManitoba, northern , northern Wisconsin, central Michigan, southernOntario, northernNew York, northernVermont, northernNew Hampshire,and easternMaine; and [franklinii group] from southeasternAlaska (west to base of the Alaska ),central British Columbia and west-centralAlberta south to northernOregon, central and southeasternIdaho, and westernMontana. Introducedand established[canadensis group] in Newfoundland. Notes.--Groups:F. canadensis[Spruce Grouse] and F. franklinii (Douglas,1829) [Frank- lin's Grouse].Formerly placed in Dendragapusor Canachites.

Genus LAGOPUS Brisson LagopusBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie1: 26, 181. Type, by tautonymy,Lagopus Brisson -- Tetrao lagopusLinnaeus.

Lagopus lagopus (Linnaeus). Ptarmigan. TetraoLagopus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 159.(in Europa•alpinis = Swedish Lapland.) Habitat.--Open ,especially in areasheavily vegetated with grasses,mosses, herbs, and shrubs,less frequently in openingsin boreal coniferousforest. Distribution.--Breeds [lagopusgroup] in North Americaacross the from northern Alaskaeast through Banks, southern Melville, andBathurst islands to westernBaffin Island, and south to the central and eastern , southern Alaska, northwestern and 120 FAMILY PHASIANIDAE east-central British Columbia, extreme west-central Alberta, central Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, northeasternManitoba, extreme northern Ontario, the (in ), central Quebec, Labrador, and Newfoundland;and in Eurasia from and Scandinaviaeast acrossRussia and ,and south(except the British Isles) to Mongolia, Ussuriland, and Sakhalin. Resident[scoticus group] in the British Isles, Islands,and . Winters [lagopusgroup] mostly in the breedingrange, in North America wanderingir- regularly (or casually)south to Montana (formerly), North Dakota, Minnesota,Wisconsin, centralOntario, and Maine; and in Eurasiasouth to northernEurope. Introduced[lagopus group] and established(in 1968, from the Newfoundlandpopulation) on in Nova Scotia. Accidental [lagopusgroup] in Nova Scotia before introduction. Notes.--In the Old World known as Willow Grouse. Groups:L. lagopus[Willow Ptar- migan] and L. scoticus(Latham, 1789) [Red Grouse].

Lagopus mums (Montin). . Tetrao mutusMontin, 1776, Phys. S•ilskap.Handl. 1: 155. (Alpibus lapponicus= Sweden.) Habitat.--Open tundra,barren and rocky slopesin Arctic and alpine areas;in , some movementto thickets and forest edge. Distribution.--Breeds in North Americafrom northernAlaska east through the Canadian Arctic islands to Ellesmere and Baffin islands, and south to the Aleutians, southernAlaska (includingKodiak Island), westernand northern British Columbia,central Mackenzie, central Keewatin, SouthamptonIsland, northern Quebec, northern Labrador, and Newfoundland; and in the Palearctic from Greenland, , , and Scandinavia east acrossnorthern Russiaand northernSiberia to Kamchatka,and at high elevationsin the Pyreneesand Alps of southernEurope, the mountainranges of centralAsia, and in the Kuril Islandsand Japan (Honshu). Wintersregularly in North Americafrom the breedingrange south to southernMackenzie, northern Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, northwestern Ontario, and central Quebec, ca- sually to coastal British Columbia (the Queen Charlotte Islands); and in the Palearctic primarily residentin the breedingrange. Accidental in northern Minnesota. Notes.--Known in Old World literatureas the Ptarmigan.

Lagopus leucurus (Richardson).White-tailed Ptarmigan. Tetrao (Lagopus) leucurus "Swains." Richardson, 1831, in Wilson and Bonaparte, Amer. Ornithol.(Jameson ed.) 4: 330. (,lat. 54ø N.) Habitat.--Alpine tundra,especially in rocky areaswith sparsevegetation; in winter,moves slightly lower, to areaswhere vegetationprotrudes above snow. Distribution.--Resident from south-centralAlaska (Alaska Range), northernYukon, and southwestern Mackenzie south to southern Alaska (west to the and Clark), southernBritish Columbia(including Vancouver Island), and the CascadeMountains of Washington,and along the Rocky Mountains (locally, mostly on alpine summits)from southeasternBritish Columbia and southwesternAlberta south through central southern and Coloradoto northernNew Mexico. Introducedand establishedin northeasternUtah (Uinta Mountains) and California (central SierraNevada); introduced also in northeasternOregon (Wallowa Mountains) with unknown success.

Genus DENDRAGAPUS Elliot

DendragapusElliot, 1864, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 16: 23. Type, by sub- sequentdesignation (Baird, Brewer,and Ridgway, 1874), Tetrao obscurusSay. FAMILY PHASIANIDAE 121

Dendragapusobscurus (Say). Blue Grouse. Tetrao obscurusSay, 1823, in Long, Exped. Rocky Mount. 2: 14. (near Defile Creek = about20 miles north of ColoradoSprings, Colorado.) Habitat--Coniferous and coniferous-deciduousforest, often adjacentto open country; in winter,more restricted to denseconiferous forest [obscurus group]; open coniferous forest [fuliginosusgroup]. Distribution.--Resident[obscurus group] from southeasternAlaska (except coastal areas), southernYukon, and extremesouthwestern Mackenzie souththrough the mountainsof in- terior BritishColumbia (except coastal, southwestern, and south-central areas), southwestern Alberta, easternWashington, and the Rocky Mountainsto easternNevada, northernand eastern Arizona (south to White Mountains), southwesternand north-central New Mexico, westernand centralColorado and (formerly)western South Dakota; and [fuliginosusgroup] from coastalsoutheastern Alaska (north to Yakutat)and coastal British Columbia (including the Queen Charlotteand Vancouverislands) south in coastalranges and the Cascadesto northwesternCalifornia, the Sierra Nevada, and (at least formerly) to southernCalifornia (Ventura County) and extremewestern Nevada. Notes.--Groups:D. obscurus[Dusky Grouse] and D. fuliginosus(Ridgway, 1874) [Sooty Grouse].

GenusTYMPANUCHUS Gloger TyrnpanuchusGloger, 1841, Gemein. Handb. und Hilfsb. Naturgesch.,p. 396. Type, by monotypy, Tetrao cupido Linnaeus. PedioecetesBaird, 1858, in Baird, Cassin,and Lawrence,Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: xxi, xliv. Type, by monotypy,Tetrao phasianellusLinnaeus. Notes.--For commentson relationshipswithin this genus,see Ellsworth et al. (1994).

Tympanuchusphasianellus (Linnaeus).Sharp-tailed Grouse. Tetrao PhasianellusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 160. Basedon "The Long- tailed Grous from Hudson's-Bay"Edwards, Nat. Hist. Birds 3: 117, pl. 117. (in Canada = HudsonBay.) Habitat.--Grasslands,especially with scatteredwoodlands, arid sagebrush,brushy hills, oak savanna,edges of riparian woodland,muskeg, and bogs;in winter, more restrictedto areas with shrub or tree cover. Distribution.--Resident,at leastlocally, from centralAlaska, central Yukon, northwestern Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, northern Ontario, and west-central Quebecsouth to easternWashington, southern Idaho, northernUtah, southwestern,central and northeasternColorado, western and north-central Kansas, central , easternSouth Dakota,eastern North Dakota,northern Minnesota, central Wisconsin, central Michigan, and southernOntario; formerly occurred south to southernOregon, northeastern California, north- easternNevada, northeasternNew Mexico, southernIowa and northernIllinois, probably also northern . Notes.mSee commentsunder T. cupido.

Tympanuchuscupido (Linnaeus).Greater -Chicken. Tetrao CupidoLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 160. Basedon "Le Cocq de bois d'Am6rique" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 2 (app.): 1, pl. 1. (in Virginia = Penn- sylvania.) Habitat--Tall-grass prairie, occasionallyfeeding in adjacentcultivated lands; formerly in eastern(fire-produced) and blueberrybarrens. Distribution.--Resident locally andin muchreduced numbers from easternNorth Dakota, northwesternand central Minnesota, and northern Wisconsin south to southeasternWyoming, northeasternColorado, Kansas (except southwestern),northeastern Oklahoma, central Mis- souri, and southernIllinois; also in southeasternTexas. Formerly occurred(now extirpated 122 FAMILY PHASIANIDAE or nearly so) from east-centralAlberta, centralSaskatchewan, southern Manitoba, and south- ern Ontario south,east of the Rocky Mountains,to easternTexas, southwestern , east-centralArkansas, central Indiana, western , and westernOhio; andin the east from Massachusettssouth to Maryland, after 1835 confinedto the island of Martha'sVine- yard, (where last reportedin 1932). Notes.--The extinct easternpopulation was called Heath Hen. This speciesand T. pal- lidicinctusconstitute a superspeciesand are consideredto be conspecificby someauthors (e.g., Johnsgard1983); with this concept,Prairie Chicken or PinnatedGrouse may be used. Tyrnpanuchuscupido and T. phasianellushybridize sporadically, but occasionallythey in- terbreedextensively on a local level (Johnsgardand Wood 1968). l•mpanuchus pallidicinctus (Ridgway). LesserPrairie-Chicken. Cupidoniacupido var. pallidicinctus Ridgeway [sic], 1873, For. Stream1: 289. (Prairie of Texas [near lat. 32ø N.J.) Habitat.--Dry short-grassprairie, often interspersed with shrubsand short trees, regularly feeding in adjacentcultivated lands. Distribution.--Resident locally and in reducednumbers from southeasternColorado, south-central Kansas, and western Oklahoma to extreme southeastern New Mexico and northernTexas (Panhandle), formerly north to southwesternNebraska. Notes.--See commentsunder T. cupido.

Subfamily MELEAGRIDINAE: Turkeys Notes.--Sometimesregarded as a family, the Meleagrididae(e.g., A.O.U. 1957).

Genus MELEAGRIS Linnaeus MeleagrisLinnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 156. Type, by tautonymy,Meleagris gallopavoLinnaeus (Meleagris, prebinomial specific name, in synonymy). AgriocharisChapman, 1896, Bull. Amer.Mus. Nat. Hist. 6: 287, 288. Type, by mono- typy, Meleagris ocellata "Temminck" [-- Cuvier]. Notes.--Osteologicalstudies by Steadman(1980) haveshown that the genusAgriocharis shouldnot be separatedfrom Meleagris.

Meleagris gallopavoLinnaeus. . MeleagrisGallopavo Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 156. Basedmainly on the "Wild Turkey" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina1' 44, pl. 44. (in Americaseptentrionali -- Mirador, Veracruz.) Habitat.--Forest and openwoodland, deciduous (particularly oak) or mixeddeciduous- coniferous,especially with adjacentclearings or pastures(Subtropical and Temperate zones). Distribution.--Residentlocally andgenerally in reducednumbers (formerly widespread) from northern Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas,eastern Nebraska, southeasternSouth Dakota, northernIowa, southernand eastern Wisconsin, southern Ontario (formerly), extreme south- ern Quebec,northern New York, southernVermont, southern ,and south- westernMaine southto Guerrero(at least formerly), Veracruz, southernTexas, the Gulf , and . Reintroducedwidely throughits former breedingrange north of Mexico, and established locally northto southernBritish Columbia,Washington, Idaho, southernAlberta, southern Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, southeastern Minnesota, northern Michigan, and southern Ontario, and in the Hawaiian Islands(initially in 1788, now on Niihau, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii) and New Zealand.

Meleagris ocellata Cuvier.. Meleagrisocellata Cuvier, 1820, M•m. Mus. Hist. Nat. 6: 1, 4, pl. 1. (Gulf of Honduras = Belize.) FAMILY ODONTOPHORIDAE 123

Habitat. TropicalLowland EvergreenForest Edge, TropicalDeciduous Forest (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in southeasternMexico (Tabasco and the Yucatan Peninsula), northern Guatemala (Pet6n), and northern Belize. Notes.--Formerly placedin the genusAgriocharis.

Subfamily NUMIDINAE:

Genus NUMIDA Linnaeus Numida Linnaeus,1766, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1, p. 273. Type, by monotypy,Numida meleagris Linnaeus = Phasianusmeleagris Linnaeus.

Numida meleagris (Linnaeus). . PhasianusMeleagris Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat., ed. 10, 1, p. 158 (in Africa = , upper .) Habitat.--Open woodland,cultivated lands, and grasslands. Distribution.--Resident [galeata group] in westernAfrica east to westernZaire; [rnele- agris group] in Arabia and northeasternAfrica southto northeasternZaire; and [mitrata group] in south-centraland southernAfrica. Widely domesticatedthroughout the world, and escapedindividuals are frequently re- ported.Introduced and establishedin the Hawaiian Islands(in 1874 on Hawaii and possibly othermain islands,perhaps not well established),,in the WestIndies (on ,Isle of Pines, , , and Barbuda), and on Ascension,Trinidad, and the Verde Islands. Notes.--The three groupsare sometimesregarded as separatespecies, N. galeata Pallas, 1767 [WestAfrican Guineafowl],N. rneleagris[Helmeted Guineafowl], andN. rnitrata Pallas, 1767 [Tufted Guineafowl], althoughthey all intergradewhere their rangesmeet (seeCrowe 1978).

Family ODONTOPHORIDAE: Quail Notes.--Formerly considereda subfamily of Phasianidae,the Odontophoridaeare given family statusbecause of evidencefrom skeletal(Holman 1961) andDNA-DNA hybridization studies(Sibley and Ahlquist 1990).

Genus Gould Dendrortyx Gould, 1844, Monogr. Odontoph.1: pl. [3] and text. Type, by monotypy, Ortyx rnacroura Jardineand Selby.

Dendrortyx barbaras Gould. BeardedWood-Partridge. Dendrortyxbarbatus (Lichtenstein MS) Gould, 1846, Monogr.Odontoph. 2: pl. [2] and text. (Jalapa,Veracruz.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine Forest(950-1550 m; SubtropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in easternSan Luis Potosf,eastern Hidalgo, easternPuebla, and central Veracruz.

Dendrortyx macroura (Jardineand Selby). Long-tailed Wood-Partridge. Ortyx rnacrouraJardine and Selby, 1828, Illus. Ornithol. 1: text to pl. 38 (in "Ortyx synopsisspecierum"), and pl. 49 and text. (Mexico = mountainsabout valley of M6xico.) Habitat.--Montane Evergreen Forest, Pine-Oak Forest (1800-3700 m; Subtropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident in the mountains of Jalisco, Michoacfin, M6xico, Distrito Federal, Morelos, Guerrero, , Veracruz, and Oaxaca. 124 FAMILY ODONTOPHORIDAE

Dendrortyx leucophrys(Gould). Buffy-crowned Wood-Partridge. Ortyx leucophrysGould, 1844, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1843), p. 132. (Cob•n, Gua- temala.) I-Iabitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak Forest (1000-2900 m; upper Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident locally in the mountainsof Chiapas(Sierra Madre de Chiapas), Guatemala,E1 Salvador,Honduras, north-central Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (centralhigh- lands, includingDota Mountains).

Genus OREORTYX Baird Oreortyx Baird, 1858, in Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence,Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: xlv, 638, 642. Type, by monotypy,Ortyx picta Douglas. Notes.--This genusmay not be as closelyrelated to as its traditionalplacement suggests(Guti6rrez et al. 1983).

Oreortyxpictus (Douglas). . Ortyx picta Douglas, 1829, Philos. Mag. (n.s.) 5: 74. (No locality given = junction of Willamette and Santiam , Linn County, Oregon; Browning, 1977, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 90: 808-812.) Habitat.--Brushy mountainsides,chaparral, pine-oak woodland, dense second-growth, and in more arid areas,sagebrush, and pinyon-juniperwoodland. Distribution.--Resident from southwesternBritish Columbia (on Vancouver Island, where introduced),western and southernWashington, and central Idaho souththrough the mountains of California and northernand westernNevada to northernBaja California (Sierra Ju•rez, Sierra San Pedro M•rtir).

Genus CALLIPEPLA Wagler CallipeplaWagler, 1832, Isis yon Oken, col. 277. Type,by monotypy,Callipepla strenua Wagler = Ortyx squamatusVigors. LophortyxBonaparte, 1838, Geogr.Comp. List, p. 42. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Tetrao californicusShaw.

Callipepla squamata (Vigors). Scaled Quail. Ortyx squarnatusVigors, 1830, Zool. J. 5: 275. (Mexico.) Itabitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub, Arid Montane Scrub, Northern TemperateGrassland, Second-growthScrub (0-2550 m; Subtropicaland lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident from northeastern and southeasternArizona, northern New Mex- ico, east-centralColorado, and southwesternKansas south through western Oklahoma and the westernhalf of Texas, and the interior of Mexico to northeasternJalisco, Guanajuato, Quer6taro,Hidalgo, and westernTamaulipas. Introducedand establishedin central Washington(Yakima and Grant counties),eastern Nevada and Nebraska, with no or uncertain success.

Callipepla douglasii (Vigors). Elegant Quail. Ortyx douglasii Vigors, 1829, Zool. J. 4 (1828): 354. (Monterey, error = Mazatl•n, Sinaloa.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub, Tropical DeciduousForest (0-1550 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident from northernSonora and southwesternChihuahua south through Sinaloa, northwesternDurango, and Nayarit to northwesternJalisco. A smallpopulation present near Nogales, Arizona, from 1964to the early 1970'sapparently originatedfrom escapedindividuals. FAMILY ODONTOPHORIDAE 125

Notes.--This and the next two speciessometimes are separatedfrom Callipepla in the genusLophortyx (e.g., A.O.U. 1957). Also known as Douglas Quail.

Callipepla californica (Shaw). California Quail. Tetrao californicusShaw, 1798, in Shaw and Nodder, Naturalists' Misc. 9: text to pl. 345. (California = Monterey.) Habitat.--Brushy, grassy,and weedy areasin both humid and arid ,including chaparral,forest edge, riparian woodland edge, oak woodland,cultivated lands, semi-desert scrub,sagebrush, wooded suburbs,and, less frequently,pinyon-juniper woodland. Distribution.--Residentfrom southernOregon south through California (including Santa CatalinaIsland, wherepossibly introduced) to southernBaja California and extremewestern Nevada ( Lake Valley). Introduced north to southwestern British Columbia, east to western Idaho, and Utah, and in the Hawaiian Islands,New Zealand,, , ,and ,also widely elsewhere in the western . Notes.--See commentsunder C. douglasii and C. gambelii.

Callipepla garnbelii (Gambel). Gambel'sQuail. LophortyxGambelii "Nutt." Gambel, 1843, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia1: 260. (Some distancewest [= east] of California = southernNevada.) Habitat.--, primarily with brush or low trees, desertriparian woodland,also in adjacentcultivated land and suburbs(Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident from southeasternCalifornia, southern Nevada, southern Utah, westernColorado, and northernNew Mexico southto northeasternBaja California, Sonora (including Isla Tibur6n in the ), coastal Sinaloa, extreme northern Chi- huahua, and the Valley of western Texas. Introducedand establishedin the Hawaiian Islands (in 1928, now on Lanai, Kahoolawe, and possiblyHawaii), on San ClementeIsland (off California), and in west-centralIdaho. Notes.--Callipepla gambelii and C. californica constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970). See commentsunder C. squamata and C. douglasii.

Genus PHILORTYX Gould

PhilortyxGould, 1846, Monogr.Odontoph. 2: pl. 6 and text. Type, by monotypy,Ortyx fasciatus Gould.

Philortyxfasciatus (Gould). . OrtyxfasciatusGould, 1843, Proc. Zool. Soc. London(1842), p. 133. (California, error = Mexico.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub,Arid MontaneScrub, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Second- growth Scrub(0-2500 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones.) Distribution.--Resident in southwesternJalisco, , Michoacfin, Guerrero, M6xico, Morelos, and Puebla. Notes.--Also known as Barred Quail.

Genus Goldfuss

Colinus Goldfuss,1820, Handb. Zool. 2: 220. Type, by monotypy,Perdix mexicanus, Caille de la Louislane,Planches enlum. 149 = Tetrao virginianusLinnaeus.

Colinus virginianus (Linnaeus).Northern Bobwhite. Tetrao virginianusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 161. Basedon "The American Partridge" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 3: 12, pl. 12. (in America = Virginia.) 126 FAMILY ODONTOPHORIDAE

Habitat.--Brushy fields, grasslands(primarily long grass),cultivated lands, and open woodland,in both humid and semi-aridsituations (Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident from southeasternWyoming, central South Dakota, southern Minnesota, central Wisconsin,central Michigan, extreme southernOntario, southernNew York, and Massachusetts(formerly farther north) souththrough the centraland (west to southeasternWyoming, easternColorado, easternNew Mexico, and west- central Texas) to southern Florida, the Gulf coast, and eastern and southern Mexico, west to eastern Coahuila, western San Luis Potosf, southeasternNayarit, eastern Jalisco, Gua- najuato,Mtxico, Puebla,and northern Oaxaca, east to Tabasco,eastern Chiapas, and extreme northwesternGuatemala (Nenton-ComitJn valley), and in the Pacific lowlands in Oaxaca and Chiapas;also in southeasternArizona (formerly,extirpated late 1890's,reintroductions attemptsnot certainly successful)and easternSonora. Introducedand established in westernNorth America(Washington and Oregon), the Great- er Antilles (Cuba,Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, andformerly on St. Croix), the Bahamas(Andros, Abaco, and New Providence), and New Zealand. Notes.--Known in earlier literature as the Bobwhite and Common Bobwhite. Colinus virginianusand C. nigrogularisconstitute a superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Colinus nigrogularis (Gould). Black-throatedBobwhite. Ortyx nigrogularisGould, 1843, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1842), p. 181. (Mexico = YucatJn.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub,Low SeasonallyWet Grassland,Second-growth Scrub, lowland pine savanna(Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in the northern and central YucatanPeninsula (northern Cam- peche, YucatJn,and northernand central QuintanaRoo), northernGuatemala (Pet6n), and Belize; and in the Mosquitiaof easternHonduras and northeasternNicaragua. Notes.--See commentsunder C. virginianus.

Colinus cristatus (Linnaeus). Crested Bobwhite. Tetrao cristatusLinnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 277. Basedmainly on "La Caille hup6edu Mexique" Brisson,Ornithologie 1: 260, pl. 25, fig. 2. (in Mexico, Guiania, error = Curaqao.) Habitat.--Arid Lowland Scrub, Low SeasonallyWet Grassland,Second-growth Scrub (0-1500 m; Tropical Zone, in to TemperateZone). Distribution.--Resident[leucopogon group] on the Pacificslope from westernGuatemala (includingthe upperMotagua Valley on the Caribbeandrainage) south through E1 Salvador, Honduras(including the Sula, Comayagua,and QuimistJnvalleys on the Caribbeanslope) and Nicaraguato centralCosta Rica; and [cristatusgroup] on the Pacific slope of south- western Costa Rica (Golfo Dulce region) and western Panama (east to western PanamJ province),and from westernColombia east through most of Venezuela(also , Curacao, and Margarita Island) to the Guianasand easternBrazil. Introducedand establishedin the (St. Thomas,now extirpated)and the Grenadines(Mustique). Notes.--Some authors(e.g., Blake 1977) recognizethe two groupsas separatespecies, C. leucopogon(Lesson, 1842) [Spot-belliedBobwhite] and C. cristatus[Crested Bobwhite].

Genus ODONTOPHORUS Vieillot

OdontophorusVieillot, 1816, Analyse,p. 51. Type, by monotypy,"Tocro" Buffon = Tetrao gujanensisGmelin.

Odontophorusgujanensis (Gmelin). Marbled Wood-Quail. Tetrao gujanensisGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 767. Basedin part on the "Guiana Partridge"Latham, Gen. Synop.Birds 2(2): 776. (in Cayennaet Gujana= Cayenne.) FAMILY ODONTOPHORIDAE 127

Habitat.--Tropical LowlandEvergreen Forest (0-900 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident in southernand southwesternCosta Rica (Pacificslope from Gulf of Nicoya eastward)and Panama(Pacific slope in Chiriqui, whereprobably now extirpated; Caribbeanlowlands from Coc16eastward; and Pacific slopefrom easternPanamfi province eastward),and in South America from northernColombia, Venezuela, and the Guianassouth, mostly east of the , to centralBolivia and AmazonianBrazil.

Odontophorusmelanotis Salvin. Black-earedWood-Quail. Odontophorusmelanotis Salvin, 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1864), p. 586. (Tuc- urrique, Costa Rica.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Montane EvergreenForest (0-1600 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.-•Resident locally in northernand easternHonduras ( slope west to the Sula Valley), Nicaragua(Caribbean slope), Costa Rica (mostlyCaribbean slope), and Panama (both slopes). Notes.--The earlier merger (Peters 1934, A.O.U. 1983) of O. rnelanotiswith the South American O. erythropsGould, 1859 was not basedon publishedtaxonomic evidence; dif- ferencesbetween these two forms are as least as great as thosebetween other speciespairs in the genus(Ridgely and Gwynne 1989).

Odontophorusdialeucos Wetmore.Tacarcuna Wood-Quail. Odontophorusdialeucos Wetmore, 1963, Smithson. Misc. Collect. 145(6): 5. (1,450 meters elevation, 6 1/2 kilometers west of the summit of Cerro Mali, Serrania del Dari6n, Dari6n, Panama.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (1050-1450 m; SubtropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident in eastern Panama (on Cerro Mali and Cerro Tacarcuna, at the southernend of the Serrania del Dari6n, in Dari6n).

Odontophorusleucolaemus Salvin. Black-breastedWood-Quail. Odontophorusleucolaernus Salvin, 1867, Proc. Zool. Soc. London,p. 161. (Cordillera de To16,Veraguas, Panama.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest (700-1850 m; upper Tropical and Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident in the central highlandsof Costa Rica (west to )and westernPanama (east to Coc16,mostly on the Caribbeandrainage). Notes.--Also known as White-throated Wood-Quail.

Odontophorusguttatus (Gould). SpottedWood-Quail. Ortyx guttata Gould, 1838, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1837), p. 79. (Bay of Honduras = Belize.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest (0-2900 m; Tropical, Subtropical,and lower Temperatezones). Distribution.•Resident in southernMexico (Veracruz, northernand southeasternOaxaca, Tabasco,Chiapas, Campeche, and QuintanaRoo), northernGuatemala (Pet6n and the Ca- ribbeanlowlands), and Belize, and in the highlandsof centralGuatemala, Honduras, north- central Nicaragua,Costa Rica, and extremewestern Panama (western Chiriqu•.

GenusDACTYLORTYX Ogilvie-Grant Dactylortyx Ogilvie-Grant, 1893, . Birds Brit. Mus. 22: xiv, 99, 429. Type, by monotypy,Ortyx thoracicusGambel. 128 FAMILY ODONTOPHORIDAE

Dactylortyx thoracicus (Gambel). . Ortyx thoracicusGambel, 1848, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia4: 77. (Jalapa, [Veracruz,] Mexico.) Habitat.--Montane EvergreenForest, Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Pine-Oak For- est, Tropical DeciduousForest (0-2600 m; Tropical and Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident locally in southwesternTamaulipas, southeastern San Luis , northeasternPuebla, and central Veracruz;in westernJalisco and probablycentral Colima; in the Yucatan Peninsula;and from southeasternOaxaca (Sierra Madre de Chiapas) south throughthe mountainsof Chiapas,Guatemala, and E1 Salvadorto central Honduras.

Genus Gould

CyrtonyxGould, 1844, Monogr. Odontoph. 1: pl. [2], and text. Type, by monotypy, Ortyx massenaLesson = Ortyx montezumaeVigors.

Cyrtonyx montezumae(Vigors). MontezumaQuail. Ortyx MontezumceVigors, 1830, Zool. J. 5: 275. (Mexico.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Add Montane Scrub,Northern Temperate Grassland (1100- 3100 m; Subtropical,and lower Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident [montezumaegroup] from centralArizona (northto White Moun- tains), southernNew Mexico, western(formerly central) Texas, northernCoahuila, central Nuevo Le6n, and central Tamaulipas south in the mountains of Mexico to northern Mi- choac•in,Distrito Federal, Puebla, and west-centralVeracruz; and [sallaei group] on the Pacific slopeof Mexico from central Michoac•insouth to central Oaxaca (La Cieneguilla). Notes.--Also known as Harlequin Quail (A.O.U. 1957) or Mearns's Quail. Cyrtonyx montezumae,and C. ocellatusconstitute a superspecies.(Mayr, and Short 1970) Groups:C. montezumae[Montezuma Quail] and C. sallaei Verreaux, 1859 [Salle's Quail].

Cyrtonyx ocellatus (Gould). OcellatedQuail. Ortyx ocellatusGould, 1837, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1836), p. 75. (No locality given = Guatemala.) Habitat.--Pine-Oak Forest,Arid Montane Scrub,Pine Forest (750-3050 m; Subtropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in the mountainsof southeasternOaxaca (Sierra Madre de Chia- pas), Chiapas,Guatemala, E1 Salvador(at leastformerly), Honduras,and north-centralNic- aragua. Notes.--See comments under C. montezumae.

GenusRHYNCHORTYX Ogilvie-Grant RhynchortyxOgilvie-Grant, 1893, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 22: xv, 100, 443. Type, by monotypy,Odontophorus spodiostethus Salvin [-- male], and Odontophoruscinctus Salvin [= female].

Rhynchortyxcinctus (Salvin). Tawny-facedQuail. Odontophoruscinctus Salvin, 1876, Ibis, p. 379. (Veragua = Panama.) Habitat.--Tropical Lowland EvergreenForest, Montane EvergreenForest (0-1400 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Residentlocally on the Caribbeanslope of northernand eastern Honduras (west to the Sula Valley), Nicaragua,and Costa Rica, on both slopesof Panama(rare west of the Canal area), and in western Colombia, and western Ecuador. FAMILY RALLIDAE 129

Order : Rails, Cranes, and Allies

Family RALLIDAE: Rails, Gallinules, and Notes.--The sequenceand placementof generain this family is essentiallythat of Olson (1973).

GenusCOTURNICOPS Gray CoturnicopsG. R. Gray, 1855,Cat. GeneraSubgenera Birds, p. 120. Type,by monotypy, noveboracensis Gmelin = Fulica noveboracensis Gmelin.

Coturnicopsnoveboracensis (Gmelin). Yellow . Fulica noveboracensisGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 701. Based on the "Yellow- breastedGallinule" Pennant, Arct. Zool. 2: 491. (in Noveboraco = New York.) Habitat.--Shallow marshes, and wet meadows; in winter, drier fresh-water and brackish marshes,as well as dense,deep grass,and rice fields. Distribution.--Breeds locally from northwesternAlberta, southernMackenzie, central Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, northernOntario, central Quebec,New Brunswick, east- ern Maine, and (probably) Nova Scotia south to south-centralOregon, southernAlberta, southern Saskatchewan, North Dakota, central Minnesota, central Wisconsin, northern Mich- igan, southernOntario, and southernQuebec (formerly in east-centralCalifornia, and to northern Illinois and central Ohio). Reported in summer in southeasternAlaska, southern British Columbia, Montana, and eastern Colorado. Wintersfrom coastalNorth Carolina southto southernFlorida, west throughthe central, and southernGulf statesto central, and southeasternTexas and (casually) Arkansas,and (locally and casually) from Oregon southto southernCalifornia. Resident in central Mexico (Lerma marshesin M6xico). Migrates throughwestern North America (rare andirregular; recorded northeastern British Columbia, Washington,Arizona, and New Mexico), and irregularly through most of the United Stateseast of the Rocky Mountains. Casual in Labrador, the Bahamas (Grand Bahama), and . Notes.--Relationshipswith the Asiatic C. exquisitus(Swinhoe, 1873) are uncertain,but that form and C. noveboracensismay constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

GenusMICROPYGIA Bonaparte Micropygia Bonaparte,1856, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris43: 599. Type, by virtual monotypy, Micropygia schornburgi"Cabanis" = Crex schornburgkiiSchomburgk.

Micropygia schomburgkii(Schomburgk). . Crex Schomburgkii(Cabanis MS) Schomburgk,1848, ReisenBrit.-Guiana 2: 245. (Our Village, on the upper KukenaamRiver, Terr. Yuruari, Venezuela.) Habitat.--Low SeasonallyWet Grassland(0-1250 m) Distribution.--Resident locally in southeasternColombia, southernVenezuela, and , and in extreme southeasternPeru, eastern Bolivia, and central and southeastern Brazil (absent from forested Amazonia). One record from Costa Rica (BuenosAires, Puntarenasprovince, 9 March 1967; Dick- erman 1968).

GenusIa•ERALLUS Gray LaterallusG. R. Gray, 1855, Cat. GeneraSubgenera Birds, p. 120. Type, by monotypy, Rallus rnelanophaiusVieillot. 130 FAMILY RALLIDAE

Laterallus ruber (Sclater and Salvin). . Corethrura rubra Sclater and Salvin, 1860, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 300. (In prov- incia Vera• Pacis = Cobfin, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala.) Itabitat.--Freshwater Marshes(0-1500 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident in lowlandsfrom Colima and Oaxacaon the Pacific slopeand Tamaulipason the Gulf-Caribbeanslope south through Middle America (includingCozumel Island off QuintanaRoo) to Hondurasand northern Nicaragua; a sightreport for northwestern Costa Rica (Guanacaste).

Laterallus albigularis (Lawrence). White-throatedCrake. Corethrura albigularis Lawrence, 1861, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 7: 302. (Atlantic side of the Isthmusof Panama, along the line of the Panama Railroad.) Itabitat.--Freshwater Marshes (0-1600 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident on the Caribbeanslope of from southeastern Honduras(Rio Segovia) southto westernPanama (Veraguas), and on the Pacific slopefrom Costa Rica (Gulf of Nicoya) souththrough Panama (including Isla Coiba) to westernand northern Colombia and western Ecuador. Notes.--Laterallus albigularis was formerly treated as conspecificwith the SouthAmer- ican L. melanophaius(Vieillot, 1819), but they are now regardedas separatespecies (Wet- more 1965).

Laterallus exilis (Temminck).Gray-breasted Crake. Rallus exilis Temminck, 1831, PlanchesColor., livr. 87, pl. 523. (No locality given = Cayenne.) Itabitat.--Freshwater Marshes,Pastures/Agricultural Lands (0-1200 m; Tropicaland low- er Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident locally in Belize (Middlesex), easternGuatemala, southeastern Honduras(Rio Segovia [= Coco]), easternNicaragua, CostaRica, Panama (Isla Coiba, San Blas, and the Canal area), and South America (scatteredreports from Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, the Guianas, northern Brazil, Ecuador, eastern Peru, eastern Bolivia, and southern Paraguay).

Laterallus jamaicensis (Gmelin). . Rallus jamaicensisGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 718. Based on "The Least Water- Hen" Edwards, Glean. Nat. Hist. 2: 142, pl. 278, lower fig. (in .) Itabitat.--Shallow marginsof salt marshes,less frequentlyin wet savanna,and fresh- water marshes. Distribution.--Breeds locally in California (recordedfrom the San FranciscoBay area, and the Imperial Valley, San Luis Obispo County, formerly also San Diego. County), and in the lower Colorado River valley in southeasternCalifornia and southwesternArizona; locally in Kansas (Stafford, Finney, Franklin, Barton, and Riley counties),northern and central Illinois, and southwesternOhio; along the Atlantic coast from New York southto southernFlorida; on the Gulf coast in easternTexas (Brazoria Refuge, possibly also Gal- veston) and western Florida (from St. Marks to Clearwater); in Belize and Panama (eastern Panamfiprovince); and in westernPeru, Chile, and westernArgentina. Recordedin summer (and possiblybreeding) in Missouri,northwestern Indiana, extreme northern Baja California, Veracruz (Tecolutla), Cuba, Jamaica,Hispaniola, and (at least formerly) Puerto Rico. Wintersalong the coastof California from the breedingrange north to TomalesBay, and in the Imperial and lower Colorado River valleys; along the Gulf coastfrom southeastern Texaseast to Florida; along the Atlantic coastnorth to North Carolina (casuallyMaryland); and in the breedingrange in Belize and South America. Casual or accidental in the Farallon Islands, Arizona, Colorado, Minnesota, Arkansas, FAMILY RALLIDAE 131

Missouri, the Great region, Connecticut, the Bahamas (Eleuthera), Guatemala (Duefias),and Bermuda;sight reports from Wisconsin,Honduras, and Costa Rica

Genus CREX Bechstein

Crex Bechstein,1803, Ornithol. Taschenb.Dtsch. 2: 336. Type, by tautonymy,Crex pratensis Bechstein = Rallus crex Linnaeus.

½rex crex (Linnaeus). . Rallus Crex Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 153. (in Europa•agris, carectis -- Sweden.) Itabitat.--Grasslands,meadows, and cultivated grain fields, mostly in lowlandand moun- valleys,occasionally in marshylocations. Distribution.--Breeds from the Faeroe Islands, British Isles, Scandinavia, northern Rus- sia, and central Siberia southto the northernMediterranean region, Turkey, Iran, and . Wintersfrom the Mediterraneanregion (rarely), souththroughout most of Africa, Mad- agascar,and Arabia. Casualon , along the Atlantic coastof North America (recorded,but few recent records, from Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, St. Pierre et Miquelon, Maine, Rhode Island,Connecticut, New York, New Jersey,eastern Pennsylvania, and Maryland), Bermuda, Greenland, Iceland, the eastern Atlantic islands, India, Australia, and New Zealand.

Genus RALLUS Linnaeus

Rallus Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 153. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Fleming, 1821), Rallus aquaticusLinnaeus.

Railus !ongirostrisBoddaert. . Rallus longirostrisBoddaert, 1783, PlanchesEnlum., p. 52. Based on "Rale h long bec, de Cayenne"Daubenton, Planches Enlum., pl. 849. (Cayenne.) Habitat.--Salt and brackishmarshes, and mangroveswamps, locally (mostlyin the Im- perial and lower ColoradoRiver valleys)in fresh-watermarshes (Tropical and Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Resident [obsoletusgroup] locally along the Pacific coastfrom central California(Marin County)south to southernBaja California(including San Jos6 and Esp•ritu Santo islands in the southernGulf of California), in the interior of southeasternCalifornia and southwesternand south-centralArizona (where absentin winter), and along the Pacific coastfrom Sonorato Nayarit; and [longirostrisgroup] along the Atlantic and Gulf from Connecticut south to southernFlorida and west to southernTexas (Brownsville), in the (southto and in ),Quintana Roo (Holbox, and islands of the ChinchorroBank, possibly also Cayo Culebra), Yucatfin (Rio Lagartos),Belize (Ycacos ),and westernPanama (Bocas del Toro), and along both coastsof SouthAmerica (includingMargarita Island and Trinidad) south to northwesternPeru and southeasternBrazil. Northernmostpopulations tend to be partially migratory. Wanders[obsoletus group] casually on the Pacific coastto the FarallonIslands, north to northernCalifornia (HumboldtBay), and inland away from the breedinggrounds; and [lon- girostrisgroup] on the Atlantic coastnorth to New Brunswick,Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland,and inland to central Nebraska (near Stapleton),central New York, Vermont, West Virginia, central Virginia, and Tennessee;also Bermuda. Notes.--Rallus longirostrisand R. eleganshybridize to a limited extentwhere fresh and salt marshesmeet in easternand southernUnited States(Meanley 1969, Bledsoe1988a). They are considereda superspeciesby Mayr and Short(1970) and are mergedinto a single speciesby Ripley (1977). See commentsunder R. elegans. 132 FAMILY RALLIDAE

Rallus elegans Audubon.. Rallus elegansAudubon, 1834, Birds Amer. (folio) 3: pl. 203; 1835, Ornithol. Biogr. 3: 27. (Kentucky, SouthCarolina, Louisiana, and north to Camden,New Jersey,and Philadelphia-- Charleston,South Carolina.) Itabitat.--Fresh-water and, locally, brackish marshes,rice fields; [tenuirostrisgroup] Freshwater Marshes (1550-2800 m). Distribution.--Breeds [elegansgroup] locally from southernand east-centralSouth Da- kota, northernIowa, southernWisconsin, southern Michigan, extreme southernOntario, centralNew York, Connecticut,and (rarely) Massachusettssouth through eastern Wyoming, easternNebraska, northwestern and central Kansas, central Oklahoma, and most of the eastern United Statesto westernand southernTexas, southern Louisiana, central Mississippi, south- ern Alabama, and southernFlorida; in the (Cuba and the Isle of Pines); [tenuirostrisgroup] in the interior of Mexico from Nayarit, Jalisco,Guanajuato, and San Luis Potosf south to Guerrero, Morelos, Puebla, and Veracruz. Wintersprimarily from southernGeorgia, Florida, the southernportions of the Gulf states, and southern Texas south to Guerrero, Puebla and Veracruz, and in Cuba, and the Isle of Pines; occursless frequently in winter in the central portionsof the breedingrange, and casuallyto the northernlimits. Casual or accidental in eastern Colorado, North Dakota, southern Manitoba, Minnesota, southernOntario, southernQuebec, Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfound- land. Notes.--The breedingpopulation in the interior of Mexico has beentreated as a race of R. longirostris(Friedmann et al. 1950) or as a species,R. tenuirostrisRidgway, 1874 [Mex- ican Rail] (Davis 1972). See commentsunder R. longirostris.

Rallus limicola Vieillot. . Rallus lirnicola Vieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 28: 558. (Etats Unis = Pennsylvania.) Habitat.--Fresh-water and (locally) brackishmarshes, mostly in cattails,reeds, and deep grasses;in winter, also salt marshes,rice fields, and locally wet fieldswith tall grass(Sub- tropicaland Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds locally in North America from southernBritish Columbia (in- cludingVancouver Island), northwesternAlberta, centralSaskatchewan, central Manitoba, central Ontario, southernQuebec, New Brunswick,Prince Edward Island (probably),Nova Scotia, and southwesternNewfoundland south to northwesternBaja California, southern Arizona, southernNew Mexico, west-centralTexas, Oklahoma (rarely), Kansas,Missouri, southernIllinois, northernIndiana, southernOhio, westernVirginia, northernGeorgia, and coastal North Carolina, also in northern Alabama and northern Florida (once); in Puebla, Tlaxcala, M6xico, central Veracruz,Chiapas, and (probably) Guatemala. Wintersin North America from southernBritish Columbia southto northernBaja Cali- fornia, and from Utah, Colorado (local), central Texas, the Gulf states,and southernNew England southlocally throughmost of Mexico to central Guatemala,casually in interior North America north to Alberta, Montana, South Dakota, southern Minnesota, southern Ontario, and New York. Resident in western South America in southwestern Colombia and Peru. Casual or accidental in Alaska (Prince of ), Bermuda, Cuba, and Greenland; sight reportsfor the BahamaIslands (Grand Bahama and Eleuthera)and Puerto Rico.

Genus Pucheran

AramidesPucheran, 1845, Rev. Zool. [Parri] 8' 277. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Sclater and Salvin, 1869), Fulica cayennensisGmelin = Fulica cajanea Miiller. Notes.--Ripley (1977)merged this genuswith the Old World EulabeornisGould, 1844. FAMILY RALLIDAE 133

Aramides axillaris Lawrence. Rufous-necked Wood-Rail. Aramidesaxillaris Lawrence, 1863, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia15: 107. (Bar- ranquilla, New Granada[= Colombia].) Habitat.-- Forest,Tropical Lowland Evergreen Forest, Tropical Deciduous For- est (0-1200 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Residentlocally on the Pacificslope of centralMexico (recordedSinaloa, Nayarit and Guerrero),in the YucatJnpeninsula, Belize, E1 Salvador,Honduras (Guanaja and RoatJn in the Bay Islands and Pacific coast of Bay of Fonseca),western Nicaragua (VolcJn San Crist6bal and VolcJn ),northwestern Costa Rica (Guanacaste)and Panama (on the Caribbean coast in northwesternBocas del Toro and the Canal area and on the Pacific in southernCocl•) and along the coastsof northernSouth America (including Trinidad and Isla Los Roques,off northernVenezuela) south to northwesternPeru and east to .

Aramides cajanea (MillleD. Gray-neckedWood-Rail. Fulica CajaneaP. L. S. Miiller, 1776, Natursyst.,Suppl., p. 119. Basedon "Pouled'eau, de Cayenne" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 352. (Cayenne.) I-Iabitat.--River-edg•'Forest, Gallery Forest, Freshwater Marshes (0-1200 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident from southernTamaulipas and Pacific lowlandsof southernOa- xaca southalong both slopesof Middle America(including the Yucat•nPeninsula, Cozumel Island, and the Pearl Islands off Panama), and in South America from northernColombia, Venezuela,Trinidad, and the Guianas south, east of the Andes, to central Argentina.

GenusAMA UROLIMNAS Sharpe AmaurolimnasSharpe, 1893, Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 1: xxviii. Type, by original designation,A. concolor(Gosse) = Rallus concolorGosse. Notes.--Ripley (1977)merged this genuswith the Old World EulabeornisGould, 1844.

Amaurolimnas concolor (Gosse). . Rallus concolor Gosse, 1847, Birds Jamaica,p. 369. (Basin Spring and the neigh- bourhood of the Black River, in St. Elizabeth's, Jamaica.) Habitat.•Gallery Forest, SecondaryForest, River-edge Forest (0-1000 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident locally from southernMexico (recordedVeracruz, Oaxaca, Ta- bascoand Chiapas)south through Middle America (mostlyCaribbean slope, not recorded E1 Salvador),and in SouthAmerica very locally in westernEcuador, Guyana, and from eastern Colombia and Amazonian Brazil south to northern Bolivia and southeasternBrazil; also formerly in Jamaica(last reportedin 1911).

Genus Vieillot Porzana Vieillot, 1816, Analyse,p. 61. Type, by tautonymy,"Marouette" Buffon = Rallus porzana Linnaeus. Pennula Dole, 1878, in Thrum, Hawaiian Almanac and Annual (1879), p. 54. Type, by monotypy,Pennula millei [sic] Dole = Rallus sandwichensisGmelin. Porzanula Frohawk, 1892, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6)9: 247. Type, by monotypy,Por- zanula palmeri Frohawk.

?Porzanapalmeri (Frohawk).. PorzanulaPalmeri Frohawk, 1892, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6)9: 247. (LaysanIsland, lat. 25046' N., long. 171049' W.) 134 FAMILY RALLIDAE

Habitat.--Grass tussocksand scatteredvegetation in sandyareas, foraging often in more open areas. Distribution.--EXTINCT. Formerlyresident on LaysanIsland, in the HawaiianIslands, where it disappearedbetween 1923 and 1936. Introducedand establishedin the Midway group on EasternIsland (between 1887 and 1891, extirpatedaround 1944) and on Island (in 1910, last reported1943); attempted introductions elsewhere in the western Hawaiian Islands were unsuccessful.

Porzana porzana (Linnaeus).. Railus Porzana Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 262. (in Europa ad ripas = .) Habitat.--, wet meadows,and marshes. Distribution.--Breeds throughoutEurope east to northernRussia and Lake Baikal, and winters southto centralAfrica and the Bay of , rarely to the easternAtlantic islands and . Accidental in the LesserAntilles (Madgot, St. Martin, 8 October 1956; Voous 1957) and Greenland.

Porzana carolina (Linnaeus). . Railus carolinusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 153. Based on "The Little American Water Hen" Edwards, Nat. Hist. Birds 3: 144, pl. 144, and the "Soree" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 70, pl. 70. (in America septentrionali= HudsonBay.) Habitat.--Primarily fresh-watermarshes with densecattails, less frequentlyin flooded fields; in winter, also in salt-water and brackish marshes, rice fields. Distribution.--Breeds from southeasternAlaska, northwesternBritish Columbia, southern Yukon, west-central and southwestern Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northern Mani- toba, northern Ontario, west-centraland southernQuebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and southwesternNewfoundland south locally to northwesternBaja California (at leastformerly), centralNevada, centralArizona, southernNew Mexico, eastern Colorado, central Oklahoma, southwesternTennessee, central Illinois, central Indiana, south- ern Ohio, West Virginia and Maryland. Wintersregularly from southernOregon, central Arizona, northernNew Mexico, southern Texas, the Gulf coast and southernMaryland south through Middle America (including Cozumel Island and Chinchotto ), Bermuda, the West Indies, and northern South Amer- ica (includingthe NetherlandsAntilles, Tobagoand Trinidad) west of the Andes to central Peru and (rarely) east of the Andes to easternColombia, easternEcuador, Venezuela and Guyana;occasionally recorded in winter north to extremesouthern Canada and the . Casual in east-centralAlaska, the Queen Charlotte Islands, southernLabrador, Greenland, the British Isles, Sweden,France, and Spain. tPorzana sandwichensis(Gmelin). . Railus sandwichensisGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 717. Based on the "Sandwich Rail" Latham,Gen. Synop.Birds 3(1): 236. (in insulisSandwich = Hawaii.) Habitat.--Open countrybelow the forestbelt, presumablyin grassyareas. Distribution.--EXTINCT. Formerly residenton Hawaii in the Hawaiian Islands;last specimentaken in 1864, last reportedin 1884.

Porzana fiaviventer (Boddaert).Yellow-breasted Crake. RallusfiaviventerBoddaert, 1783, Table PlanchesEnlum., p. 52. Basedon "Petit Rfile, de Cayenne" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 847. (Cayenne.) Habitat.--Freshwater Marshes(0-600 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident locally in the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica,Hispaniola, and FAMILY RALLIDAE 135

Puerto Rico), and from Guerrero, Veracruz, and Chiapas south through Guatemala (La Aveliana), Belize, E1 Salvador(Lake Olomega),Nicaragua (Rio San Juan)and northwestern Costa Rica (Guanacaste)to Panama (east to easternPanami province and on Isla Coiba) and in South America from Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad and the Guianas south, east of the Andes, to northernArgentina, Paraguay and easternBrazil (absentfrom most of Ama- zonia).

Genus Sclater and Salvin Neocrex Sclater and Salvin, 1869, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1868), p. 457. Type, by monotypy,Porzana erythropsSclater. Notes.--Merged into the genusPorzana by Ripley (1977).

Neocrex colombianusBangs. ColombianCrake. Neocrex colombianusBangs, 1898, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 12: 171. (Palomina, Santa Marta Mountains, Colombia.) Itabitat.--Low SeasonallyWet Grassland,Freshwater Marshes (0-2100 m; Tropicaland Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Residenton the Pacificslope of Panama(Achiote Road just beyondCanal area borderin westernCo16n and the Tucumin marshin easternPanami province),western Colombia and western Ecuador. Notes.--Consideredby Hellmayr andConover (1942) to be conspecificwith N. erythrops, with which it constitutesa superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Neocrex erythrops (Sclater). Paint-billed Crake. Porzana erythropsSclater, 1867, Proc. Zool. Soc. London,p. 343, pl. 21. (Lima, Peru.) Itabitat.--Low Seasonally Wet Grassland, Pastures/AgriculturalLands, Freshwater Marshes (0-2600 m). Distribution.--Resident on the Caribbean slope of western Panama (Bocas del Toro; Behrstock1983); and in South America from easternColombia, Venezuelaand the Guianas south,east of the Andes,to northwesternArgentina, Paraguay and eastern Brazil, alsowestern Peru and the GalapagosIslands. Accidental in Texas (near College Station, Brazos County, 17 February 1972; Arnold 1978) and Virginia (westernHenrico County, 15 December1978; Blem 1980). Notes.•See comments under N. colombianus.

Genus CYANOLIMNAS Barbour and Peters CyanolimnasBarbour and Peters, 1927, Proc. N. Engl. Zool. Club 9: 95. Type, by monotypy,Cyanolimnas cerverai Barbour and Peters.

Cyanolirnnascerverai Barbour and Peters.. Cyanolirnnascerverai Barbour and Peters,1927, Proc.N. Engl. Zool. Club 9: 95. (Santo Tomils,Zapata Peninsula,Cuba, Greater Antilles.) Itabitat.--Freshwater Marshes. Distribution.--Resident only in the Zapata in the vicinity of SantoTomis and north of CochinosBay, in westernCuba.

GenusPARDIRALLUS Bonaparte Bonaparte,1856, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris43: 599. Type, by monotypy,Rallus variegatusGmelin --- Rallus rnaculatusBoddaert.

Pardirallus maculatus(Boddaert). . Rallus rnaculatusBoddaert, 1783, Table PlanchesEnlum., p. 48. Based on "Le Rile tachet6,de Cayenne" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 775. (Cayenne.) 136 FAMILY RALLIDAE

Habitat.--Freshwater Marshes(0-800 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident locally in Cuba (Havana, Matanzas and Las Villas provinces), the Isle of Pines(probably) and Hispaniola(, since 1978); in Mexico, whererecorded from Nayarit (San Blas and near LagunaAgua Brava), Puebla(Laguna San Felipe), Veracruz(Tecolutla and near ),Guerrero (near ),Oaxaca (near Putla de Guerrero), QuintanaRoo (Lake Cobfi) and Chiapas (Tuxtla Gutitrrez and San Cristtbal); in Belize (Ycacos Lagoon), E1 Salvador(Laguna E1 Jocotal,Islas Trasajera), CostaRica (Guanacaste,Turrialba and near Cartago),Panama (San Blas andeastern Panamfi provinces,sight reportsonly); and in South America from Colombia, Venezuela,Tobago, Trinidad and the Guianassouth locally, west of the Andes to northwesternPeru and eastof the Andeslocally to northernArgentina and southernBrazil. Casual in Jamaica(Black River marshes)where suggestedbreeding in last century is without basis(Levy 1994). Accidentalin Pennsylvania(Shippingport, Beaver County), Texas (Brownwood,Brown County) and the JuanFernfindez Islands (off Chile).

GenusPORPHYRULA Blyth PorphyrulaBlyth, 1852, Cat. Birds Mus. Asiat. Soc. (1849), p. 283. Type, by monotypy, Porphyrulachloronotus Blyth = Porphyrioalleni Thomson. Notes.--Some authors(e.g., Urban et al. 1986) merge Porphyrula into the Old World genusPorphyrio Brisson, 1760.

Porphyrula martinica (Linnaeus).Purple Gallinule. Fulica martinica Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 259. (in Martinica• inundatis = , West Indies.) Habitat.--Primarily fresh-watermarshes with emergentand floatingvegetation (Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds locally in the interior of the easternUnited Statesin southern Illinois (casually),western Tennessee and centralOhio (once), and, primarily in lowlands, on the Pacific coast from Nayarit and on the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbeancoast from (at least casually)Maryland andDelaware south through Middle America,eastern and southern Texas, the Gulf states,Florida, the Bahamas,Greater Antilles, the CaymanIslands (Grand Cayman,) and southernLesser Antilles (Guadeloupesouthward) to South America, where found vir- tually throughoutsouth at leastto northernChile and northernArgentina. Wintersfrom Nayarit, southernTexas and Florida souththroughout the remainderof the breeding range. Casual or accidental north to central California, southern Nevada, southern Utah, south- easternWyoming, Minnesota, Wisconsin, northern Michigan, central Ontario, southern Que- bec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Labrador and Newfoundland, and to the Bahamas and northernLesser Antilles (northto Barbuda),Bermuda, the Galapagosand Falklandislands, South Georgia, , Ascension,St. Helena, Iceland, Britain, Norway, Swit- zerland, the , and South Africa. Notes.--Also knownas American Purple-Gallinule. Porphyrula martinica and the African P. alleni Thomson,1842, appearto constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Porphyrulafiavirostris (Gmelin). . Fulicafiavirostris Gmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 699. (Cayenne.) Habitat.--Fresh-water marshes (0-500 m). Distribution.--Residentlocally in SouthAmerica east of the Andesfrom easternColom- bia, eastern Ecuador, and northeastern Peru to central Amazonian Brazil. Breedsin the Guianasand easternAmazonian Brazil, and possiblyelsewhere in south America east of the Andes. Breeding distributionand seasonalmovements poorly known (Remsen and Parker 1990). Wintersin southeasternPeru, southwesternBrazil, easternBolivia, easternParaguay, and probablynorthern Argentina (and may breed locally within this area). FAMILY RALLIDAE 137

Accidental in high Andes of Colombia and Venezuela, the tepui region of Venezuela, southeasternBrazil, Trinidad, and New York (Fort Salonga, Suffolk County, 14 December 1986; Spencerand Kolodnicki 1988, Remsen and Parker 1990).

Genus GALLINULA Brisson

Gallinula Brisson,1760, Ornithologie1: 50; 6.'2. Type,by tautonymy,Gallinula Brisson = Fulica chloropusLinnaeus.

Ga!!inula chloropus(Linnaeus). Common . Fulica ChloropusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 152. (in Europa = England.) Habitat.--Fresh-watermarshes, lakes, and pondswith tall, denseemergent vegetation (Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds in the WesternHemisphere locally from northernCalifornia, north- em Utah, northern New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, southeastern Min- nesota,southern Wisconsin, central Michigan, southernOntario, southwesternQuebec, New Brunswickand Nova Scotiasouth, most frequently in lowlands,throughout Middle America, ClippertonIsland, Bermuda, the WestIndies, and mostof SouthAmerica (alsothe Galapagos Islands, Antilles, Tobagoand Trinidad) to northernChile andnorthern Argentina; and in the Old World from the British Isles, , southern Scandinavia, central Russia, southernSiberia, Sakhalin, and Japan souththroughout most of. Eurasia and Africa to the easternAtlantic islands, southern Africa, the bordersof the northernIndian (including Sri Lanka), the EastIndies (to Sumbawaand ), Philippines, Taiwan, and the Ryukyu, Bonin, and islands. Winters in eastern North America primarily from South Carolina and the Gulf coast southward,elsewhere in the Americasthroughout the breedingrange, occasionallynorth to Utah, southernOntario, and ; and in the Old World from the British Isles, southernScandinavia, , and easternChina souththroughout the remainder of the breeding range, casuallyto the Seven Islands of Izu. Residentin the Hawaiian Islands(now on Kauai, Oahu, and Molokai, formerly on all main islandsfrom Kauai eastward,except Lanai). Casualnorth to southwesternBritish Columbia, easternOregon, southernIdaho, western Montana, Wyoming, southernManitoba, central Ontario, easternQuebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Greenland. Accidental in Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, ,and the CommanderIslands. Notes.--Also known as , in New World literature as Florida Gallinule, and in Old World literature as the Moorhen. ,

Genus FULICA Linnaeus

Fulica Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1' 152. Type, by tautonymy,Fulica atra Linnaeus(Fulica, prebinomialspecific name, in synonymy).

Fulica atra Linnaeus. Eurasian .

Fulica atra Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 152. (in Europa = Sweden.)

Habitat.--Similar to that of F. americana. Distribution.--Breeds from Iceland, the British Isles, and northern Eurasia southto north- ern Africa, India, and easternChina, alsoin New Guineaand Australia,and wintersthrough- out the breedingrange and southto the East Indies and Philippines. Casual or accidentalin Alaska (St. Paul, in the ), Labrador (Tangnaivik Island in Anaktalak Bay, and SeparationPoint in SandwichBay), Newfoundland(Exploits Harbour), Quebec (Kegaska), Greenland,the Faeroes,and Northern . Notes.--Also known as EuropeanCoot and, in Old World literature, as the Coot. 138 FAMILY RALLIDAE

Fulica alai Peale. .

Fulica alai Peale, 1848, U.S. Explor. Exped., 8, p. 224. (Hawaiian Islands.)

Habitat.--Fresh-water lakes and ponds. Distribution.--Resident in the Hawaiian Islands on all main islands from Niihau eastward, except Lanai. Notes.--Treatment as a speciesfollows Pratt (1987).

Fulica americana Gmelin. .

Fulica americanaGmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 704. Basedon the "CinereousCoot" Latham,Gen. Synop.Birds 3(1): 279. (in Americaseptentrionali = North America.)

Habitat.--Breeds on shallowfresh-water lakes, ponds,and marsheswith emergentveg- etation;in winter, also deep lakes, slow-movingrivers, brackishbays, and ,also ponds and lakes in urban areas,often foraging on adjacentlawns. Distribution.--Breeds in North America from east-centralAlaska (casually), southern Yukon, southernMackenzie, northwesternand central Saskatchewan,central Manitoba, west- ern and southernOntario, southwesternQuebec, southernNew Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotiasouth locally to southernBaja California,through Middle America (includingClipperton Island, at least formerly) to Nicaraguaand northwesternCosta Rica (Guanacaste),and to the Gulf coast, southernFlorida, Bermuda,the Bahamas,and Greater Antilles (locally east to St. John in the Virgin Islands). Winterswidely from southeasternAlaska, British Columbia,Idaho, central and eastern Colorado, northernNew Mexico, Kansas,the Mississippiand Ohio valleys, , and southernNew Englandsouth throughout Middle America,the southeasternUnited States, Bermuda,and West Indies (southto )to easternPanama and (apparently)northern Colombia. Residentin the Andes of central Colombia and northernEcuador (at least formerly). Casual west to the easternAleutians, and north to western Alaska (), Franklin District, northern Ontario, central Quebec, Labrador,Newfoundland, and western Greenland; also to islands of the western (Corn and Providencia), Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, and Ireland. Notes.--The South American F. ardesiaca Tschudi, 1843, has been treated as a race of F. americana(e.g., Blake 1977), but seeFjelds•t (1982b, 1983).

Fulica caribaea Ridgway. CaribbeanCoot.

Fulica caribceaRidgway, 1884, Proc.U.S. Natl. Mus. 7: 358. (St. John,Virgin Islands.)

Habitat.--Freshwater Lakes and Ponds,Freshwater Marshes, Saltwater/Brackish Marshes (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in most of the Greater Antilles (rare in Cuba, absent from the Isle of Pines and smaller islands), the Caicos Islands, most of the larger LesserAntilles (south to Grenadaand ),on Trinidad (questionablyon Tobago), on Curaffao,and in northwestern Venezuela. Casual in the (Cayman Brac). Notes.--Reportsfrom southernFlorida, primarily in nonbreedingseason, and locally at scatteredlocations throughout the United States,apparently pertain to variantsof F. amer- icana (Robersonand Baptista 1988, Robertsonand Woolfendon1992). The relationshipsof F. americana and F. caribaea are not fully understood;the latter may eventuallyprove to be a morphof F. americana.Individuals with intermediatecharacteristics have been reported from southernFlorida, Cuba, Hispaniola,and St. Croix. Mixed pairs of F. americanaand F. caribaea with younghave been observedon St. John,Virgin Islands(1984, Amen Birds 38: 252). FAMILY ARAMIDAE 139

Family : Sungrebes

Genus HELIORNIS Bonnaterre HeliornisBonnaterre, 1791, Tabl. Encycl.M6th., Ornithol. 1(47): lxxxiv, 64. Type, by monotypy,Heliornis fulicarius Bonnaterre = Colyrnbusfulica Boddaert.

Heliornis fulica (Boddaert).. Colyrnbusfulica Boddaert,1783, Table Planches Enlum., p. 54. Basedon "Le Grebi- foulque,de Cayenne"Daubenton, Planches Enlum., pl. 893. (Cayenne.) Habitat.--Freshwater Lakes and Ponds, (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident from San Luis Potosf, southernTamaulipas, central Veracruz, northernOaxaca, Campeche, northern Chiapas, and Quintana Roo southin the Gulf-Carib- bean lowlandsof Central America to Costa Rica (locally also on the Pacific slopearound theGulf of Nicoya),on the Pacific slope of Chiapasand Guatemala, in Panama(both slopes), and in South America from Colombia, Venezuela, and the Guianas south,west of the Andes to westernEcuador, and east of the Andes to central Bolivia, Paraguay,and southeastern Brazil. Accidental in Trinidad. Notes.--Also known as American Finfoot.

Family EURYPYGIDAE: Sunbitterns

GenusEURYPYGA Illiger EurypygaIlliger, 1811, Prodromus,p. 257. Type, by monotypy,Ardea hellas "Lin. Gm." [= Pallas].

Eurypyga helias (Pallas). Sunbittern. Ardea Helias Pallas, 1781, Neue Nord. Beytr. 2: 48, pl. 3. (Brazil.) Habitat.--River-edgeForest, Streams (0-1200 m; Tropicaland lower Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Residentlocally on the Gulf-Caribbeanslope of Guatemala,Honduras and Nicaragua,on both slopes of CostaRica and Panama, and in SouthAmerica from Colombia, Venezuela,and the Guianassouth, west of the Andes to northwesternPeru, and east of the Andesto centralBolivia and AmazonianBrazil. Reportsfrom southernMexico (Tabasco, Chiapas)are unverified.

Family ARAMIDAE:

Genus ARAMUS Vieillot ArarnusVieillot, 1816,Analyse, p. 58. Type,by monotypy,"Courliri" Buffon = Scol- opax guarauna Linnaeus.

Ararnusguarauna (Linnaeus).. Scopolax[sic] GuaraunaLinnaeus, 1766, Syst.Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 242. Basedon "Le Courlybrun d'Am6rique" Brisson, Ornithologie 5: 330, and"Guarauna" Marcgrave, Hist. Nat. Bras., p. 204. (in America australi-- Cayenne.) Habitat.--Freshwater Marshes,swamps (Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident in southeasternGeorgia (rare; north to the Altamaha River), Florida(absent from the Panhandlewest of WaltonCounty), the Bahamas(Eleuthera), Greater Antilles (Cuba, the Isle of Pines,Jamaica, Hispaniola, and, at least formerly,Puerto Rico), and from Veracruz and westernColima and southeasternOaxaca southalong both slopes of Middle Americaand through South America (including Trinidad), west of the Andesto westernEcuador and eastof the Andesto southernBolivia, northernArgentina, and Uruguay. 140 FAMILY GRUIDAE

Casual or accidentalnorth to Nova Scotia, Tennessee(sight report), Maryland, North Carolina,and southeasternMississippi, in the Florida Keys, and on Dry Tortugas;a specimen from southernTexas is of questionableorigin (TO.S. 1995).

Family GRUIDAE: Cranes

Subfamily GRUINAE: Typical Cranes

Genus Brisson

Grus Brisson,1760, Ornithologie5: 374. Type, by tautonymy,Ardea grus Linnaeus. LimnogeranusSharpe, 1893, Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 1: xxxvii. Type, by original designation,Limnogeranus americanus (L.) = Ardea americana Linnaeus. Notes.wThe use of Grus Brisson, 1760, rather than Grus Pallas, 1766, follows Direction 55 of InternationalCommission of ZoologicalNomenclature.

Grus canadensis (Linnaeus). Sandhill . Ardea canadensisLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 141. Based on "The Brown and Ash-colour'dCrane" Edwards,Nat. Hist. Birds 3: 133, pl. 133. (in America septentrionali= HudsonBay.) Itabitat.--Low-lying tundra,marshes, swampy edges of lakes and ponds,river banks, and wet pine savanna,often foraging in adjacentgrasslands and fields;in winter,migratory populationsfound primarily in agriculturalfields and wet prairie. Distribution.--Breeds from western and central Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mac- kenzie, Banks Island, northern Keewatin (Boothia Peninsula), southernDevon Island, and Baffin Island southlocally to St. Lawrence Island, southernAlaska (the and Cook ), northeasternCalifornia, northernNevada, northwesternUtah, westernCol- orado,South Dakota (formerly),Nebraska (formerly), centralIowa, northernIllinois, south- ern Michigan, northeasternIndiana, northernOhio, southernOntario, and westernQuebec; also locally in northeasternSiberia south to the ChukotskiPeninsula. Wintersfrom south-coastalBritish Columbia(casually), southern Washington, Oregon, California, southern Arizona, central and northeastern New Mexico, western and southern Texas, Arkansas,the Gulf states,and southernGeorgia southto northernBaja California, Sinaloa,Jalisco, M6xico (formerly),Veracruz, and southernFlorida, casuallynorth to the Great Lakes. Residentfrom southernMississippi, southern Alabama, and southern Georgia (Okefenokee Swamp) souththrough Florida to Cuba and the Isle of Pines,formerly also in southeastern Texas. Casual in the Pribilof and Aleutian islands, and in eastern North America north to New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Accidental in Hawaiian Islands(Oahu), Quintana Roo (ChinchorroReef), Bermuda, the Faeroe Islands, British Isles, and Japan ().

Grus grus (Linnaeus). . Ardea Grus Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 141. (in Europa•,Africa• = Sweden.) Habitat.wMarshes and open areasnear water. Distribution.--Breeds from northern Eurasia south to , Mongolia, and Manchuria,and wintersfrom the Mediterraneanregion eastto India, and in SoutheastAsia. Accidental in Alaska (Fairbanks), Alberta (Cavendish, Lethbridge, and Athabasca)and Nebraska(Phelps and Kearneycounties and a sightreport for Lincoln County);a sightreport for New Mexico (Bitter Lake). Notes.--Also known as EuropeanCrane and, in Old World literature,as the Crane. FAMILY BURHINIDAE 141

Grus americana (Linnaeus).. Ardea americanaLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 142. Basedon "The Hooping Crane" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1' 75, pl. 75, and "The Hooping-Cranefrom Hudson'sBay" Edwards,Nat. Hist. Birds 3: 132, pl. 132. (in Americaseptentrionali = HudsonBay.) Itabitat.--Open, marshyconiferous woods with shallowlakes and ponds;formerly also fresh-watermarshes and wet ;in winter,primarily fresh-waterand brackish marshes. Distribution.--Breeds in south-centralMackenzie (vicinity of Wood Buffalo National Park) and adjacentnorthern Alberta; formerly bred from southernMackenzie, northeastern Alberta, northern Saskatchewan, and northern Manitoba south to North Dakota, Minnesota, and Iowa, and in southeastern Texas and southwestern Louisiana. Wintersprimarily nearthe coastof southeasternTexas (mostly in the vicinity of the Aransas NationalWildlife Refuge);formerly wintered from southernTexas and the Gulf coast(east, at least casually,to Georgia and Florida), southto Jalisco,Guanajuato, and northernTa- maulipas. Migrates primarily throughthe Great Plainsfrom southernCanada and the Dakotassouth to Texas;formerly ranged west to Wyomingand Colorado, and east to Ontario,Pennsylvania, and South Carolina. Unsuccessfullyintroduced in Idaho (Grays Lake) throughplacement of eggsin nestsof G. canadensis; these birds wintered in New Mexico. Casualin migrationrecently west to centraland southeastern British Columbia and eastern Colorado,and eastto Minnesota(Marshall and Polk counties),Illinois (Pike County), Mis- souri (Mingo, Squaw Creek), and Arkansas.

Order . Shorebirds, , , and Allies Notes.--Hypothesesfor the phylogeneticrelationships among the families of this order differ (e.g., Strauch1978, Mickevichand Parenti 1980, Sibley andAhlquist 1990, Christian et al. 1992,Ward 1992,Bj6rklund 1994, Chu 1994, 1995);we retaina traditionalarrangement until a consensusis reachedconcerning these relationships. See notesunder Alcidae.

Suborder CHARADRII: and Allies

Family BURHINIDAE: Thick-knees

GenusBURHINUS Illiger BurhinusIlliger, 1811,Prodromus, p. 250. Type,by monotypy, magnirostris Latham.

Burhinus bistriatus (Wagler). Double-stripedThick-knee. Charadrius bistriatusWaglet, 1829, Isis von Oken, col. 648. (San Matteo, Mexico = San Mateo del Mar, Oaxaca;Binford, 1989, Ornithol. Monogr.43, p. 337.) Habitat.--Low SeasonallyWet Grassland,Arid Lowland Scrub, Pastures/Agricultural Lands(0-800 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Residentin Middle Americafrom Veracruz,Tabasco, Oaxaca, and Chiapas souththrough the Pacific lowlandsof Central America to northwesternCosta Rica (Guan- acaste);in the GreaterAntilles (Hispaniola);and in SouthAmerica from northernColombia eastthrough Venezuela (also Margarita Island) to Guyanaand extremenorthwestern Brazil. Now rare and local. Accidental in Texas (King Ranch, Kleberg County, 5 December 1961; Macinnes and Chamberlain1963), Barbados,and Cura9ao (perhapshuman-assisted vagrants); a record from Arizona is widely regardedas an escape. 142 FAMILY

Family CHARADRIIDAE: and Plovers

Subfamily VANELLINAE: Lapwings Notes.--See Ward (1992) for relationshipsof this subfamily.

Genus Brisson

VanellusBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie1: 48; 5: 94. Type, by tautonymy,Vanellus Brisson = vanellus Linnaeus. BelonopterusReichenbach, 1853, Hand. Spec. Ornithol., Die V6gel, pt. 3 (1852), p. xviii. Type, by original designation,Tringa cajennensisLatham -- Parra chilensis Molina.

Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus). Northern . Tringa Vanellus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1' 148. (in Europa, Africa = Sweden.) Habitat.--Open fields, pastures,wet meadows,bogs, and grassybanks of ponds and lakes; in migration and winter also cultivated fields, seacoasts,and . Distribution.--Breeds from the FaeroeIslands (rarely), British Isles, northernScandi- navia, northern Russia, Transbaicalia, and Ussuriland south to Morocco, the northern Med- iterraneanregion, , Iran, Turkestan,and northernMongolia. Winters from the British Isles, central Europe, southernRussia, Asia Minor, , Iran, India, Burma, China, and Japan south to , the , northern Africa, SoutheastAsia, Taiwan, and the Ryukyu Islands. Casual to northeastern North America from Baffin Island, Labrador, and Newfoundland souththrough southern Quebec, New Brunswick,Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and New Englandto New York. Accidentalin Ohio, North Carolina, SouthCarolina, Bermuda, the Bahamas(Hog Island), PuertoRico, and Barbados. Notes.--Known in Old World literatureas the Lapwing.

Vanelluschilensis (Molina). SouthernLapwing. Parra ChilensisMolina, 1782, SaggioStor. Nat. Chili, p. 258. (Chile.) Habitat.--Low Seasonally Wet Grassland, Pastures/AgriculturalLands, Fresh-water Marshes(0-2600 m; Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Resident [cayennensisgroup] in South America from Colombia, Vene- zuela, and the Guianas south, east of the Andes, to southernBolivia, northern Argentina, and Uruguay; and [chilensisgroup] in Chile and central and southernArgentina. Rare and local visitant [cayennensisgroup] to easternPanama (ChiriquL eastern Panamfi province,eastern San Blas, and easternDari6n); a sight report for Trinidad. Reports of individuals of this speciesfrom southernFlorida (north to Orange County) from 1959 to 1962 are apparentlybased on escapedbirds (Robertsonand Woolfenden 1992). Notes.--Also known as Spur-wingedLapwing. Groups: V. cayennensis(Gmelin 1789) [CayenneLapwing] and V. chilensis[].

Subfamily CHARADRIINAE: Plovers

Genus Brisson

PluvialisBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie1' 46; 5: 42. Type, by tautonymy,Pluvialis aurea Brisson -- Charadrius pluvialis Linnaeus = Charadrius apricarius Linnaeus. Squatarola Cuvier, 1816, R•gne Anim. 1: 467. Type, by tautonymy,Tringa squatarola Linnaeus. FAMILY CHARADRIIDAE 143

Pluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus). Black-bellied . Tringa SquatarolaLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 149. (in Europa -- Sweden.) Habitat.--Dry tundra ridges (breeding); mudflats, ,bare shoresof ponds and lakes, and occasionallyplowed fields (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America from northernAlaska (Barrow eastward),north- westernMackenzie, and Banks, southernMelville, Bathurst,Devon, Bylot, and westernand southernBaffin islandssouth to the westernAlaska (Hooper Bay, ), Yukon River, north-central Mackenzie (Cockbum Point), southern Island, northern Kee- watin (Adelaide and Melville ),and Southamptonand Coatsislands; and in Eurasia from north-centralRussia east across northern Siberia (includingKolguyev Island, southern Novaya Zemlya, the , and ) to the Gulf of Anadyr. Nonbreedingindividuals frequently summer in the wintering range. Winters in the primarily in coastal areas from southwesternBritish Columbia and southernNew England(rarely farthernorth) southalong both coastsof the United States (and inland in southeasternCalifornia at the and in southwesternLouisiana), and Middle America, through the West Indies, and along both coastsof South America (also the Galapagosand other offshore islands) to central Chile and northern Argentina, also casually throughoutthe Hawaiian Islands; and in the Old World from the British Isles, southernEurope, northern India, SoutheastAsia, southeasternChina, southernJapan, and the Mariana (rarely) and south to southernAfrica, islands of the , the ,Australia, and New Zealand. Migrates primarily along coastsin the Northern Hemispherefrom westernand southern Alaska (casually the Aleutians), Labrador (casually), and Newfoundland southward,and locally throughinterior North America, especiallythe Great Salt Lake, the Mississippiand Ohio valleys, and the . Casualin the RevillagigedoIslands (; sightreports), , and in northern , Greenland, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, Azores, and Madeira. Notes.--In Old World literatureknown as Gray Plover.

Pluvialis apricaria (Linnaeus).European Golden-Plover. Charadriusapricarius Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 150. (in Oelandia,Canada = Lapland.) Itabitat.--Similar to that of P. dorninica. Distribution.--Breeds from northernEurasia south to the British Isles, northernEurope, the Baltic states,and Taimyr Peninsula. Winterssouth to northernAfrica, the CaspianSea, and easternIndia, in migrationregularly in Greenland. Casualin Labrador and Newfoundland;a sight report for Alaska (Point Barrow). Notes.--Also known as Eurasian Golden-Plover or Greater Golden-Plover and, in Old World literature, as Golden Plover.

Pluvialis (Mtiller). American Golden-Plover. CharadriusDominicus P.L.S. Mtiller, 1776, Natursyst.,Suppl., p. 116. (St. Domingo = Hispaniola.) Habitat.--Grassy tundra;where syntopicwith P. fulva, usually in areasof higher ele- vation, with sparserand shortervegetation, and more rocks (breeding);short-grass prairie, pastures,plowed fields, and less often mudflats,beaches, and bare shoresof lakes (non- breeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America from northern Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, and Banks, southernMelville (probably), Bathurst,Devon, and northernBaffin islands south to central Alaska (interior mountainranges), southernYukon, north-central British Columbia (Spatsizi ), central Mackenzie, southernKeewatin, northeastern Manitoba,northern Ontario (Cape HenriettaMafia), and Southamptonand southernBaffin islands. 144 FAMILY CHARADRIIDAE

Wintersin South America from Bolivia, Uruguay, and southernBrazil southto northern Chile and northernArgentina. Migrates in springthrough Middle America and the interior of North America (from the Rockiesto the Mississippiand Ohio valleys),rarely but regularlyto the Pacificand Atlantic coasts,and in fall mostly from Newfoundlandand Nova Scotia to New England,thence southwardover the Atlantic, less commonly through the West Indies and the interior of North America. Casualor accidentalin Bermuda,Greenland, Iceland, the BritishIsles, continental Europe, and Australia. Notes.--Also known as Lesser Golden-Plover.See commentsunder P. fulva.

Pluvialis fulva (Gmelin). Pacific Golden-Plover. Charadriusfulvus Gmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 687. Basedon the "FulvousPlover" Latham, Gen. Synops.Birds 3: 211. (In maritimiset uliginosis-- Tahiti.) Habitat.--Grassy tundra,usually in areasat lowerelevation, in denserand taller vegetative coverthan P. dorninica(breeding); pastures, plowed fields, and lessoften mudflats,beaches, and bare shoresof lakes (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds along the Bering coast of Alaska (Wales south to Kuskokwim River, includingSt. Lawrence,Nunivak, and Nelsonislands), and in Eurasiafrom the Arctic coastof Siberia (Yamal Peninsulaeastward) south to the Stanovoiand Koryak mountains and the Gulf of Anadyr.Nonbreeding individuals occasionally summer in the Hawaiian and Mariana islands. Winters in the Hawaiian Islands, and in the Old World from northeasternAfrica, the , India, southernChina, Taiwan,and islandsof Polynesiasouth to the Malay Peninsula, Australia, ,New Zealand, the and Tuamotuislands, and, rarely, in south- coastalBritish Columbia, coastaland lowland interior California, and Guadalupeand the Revillagigedoislands. Migrates throughthe AleutianIslands, along the Pacificcoast of North Americain central and southernCalifornia, and in Eurasiaprimarily in easternAsia and over oceanicislands of the Pacific. Casual or accidentalin northernBaja California, ClippertonIsland, inland in western North America (to Alberta), and in Maine, Barbados,Chile, Greenland,Europe, the Cape Verde Islands,Mediterranean region, Africa, and Arabia. Notes.--Also known as Asiatic Golden-Plover.Recent studies(Connors et al. 1993) con- firm earlier suggestions(Connors 1983) that P. fulva is a speciesdistinct from P. dorninica.

Genus CHARADRIUS Linnaeus CharadriusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 150. Type, by tautonymy,Charadrius hiaticula Linnaeus(Charadrius s. Hiaticula, prebinomialspecific name, in synony- my). EudrorniasC. L. Brehm, 1830, Isis yon Oken, col. 987. Type, by monotypy,Charadrius rnorinellus Linnaeus. Eupoda J. E Brandt, 1845, in Tchihatchev,Voy. Sci. Altai ., p. 444. Type, by monotypy,Charadrius asiaticus Pallas. AegialeusReichenbach, 1853, Hand. Spec. Ornithol., Die V6gel, pt. 3 (1852), p. 18. Type, by original designation,Charadrius sernipalrnatus"Aud." [= Bonaparte]. OxyechusReichenbach, 1853, Hand. Spec. Ornithol., Die V6gel, pt. 3 (1852), p. 18. Type, by original designation,Charadrius vociferusLinnaeus. Ochthodrornus(not OchthedrornusLe Conte, 1848, Coleoptera)Reichenbach, 1853, Hand. Spec.Ornithol., Die V6gel, pt. 3 (1852), p. 18. Type, by originaldesignation, Charadrius wilsonia Ord. LeucopoliusBonaparte, 1856, C. R. Acad. Sci. 43: 417. Type, by tautonymy, Charadriusniveifrons Cuvier = Charadrius leucopoliusWaglet = Charadriusrnar- ginatusVieillot. PodasocysCoues, 1866, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia18: 96. Type, by original designation,Charadrius montanus Townsend. FAMILY CHARADRIIDAE 145

Pagolla Mathews, 1913, Birds Aust. 3: 83. New name for OchthodromusReichenbach, preoccupied.

Charadrius mongolusPallas. Mongolian Plover. Charadrius mongolus Pallas, 1776, Reise Versch. Prov. Russ. Reichs 3: 700. (circa lacussalsos versus Mongoliae fines -- Kulussutai,probably on the OnonRiver, eastern Siberia.) Habitat.--Mudflats, beaches,and shoresof lakesand ponds, breeding on barrenflats and steppe,along sandyand stonybanks of rivers, lakes, and ponds. Distribution.--Breeds in central and northeastern Eurasia from the east to the Chukotski Peninsula, Kamchatka, and the , and south to western Chinaand ; has bred in North Americain northernand western Alaska (Brooks Range, Choris Peninsula,Goodnews Bay, Seward Peninsula). Winters in the Old Word from the Red Sea, Iran, India, Southeast Asia, southeastern China, the Philippines,and the Mariana and Caroline islandssouth to southernAfrica, the Seychelles,Sri Lanka, AndamanIslands, Indonesia, New ,and Australia. Migrates regularlythrough the Aleutians(east to Adak), islandsin the (St. Lawrenceand the Pribilofs), and coastalwestern Alaska, casuallyto northernAlaska (Bar- row) and south-coastalAlaska (Cook Inlet, Valdez). Casualin the Hawaiian Islands,Oregon, California, Ontario,New Jersey,and Louisiana; sight reportsfor British Columbia (Vancouver) and Alberta.

Charadrius collaris Vieillot. . Charadrius collaris Vieillot, 1818, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. •d.) 27: 136. Based on "Mbatuitui Collar negro" Azara, Apunt. Hist. Nat. Prix.Parag. 3:291 (no. 392). (Paraguay.) I-Iabitat.--Riverine Sand Beaches,Coastal Sand Beaches(0-800 m; TropicalZone). Distribution.--Resident primarily in coastal areas from Sinaloa and Veracruz south throughMiddle America (except the Yucatan Peninsulaand E1 Salvador), and in South Americafrom Colombia,Venezuela (including the NetherlandsAntilles and MargaritaIs- land), Tobago,Trinidad, and the Guianas south,west of the Andes to westernPeru and east of the Andes to central Argentina,occasionally in central Chile. Rangesin the non-breedingseason north to the southernLesser Antilles (Mustiquein the Grenadinesand Grenada,sight reports in St. Martin, St. Kitts, andBarbados), and in interior Mexico to Tlaxcala and Morelos. Accidentalin Texas (Uvalde; 9-12 May 1992, photograph;1992, Amer. Birds 46: 501; DeBenedictis 1994b, Yovanovich 1995).

Charadriusalexandrinus Linnaeus. . Charadriusalexandrinus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 150. (ad/Egypti ex Nilo canalem = Egypt.) Habitat.--Sandy beaches,dry mud or salt flats, and sandyshores of rivers, lakes, and ponds(Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds[nivosus group] in westernand centralNorth Americaalong the Pacificcoast from southernWashington south to southernCalifornia (including San Clemente Island), southernBaja California, and locally from interior southernOregon, northeastern California,western Nevada, Utah, southwesternWyoming, western Montana, southern Sas- katchewan, central and southeasternColorado, central Kansas, and north-central Oklahoma south to southeasternCalifornia, southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, and north-central Texas,on the Pacificcoast of Oaxaca;in the Gulf statesfrom Florida (southlocally to Marco Island)west (absent as a breedingbird fromLouisiana) to Texasand northeastern Tamaulipas; and in the southernBahamas (north to Andros, Exuma, and San Salvador), Greater Antilles (east to the Virgin Islands), and (St. Martin, St. Kitts), and on islands off the northcoast of Venezuela(Curaqao east to MargaritaIsland); and [alexandrinusgroup] 146 FAMILY CHARADRIIDAE in Eurasia from southernSweden, central Russia, central Siberia, and Japan south to the Cape Verde Islands, northern Africa, the Red Sea, northwesternIndia, Sri Lanka, Java, southeasternChina, and the southernRyukyu Islands. Winters[nivosus group] on islandsand in coastalareas of North Americafrom Washington, the Gulf coast,and Bahamassouth to southernMexico (casuallynorth to southeasternNew Mexico and south to Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama), and the Greater Antilles, rarely in the interiorvalleys of California;in the breedingrange in SouthAmerica; and [alexandrinusgroup] in the Old World from the Mediterraneanregion and breeding range in Asia south to , Arabia, Sri Lanka, SoutheastAsia, Indonesia,the Philippines,Taiwan, and the Bonin Islands. Resident[occidentalis group] along the Pacific coast of South America from western Ecuador to Chile. Casual[nivosus group] in centralwestern Alaska (Seward Peninsula, photograph, probably this group), in the interior of North America north to central British Columbia (in coastal regionsto the QueenCharlotte Islands), and from southernAlberta, southernSaskatchewan, and southernOntario through much of the interiorof easternNorth America,especially near Great Lakes, and on the coastof South Carolina and on the Atlantic coastof Florida (Merritt Island, Florida Keys;) and [alexandrinusgroup] from Sakhalinto the Islands. Notes.--Known in Old World literature as . Groups:C. nivosus(Cassin, 1858) [Snowy Plover], C. occidentalis(Cabanis, 1872) [Peruvian Plover], and C. alexan- drinus [Kentish Plover]. Charadrius alexandrinus,the Australian C. ruficapillusTemminck, 1822, and the African C. marginatusVieillot, 1818, constitutea superspecies(Vaurie 1965, Mayr and Short 1970).

Charadrius wilsonia Ord. Wilson's Plover. Charadriuswilsonia Ord, 1814, in Wilson, Amen Ornithol. 9: 77, pl. 73, fig. 5. ( of Cape Island [= Cape May], New Jersey.) Habitat.--Sandy beachesislets, tidal mudflats,occasionally slightly inland on extensive mudflats. Distribution.--Breeds from centralBaja California and northernSonora south along the Pacificcoast of Middle andSouth America to northwesternPeru (including the PearlIslands off Panama);and from southernNew Jersey(rare north of Virginia) southalong the Atlantic- Gulf-Caribbeancoasts of North Americaand Middle America (not recordedbreeding south of Belize), the southeasternUnited Statesand West Indies (presentsouth to Dominica, and on Grenada and the Grenadines) to northern South America east to northeasternBrazil (includingislands off the coastof Venezuela). Wintersfrom Baja California and Sonorasouth along the Pacific coastto centralPeru; and from the Gulf coastof westernLouisiana and Texas, and Florida southin the Caribbean- Gulf-Atlantic region throughoutthe breedingrange to northernSouth America. Casualnorth to centralCalifornia (Monterey,Ventura, and San Diego counties;one breed- ing record for the Salton Sea in southeasternCalifornia), Oklahoma (Tulsa), Arkansas, Minnesota(Duluth), and the Lake Erie region (southernOntario, Ohio, and Pennsylvania); alongthe Atlantic coastto Nova Scotia;and in Bermuda,Veracruz, Barbados, and Venezuela. Notes.--Also known as Thick-billed Plover.

½haradrius hiaticula Linnaeus.. CharadriusHiaticula Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 150. (in Europa& America ad ripas = Sweden.) Itabitat.--Sandy areaswith scatteredlow vegetation,cultivated fields, short-grass areas near water, dry streambeds, and sandy,pebbly and grassytundra (breeding); in migration and winter also mudflats,beaches, and shoresof lakes, ponds, and rivers. Distribution.--Breeds in North America in westernAlaska (St. Lawrenceand St. Matthew islands),and on Ellesmere,Bylot, and easternBaffin islands;and in the Palearcticin Green- land, Iceland, and the Faeroe Islands, and from Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northern Siberia southto northwesternFrance (Bretagne),central Poland, the ChukotskiPeninsula, Anadyrland,and the . FAMILY CHARADRIIDAE 147

Winters from the British Isles, , the Mediterraneanregion, the , western India, and Sakhalin south to the eastern Atlantic islands, southern Africa, the Maldive Islands,northern China, Japan,the VolcanoIslands, and (casually)to Australia. Casualin the Pribilof (St. Paul)and the Aleutianislands (, Attu, Adak, ), and the mainlandof westernAlaska (Wales and Nome region). Accidentalin Nova Scotia (Seal Island), Virginia (CraneyIsland), and the LesserAntilles (Barbados);sight reports for Quebec, Massachusetts,and Rhode Island. Notes.--Also known as RingedPlover. Charadrius hiaticula and C. semipalmatusmay constitutea superspecies(Mayr andShort 1970); C. semipalmatuswas treated as a of C. hiaticula by Bock (1959).

Charadrius semipabnatusBonaparte. . Tringa hiaticula (not Charadrius hiaticula Linnaeus) Ord, 1824, in Wilson, Amer. Ornithol. (Ord reprint) 7: 65. (coastof New Jersey.) Charadriussernipalrnatus Bonaparte, 1825, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia5: 98. New name for Tringa hiaticula Ord, preoccupied. Itabitat.--Sandy areas,grassy or mossytundra, and gravelly plains (breeding);tidal mudflats,muddy beaches,tide poolsin salt marshes,wet dirt fields, and bare shoresof lakes and ponds(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from northern Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, Banks, Victoria, and southernSomerset islands, northern Keewatin (), central Baffin Island, and the northern Labrador coast south to the Pribilof and Aleutian islands (west to Adak), southernAlaska (west to the Alaska Peninsula),northwestern and central British Columbia (includingthe Queen CharlotteIslands; also locally near Van- couver), southeasternYukon, southernMackenzie, northeasternAlberta, northern Saskatch- ewan,northern Manitoba, northern Ontario (coast of Hudsonand Jamesbays), central Que- bec, and, coastally,the Gulf of St. Lawrence, southernNew Brunswick,,and Newfoundland, casually to westernWashington and interior Oregon. Nonbreeding birds often summerin the winteringareas south to northwesternSouth America. Wintersprimarily in coastalareas from south-coastalBritish Columbia(rarely), Wash- ington, central Sonora,the Gulf coast, and South Carolina (casually north to New York) souththrough the West Indies, and alongboth coastsof Middle America and SouthAmerica (including the GalapagosIslands, Tobago, and Trinidad) to central Chile and Argentina (),casually in the Hawaiian Islands. Migratesalong both coastsof North Americaand commonlythrough the interior,locally in the intermountainregion from Idaho andMontana to Arizona, andcasually to the western Aleutians. Casualin the RevillagigedoIslands (Socorro Island), Clipperton Island, Bermuda, Green- land, the Azores, Britain, eastern Siberia, and Johnston and Baker islands in the Pacific. Notes.--See comments under C. hiaticula.

Charadrius melodusOrd. . Charadriusrnelodus Ord, 1824, in Wilson, Amer. Ornithol. (Ord reprint) 7: 71. (Great Harbor, New Jersey.) Habitat.--Sandy or alkaline shoresof salty, shallowlakes, sandbarsin rivers (inland), and sandybeaches from dunesto the high tide line (coastal);in winter, primarily sandy beachesand tidal mudflats;in migration,also bare shoresof lakes and ponds. Distribution.--Breeds locally in the interior of North Americafrom south-centralAlberta, northernSaskatchewan (once), south-centralManitoba, andcentral northern Minnesota (Lake of the Woods) south to north-centraland northeasternMontana, North Dakota, easternCol- orado,southeastern South Dakota (Union County), central and eastern Nebraska and northern Iowa (alsoisolated breeding in northwesternOklahoma); in the GreatLakes region (locally, formerlymore widespread) from extremesouthwestern Ontario and northern Michigan south to the southernshore of lakesMichigan, Erie, andOntario; and in coastalareas from northern 148 FAMILY CHARADRIIDAE

New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, southern Nova Scotia, southeasternQuebec (in- cluding the ), and Newfoundland(including St. Pierre and Miquelon is- lands) south along the Atlantic coast to Virginia North Carolina, and South Carolina. Winters primarily on the Atlantic-Gulf coast from North Carolina south to Florida and west to easternTexas, and, less commonly,throughout the Bahamasand GreaterAntilles (east to the Virgin Islands) and southto the YucatanPeninsula. Migrates throughthe interior of North America east of the Rockies (especiallyin the MississippiValley) as well as alongthe Atlantic coast. Casual in east-centralWashington, southern California, northwesternSonora, Nayarit, Veracruz, central and northeastern New Mexico, the interior of Texas, Bermuda, St. Kitts (sight report),and Barbados.Accidental in southwesternEcuador; sight reports for Oregon and southern New Mexico.

Charadrius dubius Scopoli. . Charadrius(dubius) Scopoli, 1786, Del Flor. Faun.Insubr., 2: 93. (, Philippines.) Habitat.--Inland fresh-water areas. Distribution.--Breeds from northern Eurasia south to the eastern Atlantic islands, north- ern Africa, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, , and the Bismarck Archi- pelago. Winters from southernEurope, the Caspian and Black ,India, easternChina, and Japansouth to tropical Africa and Australia. Casual in the westernAleutian Islands(Attu, Shemya,Buldir).

Charadrius vociferus Linnaeus. . Charadrius vociferusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 150. (in America septen- trionall = South Carolina.) Habitat.--Fields, meadows,pastures, bare shoresof lakes, ponds,and rivers, expansive lawns,occasionally nesting on adjacentgravel roads, railroad beds, and even gravel parking- lots (breeding);in winter, also in plowed and wet dirt fields, mudflats,and occasionally coastal beaches. Distribution.--Breeds in North America from east-central and southeasternAlaska, south- ern Yukon, northwestern and southern Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northern Man- itoba, northernOntario, south-centralQuebec (including the Magdalen Islands),New Bruns- wick, PrinceEdward Island, westernNova Scotia,and Newfoundland south to southernBaja California, centralMexico (recordedbreeding to Guerreroand Guanajuato),Tamaulipas, the Gulf coast,and Florida Keys; in the southernBahamas (Inagua, Caicos, and Turks islands, probablyalso New Providence)and the GreaterAntilles (eastto the Virgin Islands);and in westernSouth America along the coastfrom westernEcuador to extremenorthwestern Chile. Wintersfrom southeasternAlaska (rarely), southern British Columbia, Oregon, Idaho, the centralUnited Statesfrom Montanaeast to the Ohio Valley (casuallyfrom southernCanada eastof British Columbia) and New Englandsouth throughout the remainderof North Amer- ica, Middle America, Bermuda, the West Indies, and northern South America (also most islandsthroughout these regions) to Colombia,Venezuela, and westernEcuador; also in the breedingrange in Peru and Chile. Casual in the Hawaiian (Kauai, Oahu, Maui) and Pribilof islands; north to western and northern Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, and central Lab- rador; and to ClippertonIsland, Greenland,Iceland, the FaeroeIslands, British Isles, con- tinental Europe,the Azores, and Madeira.

Charadrius montanus Townsend. . Charadrius rnontanusJ. K. Townsend,1837, J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia7: 192. (tablelandof the Rocky Mountains= near SweetwaterRiver, Wyoming.) Habitat.--Dry openshort-grass prairie and grasslandup to 2500 m, usuallywith areas of bare soil (breeding);short-grass plains and fields,plowed fields, and sandydeserts (non- breeding). FAMILY HAEMATOPODIDAE 149

Distribution.--Breeds locally from extremesouthern Alberta (Milk River), southwestern Saskatchewan,northern Montana, and southwesternNorth Dakota (formerly) souththrough Wyoming,western Nebraska, Colorado, and westernKansas to northeasternUtah, north- western,central and southeasternNew Mexico, westernTexas (Davis Mountains,formerly BrewsterCounty), and westernOklahoma (Cimarron County). Winters locally from central (rarely northern)California, Nevada (casual), southernAr- izona, and central and coastalTexas southto southernBaja California and northernMexico (Sonoraeast to Tamaulipas),rarely farther south(recorded Zacatecas). Casual north to westernWashington and southeasternAlberta, and in westernMissouri. Accidentalin Mississippi(Grenada Lake), Alabama(Gulf ),Massachusetts (Chatham), Virginia (Chincoteague),and Florida; a sightreport from Georgia. Notes.--Formerly placedin the genusEupoda. Charadrius rnontanus and the Old World C. veredusand C. asiaticusPallas, 1773, appearto constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Charadrius morine!!us Linnaeus. . Charadrius Morinellus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 150. (in Europa -- Sweden.) Habitat.--Stony ,plains, newly plowed fieldsand marginalgrassland (breeding); open stonyor sandyareas, less frequently marshes, mudflats, and seacoasts(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds locally in North America in northernand westernAlaska (from Barrow to the Seward Peninsulaand St. Lawrence Island); and in Eurasia in the mountains of the British Isles, Scandinavia,and central Europe, and scatteredacross northern Russia and Siberiafrom the Mountainsto the VerkhoyanskMountains and the River, and in northernMongolia. Wintersin southernEurope, , Arabia, Iraq, and Iran, casuallyin the Canary Islands,Madeira, Sakhalin,the Kuril Islands,and Japan. Migrates throughcoastal western Alaska, casually east along the Beaufortcoast of northern Alaska, and in the fall throughthe westernAleutians. Accidental in the Hawaiian Islands (Kure), Washington(Ocean Shores,Westport), Cali- fornia (from Del Norte County southto the Farallon Islandsand Point Reyes), and the Commander Islands. Notes.--In Old World literatureknown as the Dotterel. Formerly placed in the genus Eudromias;for placementin genusCharadrius, see Nielson (1975) and Strauch(1978).

Family HAEMATOPODIDAE:

Genus HAEMATOPUS Linnaeus HcernatopusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 152. Type,by monotypy,Haernatopus ostralegusLinnaeus.

Haematopus ostralegusLinnaeus. Eurasian . HcernatopusOstralegus Linnaeus, 1758.,. Syst. Nat. (ed.10) 1: 152.(in Europa:,America: septentrionalislittoribus marinis = Oland Island, Sweden.) Habitat.-- Sea coasts,sandy plains, river valleys, lake shores(breeding); coasts, rocky shores,mudflats, fields, and beaches(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in Eurasiafrom Iceland,Faeroes, British Isles, and coasts of Europe to northernRussia and southto ;along coastsof Mediterranean,Adriatic, Aegean, and northernBlack seas;central Russia, Turkey, and Iran; locally Kamchatka, , China, and Korea. Winters from Mediterranean, Red, Arabian seas, and Persian Gulf to southernAfrica, Sri Lanka, and southern China. Casual in southern Greenland. Accidental in North America: one record on Fox Island near Tots , , Newfoundland,24-25 May 1994 (photographs;Mactavish 1994). 150 FAMILY

Haematopuspalliams Temminck.. Hcematopuspalliatus Temminck, 1820, Man. Ornithol. (ed. 2) 2: 532. (h l'Am6rique m6ridionale = Venezuela.) Habitat.-- Rocky and sandyseacoasts and islands,tidal mudflats. Distribution.--Breeds locally along the Atlantic coastfrom Massachusetts(Monomoy) southto Florida, and alongthe Gulf coastsouth to the YucatanPeninsula (including Cozumel Island); in the Bahamas,Greater Antilles (but breedingnot yet confirmedin Cuba), and LesserAntilles (St. Barth61emy,from Guadeloupeto St. Lucia, and the Grenadines);along the Pacific coastfrom central Baja California (San Benito Islands, possiblyalso Los Co- ronadosIslands in northernBaja California) and the Gulf of California southto Guerrero (also the Revillagigedo,Tres Mar/as, and Tres Marietas islands),along the coastof Costa Rica, and along the Pacific coastfrom the Bay of Panama(Pearl Islandsand Los Santos) south to central Chile (Isla de Chilo6); and along the Caribbean-Atlantic coast of South America (includingmost islandsoff Venezuela,possibly also Tobagoand Trinidad) south to south-centralArgentina. Winters on the Atlantic-Gulf coast from Maryland (casually from New England) south to southeasternMexico, casuallyto Belize and Honduras;on the Pacific coast of North America from centralBaja California southto Honduras,also in CostaRica; and generally in the breedingrange in the West Indies and along both South American coasts,casually on the Caribbean coast north to the Canal area. Casual in California, southernOntario, southernQuebec, Maine, Nova Scotia, and western Argentina.Accidental in interior southernCalifornia (Salton Sea); a sightreport for Idaho. Notes.--Haematopuspalliatus andH. bachmani,formerly considered conspecific [Amer- ican Oystercatcher],form a hybrid zone about200 miles in width in centralBaja California (Jehl 1985). Some authors(e.g., Friedmannet al. 1950, Mayr and Short 1970) considered these two forms conspecificwith H. ostralegus;the complex constitutesa superspecies (Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Haernatopusbachmani Audubon.. HcematopusBachmani Audubon, 1838, Birds Amer. (folio) 4: pl. 427, fig. 1 (1839, Ornithol. Biogr. 5: 245). (Mouth of the = near Puget ;see Burns, 1934, Auk 51: 403-404.) Habitat.--Primarily rocky seacoastsand especiallyislands, also occasionallyon adjacent sandybeaches and mudflats. Distribution.--Resident from the western Aleutians ( eastward) south along the Pacific coast of North America (including most islandsoffshore) to central Baja California (Punta Abreojosand Isla de Natividad); also has bred on , in the southern Bering Sea. Accidentalin the Pribilof Islands;a sightreport for Idaho. Notes.--Known also as the AmericanBlack Oystercatcher.See commentsunder H. pal- liatus.

Family RECURVIROSTRIDAE: and

Genus HIMANTOPUS Brisson HirnantopusBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie 1: 46; 5: 33. Type, by tautonymy,Hirnantopus Brisson -- Charadrius hirnantopusLinnaeus.

Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus).Black-winged . CharadriusHimantopus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 151. (in Europa aus- traliore = southernEurope.) Habitat.•Marshes and flooded fields. Distribution.--Breeds in Eurasia and Africa; northernmostpopulations are migratory southward. FAMILY RECURVIROSTRIDAE 151

Accidentalin Alaska (Nizki, in the Aleutian Islands, 24 May-2 1983, photograph; Zeillemaker et al. 1985). Notes.--See comments under H. mexicanus.

Himantopus mexicanus (Mtiller). Black-neckedStilt. CharadriusMexicanus E L. S. Mtiller, 1776, Natursyst.,Suppl., p. 117. Basedon the "L'6chassedu Mexique" Brisson,Ornithologie 5: 36. (in Mexico.) Habitat.--Shallow grassymarshes and adjacentmudflats, shallow ponds,and flooded fields; breedinghabitat has bare groundfor nest sites(Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds [mexicanusgroup] locally on the Atlantic coast from southern New Jersey(formerly), southeasternPennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia south to southernFlorida, in Bermuda,and the West Indies (the Bahamassouth to Antigua, St. Kitts, and ), and from central (casually northern) coastal California, western Oregon, Washington,southern Alberta, southernSaskatchewan (rarely), easternMontana, western and central Nebraska, central Kansas, north-central Oklahoma, southeastern Mis- souri,Arkansas, southwestern Kentucky, western Tennessee, central and coastal Texas, south- ern Louisiana,southern Mississippi, and southernAlabama souththrough Middle America and South America (includingthe GalapagosIslands, islands off Venezuela,and Tobago and Trinidad) to coastaland Andean Peru, easternEcuador, and Amazonian Brazil. Recorded in summerand probablybreeding [mexicanus group] in North Dakota and westernSouth Dakota. Winters [mexicanusgroup] from northernCalifornia, Sonora,the Gulf coast,and central Florida southlocally throughMiddle America, the West Indies, and SouthAmerica to the limits of the breedingrange. Resident[knudseni group] in the Hawaiian Islands (main islandsfrom Niihau eastward, exceptLanai and Kahoolawe, recorded also from Midway andNihoa); and [melanurus group] in southern South America from eastern Peru, Bolivia, and southeastern Brazil south to southernChile and southernArgentina. Casual [mexicanusgroup] north to southwesternBritish Columbia, southernAlberta, southernSaskatchewan, southern Manitoba, Minnesota, Wisconsin, central Michigan, south- ern Ontario, southernQuebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, and on Bermuda. Notes.--Groups:H. mexicanus[Black-necked Stilt], H. knudseniStejneger, 1887 [Ha- waiian Stilt], and H. melanurusVieillot, 1817 [White-backedStilt]. Himantopusmexicanus is sometimesconsidered conspecific with the Old World H. himantopus(e.g., Vaurie 1965, Blake 1977); all forms in the genusmay constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Genus RECURVIROSTRA Linnaeus RecurvirostraLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 151. Type, by monotypy,Recur- virostra avosetta Linnaeus.

Recurvirostra americana Gmelin. American . Recurvirostraamericana Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 693. Based mainly on the "American Avoset" Pennant,Arct. Zool. 2: 502, pl. 21. (in America septentrionali 6t novaHollandia = NorthAmerica.) Habitat.--Lowland marshes,mudflats, ponds, alkaline lakes, and estuaries,nesting co- lonially (usually)on openflats or areaswith scatteredtufts of grassalong lakes (especially alkaline) and marshes. Distribution.--Breeds from southern British Columbia, central Alberta, central Saskatch- ewan, southernManitoba, western Ontario (Lake of the Woods), and western Minnesota southto northernBaja California, Arizona, southernColorado, southern New Mexico, and Valley of M6xico (Distrito Federal),and eastto centralNebraska, central Kansas, and coastal Texas;also breedingrecords for Wisconsin(Dodge County), Virginia (Craney), and North Carolina(Pea Island, 1968). Formerlybred north to southernMackenzie. Nonbreeding in- dividualsfrequently summer in the winteringrange. 152 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Wintersfrom south-coastalBritish Columbia(rarely), but mostlyin coastallowlands from northernCalifornia, westernLouisiana, and coastalMississippi and Alabamasouth to south- ern Mexico, casuallyto Guatemala(Pacific lowlands), Belize, Honduras,Costa Rica, and Panama,also locally in Delaware and southernFlorida. Migrates primarily throughoutthe westernhalf of the United States,rarely in interiorand easternNorth America eastto northernMichigan, southernOntario, and New England,and south to the Gulf coast and Florida. Casual or accidental in Alaska (Valdez), , southern Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, Bermuda, the Bahamas (Andros, San Sal- vador), Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, St. Croix, the Cayman Islands, Barbados,western Ecuador, and Greenland. SuborderSCOLOPACI: ,Jacanas, and Allies Family : Jacanas

Genus Brisson Jacana Brisson,1760, Ornithologie1: 48; 5: 121. Type, by tautonymy,Jacana Brisson = Parra jacana Linnaeus. Asarcia Sharpe,1896, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 24: ix, 68, 86. Type, by monotypy,Parra variabilis Linnaeus = Fulica spinosa Linnaeus.

Jacana spinosa (Linnaeus). . Fulica spinosaLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 152. Basedon "The Spur-winged Water Hen" Edwards,Nat. Hist. Birds 1: 48, pl. 48. (in America australi = Panama.) Habitat. FreshwaterMarshes; requires extensive areas of floatingvegetation in breeding habitat (0-1500 m; Tropical and lower Subtropicalzones). Distribution.--Resident from Sinaloa, southern Texas (formerly north to Brazoria County), and Tamaulipassouth along both slopesof Middle America (including Cozumel Island) to westernPanama (east to Veraguas),and on the Mexican Plateauin Jalisco,Mi- choac5n,and Guanajuato;also in the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Isle of Pines, Jamaica,and Hispaniola). Casual in southernArizona, western and central Texas (north to Brewster,Kerr, Gonzales, and Travis counties),and PuertoRico; reportsfrom Florida are unsubstantiated. Notes.--Limited hybridizationwith J. jacana occursin westernPanama (Wetmore 1965).

Jacana jacana (Linnaeus). . Parra Jacana Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 259. Basedmainly on "Jacana quartaspecies" Marcgrave, Hist. Nat. Bras., p. 191, and "Le Chirurgienbrun" Brisson,Ornithologie 5: 125, pl. 11, fig. 1. (in America australi= Surinam.) Habitat.--FreshwaterMarshes; requires extensive areas of floatingvegetation in breeding habitat (0-900 m; Tropical Zone). Distribution.--Resident from westernPanama (from easternChiriqui and Veraguaseast- ward) souththrough South America (includingTrinidad) west of the Andesto northwestern Peru, and east of the Andes to central Argentina Casual north to southwestern Costa Rica. Notes.--See commentsunder J. spinosa.

Family $COLOPACIDAE: Sandpipers,, and Allies Subfamily SCOLOPACINAE: Sandpipersand Allies

Tribe TRINGINI: Tringine Sandpipers

Genus TRINGA Linnaeus Tringa Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1' 148. Type, by tautonymy,Tringa ochropus Linnaeus (Tringa, prebinomial specificname, in synonymy). FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 153

TotanusBechstein, 1803, Ornithol. Taschenb.Dtsch. 2: 282. Type, by tautonymy,To- tanusmaculatus Bechstein = Scolopaxtotanus Linnaeus. GlottisKoch, 1816, Syst. Baier.Zool. 1: xlii, 304. Type, by tautonymy,Totanus glottis Bechstein= Scolopaxnebularia Gunnerus. NeoglottisRidgway, 1919, Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 50(8): 329. Type, by original desig- nation, Scolopaxmelanoleuca Gmelin. Notes.--Some authors(e.g., Vaurie 1965) have mergedall the generathrough Xenus in Tringa.

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus).. Scolopaxnebularia Gunnerus,1767, in Leem, Beskr. Finm. Lapper,p. 251. (District of Trondhjem,Norway.) Habitat.--Marshes, bogs, and wet meadowsin the or high moorlands(breeding); marshes,ponds, lakes, and mudflats (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from Scotland and Scandinavia east across Russia and Siberia to Anadyrland,Kamchatka, and the Sea of Okhotsk,and southto Lake Baikal. Wintersfrom the Mediterraneanregion, Iraq, the PersianGulf, easternChina, and Taiwan south to southern Africa, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldive Islands, East Indies, New Guinea, and Australia,straggling to the easternAtlantic islandsand New Zealand. Migrates regularlyin springthrough the westernAleutians (),casually as as the Pribilofs (St. Paul) and as as St. Lawrence Island. Accidentalin Quebec(M6tabetchouan-St. G6d6on), Newfoundland (Conception Bay, Har- bour Grace), and Nova Scotia (Cherry Hill); a sightreport for New York. Audubon'srecord from Sandy Key, near Cape Sable, Florida, is questionable. Notes.--Known in Old World literature as the Greenshank.

Tringa melanoleuca (Gmelin). . Scolopaxmelanoleuca Gmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 659. Basedon the "StoneSnipe" Pennant,Arct. Zool. 2: 468. (auctumnoin arenislittoris Labrador= ChateauxBay, Labrador.) Habitat.--Bogs, muskeg,ponds, lakes, open woodlands, and burns(breeding); marshes, ponds, flooded fields, rice fields, margins, , and coastal mudflats (non- breeding). Distribution.--Breeds from southernAlaska (the lower Kuskokwim River, and from the Alaska Peninsula eastward), southwesternMackenzie, and central British Columbia east acrossthe northernand centralportions of the Canadianprovinces to centraland southern Labrador,Newfoundland, northeastern Nova Scotia(Cape BretonIsland), and southernQue- bec (AnticostiIsland). Nonbreeding individuals sometimes summer on the winteringgrounds, especiallyalong the coastsof the United Statesand in the West Indies. Wintersfrom south-coastalBritish Columbia, Washington, Idaho, Utah, centralNew Mex- ico, southernTexas, the Gulf coast,and southernNew Englandsouth through Middle Amer- ica, the West Indies, and South America to . Migratesregularly through the North Americancontinent south of the breedingrange. Casualnorth to northernAlaska (Barrow), southernMackenzie, southernKeewatin, South- amptonand Baffin islands,and northernQuebec, and in the Hawaiian, Pribilof (St. Paul, St. George),Aleutian (Adak, Shemya,Attu), and Galapagosislands, and in Bermuda.Ac- cidentalin ClippertonIsland, Greenland,Iceland, the British Isles, the Azores,Japan, and the .

Tringafiavipes (Gmelin). LesserYellowlegs. Scolopaxfiavipes Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 659. Based on the "Yellowshank" Pennant, Arct. Zool. 2: 468. (auctumno in Noveboraco = New York.) Habitat.--Muskeg, bogs, openboreal forest and burns,near lakes and ponds(breeding); marshes,ponds, wet meadows,flooded fields and mudflats (nonbreeding). 154 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Distribution.--Breeds from western(rarely) and central Alaska, northernYukon, north- western and east-central Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, northern Manitoba, northern On- tario, and extreme west-central Quebec south to northern British Columbia, south-central Alberta,central Saskatchewan, and central Manitoba, formerly sporadically south to southern Wisconsin.Nonbreeding birds occasionally are reportedin summersouth from the breeding range as far as Argentina. Winters from southcoastal British Columbia (rarely), southernArizona, southernNew Mexico, southernTexas, the Gulf coast,and coastal South Carolina (rarely from , New York) souththrough Middle America, the West Indies, and South America (also the GalapagosIslands) to Tierra del Fuego. Migratesregularly through North Americasouth of thebreeding range and east to southern Ontario, southernQuebec, New Brunswick,and Nova Scotia,more locally throughwestern North America. Casual in the Hawaiian, Pribilof, and Aleutian islands,Labrador, Newfoundland, Bermuda, the Azores,and New Zealand.Accidental in ClippertonIsland, Greenland, Iceland, the British Isles, continentalEurope, the Azores, , SouthAfrica, and the Marshall and .

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein).Marsh . Totanusstagnatilis Bechstein, 1803, Ornithol. Taschenb.Dtsch. 2: 292, pl. 29. (Ger- many.) Habitat.--Marshes and wet meadows(breeding); shores, mudflats, and estuaries(non- breeding). Distribution.--Breeds from easternEurope east to westernSiberia. Wintersfrom the Mediterraneanregion, Persian Gulf, and SoutheastAsia southto southern Africa, India, the East Indies, and Australia. Accidental in the Aleutian Islands (Buldir, 2 September1974; Byrd et al. 1978) and Marshall Islands(Kwajalein).

Tringa totanus (Linnaeus). . ScolopaxTotanus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat., ed. 10, 1, p. 145. (in Europa= Sweden.) Habitat.--Marshes and wet meadows(breeding); shores, mudlfats, and estuaries(non- breeding). Distribution.--Breeds from Iceland, Faeroe Islands, British Isles, and northern Scandi- navia east acrosscentral Russia, central and southernSiberia to Amurland, Ussuriland, and Anadydand,south to southernEurope, northern Africa (Tunisia),Turkey, southern Russia, Turkestan,northern India, Tibet, westernand northernChina, and Mongolia. Wintersfrom southernEurope across southern Asia to the Philippinesand south to southern Africa and the East Indies. Accidentalin Newfoundland(Knowles 1995, Mactavish1996). Unsatisfactorysight re- ports from Nova Scotia and Texas. Notes.--Known in the Old World literature as the Redshank.

Tringa erythropus(Pallas). SpottedRedshank. Scolopaxerythropus Pallas, 1764, in Vroeg, Cat. Rais. Ois., Adumbr.,p. 6. (Holland.) Itabitat.--Marshy sitesin bushytundra and edge of the taiga(breeding); marshes, ponds, wet meadows,and mudflats(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northern Siberia south to central Russia,central Siberia, Anadyrland,and Kamchatka. Wintersfrom the Mediterraneanregion, PersianGulf, India, and easternChina southto equatorialAfrica, Sri Lanka, and SoutheastAsia. Migratesin fall regularlythrough the westernand central Aleutians (Attu, Alaid, Shemya, Buldir, Adak), casually as far east as the Pribilofs (St. Paul). Casualor accidentalin British Columbia,Oregon, California, .Kansas, southern Ontario, FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 155

Newfoundland,Nova Scotia, Massachusetts,Connecticut, New York, New Jersey,North Carolina, and Barbados;sight reports for Nevada, Saskatchewan,Ohio, and New Jersey.

Tringa Linnaeus.. Tringa Glareola Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 149. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.--Edges of pondsin the taiga (breeding);lakes, ponds,streams, wet meadows, bogs,and shallowpools, frequently in woodedregions (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America in the western and central Aleutian Islands (Amchitka and Attu, probablyalso Adak and elsewhere);and in Eurasiafrom Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northernSiberia south to southernEurope, Turkestan,northern Mon- golia, Kamchatka,the Kuril, and Commanderislands, and the ChukotskiPeninsula. Wintersfrom the Mediterraneanregion, Iran, India, northernThailand, and southernChina southto southernAfrica, Sri Lanka, the Malay Peninsula,East Indies, and Australia. Migrates in springregularly throughthe western and central Aleutian islands,reaching as far north as St. Lawrence Island and as far east as the Pribilofs and the of western Alaska (Seward Peninsula). Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands (Kure, Midway), northern (Barrow) and mainlandsouthwestern Alaska (Ugasik Bay), Yukon (HerschelIsland, Pauline Cove), British Columbia (Queen CharlotteIslands), New York, Bermuda,Barbados, the Faeroe and eastern Atlantic islands, and on western Pacific islands.

Tringa ochropusLinnaeus. . Tringa Ocrophus[sic] Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 149. (in Europa-- Sweden.) Habitat.--Woodlands, swamps,and marshes(breeding); marshes, flooded fields, wet meadows,and mudflats(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in northern Eurasia. Winters in Africa, southernAsia, and Australia. Casual in Alaska in the westernAleutians (Attu, Nizki, Shemya)and on St. Lawrence Island (Gibson and Kessel 1992); early recordsfor and Nova Scotia are un- satisfactory(Godfrey 1986). Notes.wThe original spellingof "Ocrophus"has been suppressedand the name "och- ropus" validatedby the I.C.Z.N. (1952).

Tringa solitaria Wilson. . Tringa solitaria Wilson, 1813, Amer. Ornithol. 7: 53, pl. 58, fig. 3. (PocanoMt., Pa., Kentucky, and New York = Pocono Mountains, Pennsylvania.) Habitat.--Bogs and pondsin coniferousforest, taiga, and muskeg,nesting in trees in desertedpassefine nests (breeding); freshwater ponds, stream edges, temporary pools, flooded ditches,and fields,rarely on mudflats and open marshes(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds throughcentral Alaska, and from northernYukon, westernand southern Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northern Manitoba, northern and central On- tario, central Quebec, and central and southern Labrador south to mainland southeastern Alaska, northeastern and central British Columbia, south-central Alberta, central Saskatch- ewan, southernManitoba, and northernMinnesota; also probablyin west-centralOregon (Lane County). Winters from northernMexico (casuallynorth to the southernUnited States)and the Bahamassouth through Middle America,the WestIndies, and SouthAmerica southto central Argentina. Migrates throughthe southernportions of the breedingrange and southover mostof the North American continent (rare on the Pacific coast). Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii), western and northern Alaska (the Pribilof Islands, Hooper Bay, Griffin Point, Barrow), ClippertonIsland, Bermuda,Chile (sight report), South Georgia, Greenland,Iceland, the British Isles, Sweden,France, Spain, and South Africa. 156 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Genus CATOPTROPHORUS Bonaparte CatoptrophorusBonaparte, 1827, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 2: 323. Type, by monotypy, Totanussemipalmatus Temminck = Scolopaxsemipalmata Gmelin. Notes.--See commentsunder Tringa.

Catoptrophorussemipalmatus (Gmelin). . Scolopaxsemipalmata Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 659. (in Noveboraco = New York.) Habitat.--Marshy lake and pond marginsand wet meadowsin westernNorth America; salt marshesand beachesin easternNorth America (breeding); marshes,tidal mudflats, beaches,and shallowlake margins (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in westernNorth America locally from easternOregon, southern Idaho, central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba south to northeastern and east-central California, western Nevada, central Utah, northern Colorado, western and northernNebraska, and easternSouth Dakota, formerly in westernMinnesota and north- westernIowa; in easternNorth America locally alongthe Atlantic-Gulf coastfrom southern New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia south to southern Florida and west to southernTexas and Tamaulipas; in the West Indies, on the Bahamas, Antilles (Cuba, Beata Island off Hispaniola, Anegada and St. Croix in the Virgin Islands, Antigua, and Guadeloupe,possibly also Barbuda,St. Martin, , and St. Kitts), and in the Cayman Islands; and on Los Roques,off northernVenezuela. Nonbreeding individuals occur spo- radically in summeras far southas northernSouth America. Wintersfrom northernCalifornia (casuallyfrom southwesternBritish Columbia and west- ern Washington;also regularly inland in southeasternCalifornia at the SaltonSea), the Gulf coast,and Virginia southalong both coastsof Middle America (includingoffshore islands), the West Indies, and both coastsof South America to the GalapagosIslands, central Chile, Uruguay, and southernBrazil. Migrates primarily throughcoastal areas but also irregularlythrough most of the interior westernand centralUnited States,regularly east to the Great Lakes, casuallyelsewhere in the eastern United States. Casual north to northeasternBritish Columbia, southernHudson Bay, southernQuebec, and Newfoundland. Accidental in the Hawaiian Islands (Oahu, Maui), Bermuda, Finland, France, and the Azores; a sight report for Alaska (Minto Lakes).

Genus HETEROSCELUS Baird

HeteroscelusBaird, 1858, in Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence, Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: xxii, xlvii, 728, 734. Type, by monotypy,Totanus brevipes Vieillot. Notes.--See commentsunder Tringa.

Heteroscelusincanus (Gmelin). WanderingTattler. Scolopax incana Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 658. Based on the "Ash-coloured " Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 3(1): 154. (in insulis Eimeo et Palmerston= Eimeo [Moorea] Island, Society Group, .) Habitat.--Mountains and hilly regions,primarily along streamsand lakes in areasthat are rocky, mossy,or coveredwith scrubbyvegetation, and in damp meadows,occasionally in forest clearingsaway from water (breeding);rocky seacoastsand islands,jetties, and sandybeaches of oceanicislands (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America in mountains of western, central, and south- coastal Alaska, northern, central, and southern Yukon, and northwestern British Columbia; and in Eurasiain northeasternSiberia, Anadyrland, and the ChukotskiPeninsula. Nonbreed- ing individualsregularly occur in summeron the wintering grounds. Wintersalong the Pacificcoast of the Americasfrom northernCalifornia (rarelyOregon, Washington,and British Columbia) southregularly to the RevillagigedoIslands and Oaxaca, FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 157 andlocally to E1Salvador, Honduras (Bay of Fonseca),Nicaragua, Costa Rica (CocosIsland), Panama(Isla Coiba, Bay of Panama,and rarely to the Caribbeancoast of the Canal area), ClippertonIsland, Colombia (), the GalapagosIslands, Ecuador, and Peru; and in the Pacific from the Hawaiian Islands, Marianas, and Philippinessouth to the , ,Society, and Tuamotuislands. Migrates regularly throughthe Aleutian Islands and along the Pacific coastof Central America. Casual inland in North America (recorded northwestern Mackenzie, northeasternBritish Columbia, Alberta, easternWashington, eastern Oregon, central and southeasternCalifornia, northeasternBaja California, Utah, and southernArizona), and in the Pacific from the Bonin, Volcano,and Ryukyu islands,Japan, and Taiwan southto New Guinea,Australia, and New Zealand. Accidental in Texas (Galveston), Manitoba (Churchill), southernOntario (Windmill Point, Fort Erie), and Massachusetts(Monomoy). Notes.--Heteroscelusincanus and H. brevipesmay constitutea superspecies,although their breedingranges overlap marginally in easternSiberia (Mayr and Short 1970).

Heteroscelusbrevipes (Vieillot). Gray-tailed . Totanusbrevipes Vieillot, 1816, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 6: 410. (Paysinconnu -- .) Itabitat.--Shores of streams,lakes, and ponds in mossyor scrubbyhills (breeding);rocky coastsand sandybeaches (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds apparentlyin easternSiberian mountains from Lake Baikal to the VerkhoyanskMountains and Anadyrland,and on the southernTaimyr Peninsula,possibly also in Kamchatkaand the Kuril Islands;nest and unknown. Wintersfrom the Malay Peninsula,Philippines, and the Caroline, Mariana, and Marshall islands south to Christmas Island (in the Indian Ocean), Java, New Guinea, Australia, and Norfolk Island. Migrates regularlythrough the Aleutian (eastto Unalaska)and Pribilof islands,St. Law- renceIsland, and along the coastsof Japanand China, casuallyalong the coastto northern Alaska (Barrow) and south-coastalAlaska (Middleton Island). Accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands(Midway, Kure, Oahu), Washington(Leadbetter Point), and interior California (Lancaster),and in the British Isles; a sightreport for Oregon. Notes.--Also known as PolynesianTattler. See commentsunder H. incanus.

GenusACTITIS Illiger Illiger, 1811, Prodromus,p. 262. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Stejneger, 1885), Tringa hypoleucosLinnaeus. Notes.--See commentsunder Tringa.

Actitis hypoleucos(Linnaeus). . Tringa HypoleucosLinnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 149. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.--Streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds (breeding);streams, ponds, lakes, and sea- coasts,generally with sandyor rocky margins,less frequently in marshes(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from the British Isles, Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northern Siberia southto the Mediterraneanregion, northernIran, Afghanistan,the Himalayas,Mon- golia, Manchuria, Ussuriland,Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands,and Japan;also in (Uganda). Wintersfrom southernEurope, the Mediterraneanregion, Iraq, easternChina, and southern Japansouth to southernAfrica, ,Sri Lanka,islands in the easternIndian Ocean, Australia, New Guinea, and islands of the western Pacific. Migrates regularly throughthe westernAleutians (Near Islands), casually as far east as the Pribilof Islands (St. George, St. Paul) and central Aleutians (Adak), and as far north as St. LawrenceIsland (also a sight report for Nome). Notes.---Actitishypoleucos and A. macularia constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970). 158 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Actitis macularia (Linnaeus).. Tringa rnacularia Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 249. Based mainly on the "SpottedTringa" Edwards,Glean. Nat. Hist. 2: 139, pl. 277. (in Europa& America septentrionali= Pennsylvania.) Habitat.--Sandy or muddy shoresof streams,rivers, lakes, ponds,and coastalsaltwater (breeding);also on rocky coastsand jetties (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from central Alaska, northern Yukon, northwestern and central Mackenzie, southernKeewatin, northeasternManitoba, northernOntario, northernQuebec, Labrador, and Newfoundland south to southern Alaska (west to the base of the Alaska Peninsula), southern California, central Arizona, southernNew Mexico, central Texas, the northernportions of the Gulf states(except Louisiana and Florida), North Carolina,Virginia, and Maryland. Occasionalnonbreeding individuals remain in summer on the wintering grounds. Wintersfrom southwesternBritish Columbia,western Washington, western Montana (ca- sually), southernArizona, southernNew Mexico, southernTexas, the southernportions of the Gulf states,and coastalSouth Carolina south through Middle America,the WestIndies, and South America (also the GalapagosIslands, and all islandsoff the Caribbeancoast) to northernChile, northernArgentina, and Uruguay. Migratesregularly along both coasts and through interior North America,and on Bermuda. Casualor accidentalin the RevillagigedoIslands (Socorro Island), on ClippertonIsland, in the Hawaiian Islands (Oahu, Hawaii), Tristan da Cunha, Greenland, Iceland, the British Isles (reportedbreeding in Scotland;Hayman et al. 1986), continentalEurope, the eastern Atlantic islands, JohnstonIsland, and the Marshall Islands. Notes.--See commentsunder A. hypoleucos.

GenusXENUS Kaup XenusKaup, 1829, Skizz. Entw.-Ges.Eur. Thierw., p. 115. Type,by monotypy,Scolopax cinerea Gtildenst•idt. Notes.--See commentsunder Tringa.

Xenus cinereus (Gilldenst•idt).. Scolopaxcinerea Gtildenst•idt,1775, Novi Comm. Acad. Sci. Petropol. 19 (1774): 473, pl. 19. (ad mare caspium,circa ostium fluvii Terek = shoresof the CaspianSea at the mouth of the Terek River.) Habitat.--River meadows,marshes, grassy banks of streams,ponds, and lakes, especially in woodedregions; winters also on mudflatsand shallowestuaries and bays. Distribution.--Breeds from Finland, northern Russia, and northern Siberia south to central Russia,Lake Baikal, and Anadyrland. Winters from the Persian Gulf, southern Red Sea, Southeast Asia, and Hainan south to SouthAfrica (alongthe coastof easternAfrica), Madagascar,India, Sri Lanka, the , East Indies, New Guinea, and Australia. Migratesregularly through the westernAleutians (Attu, ,Shemya, Buldir), casually reachingSt. LawrenceIsland and the mainlandof western(Seward Peninsula) and southern Alaska (Anchorage).Casual or accidentalin British Columbia(Sooke), California (Carmel River), westernEurope, North Africa, and New Zealand; sight reports for northeastern Manitoba and Massachusetts. Notes.--The name Scolopaxcinerea Gtildenst•idt,1775 is not preoccupiedby Tringa cinerea BriJnnich,1764 [= canutus],even if Xenus is merged in Tringa (Monroe 1989).

Tribe NUMENIINI:

Genus BARTRAMIA Lesson Bartramia Lesson,1831, Trait60rnithol. 7: 553. Type, by monotypy,Bartramia lati- cauda Lesson = Tringa longicauda Bechstein. FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 159

Bartramia longicauda (Bechstein).. Tringa longicaudaBechstein, 1812, in Latham, Allg. Uebers. V6gel 4(2): 452, pl. 42. (Nordamerika = North America.) I-Iabitat.--Grasslands,especially prairies, dry meadows,pastures, airport margins,and (in Alaska,Yukon) open woodlands at timberline(breeding); also along shores and mud flats (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds locally from north-centralAlaska (Brooks Range, Alaska Range, and Wrangell Mountains),northern Yukon, central and northeasternBritish Columbia, ex- treme southwesternMackenzie, northern Alberta, central Saskatchewan,southern Manitoba, westernand southernOntario, southernQuebec, central Maine, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island south in the interior to easternWashington, northeastern Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming (except northwestern),northeastern (formerly southeastern)Colorado, northern Oklahoma,north-central Texas, central Missouri, southernIllinois, northernKentucky, south- ern Ohio, West Virginia, central Virginia, and Maryland. Winters in eastern South America from Surinam and northern Brazil south to central Argentina and Uruguay. Migrates mostlythrough interior North America(rarely alongPacific coast from southern Alaska to Washington,and rarely in Nova Scotia and the South Atlantic coastalregion) souththrough Middle America (rarely northwesternMexico), the West Indies, and most of SouthAmerica (includingTobago and Trinidad) eastof the Andes. Casualor accidentalin California, Arizona, easternQuebec, Bermuda, Chile, the Falkland Islands, Tristan da Cunha, Greenland, Iceland, the British Isles, continental Europe, the Azores, and Australia. Notes.--Also known in Old World literatureas Bartram'sSandpiper; formerly known as Upland Plover.

Genus NUMENIUS Brisson NumeniusBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie1: 48; 5: 311. Type, by tautonymy,Numenius Brisson = Scolopaxarquata Linnaeus. PhceopusCuvier, 1816, R•gne Anim. 1: 485. Type, by tautonymy,Scolopaxphceopus Linnaeus. MesoscolopaxSharpe, 1896, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 24: 371. Type, by original desig- nation, Numenius minutus Gould.

Numenius tninutus Gould. Little . Numeniusminutus Gould, 1841, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1840), p. 176. (, Australia.) I-Iabitat.--Grassy clearingsand meadowsin stuntedsubalpine forest. Distribution.--Breeds in central Siberia. Wintersfrom Indonesiaand the Philippinessouth to Australiaand New Zealand. Accidentalin California (Santa Maria Valley, Santa Barbara County, 16 September-14 October 1984, photograph;Lehman and Dunn 1985, also one seenthere 4-20 August 1993) and Alaska (Gambell, St. Lawrence Island, 7-8 June 1989, specimen;Gibson and Kessel 1992); additionalsight reportsfor California. ' Notes.--Also known as Little Whimbrel. See comments under N. borealis.

Numenius borealis (Forster). . Scolopaxborealis J. R. Forster,1772, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London 62: 431. (Fort Albany [on JamesBay], HudsonBay.) I-Iabitat.--Barren tundra (breeding);grasslands, pastures, plowed fields, and, less fre- quently, marshesand mudflats (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Probably extinct.Bred formerlyin northwesternMackenzie, possibly west to western Alaska (Norton Sound). Wintered formerly in southernSouth America from south-centralBrazil south through 160 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Paraguayand Uruguay to southernArgentina, and in Chile (Isla Chilo6); last sight report in winter from Argentina (near General Lavalie, Province of , 17 January 1939). Recordedin migrationin springfrom (Lake Palomas)and regularly north from Texas and Louisianathrough the Mississippiand drainagesand west of the Great Lakes and HudsonBay to the breedinggrounds; recorded in fall west of HudsonBay and regularly from southernLabrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the New England coast, casually to the Great Lakes (Illinois, Michigan, and southernOntario), along the Atlantic coast(to South Carolina), and in Bermuda and the West Indies (recordedon Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe,Carriacou in the Grenadines,Grenada, and Barbados). Sincethe mid-1950'srecorded (primarily sightreports) in springfrom Texas(Galveston to Rockport,1959-1963, with photographsfrom Galvestonin March-April 1962), Manitoba (Lake Manitoba, May 1980) and Saskatchewan(Regina, 1982), and in fall from the west coastof JamesBay (1976), Massachusetts(Plymouth Beach, 1970), New Jersey(Cape May, 1959), South Carolina (Charleston area, 1956), and Florida (Port Canaveral, 1960); last recordedspecimen from Barbados(4 September1963). Casualor accidentalformerly in the Pribilofs,Colorado, Montana, B affin Island,Tobago, Trinidad, the Falkland Islands, Greenland, Iceland, and the British Isles. Notes.--Numeniusborealis and N. minutusmay constitutea superspecies(Mayr andShort 1970).

Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus).Whimbrel. ScolopaxPhceopus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 146. (in Europa -- Sweden.) Habitat.--Tundra (breeding);beaches, rocky coasts,tidal mudflats, marshes,estuaries, floodedfields, and pastures(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds [hudsonicusgroup] in North Americafrom northernAlaska, north- ern Yukon, and northwesternMackenzie southto western and central Alaska (Norton Sound, Alaska Range, SusitnaRiver )and southwesternYukon, and along the western sideof HudsonBay from southernKeewatin south to northwesternJames Bay (Lake River, Ontario);and [phaeopusgroup] in Eurasiafrom Iceland,the FaeroeIslands, northern Scan- dinavia, northernRussia, and northernSiberia southto the Orkney and Shetlandislands, southernScandinavia, central Russia, central Siberia, Anadyrland, and the Sea of Okhotsk. Recordedin summerand possiblybreeding [hudsonicus group] on Banks and Southampton islands;nonbreeding birds also may summerin the wintering range, especiallyalong the Atlantic and Gulf coastsof the United States,in the West Indies, and along the coastsof California and western South America. Winters [hudsonicusgroup] in the Americas in coastalareas from southernBritish Co- lumbia (rarely), Washington,the Gulf coast,and SouthCarolina (rarely farthernorth) south throughMiddle America, the RevillagigedoIslands, the West Indies (except Cuba), and SouthAmerica (alsothe GalapagosIslands) to southernChile and southernBrazil (casually to extremenorthern Argentina); and [phaeopusgroup] in the Old World from the Mediter- ranean region (occasionallythe British Isles), Arabia, India, SoutheastAsia, and eastern China southto southernAfrica, Madagascar,islands in the Indian Ocean, Australia,New Zealand, and the Fiji and islands. Migrates [hudsonicusgroup] primarily alongthe coastfrom southernAlaska (from Bristol Bay eastward,most commonly in spring),around Hudson and Jamesbays, and (in fall) from Labradorand Newfoundland southward, regularly along the Great Lakes, locally (or casually) elsewhere in interior North America from southernCanada south to Arizona, New Mexico, and the Gulf states,and in Cuba;and [phaeopusgroup] through the westernAleutians (Near Islands),rarely to the Pribilof and St. Lawrenceislands, and easternAtlantic islands. Casual [hudsonicusgroup] in the Hawaiian Islands,Clipperton Island, Bolivia, Europe, the Azores, and New Zealand; and [phaeopusgroup] in the Hawaiian Islands, mainland Alaska (Point Barrow), along the Atlantic coastof North America from southernLabrador, Newfoundland,and Nova Scotia southto New Jersey,and on Barbados;sight reports from Washington,Oregon, California, Ohio, Ontario, Quebec,Virginia, North Carolina, southern Florida, and the Virgin Islands. Notes.--Groups: N. hudsonicusLatham, 1790 [Hudsonian Curlew] and N. phaeopus FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 161

[Whimbrel]. The two groupsare geneticallystrongly differentiated (Zink et al. 1995) and may constitutetwo different species.

Numenius tahitiensis (Gmelin). Bristle-thighedCurlew. Scolopaxtahitiensis Gmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 656. Basedon the "OtaheiteCurlew" Latham, Gen. Synop.Birds 3(1): 122. (in Tahiti [SocietyIslands].) Habitat.--Montane tundrawith scatteredshrubs (breeding); coastal tundra, grassy fields, tidal mudflats, and beaches(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in western Alaska (near the mouth of the Yukon River and on the Seward Peninsula);nonbreeding birds occur in summer on coastal tundra from Kotzebue Sound southto Hooper Bay, and occasionallyin the Hawaiian Islands. Winters on Pacific islands from the Hawaiian (most commonly from Midway east to French Frigate ) and Marshall islands south to the Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Marquesas, and Tuamotu islands. Migrates regularlyin springthrough south-coastal Alaska (Cook Inlet to PrinceWilliam Sound and Middleton Island). Casual in westernAlaska (the Pribilof and Aleutian islands) and British Columbia (Van- couver Island), and west to the Mariana and .Accidental in Japan.

Numenius madagascariensis(Linnaeus). . Scolopaxrnadagascariensis Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1' 242. Basedon "Le Courly de Madagascar"Brisson, Ornithologie 5: 321, pl. 28. (in Madagascar,error = Macassar, Sulawesi.) Habitat.--Moorlands and wet meadows (breeding);mudflats, beaches, and occasionally marshes(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from eastern Siberia and Kamchatka south to Transbaicalia, north- ern Mongolia, northernManchuria, and Ussuriland. Wintersfrom Taiwan and the Philippinessouth to the East Indies, New Guinea,Australia, and (rarely) New Zealand. Migrates regularlyin springthrough the Aleutian Islands(Attu, Adak, Shemya,Buldir, Amchitka, Nizki), casuallyreaching the Pribilof Islands(St. Paul, St. George). Accidental in British Columbia (, Delta).

Numenius tenuirostris Vieillot. Slender-billed Curlew. Numeniustenuirostris Vieillot, 1817, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 8: 302. (Egypt.) Habitat.-- Boggy areas in steppecountry (breeding);mudflats, beaches, marshes, and wet fields (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in southwestern Siberia. Winters along beachesand mudflatswest to the Mediterraneanregion, stragglingto the British Isles and northwesternAfrica; nearing . Accidentalin Ontario (CrescentBeach, fall, "about 1925"; Beardsleeand Mitchell 1965).

Numenius arquata (Linnaeus).. ScolopaxArquata Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 145. (in Europa -- Sweden.) Habitat.--Grasslands and marshes(breeding); beaches, on mudflatsand in wet meadows (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from northernEurasia south to southernEurope and the region. Wintersfrom the southernparts of the breedingrange south to southernAfrica, Mada- gascar,the Indian Ocean, SoutheastAsia, and the East Indies. Accidentalin Newfoundland(), New York (Long Island), Massachusetts(Mon- omoy,Martha's Vineyard,Tuckernuck Island), and Greenland;sight reports for Nova Scotia, Florida, and the Bahama Islands (Eleuthera). 162 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Notes.--Also known as Common Curlew and, in Old World literature, as the Curlew. Numeniusarquata andN. americanusmay constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Numenius americanus Bechstein.Long-billed Curlew.

Numeniusamericanus Bechstein, 1812, in Latham, Allg. Uebers.V6gel 4(2): 432. (New York.)

Itabitat.--Praides and grassymeadows, sagebrush, generally near water or wet areas (breeding);tidal mudflats,marshes, wet fields, and wet grasslands(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds (at least locally) from south-centralBritish Columbia, southern Alberta, southernSaskatchewan, and southernManitoba (formerly) south to east-central California, central Nevada, central Utah, central New Mexico, and northern Texas, and east to southwestern North Dakota, northwestern South Dakota, north-central Nebraska, and southwesternKansas, formerly also to North Dakota, northwesternIowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Smallnumbers of nonbreedingindividuals occasionally summer in the winterrange. Wintersfrom southwesternBritish Columbia (rarely), Washington,southern Arizona (rare- ly), extreme , southernTexas, southernLouisiana, southernAlabama, and coastal South Carolina south to southernMexico (Oaxaca, Veracruz, and the Yucatan Pen- insula) and southernFlorida, irregularlythrough northern Central America to Hondurasand Costa Rica. Casual in southernMackenzie, Minnesota, Missouri, Arkansas, the Atlantic coast (north to New Brunswick,at leastformerly), Belize, and the GreaterAntilles (Cuba, Jamaica);sight reportsfor southeasternAlaska, easternJames Bay (Brae Island), southernOntario, Ohio, Tennessee,the Virgin Islands.Accidental in Panama(Canal area)and northeastern Venezuela. Notes.--See commentsunder N. arquata.

Tribe LIMOSINI:

Genus LIMOSA Brisson

LimosaBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie1: 48; 5: 261. Type, by tautonymy,Limosa Brisson = Scolopaxlimosa Linnaeus. Vetola Mathews, 1913, Birds Aust. 3(2): 191. Type, by original designation,Scolopax lapponicusLinnaeus.

Limosa limosa (Linnaeus). Black-tailed .

ScolopaxLimosa Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 147. (in Europa = Sweden.)

Habitat.--Marshy grasslands,wet meadows,steppe, and moorlands(breeding); marshes, flooded fields, beaches,and mudflats(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, southern Scandinavia, the Baltic countfides,central Russia, central Siberia, and Kamchatkasouth to southernEurope, southern Russia, Lake Baikal, Mongolia, and the Sea of Okhotsk. Wintersin the British Isles,Mediterranean region, India, Burma, China, andthe Philippines south to east-centralAfrica, Sri Lanka (rarely), , the East Indies, Australia, and Tasmania. Migrates regularly in springthrough the westernAleutian Islands(casually east to Adak), casually as far east as the Pribilof (St. Paul), St. Lawrence, and Little Diomede islands,the mainland of western (Golovin), southwestern(Naknek), and south-coastalAlaska (). Casual or accidentalin Newfoundland, on Miquelon Island, and in Massachusetts(Dart- mouth), Pennsylvania(Philadelphia), New Jersey (Brigantine), North Carolina (Bodie Is- land), Florida (Merritt Island), Louisiana(Vermilion Parish);sight reports for Ontario,Que- bec, Delaware, the Lesser Antilles (St. Kitts, Barbados), and South Africa. FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 163

Limosa haemastica (Linnaeus). . ScolopaxHcemastica Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 147. Basedon "The Red- breastedGodwit" Edwards,Nat. Hist. Birds3: 138,pl. 138. (in Americaseptentrionali -- HudsonBay.) Itabitat.--Grassy tundra near water (breeding);marshes, flooded fields, rice fields, and tidal mudflats(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds locally in south-coastalAlaska (Cook Inlet area)and probably also in westernAlaska (KotzebueSound and Norton Bay); in Mackenzie(Fort Anderson,Great Slave Lake, and mouth of Mackenzie River area) and northwesternBritish Columbia (Chilkat Pass);and aroundHudson Bay (in northeasternManitoba and northernOntario). Recorded in summerin central and northern Alaska, in north-centralMackenzie (Bathurst Inlet), in the interior of SouthamptonIsland, and on in JamesBay. Winters in South America on the coastsof Peru and Chile (from Isla Chilo6 south to the Straitsof Magellan), and from Paraguay,southern Brazil, and Uruguay southto Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands,casually also in New Zealand. Migrates in springprimarily throughthe interior of North America from Texasand Lou- isiana north to northeasternBritish Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan,and the west side of HudsonBay, along the Pacificcoast of Oaxaca,Chiapas, Guatemala, and CostaRica, and in Tamaulipasand Veracruz;in fall mostly southeastwardfrom JamesBay to the Maritime Provincesand New England,thence by sea southward,regularly recorded on Barbadosand casuallyon Guadeloupe. Casual in coastal and interior western North America from British Columbia, Idaho, and Montana south to southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico, in the interior of the easternUnited States,in Newfoundland,along the Atlantic coast(south to Florida and west to Mississippi,primarily in fall), in southeasternMexico (Distrito Federal), the Bahamas (Eleuthera),Greater Antilles (recordeddefinitely from Cuba, Hispaniola,Puerto Rico, and theVirgin Islands),coastal Venezuela (including Curacao), Trinidad, and Bolivia. Accidental in the Hawaiian Islands(Oahu), Britain, , SouthAfrica, and Marshall Islands(Kwa- jalein); sightreports for YucatanPeninsula and Panama.

Limosa lapponica (Linnaeus).Bar-tailed Godwit. Scolopaxlapponica Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 147. (in Lapponia= Lapland.) Habitat.--Coastal tundra and sedge-dwarfshrub tundra of foothills (breeding);tidal mudlfats,less frequentlymarshes and floodedfields (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America in Alaska from Wales and the Yukon east(rarely) to Point Barrow andthe SagavanirktokRiver Delta; andin Eurasiafrom northern Scandinavia east across northern Russia and northern Siberia to the Chukotski Peninsula and northernAnadyrland. Wintersfrom the BritishIsles, ,Mediterranean region, Black Sea,Iraq, andthe Persian Gulf south to , islands of the northern Indian Ocean and Sri Lanka, casuallyto the Azores, Canary Islands,southern Africa, Madagascar,the Seychelles,and Maldive Islands;and from southeasternChina, Taiwan, and the Philippinessouth to the East Indies, westernPolynesia, Australia, New Zealand, and the ChathamIslands. Migrates throughthe Aleutian and Pribilof islands,along the Bering Sea coast of the Alaska Peninsula,and in the Pacific from the coastof Japansouth through the islandsof Polynesiato the Gilbert, Samoa,and Tonga islands, rarely alongthe Pacificcoast from south- coastalAlaska (west to Kodiak) and British Columbia southto northernBaja California. Casual in the Hawaiian Islands,in the Atlantic coastalregion (Newfoundland,Quebec, Maine, Massachusetts,New York, New Jersey,Virginia, North Carolina,and Florida),and in Iceland and the Faeroe and Cape Verde islands.Accidental in the Virgin Islands (St. Croix) and Venezuela.Sight reportsfor Saskatchewanand Nova Scotia.

Limosa fedoa (Linnaeus). . Scolopax Fedoa Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 146. Based on "The Greater American Godwit" Edwards,Nat. Hist. Birds 3: 137, pl. 137. (in America septen- trionali = HudsonBay.) 164 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Itabitat.--Grasslands, prairie sloughs,marshes, and ponds,locally tundra (breeding); primarily tidal mudflatsand marshes(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in Alaska on the Alaska Peninsula(Ugashik Bay in the vicinity of the King Salmonand Dog Salmonrivers, probably in the CinderRiver area,and possibly as far southand west as Port Heiden) and from east-centralAlberta, south-centralSaskatch- ewan, and southernManitoba, western Ontario (Rainy River, also an isolatedbreeding populationin northernOntario on the southwesterncoast of JamesBay andAkimiski Island) south to central and easternMontana, northeasternColorado (once), North Dakota, north- easternSouth Dakota, and northwesternMinnesota, formerly to central Iowa, east-central Minnesota,and southernWisconsin. Nonbreeding birds occur in summerin the winter range. Wintersfrom south-coastalBritish Columbia (rarely), coastalWashington, western Ne- vada, the Gulf coastand coastalSouth Carolina southto Florida, and along both coastsof Middle America (irregularor local southof Mexico) to Colombiaand Venezuela,rarely south to northern Chile. Migratesprimarily through interior western North Americaand along the California coast, regularlynorth on the Pacificcoast to BritishColumbia and southeasternand south-coastal Alaska, and, primarily in fall, casuallythrough interior easternNorth Americaand along the Atlantic coast from southernOntario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia,and Newfoundlandsouth to the GreaterAntilles (eastto Anegadain the Virgin Islands)and Grand Caymanin the CaymanIslands. Accidentalin the Hawaiian (Laysan,Hawaii) and Galapagosislands; reports from the LesserAntilles, Tobago,and Trinidadare questionable.

Tribe ARENARIINI: Notes.--Formerly(A.O.U. 1957) considereda subfamily,the Arenariinae, which included the genusAphriza, now regardedas relatedto Calidris (Jehl 1968a).

Genus ARENARIA Brisson Arenaria Brisson, 1760, Ornithologie1: 48; 5: 132. Type, by tautonymy,Arenaria Brisson = Tringa interpres Linnaeus.

Arenaria interpres (Linnaeus).Ruddy . Tringa InterpresLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 148. (in Europa& America septentrionali= ,Sweden.) Itabitat.--Tundra, usuallynear water; in winter,rocky coasts,jetties, beaches, rarely tidal mudflats;in migration,also bare lake-shoresand occasionallywet dirt fields. Distribution.--Breeds in North America from northern Alaska and the Canadian Arctic islands(Banks east to Ellesmere,Devon, southwesternBaffin, and Mansel islands)south to westernAlaska (St. LawrenceIsland and the Yukon River delta); and in the Palearcticfrom northernGreenland, Iceland, northernScandinavia, Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, and the New SiberianIslands southto central Greenland,the west coastof Norway, islandsin the , and the northernSiberian coast (east to the Bering Sea). Nonbreedingbirds may be found in summerthrough the winter range. Winters in the Pacific from the Hawaiian Islands southward; in North America in coastal areasfrom British Columbia,the Gulf coast,and southernNew England(casually north to Nova Scotia) southalong both coastsof Middle America (includingClipperton and the RevillagigedoIslands, off Mexico),through the WestIndies, and along both coasts of South America (includingthe GalapagosIslands, , Tobago,and Trinidad) to Tierra del Fuego;and in the Old World from the British Isles, southernScandinavia, the Mediterraneanregion, Canary Islands,and southeasternChina southto southernAfrica, India, Indonesia, Australia, and New Zealand. Migrates in North America regularlythrough the Aleutian and Pribilof islands,from HudsonBay east to Labradorand Newfoundland(mostly in fall), and alongthe Atlantic coastfrom the Maritime Provincessouthward, and in the Old World primarily alongcoastal areasbetween breeding and wintering ranges; in smallnumbers through the prairieareas of FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 165 the Canadianprovinces, the lower GreatLakes, and the Mississippiand Ohio valleys;rarely alongthe Pacific coastfrom southeasternAlaska southto northernand interior southeastern California(to SaltonSea); andcasually elsewhere through the interiorof centraland western North America, and to Bermuda. Accidentalin and Franz JosefLand. Notes.--Known in Old World literature as the Turnstone.

Arenaria rnelanocephala(Vigors). . Strepsilasrnelanocephalus Vigors, 1829, Zool. J. 4 (1828): 356. (northwestcoast of [North] America.) Habitat.--Coastal salt-grasstundra (breeding); rocky seacoastsand offshoreislets, jetties, less frequentlyin seaweedon beachesand tidal mudflats(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds locally alongthe coastof westernand southernAlaska, from south- ern Kotzebue Sound south to the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta and the north side of the Alaska Peninsula.Nonbreeding birds may be foundin summerthrough the winteringrange. Wintersfrom south-coastaland southeasternAlaska (west to Kodiak) south along the Pacific coastto southernBaja California and central Sonora. Casual in the central Aleutians (Amchitka), Pribilofs (St. Paul), and inland in central Alaska, Yukon (WatsonLake, Kluane Lake), British Columbia (Atlin, Nulki Lake), Montana ( National Park), Oregon (WashingtonCounty), and California. Accidentalin Wis- consin(Winnebago County); a sightreport for Nayarit.

Tribe CALIDRIDINI: CalidridineSandpipers

Genus APHRIZA Audubon AphrizaAudubon, 1839, Ornithol.Biogr. 5: 249. Type, by monotypy,Aphriza townsendi Audubon = Tringa virgata Gmelin. Notes.--Aphriza was formerly (A.O.U. 1957) includedin the subfamilyArenariinae, but it is closely related to Calidris (Jehl 1968a).

Aphriza virgata (Gmelin). . Tringa virgata Gmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 674. Basedon the "StreakedSandpiper" Latham, Gen. Synop.Birds 3(1): 180. (in sinu Sandwich= Prince William Sound, Alaska.) Habitat.--Rocky tundraabove treeline in interior mountains(breeding); primarily rocky seacoastsand islands,jetties (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds widely in the mountainsystems of western,central, and south- coastalAlaska (includingKodiak Island) and Yukon (exceptsoutheastern part). Occasional nonbreedingindividuals summeras far south as Panama, and othershave been recordedin summer(and possiblybreeding) in westernAlaska (from KotzebueSound south to Hooper and Goodnewsbays). Wintersalong the Pacific coastfrom south-coastaland southeasternAlaska (west to Ko- diak) southalong the Pacific coastof North America, Middle America (not recordedHon- duras)and SouthAmerica to Tierra del Fuego. Casual in central Alberta (Beaverhill Lake), interior California, the Gulf coast of Texas (Galveston,Port Aransas,Padre Island), and Florida (Escambiaand Lee counties);a sight reportfor westernPennsylvania and in the RevillagigedoIslands (Socorro Island).

Genus CALIDRIS Merrem Calidris Anonymous[= Merrem], 1804, Allg. Lit. Ztg. 2(168): col. 542. Type, by tautonymy,Tringa calidris Gmelin = Tringa canutusLinnaeus. EreunetesIlliger, 1811, Prodromus,p. 262. Type, by monotypy,Ereunetes petrificatus Illiger = Tringa pusilla Linnaeus. 166 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Erolia Vieillot, 1816, Analyse, p. 55. Type, by monotypy,Erolia variegata Vieillot = Scolopaxtestacea Pallas. Pelidna Cuvier, 1816, R•gne Anim. 1: 490. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Tringa cinclusLinnaeus = Tringa alpina Linnaeus. CrocethiaBillberg, 1828, Synop.Faunae Scand. (ed. 2) 1(2): 132. Type, by monotypy, Charadrius calidris Linnaeus = Trynga alba Pallas. Pisobia Billberg, 1828, Synop. Faunae Scand. (ed. 2) 1(2): 136, tab. A. Type, by subsequentdesignation (A.O.U. Comm., 1908), Tringa minutaLeisler. ActodromasKaup, 1829, Nattirl. Syst.,p. 55. Type Tringa minutaLeisler = Calidris minuta Leisler. Arquatella Baird, 1858, in Baird, Cassin,and Lawrence,Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: 714, 717. Type, by original designation,Tringa maritima Brtinnich. Micropalama Baird, 1858, in Baird, Cassin,and Lawrence,Rep. Explor. Surv. R. R. Pac. 9: xxii, xlvii, 714, 726. Type, by monotypy,Tringa himantopusBonaparte. Notes.--See commentsunder Eurynorhynchus.

Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield). . Totanus tenuirostrisHotsfield, 1821, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 13(1): 192. (Java.) Habitat.--Barren or stonymountain tundra (breeding); rocky seacoasts,sandy beaches, and tidal mudflats (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in the mountainsof northeasternSiberia from the lower Kolyma to Anadyrland,probably also from the VerkhoyanskMountains east to the Sea of Okhotsk. Wintersfrom the PersianGulf, India, andMalaysia eastand southto the Philippines,East Indies, New Guinea, and Australia. Migrates regularly along the coastof easternAsia from Kamchatkasouth to Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands,rarely in the interior of Siberia, and casuallyin springthrough south- westernand westernAlaska in the Aleutians(Shemya, Adak), Pribilofs(St. Paul), and on St. Lawrence Island and the Seward Peninsula. Accidentalin Oregon (Bandon),England, Morocco, and Arabia.

Calidris canutus (Linnaeus). . Tringa CanutusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 149. (in Europa= Sweden.) Habitat.--Barren or stonytundra, but usually near water (breeding);primarily seacoasts on tidal mudflatsand beaches;migrants inland usually found on extensivemudflats or bare lake-shores(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America in northwesternand northernAlaska (Seward Peninsulaand Delong Mountains, rarely at PointBarrow and Cooper Island) and the Canadian Arctic islandseast to Ellesmereand southto Victoria and Southampton,probably also on the Adelaide Peninsula and ; and in the Palearctic from northern Greenland and Spitsbergeneast to the New Siberianand Wrangel islands.Nonbreeding individuals occasionallysummer in the winteringrange, especially on the Atlantic and Gulf coastsof the United States. Wintersin the Americasin coastalregions from southernBritish Columbia(rarely), Wash- ington,the Gulf coast,and Massachusetts south to Tierra del Fuego,generally less commonly north of southern South America; and in the Old Word from the British Isles, , the Black Sea, India, SoutheastAsia, and the Philippinessouth to central Africa, Australia,and New Zealand,casually to the Azores, SouthAfrica, and Sri Lanka. Migrates in North America primarily along the Atlantic coastfrom New Brunswickand Nova Scotiasouth to Florida(rarely in fall in southernLabrador and Newfoundland), through the Great Lakes region, along the Pacific coastfrom southernAlaska and British Columbia southward(including interior southeasternCalifornia at the Salton Sea), irregularlyalong the coastsof Middle America (not recordedNicaragua) and SouthAmerica (includingTrin- idad), locally (or casually)elsewhere through the interior of North Americaand through the West Indies (recordedGreater Antilles in Cuba [sight reports],the Cayman Islands, the Virgin Islands, the northernLesser Antilles, Martinique, and Barbados);and in the Old FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 167

World generallyin coastalareas through regions between the breedingand winteringranges, casuallythrough the easternAtlantic islands. Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands (Kauai, Oahu), on islandsin the Bering Sea, and in Bermuda, the GalapagosIslands, and Bolivia.

Calidris alba (Pallas). . Trynga alba Pallas, 1764, in Vroeg, Cat. Raisonn60is., Adumbr., p. 7. (de Noordsche Zeekusten = coast of the North Sea.) Habitat.--Dry sedge,barren, or stony tundra, but generally near water (breeding);pri- marily sandybeaches, less frequently on mudflats,bare shoresof lakesor rivers,jetties, and rocky seacoasts(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America in northernAlaska (Barrow), and from Banks, Prince Patrick, Lougheed, and northern Ellesmere islands south to northern Mackenzie, western , northern Keewatin (Melville Peninsula), the northwest coast of Hudson Bay (Cape Fullerton), and Southamptonand northern Baffin islands; and in the Palearcticin northernGreenland, Spitsbergen, the Taimyr Peninsula,, mouth of the River, and the New SiberianIslands. Nonbreeding birds occurin summer in the winter range. Winters in the Hawaiian Islands; in the Americas in the Aleutians (locally), and from southernAlaska (west to the Aleutians),the Gulf coast,and Massachusetts(casually north to Nova Scotia) south along the coastsof North America and Middle America, through the West Indies, and along the coastsof South America to Tierra del Fuego (also in interior southeasternCalifornia at the Salton Sea); in the Old World from the British Isles, , Mediterraneanregion, , , northernIndia, Burma, and China south to South Africa, Madagascar,southern India, the Maldive Islands, Sri Lanka, the East Indies and Australia; and on Pacific islands from the Mariana and Marshall islands southto the Phoenix,Union, and Galapagosislands. Migrates in North Americaalong the Pacificcoast from the Aleutiansand southernAlaska, the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland, and through the interior in the prairie areas of the Canadianprovinces and from the Great Lakes southward,locally elsewherein the interior and north to Labrador. Casual on ClippertonIsland, Jan Mayen, Franz JosefLand, and New Zealand.

Calidris pusilla (Linnaeus).. Tringapusilla Linnaeus,1766, Syst.Nat. (ed. 12) 1'252. Basedon "La petiteAlouette- de-mer de S. Domingue" Brisson,Ornithologie 5: 222, pl. 25, fig. 2. (in Domingo = Hispaniola.) Habitat.--Open low-lying tundra, generally near water (breeding);mudflats, beaches, shoresof shallow lakes and ponds, freshwater marshes,and occasionallywet meadows (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from the Arctic coast of western and northern Alaska (south to Norton Bay), northernYukon, northernMackenzie, Canadian Arctic islands(Banks, Victoria, King William, centralBaffin, andprobably also Melville and Somersetislands), and northern Labrador south to western Alaska (mouth of the Yukon River), east-central Mackenzie, southeasternKeewatin, northeasternManitoba, SouthamptonIsland, northernOntario (Cape Henrietta Maria), northern Quebec, and coastal Labrador; also in eastern Siberia. Nonbreed- ing individuals often summerin coastalNorth America southto the Gulf coastand Panama. Winters from southernFlorida and the Bahamassouth through the West Indies (also the northernYucatan Peninsula and possibly elsewhere along the Gulf-Caribbeancoast of Middle America) and along the Caribbean-Atlanticcoast of South America (including Tobago and Trinidad) to Paraguayand southernBrazil, casually to southernArgentina; and along the. Pacific coastof Middle America and South America from Chiapassouth to northernChile. Migrates primarily alongthe Atlantic-Gulf coastof North America from Newfoundland southward,through the interiorof North Americaeast of the Rockies,and rarely but regularly throughthe Pribilofs, along the Pacific coastfrom British Columbia southto northernBaja California, and throughthe interior of western North America. 168 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Casualin the Hawaiian Islands(Oahu), Aleutian Islands,Bermuda, the GalapagosIslands, Greenland, the British Isles, continentalEurope, and the Azores.

Calidris mauri (Cabanis).. EreunetesMauri Cabanis, 1857, J. Ornithol. 4 (1856): 419. (Cuba.) Habitat.--Coastal, hilly sedge-dwarftundra, generally near water (breeding);mudflats, beaches,shores of shallowlakes and ponds,and floodedfields, in winter primarily on tidal mudflats (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds on islandsin the Bering Sea (St. Lawrence,Nunivak) and along the coastsof westernand northernAlaska (from Bristol Bay and the KashunukRiver to the SewardPeninsula and, lessfrequently, Point Barrow and CamdenBay), and in northeastern Siberia. Nonbreedingbirds summer south at least to Panama. Wintersfrom the coastof Washington(rarely from southernAlaska) and North Carolina (rarely New Jersey)south along both coastsof North America and Middle America, and throughthe West Indies to SouthAmerica (includingthe NetherlandsAntilles and Trinidad), on the Pacific coastto northernPeru and the Atlantic coasteast to Surinam,casually in western and southern Arizona and southern New Mexico. Migrates mostcommonly through the Pacificregion from Alaska to SouthAmerica, less commonly through the interior from central British Columbia, central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan,southern (casually northeastern) Manitoba, and southernOntario southward, regularlyin small numbers(especially in fall) throughthe Pribilofs, along the Atlantic coast' from New England (rarely Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia) southward,and casuallyto the Aleutians. Casualin the Hawaiian, Clipperton,and Galapagosislands. Accidental in the BritishIsles, westernEurope, the Azores,Canary Islands,Madeira, Tasmania,and Japan.Sight reportfor the RevillagigedoIslands (Socorro Island).

Calidris ruficollis (Pallas).Red-necked . Trynga ruficollisPallas, 1776, Reise Versch.Prov. Russ. Reichs 3: 700. (circa Lacus salsosDauuriae campestris = Kulussutai,eastern Siberia.) Habitat.--Marshy or mossytundra and nearbyrivers (breeding);tidal mudflats, beaches, and marshes(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America in northern and western Alaska (Point Barrow and Seward Peninsula);and in Eurasia in northeasternSiberia (Chukotski Peninsulato Anadyrland and Koryakland). Recordedin summer(and possiblybreeding) elsewherein Alaska (Kotzebue Sound, St. Lawrence Island). Winters from southern China south to the Andaman and , East Indies, New Guinea, the Bismarck and Solomon islands, Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. Migrates regularly throughthe westernand centralAleutians, islands in the Bering Sea, and the mainlandcoast of northwesternand westernAlaska (east rarely as far as the Colville River Delta), andcasually from south-coastaland southeasternAlaska south along the Pacific coast of British Columbia ( delta), Oregon, and California. Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands, Ohio (Ashtabula),New York, Maine (Bid- deford Pool), Massachusetts(Monomoy, Scituate),Connecticut (Guilford), and Delaware (Little Creek, Point Mahon). Sight reportsfor the Hawaiian Islands(Kure), Alberta,Nevada, Saskatchewan,Ontario, Missouri, Virginia, Peru, and SouthAfrica. Notes.--Also known as Rufous-neckedStint or Rufous-neckedSandpiper.

Calidris minuta (Leisler). . Tringa minutaLeisler, 1812, Nactr. Bechstein'sNaturgesch. Dtsch., pt. 1, p. 74. (region of Hanau am Main, .) Habitat.--Mossy or wet tundra (breeding);marshes, flooded fields, and mudflats (non- breeding). Distribution.--Breeds from northern Scandinavia east to the Chukotski Peninsula. FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 169

Wintersin Africa and the Indian region. Migrates rarely (or casually)through northern Alaska (Barrow), the westernAleutians (Attu, Shemya,Buldir), the Pribilofs(St. Paul, St. George),and St. Matthewsand St. Law- rence islands. Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands (Kure, Oahu), British Columbia (Richmond Delta), Oregon,California, Ontario, New York, New Brunswick,Nova Scotia,Massachusetts, North Carolina,and Bermuda.Sight reportsfor Tennessee,New Jersey,and Delaware.

Calidris temminckii (Leisler). Temminck's Stint. Tringa TemminckiiLeisler, 1812, Nachtr. Bechstein'sNaturgesch. Dtsch., pt. 1, p. 64. (region of Hanau am Main, Germany.) Habitat.--Mossy or wet tundra, and grassymeadows in the taiga (breeding);mudflats, shallowmarshes, shores of lakesand ponds,flooded fields and, rarely, tidal flats (nonbreed- ing). Distribution.--Breeds from northern Scandinavia east across northern Russia to northern Siberia, and southto the ChukotskiPeninsula and Anadyrland.Nonbreeding individuals summer south to Lake B aikal. Wintersfrom the Mediterraneanregion, Arabia, Iraq, Iran, India, southeasternChina, and Taiwan south to central Africa, Sri Lanka, the Maldive Islands, SoutheastAsia, and , casually in Japan and the Philippines. Migrates casuallythrough the Aleutians(Attu, Shemya,Buldir, Adak) and islandsin the Bering Sea (St. Matthew, St. Lawrence,Pribilofs). Accidentalin British Columbia(Reifel Island, Delta) and SouthAfrica. A sightreport for northernAlaska (Wales).

Calidris subminuta (Middendorff). Long-toed Stint. Tringa subminutaMiddendorff, 1853, Reise Sib. 2(2): 222. (H6hen desWestabhanges vom StanowoiGebirge und desN•ihe desAusflusses des Uda = StanovoiMountains, Siberia.) Habitat.--Mossy or wet tundra(breeding); sandy beaches, mudflats and shoresof lakes and ponds(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in the CommanderIslands, in Anadyrlandand (probably)Kam- chatka, and on Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands. Wintersfrom easternIndia, southeasternChina, Taiwan, and the Philippinessouth to Sri Lanka, the East Indies, and northern Australia. Migrates regularly throughthe western Aleutians (from the Near Islands east rarely as far as Adak), casuallyto the Pribilofs(Otter, St. Paul, St. George),St. LawrenceIsland, and western mainland Alaska (Wales). Accidentalin the northwesternHawaiian Islands, Oregon (South Jetty, Columbia River), California (),England, and South Africa; reportsfrom British Columbia and Con- necticutrequire confirmation.

Calidris minutilla (Vieillot). . Tringa minutillaVieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv.6d.) 34: 466. (Am6rique jusqu'au delft du Canada= Halifax, Nova Scotia.) Habitat.--Mossy or wet grassytundra, occasionally in drier areaswith scatteredscrubby bushesbogs (breeding);marshes, flooded and wet fields, and shoresof pools and shallow lakes,occasionally beaches and mudflats (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from western Alaska (Kobuk River), northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, southernKeewatin, SouthamptonIsland, northernQuebec, and northernLab- rador southto the Pribilofs (St. Paul), easternAleutians (Unalaska),Alaska Peninsula,south- easternAlaska, northwesternBritish Columbia (including northwesternQueen Charlotte Islands; Atlin), northern Saskatchewan, northeastern Manitoba, northern Ontario, New Brunswick(Machias Seal Island, probably),eastern Quebec (Anticosti and Magdalenis- 170 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE lands), Nova Scotia (), and Newfoundland,with an isolatedbreeding in Mas- sachusetts(Monomoy). Nonbreeding birds summer in the winteringrange, primarily in North America south to California and the Gulf coast. Wintersin the Hawaiian Islands,and from south-coastalBritish Columbia (rarely), Wash- ington, southernNevada, Utah, central New Mexico, central Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, the Gulf states,and North Carolina (casually north to Long Island) souththrough Middle America, the West Indies, and South America (also all islands off the ) to the GalapagosIslands, northern Chile, central Bolivia, and centralBrazil. Migrates regularly along coastalareas and throughinterior North America, west to the Pribilof and eastern Aleutian islands, and east to western Greenland. Casualnorth to southernVictoria, Melville, and southernBaffin islands,and in Clipperton Island, Bermuda,Iceland, the British Isles, Europe, and the Azores.

Calidris fuscicollis (Vieillot). White-rumpedSandpiper. TringafuscicollisVieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv.6d.) 34: 461. (Paraguay.) Habitat.--Mossy or grassy,usually low-lying, tundranear water (breeding); grassy marsh- es, mudflats,flooded fields, and shoresof pondsand lakes (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from northernAlaska, northernYukon (possibly),northwestern Mackenzie,and Banks,Melville, Bathurst,and northernBylot islandssouth to the mainland coastsof Mackenzieand Keewatin,northwestern Hudson Bay (ChesterfieldInlet), andSouth- amptonand southernBaffin islands. Wintersextensively in SouthAmerica, primarily east of the Andes, southto and Tierra del Fuego, casually west of the Andes to Chile. Migrates in springprimarily throughCentral America, eastern Mexico (recordedTamau- lipas, Veracruz,Yucatfin, and Cozumel Island) and the interior of North America from the GreatPlains east to the Mississippiand Ohio valleys,less commonly on theAtlantic seaboard north to the Maritime Provinces;and in fall mostly from HudsonBay throughthe interior and along the Atlantic coastfrom Labradorand Newfoundlandsouth through the WestIndies and northern South America (also most islands off Venezuela). Casual on , and in western North America from south-coastalAlaska (Copper River delta), British Columbia, and Montana south to southernCalifornia and Arizona. Casualor accidentalin the GalapagosIslands, Iceland, the British Isles, continental Europe,Franz JosefLand, the Azores, SouthGeorgia, southern Africa, and Australia;a sight report for the Pacific coastof Oaxaca.

Calidris bairdii (Coues).Baird's Sandpiper. ActodromasBairdii Coues, 1861, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 13: 194. (Fort Resolution [Great Slave Lake, Mackenzie].) Habitat.--Dry coastaland alpinetundra (breeding); grassy marshes, and dry grassyareas near lakes and ponds, dried mudflats,rarely dry pasturesand prairies away from water (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from western and northern Alaska (Wales and Point Barrow east- ward), northernYukon, and Banks, Melville, Ellef Ringnes, and Ellesmere islandssouth to central Alaska (Askinuk Mountainsand SusitnaRiver highlands),extreme northwestern British Columbia(Haines Highway), northernMackenzie, northern Keewatin, southern Mel- ville Peninsula,and Southamptonand south-centralBaffin islands;also in northwestern Greenland,on Wrangel Island, and on the ChukotskiPeninsula in northeasternSiberia. Wintersin SouthAmerica locally in the Andesfrom Ecuadorto Chile and Argentina,and in lowlands from Paraguayand Uruguay souththrough Chile and Argentina to Tierra del Fuego. Migrates primarily through the central interior of Canada and the central plains of the United Statesand, in springonly, throughVenezuela, Colombia, and Middle America; less frequently(primarily juveniles) and, mostly in fall, throughthe Pacificregion (from Alaska southto Baja California, Arizona, and centralMexico, rarely elsewherein Middle America) and along the Atlantic coastfrom New England southto Florida. FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 171

, Casualin the HawaiianIslands (Laysan, Oahu), Tres Marias Islands(off Nayarit), (Maritime Provinces), the Outer Hebrides, Faeroe Islands, British Isles, continental Europe,the Azores,and the Kuril andGalapagos islands; sight reports for the Bahamas,the Virgin Islands, and Barbados.Accidental on South Georgia and in southernAfrica and Tasmania.

Calidris melanotos(Vieillot). PectoralSandpiper. Tringa melanotosVieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv.6d.) 34: 462. (Paraguay.) Habitat.--Wet, grassycoastal tundra (breeding);wet meadows,marshes, flooded fields, grassyshores of pondsand pools, and occasionallymudflats (nonbreeding). Distribution.---Breeds from western and northern Alaska (Wales and Point Barrow east- ward), northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, and Banks, Victoria, Bathurst, Devon, northern Baffin, and Southamptonislands south to westernAlaska (GoodnewsBay), central Mac- kenzie, southeasternKeewatin, and (rarely) extreme northeasternOntario (Cape Henrietta Maria); and along the Arctic coastof central and easternSiberia from the Taimyr Peninsula eastward. Winters in southern South America from Peru, Bolivia, and southernBrazil south to central Chile and southernArgentina, casually north to Mexico, the Gulf coast,and Florida. Migrates chiefly throughinterior North America, Middle America, and northernSouth America,and in fall (uncommonin spring)through eastern North America(north to Labrador and Newfoundland)and the West Indies, includingmost islands off the north coastof South America; also regularly (mostly in fall) throughthe Hawaiian Islands,Pribilof and Aleutian islands(rarely), to the Pacific coastfrom British Columbia southward,and along the coast of easternAsia from the Kuril Islandsand Sakhalin southto Japan. Casual north to Prince Patrick Island, and in western Greenland, Iceland, the British Isles, continentalEurope, the Azores, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Polynesia.Accidental on Clipperton,the GalapagosIslands, and SouthGeorgia.

Calidris acuminata (Horsfield). Sharp-tailedSandpiper. Totanus acuminatusHorsfield, 1821, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 13(1): 192. (Java.) I-Iabitat.--Grassytundra (breeding); wet grassyareas, marshes, flooded fields, shores of lakes and ponds,and occasionallymud flats (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in northernSiberia from the to the Kolyma, probably also on the Chukotski Peninsula.Recorded rarely in summer (and possibly breeding) in western Alaska (Barrow, Kivalina). Winters from New Guinea, , and the Tonga Islands south to Australia, Tasmaniaand (rarely) New Zealand. Migrates regularlythrough the Hawaiian Islands,western Alaska (northto Cape Seppings and Kotzebue Sound),islands in the Bering Sea, the Aleutians, and east to Kodiak Island, and from easternSiberia, Sakhalin, and Japansouth through eastern China, the Philippines, East Indies (occasionally),and Ryukyu Islands; and rarely (primarily in fall) from south- coastaland southeasternAlaska southalong the Pacific coastto southernCalifornia, and through Pacific islands from Johnstonand the Marshall islands south to the Gilbert and Phoenix islands. Casualelsewhere in North America, mostly in fall (recordedfrom northeasternBritish Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan,North Dakota, Ontario, New York, and New England southto Arizona,New Mexico, Texas,the Gulf coast,and Florida); a sightreport for Quebec. Accidental on Tristan da Cunha, in the British Isles, Scandinavia, France, and northern India; an erroneous record from ¾era Paz, Guatemala.

Calidris maritima (Brtinnich).. Tringa Maritima Briinnich,1764, Ornithol. Bor., p. 54. (E Christians6e& Norvegia = Christians6e, Denmark.) Habitat.--Tundra, especiallyrocky ridges and barren coastalbeaches(breeding); rocky 172 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE seacoastsand jetties; inland migrants (rare) usually along rocky shoresof largeinland bodies of water (nonbreeding). Distribution.---Breeds in North America from Melville, Bathurst, Devon, Bylot, and Baffin islandssouth to Southamptonand , and James Bay (); and in the Palearcticfrom westernand southeasternGreenland, Iceland, Spitsbergen,, Franz JosefLand, Novaya Zemlya, and the New SiberianIslands south to the Faeroe Islands,northern Scandinavia, and northernSiberia (Taimyr Peninsula).Recorded in summer (and possiblybreeding) west to Banks and PrincePatrick islands. Winters in North America from southern New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia,and Newfoundland south along the Atlantic coastto Virginia, rarely southto Florida, and casuallyinland to the Great Lakes (westto Wisconsin,Illinois, and Indiana)and along the Gulf coastto southernTexas; and in the Palearcticsouth to northwesternEurope, rarely to the Mediterraneanregion. Migrates to Prince of Wales Island, Franklin District, and in coastalareas from Labrador southward,also regularly in the fall to the easternGreat Lakes region. Casual or accidentalin northernAlaska (Point Barrow), Manitoba, Minnesota. Oklahoma and the Azores;sight reportsfor Saskatchewanand interior Texas. Notes.--Calidris rnaritirnaand C. ptilocnernisconstitute a superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Calidris ptilocnemis (Coues). . Tringa ptilocnernisCoues, 1873, in Elliott, Rep. Seal Islands[in Affairs in Alaska] (not paged). (St. George Island, Pribilof Islands.) Habitat.--Dry grassyor mossytundra in coastalor montaneareas (breeding);rocky seacoastsand jetties (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in northeasternSiberia (Chukotski Peninsulaand the Commander Islands),on islandsin the Bering Sea (St. Lawrence,St. Matthew, Nunivak, andthe Pribilofs), in the Aleutian and Shumagin(Sanak) islands. Wintersfrom southernAlaska (west to the Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula)south along the Pacificcoast to central(casually southern) California; and in Eurasiafrom the Commander Islands south to the northern Kuril Islands. Casual in interior northwesternBritish Columbia; a sight report for Saskatchewan.Un- substantiatedreports from northwesternBaja California. Notes.--See comments under C. rnaritirna.

Calidris alpina (Linnaeus). . Tringa alpina Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 149. (in Lapponia= Lapland.) Habitat.--Wet, marshycoastal tundra (breeding); mudflats, marshes, flooded fields, sandy beaches,and shoresof lakes and ponds,occasionally rocky coasts,in winter primarily on tidal mudflats(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America from northernAlaska, northernMackenzie (Bail- lie Island), northeasternKeewatin, southernSomerset Island, and Baffin Island south to westernand south-coastal Alaska (rarely east to Cook Inlet andCopper River delta),South- amptonIsland, northeastern Manitoba (Churchill), and the southcoast of HudsonBay (locally to CapeHenrietta Maria); andin the northernPalearctic from Spitsbergen,northern Norway, and Novaya Zemlya southto the British Isles, , and Arctic coastof northern Russia.Nonbreeding individuals are sometimesrecorded in summerin the winter range. Wintersin the Hawaiian Islands(in small numbers);in North America alongthe Pacific coast of North America from southeasternAlaska south to Baja California and Nayarit, rarely eastinland to westernand southernArizona and southernNew Mexico, and southto Panama;on the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbeancoast from Massachusetts(rarely north to Nova Scotia) south to Florida, west to Texas, and south to the Yucatan Peninsula; and in the Old World from the British Isles, Mediterranean and Red seas, , India, southeastern China, and Japansouth to the Cape Verde Islands,northern Africa, Arabia, the Indian coast, and Taiwan. FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 173

Migrates primarily along the Bering Sea coast of Alaska, the Pacific coast from the Aleutians and southernAlaska southward,the Atlantic coast from eastern Quebec and Nova Scotia southward,and in smaller numbersthrough the interior of North America from southernCanada south to Arizona, New Mexico, Texas,and the Gulf coast,most frequently throughthe MississippiValley and Great Lakes region. Casual in Newfoundland;sight reportsfor Belize, the West Indies (south to Barbados), , Peru, and Argentina.

Calidrisferruginea (Pontoppidan).. Tringa Ferruginea Pontoppidan,1763, Dan. 1: 624. (Iceland and Christians6e [Denmark].)

Itabitat.--Tundra; in Alaska,primarily wet coastaltundra (breeding); mudflats, marshes, and beaches(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North Americararely in northernAlaska (Barrow); and in Eur- asia in northernSiberia from the YeniseiDelta east throughthe Taimyr Peninsulaand New SiberianIslands to Cape Baranov. Wintersfrom the British Isles (rarely), Mediterraneanregion, Iraq, India, Burma, southern Thailand, and the Philippines(rarely) southto southernAfrica, Madagascar,, Sri Lanka, the Malay Peninsula,southern Australia, Tasmania,and New Zealand. Casual during migration in western Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, along the Pacific coast of North America from south-coastal Alaska south to southern California, in eastern North America from Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia south to Florida and west alongthe Gulf coastto Texas,and in the LesserAntilles (Grenada,Carriacou, and Barbados, sight reportsfrom Antigua and the Virgin Islands); also scatteredreports in interior North America from Washington, Alberta, Montana, Manitoba, and southern Ontario south to southeasternCalifornia, northernUtah (sight report), Kansas,Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Accidental in the Hawaiian Islands (Oahu), Costa Rica, Ecuador,Peru, Argentina, and the Marshall Islands(Kwajalein).

Calidris himantopus(Bonaparte). . Tringa hirnantopusBonaparte, 1826, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 2: 157. (Long Branch, New Jersey.)

Habitat.--Sedge tundra near water, often near wooded bordersof the taiga (breeding); mudflats,flooded fields, shallowponds and pools, and marshes(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from northernAlaska (west to PrudhoeBay, probablyrarely Col- ville River), northernYukon, northernMackenzie (CockburnPoint, ), and south- ern Victoria Island southeastto southeasternKeewatin, northeasternManitoba, and northern Ontario (Cape Henrietta Maria), probably also south locally in Canada to bordersof the taiga. Winters from Nayarit and Tamaulipas(irregularly also interior Mexico) and the West Indies souththrough Middle America and North America to northernChile, south-central Brazil, and northernArgentina, casuallynorth to central California (especiallythe Salton Sea), the Gulf coast, and Florida. Migrates mostly through interior North America, in the fall also regularly along the Atlantic coastfrom New Brunswickand Nova Scotia southward(including the West Indies), and rarely in both migrationperiods along the Pacific coastfrom southeasternAlaska south- ward, casuallythrough western Alaska, the Pribilof Islands,south-coastal Alaska, andBritish Columbia. Casual on BathurstIsland, and in Bermuda, and the GalapagosIslands. Accidental in Iceland, the British Isles, continentalEurope, and northernAustralia. Notes.--Formerly classifiedin the monotypic genusMicropalarna, but morphological (Jehl 1968b) and genetic (Dittmann and Zink 1991) data supportits membershipin the genusCalidris. 174 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Genus EURYNORHYNCHUS Nilsson EurynorhynchusNilsson, 1821, Ornithol. Svecica2: 29. Type, by monotypy,Euryno- rhynchusgriseus Nilsson = Platalea pygrneaLinnaeus. Notes.--In spite of its unusual bill morphology,great similarities exist between this monotypicgenus and the genusCalidris, particularlyin the (Burton 1971) and plumageof the downyyoung (Jehl 1968b).Some authors (Portenko 1972, Voous1973) have suggestedthat Eurynorhynchusmay be mergedeventually into Calidris. Strauch(1978) found that the morphologyof Eurynorhynchusis intermediatebetween Calidris and Micro- palama, subsequentlymerged into Calidris. Tomkovich(1991) foundbehavioral differences betweenit and Calidris, but did not commenton .Further studiesare needed.

Eurynorhynchuspygmeus (Linnaeus). Spoonbill Sandpiper. Platalea pygmeaLinnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 140. Basedon Platalea corpore suprafusco, subtusalbo Linnaeus,Mus. Adolphi Friderici 2:... (in Surinami,error = eastern Asia.) Habitat.--Stone or shell banks (breeding);mudflats and beaches(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in northeastern Siberia. Winters in Southeast Asia. Casualin northwesternAlaska (Arctic coastat Wainwright), the Aleutians(Attu, Buldir), and southwesternBritish Columbia (Iona Island, Richmond); sight reportsfor the Pribilof Islands (St. Paul) and Alberta.

Genus LIMICOLA Koch Limicola C. L. Koch, 1816, Syst. Baier. Zool. 1' 316. Type, by monotypy,Numenius pygmaeusBechstein -- Scolopaxfalcinellus Pontoppidan.

Limicola falcinellus (Pontoppidan).Broad-billed Sandpiper. ScolopaxFalcinellus Pontoppidan,1763, Dan. Atlas 1: 263. (No locality given = Denmark.) Habitat.--Wet subarcticbogs and grassysloughs (breeding); muddy ponds, marshes, wet meadows,sewage plants, tidal mudflats(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in northeastern Siberia. Winters from India and southeastern China south to the East Indies, Australia, and New Zealand. Casualin the Aleutians(Shemya, Buldir, Adak); sightreports for Nova Scotiaand South Africa.

Genus TRYNGITES Cabanis TryngitesCabanis, 1857, J. Ornithol. 4 (1856): 418. Type, by original designation, Tringa rufescensVieillot = Tringa subruficollisVieillot.

Tryngitessubruficollis (Vieillot). Buff-breastedSandpiper. Tringa subruficollisVieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 34: 465. (Para- guay.) Habitat.--Dry areas in moist grassytundra (breeding);dry grasslands(usually short grass),pastures, plowed fields, and, rarely, beaches(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from northern Alaska (Barrow and Atkasuk eastward), northern Yukon, northwestern Mackenzie, and Banks, Melville, Bathurst, and Devon islands south to southernVictoria, JennyLind (in Queen Maud Gulf), and King William islands. Wintersin SouthAmerica (occasionallyin the northernpart) in Paraguay,Uruguay, and northernArgentina. Migrates primarily throughthe interior of North America (betweenthe Rocky Mountains FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 175 and the MississippiValley), easternMexico, Central America (not recordedBelize) and northernSouth America east to Trinidad,Guyana, and Surinam, rarely (mostly in fall) through eastern North America from northern Ontario, southern and eastern Quebec, Nova Scotia, andNewfoundland south to southernFlorida, andthrough the WestIndies, casually in western North America from western Alaska, the Pribilof and Aleutian islands, southern Alaska, northeastern British Columbia, and Montana south to California and New Mexico. Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands (Kure, Midway, Kauai, Oahu), Labrador, Iceland,the British Isles,continental Europe, the Azores,Egypt, easternSiberia, the Kuril Islands,Japan, and Australia;a sightreport for southernAfrica.

Genus PHILOMACHUS Merrem PhilomachusAnonymous [-- Merrem], 1804, Allg. Lit. Ztg. 2(168): col. 542. Type, by monotypy,Tringa pugnax Linnaeus. Machetes Cuvier, 1817, R•gne Anim. 1:490. Type, by original designation,Tringa pugnax Linnaeus.

Philotnachuspugnax (Linnaeus).. Tringa PugnaxLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1' 148. (in Europa minus boreali = southernSweden.) Habitat.--Grassy tundra,along shores of lakesand ponds, in wet meadowsand marshes, and rarely in hayfields(breeding); mudflats, marshes, and floodedfields (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in Eurasia from northern Scandinavia, northern Russia, and north- ern Siberiasouth to theBritish Isles (at leastformerly), western and , southern Russia,southern Siberia, and Anadyrland; also has nested in North Americain northwestern Alaska (Point Lay). Occasionalnonbreeding individuals are recordedin summerin the wintering range. Wintersfrom the BritishIsles, southern Europe, Iraq, Arabia,the Persian Gulf, southeastern China,, and Taiwan southto southernAfrica, India, Sri Lanka, the East Indies, Philippines, and Australia. Migrates regularlythrough the HawaiianIslands, western and southwesternAlaska (in- cludingSt. Lawrence,Pribilof, and Aleutian islands),along the eastcoast of North America (from Massachusettsto Florida), and to PuertoRico, the Virgin Islands,and LesserAntilles (mostlyin fall, recordedAntigua, Guadeloupe, Barbados, St. Lucia, and Grenada). Casualin westernNorth America (primarily alongthe Pacific coast)from south-coastal Alaska and northeasternBritish Columbia southto southernCalifornia, northernBaja Cal- ifornia, and Arizona; throughoutmost of North America eastof the Rockiesfrom southern Alberta, southernSaskatchewan, Manitoba, Minnesota,Wisconsin, Michigan, southernOn- tario, Quebec,Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland southto Texas, the Gulf coast,the Bahamas andGreater Antilles; andin Guatemala(Santa Rosa), Trinidad, Greenland, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, JohnstonIsland, the Marshall Islands, and New Zealand; sight reportsfor Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, and Peru.

Tribe LIMNODROMINI:

Genus LIMNODROMUS Wied LimnodromusWied, 1833, Beitr. Naturgesch.Bras. 4:716. Type, by monotypy,Scolopax noveboracensisGmelin = Scolopaxgrisea Gmelin.

Limnodromus griseus (Gmelin). Short-billed . Scolopaxgrisea Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 658. Based on the "Brown Snipe" Pennant,Arct. Zool. 2: 464. (in Noveboraci maritimis -- Long Island, New York.) I-Iabitat.--Grassy or mossytundra and muskegsand wet meadows(breeding); mudflats, estuaries,and (less frequently) shallow marshes,pools, ponds, floodedfields, and sandy beaches,in winter primarily tidal mudlfats(nonbreeding). 176 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Distribution.--Breeds in coastal regions of southernAlaska (Bristol Bay east to the Stikine ); in from southern Yukon, southern Mackenzie, and central Quebec (interior of the ) southto northwesternBritish Columbia, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, northeastern Manitoba, the north coast of Ontario, and JamesBay (and islands), south-centralQuebec, and central Labrador.Nonbreeding individuals often summerin the wintering range. Wintersfrom centralWashington, the Gulf coast,and coastal South Carolina south through the West Indies and along both coastsof Middle America and South America to central Peru and east-central Brazil. Migrates regularly along the Pacific coast of North America from southeasternAlaska southward,through the interior of North America in the prairie regions of the Canadian provincesand from the Great Lakes region souththrough the MississippiValley, and along the Atlantic coastfrom southernQuebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland southward,occurring rarely elsewherein the interior of westernNorth America. Casual or accidental in the Hawaiian Islands, Pribilof Islands, Bermuda, Greenland, the British Isles, continentalEurope, the Azores. Notes.--Limnodromusgriseus and L. scolopaceuswere formerly consideredto be a single speciesuntil Pitelka (1950) showedthat they are separatespecies; they may constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970), but they are stronglydifferentiated genetically (Avise and Zink 1988).

Limnodromusscolopaceus (Say). Long-billedDowitcher. Limosa scolopaceaSay, 1823, in Long, Exped. Rocky Mount. 1: 170. (near Boyer Creek = Council Bluffs, Iowa.) Habitat.--Grassy tundraand muskegsand wet meadows(breeding); marshes, shores of pondsand lakes,mudflats, and floodedfields, primarily in fresh-watersituations (nonbreed- ing). Distribution.--Breeds in North Americain coastalwestern and northern Alaska (Hooper Bay, north coast),northern Yukon, and northwesternMackenzie; and in Eurasia in north- easternSiberia on the ChukotskiPeninsula and in Anadyrland. Wintersfrom southcoastal British Columbia,Utah (rarely), southernNew Mexico, central Texas,the Gulf coast,and southernFlorida (casuallynorth to Maryland and Delaware) south through Mexico (except the Yucatan Peninsula) to Guatemala, rarely to Costa Rica, and casuallyto Panama(Bocas del Toro, and probablyCanal area). Migrates mostcommonly through western North Americawest of the Rocky Mountains, regularly (and primarily in fall) east of the Rockiesfrom southernCanada (Alberta eastto Quebecand, rarely, New Brunswickand Nova Scotia) southto Florida, casuallythrough the Aleutiansand to the Antilles (recordedCuba, Jamaica, the Virgin Islands,and St. Kitts), and Cayman Islands,also in the Hawaiian Islands. A recordof an individualof this speciesin breedingplumage taken in Octoberin Argentina (BuenosAires) is doubtful;sight reports from SouthAmerica may pertainto L. griseus. Casualon ClippertonIsland, and in the British Isles and continentalEurope. Notes.--See commentsunder L. griseus.

Tribe GALLINAGINI: Snipe Notes.--The tribe namehas beenformed incorrectlyin the past as Gallinagoini(A.O.U. 1983) and Gallinaginini(Auk 101: 340, 1984). The appropriateroot uponwhich the family- group name is basedis "Gallinag."

GenusLYMNOCRYPTES Kaup LymnocryptesKaup, 1829, Skizz. Entw.-Ges. Eur. Thierw., p. 118. Type, by monotypy, Scolopaxgallinula Linnaeus-- Scolopaxminima Brtinnich.

Lymnocryptesminimus (Brtinnich). . ScolopaxMinima Brtinnich,1764, Ornithol. Bor., p. 49. (E Christianste[Island, Den- mark].) FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE 177

I-Iabitat.--Tundra (breeding);marshes and floodedfields (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from northern Eurasia south to central Russia and central Siberia. Wintersfrom the British Isles, southernEurope, India, and southeasternChina southto central Africa, Sri Lanka, and Taiwan. Casual in Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, Madeira, the Azores, Kuril Islands, and Japan. Accidentalin Alaska (St. Paul in the Pribilof Islands, Spring 1919), California (Gridley, Butte County,20 November1938; Colusa,2 December1990), Labrador(Makkovik Bay, 24 December 1927), and Barbados(12 November 1960).

Genus Brisson GallinagoBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie5: 298. Type, by tautonymy,Gallinago Brisson = Scolopaxgallinago Linnaeus. Capella Frenzel, 1801, Beschr.V6gel Eyer Wittenberg,p. 58. Type, by monotypy, Scolopaxcoelestis Frenzel = Scolopaxgallinago Linnaeus. Notes.--For use of Gallinago insteadof Capella, see Mayr (1963).

Gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus).. ScolopaxGallinago Linnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1' 147. (in Europa= Sweden.) Habitat.--Wet, grassyareas from tundra to temperatelowlands and hilly regions;in winter andmigration, also wet meadows,flooded fields, bogs, marshes, and marshy banks of rivers andlakes (Temperate Zone; in migrationand winter also to Tropicaland Subtropical zones). Distribution.--Breeds[delicata group] in North Americafrom northernAlaska, northern Yukon, northwestern and central Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, northeasternManitoba, northernOntario, northern Quebec, and centralLabrador south to southernAlaska (west to Unalaskain the Aleutians),southern California, east-central Arizona, northern New Mexico, southernColorado, westernNebraska, northern Iowa, northeasternIllinois, northernIndiana, northernOhio, northernWest Virginia, northwesternPennsylvania, northern New Jersey, New England,and the MaritimeProvinces; and [gallinago group] in Eurasiafrom Iceland, the Faeroe,Orkney, and Shetlandislands, the BritishIsles, Scandinavia,northern Russia, northernSiberia, and south to southernEurope, southern Russia, the Himalayas, and Kuril Islands,and (probably)in the westernAleutians (Near Islands). Winters[delicata group] in the Americasfrom southern(rarely) and southeastern Alaska, southernBritish Columbia, eastern Washington, Idaho, the centralUnited States(from Mon- tana, southernMinnesota, and the lower Mississippiand Ohio valleys), Pennsylvaniaand southernNew England(casually from southernCanada) south through Middle Americaand the West Indies to Colombia, Venezuela, Surinam, and Ecuador; and [gallinago group] in the Old World from the BritishIsles, southernEurope, Madeira (casually),southern Russia, and Japansouth to south-centralAfrica, Sri Lanka, the AndamanIslands, Java, and the Philippines,and (rarely) in the Hawaiian Islands. Casual or accidental[delicata group] in the Hawaiian Islands,Bermuda, Greenland, and Scotland;and [gallinagogroup] in the Pribilof Islands,St. LawrenceIsland, Labrador (Jack Lane's Bay), Bermuda,and Greenland. Notes.--Known in Old World literature as the Snipe. Groups:G. gallinago [Common Snipe]and G. delicata (Ord, 1825) [Wilson'sSnipe]; the closeapproach of the breeding rangesin theAleutian Islands, and differences in displaysounds (Th6nen 1969) and external morphology(Oberholser 1921, Wetmore 1926, Tuck 1972), suggestthat the two groupsmay be distinctspecies, but there appearsto be no conclusivegenetic evidence to supportthis treatment(Zink et al. 1995). The South American G. paraguaiae (Vieillot, 1816) and G. andinaTaczanowski, 1875, are consideredconspecific with G. gallinagoby someauthors (e.g., Blake 1977); they and the African G. nigripennisBonaparte, 1839, constitutea su- perspecies(Mayr and Short 1970).

Gallinago stenura (Bonaparte).Pin-tailed Snipe. Scolopaxstenura (Kuhl MS) Bonaparte.1831, Ann. Stor.Nat. Bologna4: 335. (Sunda .) 178 FAMILY SCOLOPACIDAE

Habitat.--Wet meadows and marshes. Distribution.--Breeds from northeastern Russia and northern Siberia south to central Russia, northern Manchuria, and the Sea of Okhotsk. Winters from India, Southeast Asia, southeasternChina, and Taiwan south to the East Indies, casuallyto northeasternAfrica and islandsin the Indian Ocean. Accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands(Kure , 13 January1964; Clapp and Woodward 1968) and the westernAleutians (Attu, 25 May 1991; Gibson and Kessel 1992).

Tribe SCOLOPACINI:

Genus SCOLOPAX Linnaeus

ScolopaxLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 145. Type, by tautonymy, Scolopax rusticolaLinnaeus (Scolopax, prebinomial specific name, in synonymy).

SubgenusSCOLOPAX Linnaeus

Scolopax rusticola Linnaeus. EurasianWoodcock. ScolopaxRusticola Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 146. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.--Moist woodland,both deciduousand coniferous,generally with groundcover of brackensand bushes,also in bogs, heath, and moorlands. Distribution.--Breeds locally from the British Isles, Scandinavia,and the area of the in Russia and Siberia south to the eastern Atlantic islands, northern Mediter- ranean region, southernRussia, northernIndia, the Himalayas, Turkestan,Transcaucasia, Japan,the SevenIslands of Izu, Kuril Islands,and Sakhalin. Wintersfrom the British Isles, southernEurope, Iraq, Iran, India, southeasternChina, and Japansouth to the Cape VerdeIslands, northern Africa, southernIndia, the Malay Peninsula, Philippines(rarely), and Ryukyu Islands. Casual in easternNorth America (recordedfrom Newfoundland, southwesternQuebec, New Jersey,Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Alabama, mostly in the 19th Century), and in Greenland,Iceland, the Faeroe Islands,and Spitsbergen. Notes.--Also known as EuropeanWoodcock and, in Old World literature,as the Wood- cock.

SubgenusPHILOHELA Gray Philohela G. R. Gray, 1841, List GeneraBirds, ed. 2, p. 90. Type, by original desig- nation, Scolopaxminor Gmelin.

Scolopaxminor Gmelin. AmericanWoodcock. Scolopaxminor Gmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 661. Basedon the "Little " Pennant,Arct. Zool. 2: 463, pl. 19, upper fig. (in America:.... in Carolina:.... in Noveboraci silvis humidis = New York.) Habitat.--Moist woodland,primarily deciduousor mixed, thickets along streamsor in boggy areas,usually with nearby wet grassymeadows and fields. Distribution.--Breeds from southernManitoba, central Ontario, southernQuebec, north- ern New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and southwestern Newfoundland south to eastern Oklahoma, east-central Texas, the Gulf states, and southern Florida, and west to central and eastern Colorado, eastern North Dakota, eastern South Dakota, eastern Nebraska, and eastern Kansas. Winters in the southeasternUnited States from Oklahoma, southernMissouri, Tennessee, the northernportions of the Gulf states,and southernNew England southto east-central Texas,the Gulf coast,and southernFlorida, rarely winteringfarther north in the breeding range. Casualin Montana,Wyoming, New Mexico, southernTexas, Manitoba, northeastern On- FAMILY $COLOPACIDAE 179 tario, easternQuebec, and Bermuda,also sight reportsfor Saskatchewan,Wyoming, south- easternArizona, and easternMexico (Tamaulipas,Quintana Roo).

Subfamily PHALAROPODINAE: Phalaropes

Genus PHALAROPUS Brisson PhalaropusBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie1: 50; 6: 12. Type, by tautonymy,Phalaropus Brisson = Tringa fulicaria Linnaeus. LobipesCuvier, 1816, R•gne Anim., 1, p. 495. Type, by original designation,Tringa hyperboreaLinnaeus = Tringa lobata Linnaeus. SteganopusVieillot, 1818, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 24 (1817): 124. Type, by monotypy, "Chorlito tarsocomprimido" Azara -- Steganopustricolor Vieillot.

Phalaropus tricolor (Vieillot). Wilson's . Steganopustricolor Vieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 32: 136. Based on "Chorlito Tarsocomprimido" Azara, Apunt. Hist. Nat. Prix. Parag. 3:327 (no. 407). (Paraguay.) Habitat.--Shallow fresh-watermarshes and wet meadows(breeding); also on lake shores, mudflats,and salt marshes,and (rarely) along seacoasts,staging in migration on salt lakes (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from coastal British Columbia (Vancouver Island), southernYu- kon, northern Alberta, central Saskatchewan,central Manitoba, western and southernOntario, extreme southernQuebec, northeastern New York, and New Brunswicksouth locally in the interior to east-central California, central Nevada, central Utah, east-central Arizona, northern New Mexico, northern Texas, central Kansas, western Nebraska, eastern South Dakota, northernIowa, northernIllinois, northernIndiana (formerly), andnorthern Ohio, with isolated breedingin northeasternManitoba, southwesternJames Bay, and Massachusetts(Plum Is- land). Recordedin summer(nonbreeding) in centraland south-coastalAlaska (probablyhas bred), central Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan,and Nova Scotia. Wintersprimarily in westernand southernSouth America from Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay souththrough Chile and Argentina,casually as far northas centralCalifornia, Utah, central New Mexico, southern Texas, southwestern Louisiana, and Florida. Migrates regularlythrough western North America(east to the GreatPlains and Louisiana), Middle America(not recordedNicaragua), Colombia, and Ecuador, and uncommonly through central and easternNorth America from southernQuebec (including Anticosti Island) and New Brunswicksouth to Florida and the Gulf coast;recorded regularly in fall on Barbados. Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands, western and northern Alaska, Clipperton Island, elsewherein the WestIndies (recordedGreat Inaguain the Bahamas,Grand Cayman, Jamaica,Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands,Guadeloupe, and Martinique),the Galapagosand Falkland islands,South Georgia, Venezuela,Iceland, British Isles, continentalEurope, the Azores, Africa, islandsof the central Pacific (Johnstonand Easter), Australia, New Zealand, and ;a sight report for Surinam.

Phalaropus lobatus (Linnaeus).Red-necked Phalarope. Tringa tobata [sic] Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1:148 [lobata in Emendanda, p. 824]. Basedon "The Cock Coot-footer Tringa" Edwards,Nat. Hist. Birds 3: 143, pl. 143. (in America septentrionali,Lapponia = HudsonBay.) Habitat.--Grass-sedgeborders of pondsand lakes in tundra (breeding);in winter, pri- marily pelagic,most commonly at upwellings;occurring in migrationon ponds,lakes, open marshes,estuaries, and bays. Distribution.--Breeds in North America from northern Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, southernVictoria Island,central Keewatin, and Southamptonand southernBaffin islands south to the Pribilof and Aleutian islands, southern Alaska, northwestern British Columbia, southern Yukon, southern Mackenzie, northern Alberta, northern Saskatchewan, northernManitoba, northernOntario, islandsin southernJames Bay, northernQuebec, and 180 FAMILY locally alongthe Labradorcoast; and in the Palearcticfrom Greenland,Iceland, the northern British Isles,Faeroe and Shetlandislands, and Spitsbergeneast across Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northern Siberia to the Bering Sea, Kamchatka, and the CommanderIslands. Nonbreedingindividuals occur in summeralong the coastof Newfoundlandand on Miquelon Island. Wintersprimarily at sea,in the Pacific from the Ryukyu Islands,central equatorial islands and central Mexico (north to Colima) south to the Lesser , New Guinea, Australia (rarely), New Zealand, and southernSouth America, casually north to central California; in the South Atlantic off southernSouth America and Africa, casuallynorth to the Azores; and in the Indian Ocean from East Africa east to Malaya. Migrates regularly throughthe North Pacific and North Atlantic oceansalong North American and Eurasian coasts,also regularly through interior California, northern Utah (mainly Great Salt Lake), and westernEurope; less commonly but regularlythrough interior westernNorth Americafrom British Columbiaand the prairieregions of Alberta, Saskatch- ewan, andManitoba south to Arizona, New Mexico, andwestern Texas; rarely or irregularly throughinterior central and easternNorth America and Middle America southto Distrito Federal, southernTexas, the Gulf coast,and Florida; and casuallythrough Middle America (not recordedBelize), Cuba, and Bermuda;sight reports from Jamaica,Puerto Rico, andthe Bahamas (New Providence). Accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands (Laysan, Kauai, Oahu). Notes.--Dittmann and Zink (1991) confirmedthat this speciesand P. fulicaria are more closely related to each other than either is to P. tricolor.

Phalaropusfulicaria (Linnaeus).. Tringa Fulicaria Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 148. Basedon "The Red Coot- footed Tringa" Edwards,Nat Hist. Birds 3: 142, pl. 142. (in America = Hudson Bay.) Habitat.--Wet coastaltundra (breeding); in winter, primarily pelagic, most commonlyat upwellings;occurring in migrationon bays and estuaries,less frequently on ponds,lakes, and marshes. Distribution.--Breeds in North America from westernAlaska (Yukon delta and St. Law- rence Island) east acrossnorthern Alaska, northern Yukon, northernMackenzie, and Banks, Melville, Ellesmere,Bylot, Dundas,and northernBaffin islands,and southto easternKee- watin, Southampton,and Mansel islands, and northern Labrador (probably); and in the Palearcticfrom Greenlandand Iceland east through Arctic islands(Spitsbergen, Bear, Novaya Zemlya, and New Siberian)to northernSiberia. Nonbreedingindividuals summer off the coasts of California and Newfoundland. Winters at sea off the Hawaiian Islands, off the Pacific coast of South America from Colombiaand Ecuadorsouth to Chile (alsoregularly off California,Mexico, andin the and from Florida southward);in the South Atlantic off Patagonia and the Falkland Islands, and off western Africa; and in the western Pacific from Japan south, at least casually to New Zealand. Migrates regularlythrough the Aleutiansand along both coasts of North America(recorded southto Baja California, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Texas, the Gulf coast, and Florida), rarely or casuallythrough the interior from Mexico north; also throughthe North Atlantic, western MediterraneanSea, westernEurope, and the Pacific Ocean off Japan. Casual in Guatemalaand Cuba; sight reports from Barbados.Accidental in India, the Philippines,and Antarctica. Notes.--See under P. lobatus.

Family GLAREOLIDAE: Coursersand

Subfamily GLAREOLINAE: Pratincoles

Genus GLAREOLA Brisson Glareola Brisson, 1760, Ornithologie 1: 48; 5: 141. Type, by tautonymy,Glareola Brisson = Hirundo pratincola Linnaeus. FAMILY 181

Glareola maldivarum Forster. Oriental . Glareola (Pratincola) Maldivarum J. R. Forster,1795, Faunula Indica, ed. 2, p. 11. (open sea, in the latitude of the Maldivia [= Maldive] Isles.) Habitat.--Grassy steppe. Distribution.--Breeds in easternAsia from Mongolia and southernSiberia southto Pa- kistan, India, Sri Lanka, the Andaman Islands and eastern China, and winters from southern Asia and the Philippinessouth to northernAustralia, in migrationcasually east to Japanand the Kuril Islands. Accidentalin Alaska (Attu in the Aleutians,19-20 May 1985, and St. LawrenceIsland, 5 June 1986; Gibson and Kessel 1992).

Family LARIDAE: , Gulls, , and Skimmers

Subfamily STERCORARIINAE: Skuasand Jaegers Notes.--We follow Sibley and Monroe (1990) for sequenceof generaand species.

Genus CATHARACTA Brtinnich

Catharacta Brtinnich, 1764, Ornithol. Bor., p. 32. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Reichenbach, 1852), Catharacta Brtinnich. MegalestrisBonaparte, 1856, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris43: 643. Type, by monotypy, catarractes Linnaeus -- Catharacta skua Brtinnich.

Catharacta skua Brtinnich. . Catharactaskua Briinnich, 1764, Ornithol. Bor., p. 33.(E. Feroa Islandia = Iceland.) Habitat.--Coastal islandswith low vegetation,usually near seabirdcolonies; in Old World, also moorsor pasturesnear the sea,occasionally sandy flats in estuaries(breeding); pelagic, mainly over continentalshelf (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds [skua group] in Iceland, and the Faeroe, Shetlandand Orkney islands;[antarctica group] in the FalklandIslands and alongthe coastof southernArgentina; and [lonnbergi group] widely on southernoceanic islands such as the South Shetlands, Deception,South Orkneys,South Georgia, Bouvet, Prince Edwards,Crozets, Kerguelen, Heard, Macquarie, Auckland, Campbell and Antipodes.Nonbreeding birds [skua group] have been recorded in summer from Franklin District (Barrow , Lancaster Sound, ), southernLabrador, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia,Massachusetts (Georges Bank), Greenland,Jan Mayen, Spitsbergenand the northernEuropean coast. Wintersat sea [skuagroup] in the easternNorth Atlantic, from lat. 60ø N. southto the Tropic of Cancer,regularly on the NewfoundlandBanks and off the coastfrom Nova Scotia to New Jersey,and rarely to the CanaryIslands and Mediterranean region; [antarctica group] primarily in the SouthAtlantic and along easternSouth America from Brazil to the Straits of Magellan; and [lonnbergigroup] in southernoceans, most regularlyoff Australia. Accidental[skua group] in Belize (Arn•bergrisCay), Guyana,Novaya Zemlya and con- tinentalEurope; and [lonnbergigroup] off Iles desSaintes (near Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles, recoveryof bird bandedin SouthShetlands, although there is somedoubt about the identity of this individual; Devillers 1978). Reportsof C. s. antarctica and C. s. lonnbergi off the west coastof North America all pertainto C. maccormicki(see Devillers 1978), and those from Barbadosand off and PuertoRico may pertainto speciesother than C. skua. Notes.--Also known as . Groups: C. antarctica (Lesson, 1831) [Falkland Skua], C. lonnbergi Mathews, 1912 [SouthernSkua], and C. skua [Northern Skua]. Ca- tharacta (skua) antarctica and C. chilensis(Bonaparte, 1856) exhibit limited hybridization in areaswhere both breed on the coast of Argentina (Devillers 1978) and have been con- sideredconspecific by earlier authors.Although many authorspreviously treated C. mac- cormicki as a race of C. skua, C. (s.) lonnbergiand C. maccormickibreed sympatrically with limited hybridizationon some sub-Antarcticislands (Parmelee 1988). 182 FAMILY LARIDAE

Catharacta maccormicki (Saunders). . Stercorarius maccormicki Saunders, 1893, Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club 3: 12. (Possession Island,Victoria Land, lat. 71014' S., long. 171015' W.) Habitat.--Pelagic Waters;breeds on barrenpromontories and islands, usually near colonies. Distribution.---Breeds on the South ShetlandIslands, and along the coastof Antarctica. Ranges at sea regularly to the North Pacific, occurringin the northern spring, summer and fall from the southto Mexico (occasionalreports of skuasoff Panama probablypertain to this species),in Hawaiian waters(at leastcasually), and off Japan;and to the North Atlantic (north to New England, Newfoundlandand Greenland). It is likely that most skuareports in the centralNorth Atlantic in the northernsummer pertain to this species(Devillers 1977a). Accidentalin North Dakota (Lake Oahe); a sight report for northernAlaska. Notes.--See comments under C. skua.

Genus STERCORARIUS Brisson StercorariusBrisson, 1760, Ornithologie1: 56; 6: 149. Type,by tautonymy,Stercorarius Brisson= Larus parasiticusPallas. CoprotheresReichenbach, 1853, Handb. Spec.Ornithol., Die V6gel, pt. 3 (1852), p. v. Type, by originaldesignation, Lestris pomarinus Temminck.

Stercorariuspomarinus (Temminck). PomarineJaeger. Lestrispomarinus Temminck, 1815, Man. Ornithol. (ed. 1, 1814): 514. (les r6gionsdu cerclearctique; de passageaccidentel sur les c6tesde Hollandeet de France= Arctic regions of Europe.) Habitat.--Coastal marshyor mossytundra (breeding); primarily pelagic, casually on large inland bodiesof water (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America in westernand northern Alaska (southto Hooper Bay) east acrossthe CanadianArctic islands(north to Melville, Bathurst,Devon, Bylot and Baffin islands), and south to northern Mackenzie, SouthamptonIsland and northwestern Quebec;and in the Palearcticin westernGreenland, Spitsbergen, Bear Island, Novaya Zem- lya, and in northernRussia and northernSiberia from the Taimyr Peninsulato Anadyrland. Nonbreedingbirds occur in summer off Alaska and British Columbia (Bering Sea and Aleutians south to Queen Charlotte Islands) and California, in central Canada (south to northernAlberta and HudsonBay), and in the Atlantic from Labrador and Newfoundland southto New England;also off Scandinavia. Wintersprimarily at sea in the Pacific near the Hawaiian Islands(primarily off Oahu), from northernCalifornia south to Peru and the GalapagosIslands, and off easternAustralia; and in the Gulf-Caribbean-Atlanticregion north to the Gulf coastand Florida (possiblyto North Carolina), and off the coastsof northeasternSouth America (Colombia to Guyana) and Africa. Migrates regularly off both coastsof North America and along the Gulf coast (west to Texas and south to the Yucatan Peninsula); not recorded off the Caribbean coast of Middle America between southern Mexico and Costa Rica. Casual in the interior of North America (from southern Canada south to southeastern California, Arizona, New Mexico, Coahuilaand the Gulf states,frequently recorded in the Great Lakesregion, especially on Lake Ontario),and in centralEurope, Japan, New Zealand and Antarctica. Notes.--Also known as Pomafine Skua or Pomatorhine Skua in the Old World. Cohen et al. (1997) presentedevidence that S. pomarinusmight be more closelyrelated to the skuas (Catharacta) than to the other two speciesof Stercorarius.

Stercorariusparasiticus (Linnaeus). ParasiticJaeger. Larus parasiticusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 136. (intra tropicumCancri, Europa•,America•, Asia• = coastof Sweden.) FAMILY LARIDAE 183

I-Iabitat.--Barrenand dwarf-shrub coastal tundra and coastal marshes (breeding); mostly pelagic,primarily overcontinental shelf, regularly near shore; migrants inland (rare) on large bodiesof water (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America from western and northern Alaska, northern Yukon, northwestern Mackenzie, and Banks, southernMelville, Cornwallis, southernElles- mere and Baffin islands south to the Aleutians, Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak Island, central Mackenzie,southern Keewatin, northeastern Manitoba, , extreme north- ern Ontario, northern Quebec and northern Labrador; and in the Palearctic from Greenland, Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen,Bear Island and Franz JosefLand southto Iceland, the northern British Isles, northernScandinavia, northern Russia, Novaya Zemlya, northernSiberia, the CommanderIslands, Kamchatka and the Seaof Okhotsk.Nonbreeding birds occur in summer off the Pacific coast of North America south to California, off the Atlantic coast to New- foundland,and in the interiorto southernCanada; also alongthe northerncoasts of Europe. Wintersmostly in offshoreareas in the Pacificfrom centralCalifornia to southernChile, and west to eastern Australia and New Zealand; in the Atlantic from Maine and the British Isles southto Brazil, easternArgentina, the west coastof Africa, and the Mediterranean region,occurring west in the Gulf-Caribbeanarea to Texas;and in the Indian Oceanin the Persian Gulf and . Migrates regularly along the Pacific coast of North America, and Atlantic coastfrom NorthCarolina to Florida,the Bahamas, Cuba and the Virgin Islands,less abundantly through the interiorof North America(most frequently recorded in the Great Lakesregion) south to southernCalifornia (Salton Sea), Arizona, Coahuila, Texas, the Gulf Coast, the Lesser Antilles and Grenadines,and casuallyalong both coastsof Middle America. A sightreport off the Hawaiian Islands. Notes.--Known in Old World literature as Arctic Skua.

Stercorariuslongicaudus Vieillot. Long-tailed Jaeger.

Stercorarius longicaudusVieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. •d.) 32: 157. (le nord de l'Europe, de l'Asie et de l'Am•rique = northernEurope.)

Habitat.--Open or alpine tundra, flats with sparsevegetation, less commonin coastal tundra(breeding); pelagic, casually along seacoasts and on inland waters(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breedsin North Americain westernAlaska (includingSt. Matthew, St. Lawrenceand Nunivak islands),and from northernAlaska, northernYukon, northernMac- kenzie,northern Keewatin and throughout the CanadianArctic islandssouth to centralAlaska (BrooksRange, Alaska Range, SusitnaRiver highlands),southwestern Yukon, southern Keewatin, SouthamptonIsland and northernQuebec; and in the Palearcticfrom Greenland, Iceland,Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen,Bear Island and Novaya Zemlya southto northernScan- dinavia,northern Russia, northern Siberia, Anadyrland, Kamchatka and the Sea of Okhotsk. Nonbreedingbirds occur rarely in summersouth to the AleutianIslands, south-coastal Alaska, southernMackenzie and southernHudson Bay. Wintersmostly at seain the Pacificoff southernSouth America, and in the SouthAtlantic southto Argentina (more commonlyin the southernareas). Migrates primarily well offshore,along the Pacific coastfrom the westernAleutians and southeasternAlaska to Middle America (recordedsouth to Costa Rica) and the Atlantic coastfrom Newfoundlandto Florida,also rarely in the HawaiianIslands and throughthe interior of North America (mostlyin the Great Lakes region and from centralBritish Co- lumbiaand the prairie regionsof the Canadianprovinces, the Great Plainsstates and Mis- sissippiValley south,casually through the westernstates), along the Gulf coast(Texas to Florida) and throughthe West Indies (recordedCuba, Martinique and Barbados,and off CaymanBrac and Haiti); also off the coastsof Europeand Africa, casuallyin the Medi- terraneanregion. Accidentalin New Zealand and SouthGeorgia. Notes.--In Old World literatureknown as Long-tailedSkua. 184 FAMILY LARIDAE

Subfamily LARINAE: Gulls

Genus LARUS Linnaeus Larus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 136. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Selby, 1840), Larus marinusLinnaeus. HydrocoloeusKaup, 1829, Skizz. Entw.-Ges. Eur. Thierw., pp. 113, 196. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1841), Larus rninutusPallas. ChroicocephalusEyton, 1836. Cat. Brit. Birds, p. 53. Type, by original designation, Larus capistratusTemminck = Larus ridibundusLinnaeus. BlasipusBruch, 1853, J. Ornithol. 1: 108. Type, by originaldesignation, Larus modestus Tschudi. Microlarus Oberholser,1974, Bird Life Texas, p. 982. Type, by original designation, $terna philadelphia Ord. Notes.--See comments under Xerna.

Larus atticilia Linnaeus.Laughing . Larus Atricilla Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 136. Based on the "" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 89, pl. 89. (in America = Bahamas.) Habitat.---Beaches, estuaries,bays, inshorecoastal waters; nests on sandyislands with scatteredpatches of tall grassand brush(breeding); also to cultivatedfields, rarely on large inland bodiesof water (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds on the Pacific coast of western Mexico from the head of the Gulf of California (formerly at the Salton Sea, southernCalifornia) andnorthwestern Sonora south to Colima; and in the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbeanregion from southernNew Brunswick and southernNova Scotia (at least formerly) south locally along the coast to Florida and west to southernTexas, through the West Indies to islandsoff the north coastof Venezuela(Las Aves east to Tobago and Trinidad) and to French Guiana, and on islandsoff Campeche (Cayo Arcas) and Yucatfin(Alacrfin reef). Nonbreedingbirds occurin summerregularly in southeasternCalifornia (Salton Sea), on the Great Lakes (especiallyErie and Michigan), along the Gulf-Caribbeancoast of Middle America, and along the west coastof Mexico. Wintersalong the Pacificcoast from Mexico (includingthe Revillagigedoislands) south to northernPeru (casually north to central California, and to the GalapagosIslands); and from the Gulf coast and North Carolina (casually north to southeasternNew York) south throughoutthe Gulf-Caribbeanregion to the coastof SouthAmerica (Colombiaeast to the Amazon delta). Casual in the Hawaiian Islands;on the Pacific coastnorth to Washington;in the Revil- lagigedoIslands (Socorro Island; sight reports); Clipperton Island; in interiorNorth America from southeasternOregon, north-central California, southernNevada, Arizona, New Mexico, westernMontana, easternColorado, North Dakota, JamesBay, andWest Virginia southward; to the interior lakes of Middle America; and north to Newfoundland and Greenland. Ac- cidental in Chile, the Marshall Islands, Samoa, Iceland, the British Isles, and continental Europe; sightreports for southeasternAlaska (Ketchikan), Saskatchewanand Manitoba.

Larus pipixcan Wagler. Franklin's Gull. LarusPipixcan Wagler, 1831, Isis yon Oken,col. 515. (Advenaest, neque educat stagnis Mexicanis Prolem = Mexico.) I-Iabitat.--Extensive fresh-watermarshes in prairie, foragingalso in nearbyfields (breed- ing); beaches,bays, estuaries,lakes, rivers, marshes,ponds, and agriculturalfields (non- breeding). Distribution.--Breeds from northwesternBritish Columbia (Kotcho Lake), central and eastern Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southernManitoba and northwestern Minnesota south locally to east-centralOregon, northeastern California (once),southern Idaho, northwestern Utah, northwesternWyoming and northeasternSouth Dakota, formerly northwesternIowa (once). Nonbreedingbirds occur in summernorth to northeasternBritish Columbia and FAMILY LARIDAE 185 northeastern Manitoba, and south to southern California, northern New Mexico, southeastern Wyoming, Kansas,central Iowa, and the Great Lakes (especiallyLake Michigan). Wintersprimarily along the Pacific coastof SouthAmerica southto southernChile (also the GalapagosIslands), less commonly from Mexico southward,and (rarely) on highAndean lakes in Peru and Bolivia; also casually north to central coastal California and peninsular Florida. Migrates regularly throughwestern North America from southernBritish Columbia and the Rocky Mountains south (east to westernArkansas and coastalLouisiana) to southern California, throughMexico (casuallyto the YucatanPeninsula), and alongthe Atlantic coast from southernQuebec, New Brunswick,Nova Scotiaand Newfoundland,rarely to the Great Lakes region and the Mississippiand Ohio valleys, southto Florida and west on the Gulf coast to Louisiana. Casualin southernAlaska (from Ugasik Bay east to Ketchikan,and on St. Paul Island in the Pribilofs),the HawaiianIslands, and Europe.Accidental in the RevillagigedoIslands (Socorro Island), northern Baffin Island, Bermuda, the Antilles (Puerto Rico and St. Bar- th•lemy), Amazonian Peru, Tristan da Cunha, and Iceland, the Faeroe Islands,the British Isles, continentalEurope, the Azores,South Africa, and the Marshall and Truk islands;sight reportsfor northeasternManitoba, Clipperton Island, and FrenchGuiana.

Larus minutus Pallas. .

Larus minutus Pallas, 1776, Reise Versch. Prov. Russ. Reichs 3: 702. (Circa alueos majorum Sibiriae fluminum = Berezovo,Tobolsk, Siberia.) Habitat.--Grassy marshesand lakes (breeding);beaches, bays, estuaries,rivers, lakes, ponds,marshes, and floodedfields (nonbreeding). Distribution.---Breedslocally in North Americain Manitoba (Churchill, 1981), southern Minnesota (JacksonCounty, 1986), northernWisconsin (Manitowoc and Brown counties), northernMichigan (Delta County,to 1980), Ontario and southernQuebec (Montreal area, 1982); and in Eurasiafrom southernScandinavia and northwesternRussia south to northern Europe,south-central Russia, central Siberia and Lake Baikal. Winters in North America on the Great Lakes (especiallyErie and Ontario), and along the Atlantic coastfrom Newfoundlandto Virginia; and in the Old World from Iceland,the Faeroe Islands, British Isles, southern Scandinavia and the Baltic coast south to the Medi- terranean,Black and Caspianseas, probably also in easternChina. Migrates primarily throughcentral Europe and westernAsia. Casual along the Atlantic coastsouth to Florida and in Bermuda;on the Arctic coastof Yukon; in the interior from southern Yukon, northeastern British Columbia, Alberta, Sas- katchewan, northern Manitoba, Minnesota and the Great Lakes statessouth to New Mexico, central Texas, Kansas, Arkansasand the Gulf states(from Texas east to western Florida); and along the Pacific coastfrom southernBritish Columbia southto southernCalifornia; and in Colombia, Sierra Leone and Kenya. Sight reportsfor south-coastalAlaska, Idaho, Veracruz, and Puerto Rico.

Larus ridibundus Linnaeus. Black-headed Gull.

Larus ridibundusLinnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 225. (in Mari Europa•o = England.) Habitat.-•Lakes, rivers, bogs, moors, grasslands,and coastalmarshes; in winter, also seacoasts,estuaries, and bays. Distribution.--Breeds from western Greenland, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, central Scan- dinavia, northern Russia, and northern Siberia southto the , central Russia, central Siberia, northwesternMongolia and Kamchatka;also in Newfoundland,Quebec (MagdalenIslands), Maine (Petit Manan), and Massachusetts(Monomoy, 1984). Nonbreed- ing birds occurnorth to Jan Mayen Island and northernScandinavia, occasionally south in the wintering regions. Winters (and summersoccasionally) in North America along the Atlantic coast from Labrador,Newfoundland, New Brunswickand Nova Scotiasouth to New York (Long Island), 186 FAMILY LARIDAE casuallyto Mississippiand Florida, and on lakes Erie and Ontario; and in the Old World from the southernpart of the breedingrange southto the easternAtlantic islands,central Africa, the PersianGulf, northernIndia, Malay Peninsula,eastern China, Taiwan and the Philippines. Migrates regularlythrough the westernand centralAleutians, regularly as far eastas the Pribilofsand as far northas St. LawrenceIsland, and casually as far asthe Alaskanmainland coastof the BeringSea (Port Moller, SafetySound, Nome) andthe ChukchiSea (Kukpowruk River mouth). Casualor accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands(Midway, Oahu), in centralAlaska (Yarger Lake), along the Pacific coast of North America from south-coastalAlaska to southern California, and in northeasternColorado, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Tennessee, Kentucky, Maryland, Virginia, Kansas,Missouri, Arkansas,Texas, Veracruz, the Antilles (PuertoRico, the Virgin Islands,and many of the LesserAntilles) and ; sightreports from Wyoming,Manitoba (Churchill),Nebraska, Iowa, Alabama,Cuba, Trinidad, Surinam, and French Guiana. Notes.---Also known as Common Black-headed Gull. The South American L. maculi- pennis Lichtenstein,1823 [Brown-hoodedGull] was consideredconspecific with L. ridi- bundusby Hellmayr and Conover(1948).

Larus philadelphia (Ord). Bonaparte'sGull. Philadelphia Ord, 1815, in Guthrie, Geogr. (ed. 2, Amer.) 2: 319. (No locality given = near Philadelphia,Pennsylvania.) Habitat.---Open coniferouswoodland near ponds and lakes (breeding);seacoasts, bays, estuaries,mudfiats, marshes, rivers, lakes,ponds, and floodedfields (nonbreeding). 1)istribufion.--Breeds from western and central Alaska, central southern Yukon, north- western and central Mackenzie and northern Manitoba south to the base of the Alaska Peninsula,south-coastal and (rarely) southeasternAlaska, centralBritish Columbia,south- western(rarely) and centralAlberta, centralSaskatchewan, southern Manitoba, central On- tario, Wisconsin,and south-centralQuebec. Nonbreeding birds occur in summersouth in coastalareas to California and New England, and in southeasternCalifornia (Salton Sea) and the interior to the Great Lakes (where formerly bred). Wintersfrom south-coastalBritish Columbia(casually from south-coastalAlaska) south along the Pacificcoast to southernBaja California, Sonoraand Sinaloa;in the interiorfrom interior California (rarely), southernArizona, central New Mexico, Kansasand the Great Lakes (primarily Erie and Ontario) southto Chihuahua(rarely to Jaliscoand Guanajuato) and throughthe Ohio and lower Mississippivalleys to the Gulf coastfrom southernTexas east to Florida; on the Atlantic coast from Massachusettssouth to Florida, and in Bermuda, the Bahamasand Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola,Puerto Rico). Migrates most commonlythrough North America from the Rockieseast to the Appala- chians,but locally or sporadicallyelsewhere throughout the continentfrom southernCanada and Newfoundland southward. Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands, Lesser Antilles (Martinique, Barbados), Greenland,the British Isles, continentalEurope, the Azores, and Japan;sight reports from the Yucatan Peninsula and Costa Rica.

Larus heermanni Cassin. Heermann's Gull. Larus HeermanniCassin, 1852, Proc.Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia6: 187. (SanDiego, California.) Habitat.--Coastal Waters, Coastal Sand Beaches;nests on flat rocky or isolated coasts. Distribution.--Breeds on islets off the Pacific coastof Baja California (Isla Benito del Centro in the San Benito Islands,and Isla San Roque), in the Gulf of California (George, Raza, Salsipuedes,Ildefonso and Monserrateislands), locally on isletsoff Mexico southto Isla Isabela(off Nayarit), and elsewherealong the coastof Sinaloa;isolated breeding reports in coastalCalifornia (San Luis Obispo County, 1980, Alcatraz Island 1979-1981). Non- breedingindividuals often spendthe breedingseason in the postbreedingrange. FAMILY LARIDAE 187

Rangesafter the breedingseason north coastallyto southernBritish Columbia and south to the Pacific coastof Guatemala(at least casually). Casual or accidentalin southeasternAlaska (Ketchikan), the RevillagigedoIslands (So- corro Island), easternOregon, interior California, westernNevada (Pyramid Lake), Utah, southernArizona, Wyoming, southernNew Mexico, Oklahoma (Tulsa), Texas (Reagan and Nuecescounties), Michigan (Lake St. Clair), and Ohio (Lorain); sightreport for CostaRica.

Larus modestusTschudi. Gray Gull. Larus modestusTschudi, 1843, Arch. Naturgesch.9: 389. (in Oceani pacifici littoribus = Ludn, south of Lima, Peru.) Habitat.--Interior Deserts(breeding); Coastal Waters (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in Chile and rangesin nonbreedingseason along the Pacificcoast of South America from Ecuador to central Chile. Accidentaloff Costa Rica (CocosIsland, 22 May 1925; Slud 1967) and off Colombia (GorgonaIsland); sight reportsfor Panama(Pacific entranceto Canal, and southof Isla Otoque in the Bay of Panama).A bird photographedin CameronParish, Louisiana, 19 December 1987 (1988, Amer. Birds 42: 277) may not be a natural vagrant.

Larus belcheri Vigors. Band-tailedGull. Larus belcheriVigors, 1829, Zool. J. 4 (1828): 358. (No locality given = Peru.) Habitat.--Coastal Waters;in winter also in bays and estuaries. Distribution.--Breeds alongthe Pacificcoast of SouthAmerica in Peruand northwestern Chile. Casualin Panama(Pacific coast of Canal area, severalsight reports, one adult photographed (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). Also Florida (nearPensacola, September 1968, weakenedindividual caught, photographed andkept in captivityfor morethan a decade;Marco Island,6 June1970, adultphotographed; Cape Romano, 11 November 1974-29 January1975, photographed;and near Marco, Jan- uary-11 February 1976, adult photographed). Notes.--We follow Devillets (1977b) in recognizingL. belcheri and L. atlanticusOlrog, 1958 [Olrog's Gull] of the Atlantic coastof South America as separatespecies. Photographs of birds in nonbreedingplumage (Pensacolaand Cape Romano individuals) have been identifiedas the PacificL. belcheri,suggesting the possibilitythat Florida birdsare escaped captivesor man-assistedvagrants; other reports and photographs of birdsin breedingplumage cannotbe identifiedto group. Also known as Belcher'sGull.

Larus crassirostris Vieillot. Black-tailed Gull. Larus crassirostrisVieillot, 1818, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv.6d.) 21: 508. (Nagasaki, Japan.) Habitat.--Small, rocky, coastalislands (breeding); coastal waters (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from southern Sakhalin, Ussuriland and the Kuril Islands south throughJapan to easternChina and Korea, and winters along coastsfrom Japanand Korea southto easternChina, Taiwan and the Ryukyu Islands. Casual or accidentalin Alaska (St. Lawrence Island, off Buldir in the western Aleutians, Homer and Ketchikan), coastal British Columbia (Queen Charlotte Islands), southernCal- ifornia (San Diego Bay, 16-18 November1954, specimen;Monroe 1955), Belize (Dangriga, March 1988), and Maryland (SandyPoint, photograph;1984, Amer. Birds 38: 1006-1007); sight reports for Attu and Amchitka in the Aleutians, and for southernManitoba, Rhode Island, and Virginia.

Larus canus Linnaeus. Mew Gull. Larus canusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 136. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.--Rocky or sandycoasts or inland along large lakes, rivers, marshesand other (breeding); rocky seacoasts,estuaries, beaches, and bays (nonbreeding). 188 FAMILY LARIDAE

Distribution.--Breeds [brachyrhynchusgroup] in North America from westernand cen- tral Alaska (Brooks Range and Kotzebue Sound), central Yukon, and northwesternand southern Mackenzie south to the Alaska Peninsula, south-coastal and southeastern Alaska, coastaland northernBritish Columbia (includingthe QueenCharlotte and Vancouver islands) and northernAlberta, also in northeasternManitoba (Churchill); [canusgroup] in Eurasia from the Faeroe Islands, British Isles, Scandinavia and northern Russia east to central Siberia (Lena River), and southto centralEurope, the Black and Caspianseas, Lake Baikal, northern Mongolia and southwesternSiberia; and [karntschatschensisgroup] in Siberia west to the Lena River and southto Anadyrland, the Sea of Okhotsk, Kamchatka,the Kuril Islandsand Sakhalin.Nonbreeding birds [brachyrhynchusgroup] occurin summernorth to the northern coast of Alaska and northern Keewatin, and south to California, central Alberta and central Saskatchewan. Winters [brachyrhynchusgroup] in North America from southernAlaska (west to the central Aleutians) south along the Pacific coast to northernBaja California, casually (or rarely) inland to southernBritish Columbia, easternWashington, eastern Oregon, interior California, Nevada,Utah and Arizona, andrarely to the Atlantic coastfrom New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundlandsouth to Massachusetts(sight reports farther south);[canus group]in the Old World from the breedingrange south to the Mediterraneanregion, northern Africa, Iraq, the PersianGulf and Afghanistan;and [karntschatschensisgroup] in Southeast Asia, coastalChina, Taiwan, Japan,and islandssouth of Japan. Migrates [brachyrhynchusgroup] regularly through interior British Columbia and northern Yukon. Casualor accidental[brachyrhynchus group] in the westernHawaiian Islands(Kure), and in continental North America from Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan,southern Ontario, southern Quebec, New York andsouthern New England southto southernNew Mexico, Texas, Illinois, Ohio and Delaware (sight reportsto Iowa, Indiana, Pennsylvania,and Florida); [canusgroup] in Nova Scotia (winter 1988-1989, pho- tograph;1989, Amer. Birds 43: 279), Greenland,Iceland, Spitsbergen,Bear Island, and the eastern Atlantic and Commanderislands; and [karntschatschensisgroup] in the western Aleutians(Attu, Shemya)and the Pribilofs(St. Paul). Otherreports of the canusgroup from easternNorth America are unsubstantiated;all specimensfrom this region are brachyrhyn- chus. Notes.--Also known as CommonGull or Short-billedGull. Groups:L. brachyrhynchus Richardson, 1831 [Short-billed Gull], L. canus [Mew Gull], and L. kamtschatschensisBon- aparte, 1857 [KamchatkaGull].

Larus delawarensisOrd. Ring-billed Gull. Larus DelawarensisOrd, 1815, in Guthrie, Geogr.(ed. 2, Amer.) 2: 319. (Delaware River, below Philadelphia,Pennsylvania.) Habitat.--Lakes, marshes,rivers, nesting on rocky, grassy and sandy islets, isolated shores,or occasionallyin marshes(breeding); seacoasts, bays, estuaries, rivers, lakes, ponds, irrigated and plowed fields, and parks and garbagedumps in urban areas(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from central interior British Columbia, western and central Wash- ington,northeastern Alberta, northwestern and central Saskatchewan, north-central Manitoba, northern Ontario, southern Quebec, Prince Edward Island, southern Labrador and north- easternNewfoundland south to northeasternCalifornia (Honey Lake), northwesternNevada, northwesternUtah, south-centralColorado (formerly), Wyoming,northeastern South Dakota (Waubay Lake), east-centralMinnesota, easternWisconsin, northern Illinois southernMich- igan, southernOntario, northernOhio (Lucas County), central New York (Lake Oneida), central New Hampshire and New Brunswick. Nonbreeding individuals occur in summer north to south-coastalAlaska, southern Yukon, southern Mackenzie, and southeasternKee- watin, and souththrough the wintering range. Winters in the Hawaiian Islands, and from southernBritish Columbia, the northern United States, southernOntario, southernQuebec and the Gulf of St. Lawrence south along the Pacific coast to southernMexico (including the RevillagigedoIslands), in the interior to central Mexico, on the Gulf coast southto the YucatanPeninsula (and east to Florida) and FAMILY LARIDAE 189 on the Atlantic coast to Florida, Bermuda, the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles (east to the Virgin Islands), and the Cayman Islands. Casual or accidental in interior Alaska, Guatemala, E1 Salvador, Costa Rica (Chomes), Panama,the LesserAntilles (southto Barbados),Colombia, Ecuador, the GalapagosIslands, Amazonian Brazil, and to Japan,Iceland, Greenland,the British Isles, continentalEurope, Spitsbergen.the Canary Islandsand Morocco;a sightreport from CaribbeanHonduras.

Larus californicus Lawrence.. Larus CalifornicusLawrence, 1854, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 6: 79. (near Stockton, California.) Itabitat.--Lakes and marshes,foraging also in nearbyagricultural fields; nests on open sandy or gravelly areason islandsor along shoresof lakes and ponds(breeding); rocky seacoasts,beaches, bays, estuaries,mudflats, marshes, in-igated fields, lakes, ponds, agri- culturallands, and in urbanareas in garbagedumps (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from southern interior British Columbia, Idaho and southwestern Montanasouth to south-centralWashington, south-central and southeastern Oregon, northern California, western Nevada, northern Utah and central and eastern Colorado, and from southernMackenzie souththrough Alberta, Saskatchewanand Manitoba to centralMontana, east-centralNorth Dakota and northeasternSouth Dakota. Occurs in summer and fall (non- breeding)in southeasternAlaska (from the south),rarely as far north and west as south-coastalAlaska (Anchorage),throughout California, and southto northernNew Mexico. Winters from southwestern and south-central British Columbia, eastern Idaho, Montana and easternColorado south throughout the westernUnited States,most commonlyalong the Pacific coast,to southernBaja California, the Pacific coastof Mexico (to Colima and in the RevillagigedoIslands), and locally the interior of Mexico (to M•xico). Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islandsand Revillagigedos(Socorro Island), in eastern North America from northeasternManitoba, Minnesota, the Great Lakes, Quebec, New York and New Brunswick south to the Gulf coast of Texas, southwestern Louisiana and westernFlorida, and in Guerrero.Reports from Guatemalaare erroneous. Notes.--The specieslisted from L. californicusthrough L. fuscusare closelyinterrelated; this complex posesone of the most complicatedproblems in ornithologicalsystematics today.

ILarusargentatus Pontoppidan.Herring Gull. Larus ArgentatusPontoppidan, 1763, Dan. Atlas 1: 622. (No locality given = Chris- tians/3e,Denmark.) Itabitat.--Wide varietyof habitatsnear water, nesting on rockyor sandycoasts, on tundra, on islandsin larger lakes and rivers, and on cliffs (breeding);seacoasts, beaches, bays, estuaries,lakes, rivers, ocean over continentalshelf, and garbagedumps in urban areas (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America from northern Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, Southamptonand westernBaffin islands,northern Quebec and northern Labrador south to south-coastaland southeasternAlaska, south-centralBritish Columbia,central Alberta, central Saskatchewan, southeastern Wyoming, southern Manitoba, northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, northeasternIllinois, northeasternIndiana, northern Ohio, southernOntario, northernNew York, and along the Atlantic coast to northeastern SouthCarolina, alsoisolated breeding in southernAlabama (Gaillard Island), southernLou- isiana (ChandeleurIslands) and southernTexas (Cameron County); and in the Palearctic from Greenland(occasionally), Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, British Isles, Scandinaviaand northernEurope acrossnorthern Russia and northernSiberia to Kamchatka,the Chukotski Peninsula,Anadyrland and the Seaof Okhotsk,and southlocally to . Nonbreedingbirds summersouth through much of the winteringrange, especially in coastalareas. Wintersin the HawaiianIslands (rarely); from the Aleutian Islands,southern Alaska, the Great Lakes region and Newfoundlandsouth (mostly at sea and along coasts,large rivers 190 FAMILY LARIDAE and lakes, uncommonlythrough the western and central interior) throughNorth America, Middle America (includingthe RevillagigedoIslands, but rare southof Mexico), Bermuda, and the West Indies to Panamaand Barbados;and in the Old World mostly in the breeding range southto centralEurope, the Mediterraneanregion, Black and Caspianseas, Gulf of Aden, PersianGulf, India, centralChina, Taiwan, and the Ryukyu and Bonin islands. Sight reportsfor the RevillagigedoIslands (Socorro Island) and northernSouth America. Notes.---For commentson relationshipsor hybridization,see notes under L. californicus, L. cachinnans,L. thayeri, L. fuscus, L. glaucescens,L. hyperboreus,and L. marinus.

Larus cachinnansPallas. Yellow-legged Gull. Larus cachinnansPallas, 1811, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat.2: 318. (CaspianSea.) Habitat.-- Seacoasts,lakes, and rivers. Distribution--Breeds from the easternAtlantic islands,southern Europe and northern Africa east to , and winters south to northeastern Africa and the Persian Gulf. Casual in Maryland (Sandy Point) and District of Columbia (photographs;Wilds and Czaplak 1994). Accidentalin Quebec(Fatima, Madeleine Islands, 16 August1973; specimen #60750 in CanadianMuseum of Nature) and Newfoundland(St. John's,photograph; 1995, Nat. Audubon. Soc. Field Notes 49: 122). Notes.--L. cachinnansis a speciesdistinct from L. argentatus(Marion et al. 1985, Y6sou 1991). The specimenfrom Quebecwas reportedas a probablehybrid betweenL. argentaras and L. fuscus (Gosselinet al. 1986) but has been re-identified as L. cachinnans(Wilds and Czaplak 1994).

Larus thayeri Brooks. Thayer's Gull. Larus thayeri Brooks, 1915, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv. 59: 373. (BuchananBay, Ellesmere Land.) Habitat.--Arctic coastsand tundra,nesting on cliffs facingsounds (breeding); seacoasts, estuaries,and bays, less commonlyon large inland lakes and rivers and garbagedumps (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from Banks,southern Melville, Cornwallis,Axel Heibergand cen- tral Ellesmere islands south to southern Victoria Island, northern Keewatin, northern South- ampton and northern Baffin islands, and on northwesternGreenland. Nonbreeding birds sometimessummer in the wintering range. Winters primarily on the Pacific coast from southernBritish Columbia southto central Baja California, less commonly in south-coastaland southeasternAlaska, the Gulf of St. Lawrence,and sparinglyon the southernGreat Lakes,rarely in the interior southto southern California, southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, and the Gulf coast from Texas east to Florida, and casuallyon the Atlantic coastsouth to Florida. Casual in Newfoundland. Notes.--L. thayeri was formerly (A.O.U. 1957) regardedas a race of L. argentatus,but it is now generallyregarded as a distinct species.However, it is treatedas a subspeciesof L. glaucoidesby Godfrey (1986). Recent studiessuggest that L. thayeri and L. glaucoides kumlieni interbreedon Baffin and Southamptonislands (Gaston and Decker 1985, Snell 1989). Relationshipsof thesepopulations require further study.See commentsunder L. californicus and L. glaucoides.

Larus glaucoidesMeyer. . Larus glaucoides"Temm." Meyer, 1822, in Meyer and Wolf, Ztisatz.Berich. Taschenb. Dtsch. V6gelkd., p. 197. (Meere der arktischenZone, z. B. in Island, zuweilen im Herbst an den Ktisten der Ost- und Nordsee = Iceland.) Habitat.--Arctic coasts,nesting on steepcliffs andledges facing sounds and (breed- ing); primarily coastalwaters, less commonlyon oceanover continentalshelf, rarely on large inland bodies of water (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds [kumlienigroup] on southernBaffin Island (Foxe Peninsulaand FAMILY LARIDAE 191

Home Bay southward)and in northwesternQuebec (Erik Cove, Digges Island); and [glau- coidesgroup] in the Palearcticin Greenlandand Jan Mayen. Winters [kumlieni group] in North America from Newfoundlandand the Gulf of St. Lawrence south on the Atlantic coast to Virginia and Bermuda, and inland to the Great Lakes(especially lakes Erie and Ontario,rarely fartherwest); and [glaucoidesgroup] in the Palearctic from Iceland, the Faeroe Islands and Scandinavia south, at least rarely, to the British Isles, northernEurope and the Baltic region. Casual [kumlienigroup] in interior North America (recordedfrom Montana, Nebraska, Iowa and Indiana) and Bermuda;sight reports west to Alaska, and south,east of the ,to the Gulf states.Accidental [kumlienigroup] in British Columbia,Texas, Georgia and Florida. Notes.--Reportsof individualsof the glaucoidesgroup in North Americain winterremain to be verified. The kumlieni group might be regarded as a distinct species,L. kumlieni Brewster, 1883 [Kumlien's Gull]. See commentsunder L. thayeri.

Larus fuscus Linnaeus.Lesser Black-backed Gull. LarusfuscusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 136. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.-- Tundra, along sandyor rocky coasts,and on islandsin lakes and larger rivers (breeding);coastal regions, bays, estuaries,inland on lakes and rivers, and garbagedumps in urban areas (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from Greenland(occasionally), Iceland, the FaeroeIslands, north- em Scandinavia,northern Russia and northernSiberia (east to the Taimyr Peninsula)south to the British Isles and France.Nonbreeding birds sometimessummer in the winteringrange. Winters from the British Isles, southern Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea south to central Africa, the Red Sea, PersianGulf and India; alsoin small numbers(but increasing)in North America from the Great Lakes region, Labrador,southeastern Quebec, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and Bermuda south to the Gulf coast (west to Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas and northernTamaulipas) and Florida. Casual in Alaska, northwestern Mackenzie, Victoria Island, British Columbia, Saskatch- ewan,Manitoba, California, easternColorado, Minnesota, Puerto Rico, and St. Croix (Virgin Islands).Accidental in Panama;sight reportsfor Utah, North Dakota, Nebraska,Trinidad, and FrenchGuiana. A reportfrom Australiais erroneous. Notes.--L. argentatusand L. fuscusare widely sympatricwith only local hybridization (Brown 1967).

ILarusschistisagus Stejneger. Slaty-backed Gull. Larus schistisagusStejneger, 1884, Auk 1:231. (Bering Island and Petropaulski,Kam- tschatka = Bering Island, CommanderIslands.) I-Iabitat.-- Rocky seacoasts,on cliffs and rocky islands,nesting occasionally on flat sandy shoreswith bushes(breeding); coastal waters (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from the Gulf of Anadyr and the westernBering Sea coastsouth throughKamchatka and the Kuril Islandsto Sakhalinand Japan.Nested in 1996 on Bering Sea coastof Alaska (1996, N.A.S. Field Notes 50:984). Reportedbreeding at Harrowby Bay, northwesternMackenzie, has been seriouslyquestioned (H6hn 1958). Winters from the Bering Sea and Kamchatka southto Japan, the Seven Islands of Izu, Volcanoand Ryukyu islands,and the coastof easternChina. Occursthroughout the year (nonbreeding)on coastsof westernand southwesternAlaska (from the Bering south to the Pribilof and Aleutian islands),rarely (in summer) as far north as Barrow and east as PrudhoeBay. Casual in south-coastal(Kodiak, Homer, Anchorage)and southeasternAlaska (Juneau, Ketchikan).Accidental in the Hawaiian Islands (Kure, Sand Island), British Columbia (Van- couver Island), southernSaskatchewan, Washington, Oregon, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, southernTexas, Quebec,and the Niagara River in Ontario and New York; sightreports for Yukon, Iowa, and Ohio. Notes.--See commentsunder L. glaucescens. 192 FAMILY LARIDAE

Larus livens Dwight. Yellow-looted Gull. Larus occidentalislivens Dwight, 1919, Proc.Biol. Soc.Wash. 32:11. (SanJose Island, Lower [= Baja] California.) Habitat.--Coastal Waters,Coastal Sand Beaches; nests on islands;during post-breeding dispersal,also inland along shoresof SaltonSea, California. Distribution.--Breeds in the Gulf of California from GeorgeIsland and ConsagRock southto Espiritu Santo and San Pedro Nolascoislands. Migrates to southerninterior California (Salton Sea). Wintersin the Gulf of Californiaand alongthe coastof Sonora,rarely in southerninterior California (SaltonSea), andcasually north to coastalsouthern California (SanDiego County) and southern Nevada. Casual southto Oaxaca (sight report). Notes.--This specieswas formerly (A.O.U. 1957) consideredconspecific with L. occi- dentalis,but differencesin morphology,habitat, behavior,and vocalizations(Hand 1981, Weber 1981) indicatethat it shouldbe treatedas a species.

Larus occidentalis Audubon. .

Larus occidentalisAudubon, 1839, Ornithol. Biogr. 5: 320. (Cape Disappointment [Washington].) Habitat.--Coastal waters,nesting on rockyislands and coastal cliffs (breeding);beaches, rockycoasts, bays, estuaries, ocean over , and garbage dumps in urbanareas (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds alongthe Pacificcoast from southwesternBritish Columbiasouth to west-centralBaja California (Isla Asunci6n) and GuadalupeIsland. Wintersfrom south-coastalBritish Columbia southto southernBaja California, casually to interior Oregon and southernCalifornia, and to the coastof Sonora. Accidental in Alaska, southern Yukon, Idaho, Nevada, Arizona, northern New Mexico, westernand coastal Texas, and Guerrero;sight reports for the HawaiianIslands and Oaxaca. Notes.--See commentsunder L. glaucescensand L. livens.

Larus glaucescensNaumann. Glaucous-wingedGull. Larus glaucescensJ. F. Naumann, 1840, Naturgesch.V6gel Dtsch. 10: 351. (Nord- Amerika = North America.) Habitat.--Rocky seacoastsand othercoastal waters, nesting on flats and grassyslopes of islands,cliffs (breeding);beaches, rocky coasts,bays, estuaries,ocean over continental shelf, and garbagedumps in urban areas(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America from the southernBering Sea (includingthe Pribilof and Aleutian islands),and southernand southeasternAlaska southalong the Pacific coast to western Washingtonand northwesternOregon; and in the CommanderIslands. Nonbreedingbirds often summerin the wintering range. Wintersin North Americafrom the southernBering Sea and southernAlaska south along the Pacificcoast to southernBaja Californiaand the Gulf of California,rarely in the interior in Utah; and in Asia from Bering Island to Kamchatka,the Kuril Islandsand Japan. Casual or accidental in the Hawaiian Islands, and in interior western North America from Yukon, Alberta, Saskatchewanand southernManitoba southto southwesternArizona, south- western New Mexico, central and northeastern Colorado, North Dakota, Minnesota, Wis- consin,Illinois, Nebraskaand Oklahoma,and the RevillagigedoIslands. Notes.--Frequent hybridization between L. glaucescensand L. occidentalisoccurs in mixed coloniesfrom northernWashington to southernOregon, but mating is assortative (Hoffman et al. 1978) and gene flow is constrained(Bell 1996). Hybridizationalso occurs betweenL. glaucescensand L. argentatus,at least on a limited basis,in south-coastaland southeasternAlaska (Williamsonand Peyton 1963, Pattenand Weisbrod 1974), andbetween FAMILY LARIDAE 193

L. glaucescensand L. schistisagusin Kamchatka(Firsova and Levada 1982, as cited in Bell 1996).

Larus hyperboreusGunnerus. . Larushyperboreus Gunnerus, 1767, in Leem,Beskr. Finm. Lapper,p. 226 (note).(North- ern Norway.) I-Iabitat.--Sea cliffs, rocky coasts,or bordersof tundralakes (breeding);estuaries, bays beaches,less commonly on oceanover continentalshelf, along large inlandbodies of water, and garbagedumps (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America on Arctic coasts and islands from western and northernAlaska (southto Hooper Bay, and St. Lawrence,St. Matthew, Hall and, at least formerly, the Pribilof islands), northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, and Banks, Prince Patrick,Ellef Ringnesand northernEllesmere islands south to northernKeewatin, northern Quebec,northern Labrador (south to Hopedale),and to Southampton,Coats, Belcher and southernBaffin islands;and in the Palearcticfrom northernGreenland, Iceland, Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen,Bear Island and east acrossnorthern Russia and northern Siberia(including Novaya Zemlya and the New SiberianIslands) to Anadyrland.Nonbreed- ing individualsoccasionally summer in the wintering range. Wintersin North America from the southernChukchi Sea (rarely) and Bering Sea south throughthe Pacificregion to northernBaja California,and on the Atlantic-Gulfcoasts from Labradorsouth to Florida and (rarely) west to Texas,and inland to the Great Lakes;and in thePalearctic from the breedingrange south to the BritishIsles, northern Europe, and central Siberia,casually to the Mediterranean,Black, and Caspianseas. Casual in the Hawaiian Islands; in coastal Sonora; in the interior of North America from southernCanada (where more regular in occurrence)south to California, Nevada, Utah, southernArizona, and New Mexico; and in Bermuda and the eastern Atlantic islands. Notes.--Reportsof extensivehybridization between L. hyperboreusand L. argentatusin Iceland (Ingolfsson1987) have been questioned(see Ingolfsson1993, Snell 1993). Larus hyperboreushybridizes to an uncertaindegree with L. glaucescensin the easternBering Sea region (Strang 1977).

Larus marinus Linnaeus. Great Black-backed Gull.

Larus marinus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 136. (in Europa = Gotland, Sweden.)

Habitat.--Rocky coastsand islands,occasionally on inland lakes (breeding);estuaries, beaches,bays, rocky coasts,garbage dumps in urban areas,less commonlyon large inland bodiesof water and on oceanover continentalshelf (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America alongthe Atlantic coastfrom northernQuebec, northern Labrador and Newfoundland south to the St. Lawrence River, Anticosti Island, and (alongthe coast)to North Carolina,also in southernOntario (Lake Huron andnorthern Lake Ontario),New York (Lake Oneida,casually) and northernVermont (Lake Champlain);and in the Palearcticfrom Greenland,Iceland, the Faeroe Islands,Shetlands, Spitsbergen, Bear Island,northern Scandinavia and northernRussia south to the British Isles,northern Europe and centralRussia. Nonbreeding individuals occasionally summer north to southernBaffin Island, west to HudsonBay, and souththrough the wintering range. Wintersin North America alongthe Atlantic coastfrom Newfoundlandsouth to Florida, in Bermuda,inland on the Great Lakes, and rarely on the Gulf coastof Florida (casually west to southern Texas); also in Eurasia from Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, British Isles, Scandinavia,and northernEurope south to the Mediterranean,Black and Caspian seas, casuallyto the easternAtlantic islands. Casual west to British Columbia, Alberta (sight report), Saskatchewan(sight reports) Manitoba, Montana, north-central and eastern Colorado and Nebraska, and south to the Bahamas(Abaco, San Salvador)and Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola,Mona Island, PuertoRico, St. Barth•lemy and Barbados);a sightreport for Belize. 194 FAMILY LARIDAE

Genus XEMA Leach Xerna Leach, 1819, in Ross,Voy. Discovery,app. 2, p. lvii. Type, by monotypy,Larus sabini Sabine. Notes.--The genusXerna is mergedin Larus by someauthors (e.g., Vaurie 1965, Cramp and Simmons 1983).

Xerna sabini (Sabine). Sabine's Gull. Larus SabiniJ. Sabine,1819, Trans.Linn. Soc. London12: 522, pl. 29. (SabineIslands near Melville Bay, west coast of Greenland.) Habitat.•Coastal wet meadowsand salt-grassflats in tundra (breeding);primarily pe- lagic, mainly over continentalshelf, casually along coasts or in inlandlakes (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America from northernand coastalwestern Alaska (south to Bristol Bay), northwesternMackenzie, and Banks,Victoria, Bathurst,northwestern Devon and Bylot islandssouth locally to King William, southernSouthampton and southwestern Baffin islands, and northern Keewatin; and in the Palearctic in northern Greenland and Spitsbergen,and from the New Siberian Islands and northern Siberia southto the Taimyr Peninsulaand Lena Delta. Nonbreedingbirds occur in summerto northernEllesmere Island, central Alberta, Saskatchewan,Manitoba, northern Ontario, and northeasternQuebec, ca- sually at sea southto wintering areas. Wintersat sea in the easternPacific from southernBaja California (at leastirregularly) and Panamasouth to centralChile; and, lesscommonly, in the Atlantic (primarilytropical areas,rarely the North Atlantic). Migrates regularly through the Pacific region (mostly coastal) of North America from Alaska to CostaRica; alongHudson Bay (Churchill)and the Atlantic coast(from Labrador to New England,irregularly to Florida); and aroundIceland and the coastsof Europe. Casual throughthe interior of North America (mostly in migration) from Idaho, Alberta, Montana, North Dakota and the Great Lakes south to southeasternCalifornia, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, the Gulf coast, Yucatan Peninsula and Cuba; in Caribbean Panama (Canal area); and to Japanand the North Sea.

GenusRISSA Stephens Rissa Stephens,1826, in Shaw, Gen. Zool. 13(1): 180. Type, by monotypy,Rissa brunnichii Stephens= Larus tridactylusLinnaeus.

Rissa tridactyla (Linnaeus).Black-legged . Larus tridactylusLinnaeus, 1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 136. (in Europaseptentrionali = .) Habitat.--Rocky seacoastsand islands,occasionally on ledgesof buildingsin Old World (breeding);primarily pelagic, alsopack ice, sometimesalong seacoasts,bays, and estuaries, casuallyon large inland bodiesof water (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in Alaska along the Chukchi and Bering seacoastsand on Bering Sea islandsfrom Cape Lisburneand the Diomede Islands southto the Aleutians,and east along the Pacific coast to Glacier Bay and Dixon Harbor; in northeasternNorth America from easternSomerset, Prince Leopold, Bylot and Cobourg islandssouth locally through northernand central Baffin Island, Labrador(probably) and Newfoundlandto southeastern Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; and in the Palearctic from Greenland, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen,Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and the New Siberian,Bennet and Wrangel islandssouth to the British Isles, northernEurope, the northern Russian coast, Sakhalin, Kamchatka, and the Kuril and Commander islands. Non- breedingbirds occur in summeralong the Arctic coastand islandsof Alaska and Canada, rarely southalong the Pacific coastto California. Winters along the Pacific coast of North America from the southernBering Sea and southernAlaska south(irregularly) to Baja California, casuallyto Nayarit (San Blas); in the Great Lakes region; along the Atlantic coast (mostly offshore) from Newfoundland,Nova FAMILY LARIDAE 195

Scotia and the Gulf of St. Lawrence south to Florida, less frequently to Bermuda; and in the Old World from the breedingrange south to northwesternAfrica, the Mediterranean region and Japan,casually to the Cape Verde Islands,, and the Baltic Sea. Casual in the Hawaiian Islands (Kure east to Laysan, and on Oahu); in the interior of North America from Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Minnesota south to southeastern California, Arizona, New Mexico and the Gulf coast (Texas east to western Florida); and in the Bahamas (Andros, Great Abaco, Berry Islands) and Greater Antilles (Cuba, off Ja- maica, Virgin Islands). Accidental in South Africa; sight reportsfor Peru and the Lesser Antilles (St. Lucia).

Rissa brevirostris(Bruch). Red-leggedKittiwake. Larus (Rissa) brevirostris "Brandt" Bruch, 1853, J. Ornithol. 1: 103. (Nord-Westktiste von Amerika = Northwestern America.) Habitat.--Steep cliffs on islands(breeding); primarily pelagic,mostly beyond continental shelf, and pack ice (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in Alaska in the Pribilof (St. George, St. Paul), Aleutian (Buldir, Bogoslof,Fire Islands) and Commanderislands. Wintersin the extremenorthern Pacific Ocean, occurring east to the Gulf of Alaska(Kodiak and Middleton islands). Casual or accidentalon St. Lawrence Island, in east-centralAlaska (near junction of Kandik and Yukonrivers), west-central Yukon (Forty Mile), coastalBritish Columbia, coastal Washington,northwestern Oregon, southern California, andNevada (nearLas Vegas);a sight report for southwesternWashington.

GenusRHODOSTETHIA MacGillivray RhodostethiaMacGillivray, 1842, Man. Brit. Ornithol. 2: 252. Type, by original des- ignation,Larus rossii Richardson= Larus roseusMacGillivray.

Rhodostethiarosea (MacGillivray). Ross'sGull. Larus roseusMacGillivray, 1824, Mem. WernerJanNat. Hist. Soc. 5: 249. (Alagnak, Melville Peninsula,Canada.) Habitat.--Arctic coasts,river deltas, and marshy tundra (breeding); mostly pelagic in Arctic waters, often aroundpack ice, rarely in coastalwaters (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in northernSiberia from the Kolyma Delta to Aby, Malaya (on the Alazeya River), SredneKolymsk and the Chaun River, and along the lower Indigirka River and on the southernTaimyr Peninsula;also on CheyneIsland (eastof BathurstIsland, 1976 and 1978), in northeasternManitoba (Churchill, since 1980), and once in west-central Greenland (Disko Bay). Winter rangeunknown, probably pelagic in open Arctic waters. Migrates along the Arctic coast of Alaska (primarily at Point Barrow), rarely to St. Lawrence Island, and casuallyin the Pribilofs and Aleutians (Alaid); also recordedin mi- gration on the Boothia and Melville peninsulas,on Cornwallis and easternBaffin islands, in Keewatin (McConnell River), and in Greenland and the Arctic islands of the Old World, casuallyto the Faeroe Islands,British Isles and continentalEurope. Casual or accidentalin southwesternBritish Columbia,Oregon, Colorado, North Dakota, Nebraska, Minnesota, Missouri, Illinois, Ontario, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Massachu- setts,Connecticut, off New Jersey,Maryland, and Japan;sight reportsfor Alberta, Sas- katchewan, Quebec, New York, and Tennessee.

GenusPAGOPHILA Kaup PagophilaKaup, 1829, Skizz. Entw.-Ges.Eur. Thierw., pp. 69, 196. Type, by monotypy, Larus eburneusPhipps. 196 FAMILY LARIDAE

Pagophila eburnea (Phipps). Gull. Larus EburneusPhipps, 1774, Voy. North Pole, App., p. 187. (Spitsbergen.) Habitat.--Associated with the Arctic ice pack and drift ice; nestson steepcliffs or low rocky islets near ice or snow. Distribution.--Breeds in Arctic North America on Seymour, southeasternEllesmere, Devon, northern Baffin and, at least formerly, Prince Patrick, the Polynia and Meighen islands;and in the Palearcticin northernGreenland, Spitsbergen, Franz JosefLand, northern Novaya Zemlya and North Land. Wintersin North Americaprimarily over drift ice southto the southernBering Sea (Pribilof Islands), (east to Labrador and Newfoundland), rarely along the Atlantic coastfrom easternQuebec and Nova Scotia south(rarely) to New Jersey,and casuallysouth to south-coastal and southeastern Alaska and south-coastal and central British Columbia and the Great Lakes; and in the Palearctic from southernGreenland, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, Scandinavia,northern Russia and northernSiberia southto the CommanderIslands, casually to the British Isles and continentalEurope. Casual or accidental in southern California, southern Alberta, central Saskatchewan, Man- itoba, Montana, northeasternColorado, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Tennessee,southwestern Quebec and central New York; sight reportsfor Washingtonand North Carolina.

Subfamily STERNINAE: Terns

Genus STERNA Linnaeus Sterna Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 137. Type, by tautonymy,Sterna hirundo Linnaeus(Sterna, prebinomial specific name, in synonymy). ThalasseusBoie, 1822, Isis von Oken, col. 563. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Wag- ler, 1832), "Th. cantiacus" = Sterna cantiaca Gmelin = Sterna sandvicensisLatham. SternulaBoie, 1822, Isis yon Oken, col. 563. Type, by monotypy,Sterna minutaLin- naeus = Sterna albifrons Pallas. HydroprogneKaup, 1829, Skizz. Entw.-Ges.Eur. Thierw., p. 91. Type, by subsequent designation(G. R. Gray, 1846), Sterna caspia Pallas. GelochelidonC. L. Brehm, 1830, Isis von Oken, col. 994. Type, by monotypy,Gelo- chelidon meridionalis Brehm = Sterna nilotica Gmelin.

Sterna nilotica Gmelin. Gull-billed . Sterna nilotica Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 606. Based on the "Egyptian Tern" Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 3(2): 356. (in Aegypto = Egypt.) Habitat.--Salt marshes,estuaries, lagoons and plowed fields, lessfrequently alongrivers, around lakes and in fresh-water marshes. Distribution.--Breeds locally in westernNorth Americain southernCalifornia (San Diego Bay, Salton Sea), and on the coastsof Sonora (Bahia de Tobarf) and Sinaloa, Montague Island (Baja California), and elsewherein the Gulf of California; in easternNorth America along the Atlantic-Gulf coast from New York (Long Island) south to Florida (also inland) and west to southernTexas (also inland), probably also to Tamaulipasand Veracruz, and in the Bahamas (Harbour Island, Long Island, Great Inagua) and Virgin Islands (Anegada, probablySombrero, formerly CockroachCay); in SouthAmerica in southwesternEcuador, and from central Brazil southto northernArgentina; and in the Old World from northern Europe,central Russia, southern Mongolia, and easternChina southto northwesternAfrica, Asia Minor, Iran, India, Sri Lanka, and southern China, also in Australia. Wintersin the Americasin coastalareas from Nayarit, the Gulf coastand southernFlorida souththrough Middle America and the West Indies to Peru on the Pacific coastand northern Argentinaon the Atlantic coast;and in the Old World from tropicalAfrica, the PersianGulf, India, SoutheastAsia, easternChina and the Philippinessouth to southernAfrica, Javaand Borneo, also in Australia and Tasmania. Casual or accidental in the Hawaiian Islands (Oahu, Molokai, Maui), north to coastal FAMILY LARIDAE 197 central California (to Santa Barbara County) and Arizona (lower Colorado River), and in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Kentucky and Bermuda. Notes.--Often placed in the monotypicgenus .

Sterna caspia Pallas. CaspianTern. Sterna caspia Pallas, 1770, Novi Comm. Acad. Sci. Petropol. 14: 582, pl. 22. (Mare Caspium = CaspianSea, southernRussia.) Habitat.--Seacoasts, bays, estuaries,lakes, marshes,and rivers. Distribution.--Breeds locally in westernNorth Americain south-coastalAlaska (Copper River Delta), and from south-coastaland central interior British Columbia, coastaland eastern Washington,eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, westernand centralMontana and northwestern Wyoming south (mostly in the interior) to southernCalifornia (San Diego Bay, southern end of Salton Sea) and westernNevada (Lahontan Reservoir); in westernMexico in northern Baja California and on the coastof Sinaloa (Isla Larici6n); in the interior of North America from northeastern Alberta, southern Mackenzie, central Saskatchewan, north-central Man- itoba and central JamesBay southto Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota (McLean County), northeasternWisconsin, central Michigan, southernOntario, northwestern Pennsylvania (for- merly) and northeasternNew York; at scatteredlocalities along the Atlantic coastin Labrador (Lake Melville), Newfoundland,southeastern Quebec (Fog Island, Natashquam,Magdalen Islands), New Jersey(Barnegat), Virginia (Metomkin and formerly Cobbs islands),North Carolina (OregonInlet), SouthCarolina (Cape Romain) and Florida (rarely); alongthe Gulf coastfrom Texas east to Florida (Tampa Bay); and in the Old World from southernScan- dinavia, northernEurope, southernRussia, the Black and Caspianseas, northern Mongolia, Ussurilandand easternChina southto the Mediterraneanregion, PersianGulf, Sri Lanka, Australia,and New Zealand;along the coastsof Africa and in the interior at Lake Rudolph. Nonbreedingbirds often summerin the JamesBay and Great Lakes regions,in Colorado, and alongboth coastsof the United States,less frequently south in Middle America to Costa Rica. Winters in the Americasprimarily in coastalareas from central California (also Salton Sea) southto Baja California and Oaxaca,and from North Carolina southalong the Atlantic- Gulf coaststo easternMexico, less frequently along both coastsand on inland lakes of Middle America (not recordedE1 Salvador)to northernColombia and Venezuela,and rarely to the Bahamas,Greater Antilles (east to the Virgin Islands), and Cayman Islands; and in the Old World from the breedingrange southto tropicalAfrica, the PersianGulf, India and (rarely) SoutheastAsia. Migrates in North America primarily along coastsfrom southeasternAlaska (rarely), British Columbia and Nova Scotia southward,along the Great Lakes, and less frequently along large rivers in the interior. Casual in the Hawaiian Islands (Oahu, Maui, Hawaii); in the interior of western North America north to east-central Alaska and west-central Yukon, and south to New Mexico; and in the Old World north to the Faeroe Islands, British Isles and Japan; accidentalin Bermuda;a sightreport from French Guiana. Notes.--Often placedin the monotypicgenus Hydroprogne.

Sterna maxima Boddaert.. Sternamaxima Boddaert, 1783, Table PlanchesEnlum., p. 58. Basedon the "Hirondelle de Mer de Cayenne" Daubenton,Planches Enlum., pl. 988. (Cayenne.) Habitat.--Seacoasts, lagoons,and estuaries,also oceanover continentalshelf. Distribution.--Breeds locally on the Pacificcoast in southernCalifornia (northto Orange County), Baja California (locally), along the coastof Sonoraand Sinaloa, and in the Tres Mar/as Islands (erroneouslyreported from Isla Isabela); in the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbeanre- gion from New Jerseyand the Gulf coast(west to southernTexas) souththrough the West Indies to islandsoff the north coastof Venezuela (NetherlandsAntilles east to Los Roques, and Trinidad) and French Guiana, and in Yucatfin(Cayo Arcas and AlacrfinReef); in South America on the coast of northern Argentina; and in West Africa (islands off Mauritania). 198 FAMILY LARIDAE

Nonbreedingindividuals occur in summerin coastalareas in the Americas north to central California and Maine, and souththroughout the winteringrange (rarely on the Pacificcoast south of Mexico). Wintersfrom centralCalifornia, the Gulf coastand North Carolinasouth along both coasts of the Americas to Peru, Uruguay and Argentina; and on the west coast of Africa from Moroccoto Angola, casuallyto southernAfrica. Casual north on the Pacific coast to northern California, and on the Atlantic coast to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Accidental in the interior in southern California (SaltonSea), Wisconsin (Manitowoc), Illinois (Chicagoand Lake Calumet),Ontario (Kings- ville), New York (Rochester), Ohio (Lorain), Oklahoma, Arkansas and eastern Tennessee, also in the British Isles, Norway, Spain, , and Mozambique; a sight report from interior Mexico (Distrito Federal). Notes.-•This and the following three speciesare often placedin the genusThalasseus. Mayr and Short (1970) consideredS. maximaand S. bergii to constitutea superspecies.

Sterna bergii Lichtenstein. Great Crested Tern. Sterna Bergii Lichtenstein,1823, Verz. Doubl., p. 80. (Cape of Good Hope.) Habitat.--Coastal and pelagic waters. Distribution.--Breeds from the southernAfrican and Indian Ocean regions east to the westernPacific and Australianregions, and rangesat seain the Indian and westernPacific . Accidentalin the Hawaiian Islandson Oahu (21 October 1988-March 1989, photograph, Amer. Birds 43: 27; Pyle 1990) and FrenchFrigate Shoals(August 1991). Notes.--See comments under S. maxima.

Sterna elegans Gambel. . Sterna elegansGambel, 1849, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia4 (1848): 129. (Ma- zatlan [Sinaloa], Pacific coast of Mexico.) Habitat.--Coastal Waters, occasionallyocean far from land. Distribution.--Breeds along the Pacific coast from southernCalifornia (Bolsa Chica, Orange County; San Diego Bay) southto central Baja California (locally), and from the Gulf of California (Rasaand Montagueislands; formerly more widespread)south along the coast of Sonora and Sinaloa. Wintersalong the Pacific coastfrom Guatemalasouth to centralChile (most commonly from Ecuador south, rare north of Panama). Wandersnorth in summerregularly to central(rarely northern)California, and casually to Oregon and southwesternBritish Columbia. Casualin Arizona and inland in California; accidentalin Virginia, Texas(Lake Balmorhea),French Guiana, Ireland and France. Notes.--See comments under S. maxima and S. sandvicensis.

Sterna sandvicensis Latham. . SternaSandvicensis Latham, 1787, Gen. Synop.Birds (suppl.) 1: 296. (Sandwich,Kent, England.) Habitat.--Seacoasts,bays, estuaries,and mudflats,occasionally ocean far from land. Distribution.--Breeds [sandvicensisgroup] locally on theAtlantic coast of NorthAmerica in Virginia (Fisherman'sIsland), North Carolina(Oregon Inlet), SouthCarolina and Florida (Nassau Sound), along the Gulf coast from southernTexas east to southernMississippi (between Petit Bols and Horn islands), Alabama and Florida, in the Bahamas, off southern Cuba (Cayo Los Ballenatos),on islets in the Virgin Islands(off Culebra, St. Thomasand Anegada),in the LesserAntilles (St. Barth61emy),off Yucatfin(Cayo Arcas,Alacrfin Reef), off Belize, on Curacaoand Trinidad,and in the Old World from the British Isles and southern Scandinaviasouth to the Mediterranean,Black and Caspianseas; and [eurygnathagroup] in PuertoRico (Culebra Island), the Virgin Islands(St. Thomas,paired with sandvicensis), on islandsoff the coastof Venezuela(Netherlands Antilles, Las Aves, Los Roques,and on FAMILY LARIDAE 199

SoldadoRock off northernTrinidad, the latter colony sometimesassigned to the sandvicensis group)and French Guiana, and along the coastof Brazil (northto EspfritoSanto) and southern Argentina.Nonbreeding individuals [sandvicensis group] occurin summerthroughout the winteringrange, most commonly in the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbeanregion. Winters [sandvicensisgroup] along the Pacific coastfrom Oaxaca to Ecuadorand Peru, in the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbeanregion from Florida (casuallyfrom Virginia) and the Gulf coastsouth throughout the WestIndies, casually along coasts to southernBrazil andUruguay, and in the Old World generallyfrom the southernportions of the breedingrange southto the easternAtlantic islands,southern Africa, the PersianGulf and India; and [eurygnatha group]from the islandsoff Venezuela(including Tobago and Trinidad)and the Colombian coastsouth along the Atlantic coastto northernArgentina. Casualor accidental[sandvicensis group] in the HawaiianIslands (Oahu); north to southern California (to Los AngelesCounty), Minnesota, southern Ontario, New Brunswickand Nova Scotia; sight reportsfrom Illinois, Michigan, Newfoundland,Bermuda, the northernLesser Antilles (St. Martin), Ecuador,Peru, and Chile, and [eurygnathagroup] for North Carolina (sight report, Cape Hatteras),Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands(where breedingin 1982, paired with one of the sandvicensisgroup). Notes.--The two groupsare oftenregarded as separatespecies, S. sandvicensis[Sandwich or Cabot'sTern] andS. eurygnathaSaunders, 1876 [CayenneTern], but limited interbreeding occurs (Junge and Voous 1955, Voous 1983, Buckley and Buckley 1984, Norton 1984). Mayr and Short (1970) consideredS. sandvicensis,S elegans,S. bernsteiniSchlegel, 1863, and S. bengalensisLesson, 1831, to constitutea superspecies.See commentsunder S. max- ima.

Sterna dougallii Montagu. RoseateTern. Sterna Dougallii Montagu, 1813, Suppl. Ornithol. Dict., [not paged], see under Tern, Roseate(with plate). (The CumbreyIslands in [Scotland].) Habitat.--Coastal waters,bays, estuaries,nesting on sandybeaches, open bare ground, grassyareas and under tumbled boulders,primarily on islands(breeding); mostly pelagic, rarely along seacoasts,bays and estuaries(nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds locally along the Atlantic coast of North America from Quebec (MagdalenIslands), Maine and Nova Scotia southto North Carolina (Core Bank); in the Florida Keys, Bahamas,Cuba (severalcays), Jamaica (Pedro Cays), Hispaniola (Beata Island, Cayos de los Pfijaros),Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Lesser Antilles and islands off Venezuela (NetherlandsAntilles, Las Aves and Los Roques); off Belize and Caribbean Honduras(on SandyCay near Utila in the Bay Islands);in Bermuda(formerly); and in the Old World locally from the British Isles and northernEurope south to the easternAtlantic islands and southern South Africa, and from Sri Lanka and the Andaman Islands south in the Indian Oceanalong the eastcoast of Africa and to the Seychellesand westernAustralia, and in the Pacific Ocean from China and the Ryukyu Islands south to the Philippines, SolomonIslands, New Caledonia, and northernand easternAustralia. Breedingpopulations in the Northern Hemisphereshow seriousdeclines in recent years. Wintersin the Americasprimarily in the easternCaribbean from the WestIndies southward, rangingalong the Atlanticcoast of SouthAmerica to the Guianas,casually to easternBrazil; and in the Old World from the easternAtlantic islandsand northernAfrica souththrough the breedingrange, and in the Indian and Pacific oceanareas near the breedinggrounds. Migrates primarily at sea off the Atlantic coastof North America southto Florida; also off westernEurope and in the westernMediterranean region. Casualalong the Gulf of Florida, and in centraland southernEurope. Accidental in Indiana (Miller), interior E1 Salvador(La Palma), on Corn Island (off Nicaragua),and on Gorgona Island (off Pacificcoast of Colombia,recovery of a bird bandedon Long Island,New York). An old report from the Pacificcoast of Oaxacais questionable.

Sterna hirundo Linnaeus. . Sterna Hirundo Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 137. (in Europa = Sweden.) Habitat.--Seacoasts,estuaries, bays, lakes, rivers and marshes; in winter,primarily coastal waters, beaches. 200 FAMILY LARIDAE

Distribution.--Breeds in the interior of North America from northern Alberta, south- central Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, northwestern and central Manitoba, northern Ontario(including southern James Bay), southernQuebec, southern Labrador, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia south to Montana, North Dakota, northeastern South Dakota, central Min- nesota,northeastern Illinois, northwesternIndiana (formerly), southernMichigan, northern Ohio, northwesternPennsylvania (Presque Isle), centraland northernNew York, and north- westernVermont, and locally along the Atlantic coastto North Carolina (to Wrightsville Beach) and SouthCarolina (DeveauxBeach); locally on the Gulf coastin Texas(Port Isabel to GalvestonBay), Louisiana,Mississippi (between Petit Bois andHorn islands)and western Florida (St. GeorgeIsland); in Bermuda,the GreaterAntilles (isletsoff Hispaniolaeast to the Virgin Islands),Dominica and the NetherlandsAntilles; and in the Old World from the British Isles, northernEurope, northernRussia and northernSiberia south to the eastern Atlantic islands,Mediterranean region, Black and Caspian seas,Asia Minor, the , northernIndia, Tibet, Anadyrlandand Kamchatka.Nonbreeding individuals occur in summeron JamesBay, throughoutthe Great Lakes region, along the Atlantic-Gulf coast (west to southernTexas), on the Pacific Coast of southernCalifornia, southin Middle America to Costa Rica, and throughoutthe West Indies. Wintersin the Americasfrom southernCalifornia (casually) and Baja California(rarely) south along the Pacific coast of Middle America and South America to Peru, and from Florida and the Gulf coast(rarely) souththrough the West Indies and alongthe Caribbean- Atlantic coastof Middle America and SouthAmerica to northernArgentina; and in the Old World from the southernportions of the breedingrange south to southernAfrica, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, the Malay Peninsula,New Guinea,the SolomonIslands and Australia. Migrates regularlyin the westernAleutians (rarely east to the Pribilofs and north to St. LawrenceIsland), alongthe Pacificcoast from Alaska southward,in interior North America in southeasternCalifornia (Salton Sea), the Mississippiand Ohio valleys, and along the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbeancoast, uncommonly elsewhere in North America (reportednorth to Yukon, and south to Arizona and New Mexico. Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands (main islandsfrom Kauai eastward),Clip- pertonIsland (sight report),Labrador, and interior SouthAmerica (Ecuador,Bolivia).

Sterna paradisaea Pontoppidan.. Sterna ParadisceaPontoppidan, 1763, Dan. Atlas 1: 622. (Christians6e,Denmark.) Habitat.--Rocky or grass-coveredcoasts and islands, tundra, and sometimes along inland lakesand rivers (breeding); mostly pelagic, rarely in coastalbays and estuaries (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America from northern Alaska, northern Yukon, northern Mackenzie, Banks, Bathurst and northern Ellesmere islands, Labrador and Newfoundland south to the Aleutian Islands, south-coastaland southeasternAlaska, southernYukon, north- western British Columbia, southern Mackenzie, northwestern Saskatchewan, northern Man- itoba, extremenorthern Ontario (islandsin JamesBay), centralQuebec, New Brunswick and, along the Atlantic coast, locally to Maine and Massachusetts,also in Washington (Everett, since1977); andin the Palearcticfrom Greenland,Iceland, the British Isles, southern Scandinavia,northern Russia and northernSiberia southto northernEurope, Anadyrland, the Commander Islands, and Gulf of Shelekhova. Wintersprimarily in the SouthernHemisphere in subantarcticand watersof the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans,from off central Chile, central Argentina and South Africa to the and (rarely) Antarcticcontinent. Migratesprimarily well at sea,along the Pacificcoast from Alaskato southernCalifornia, and off South America from Colombia to Chile; on the southboundmigration, most North Americanbirds crossthe Atlantic at 50-60 ø N and move southalong the coastsof Europe and Africa. A few crossfrom westernAfrica back to southernArgentina and continuesouth. Othersmove southfrom westernmostAfrica or follow the African coast.Only northbound migrantsare normally seenin the west Atlantic from Brazil north. Casual or accidental in the Hawaiian Islands, south-central British Columbia, interior California, southernNevada, northern and central Alberta, Idaho, easternColorado, Arizona, New Mexico, southern Saskatchewan,Manitoba, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, the Great Lakesregion, Ottawa River, inland New York (CayugaLake), Georgia(Okefenokee Swamp), FAMILY LARIDAE 201

Louisiana,Cuba, the Virgin Islands,Bolivia (sightreport), the Black Sea, andNew Zealand; a sight report from westernMaryland.

Sterna forsteri Nuttall. Forster'sTern. Sterna hirundo (not Linnaeus) Richardson, 1832, in Swainson and Richardson,Fauna Bor.-Amer. 2 (1831): 412. (on the banks of the Saskatchewan[River] = about 10- 50 miles west of CumberlandHouse, Saskatchewan.) Sterna Forsteri Nuttall, 1834, Man. Ornithol. U.S. Can. (ed. 1) 2: 274. New name for Sterna hirundoRichardson, preoccupied. I-Iabitat.--Fresh-waterand salt marshes;in migrationand winter, also seacoasts,bays, estuaries, rivers, and lakes. Distribution.--Breeds in the interior of North America from southeastern British Colum- bia (Creston), central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,central Manitoba and southernOntario south througheast-central Washington and easternand south-centralOregon to northern Baja California, westernNevada, south-centralIdaho, north-centralUtah, northernand east- ern Colorado, easternNew Mexico, central Kansas, western Nebraska, northern Iowa, north- easternIllinois, northwesternIndiana (formerly) and easternMichigan; along the Atlantic coast from southernNew York (Long Island, casually)and Massachusetts(Plum Island) southlocally to SouthCarolina and, formerly, SouthCarolina (Bulls Bay); and along the Gulf coastfrom northernTamaulipas and Texas east to southernLouisiana and southern Alabama (Gaillard Island). Winters from northernCalifornia, Baja California, southwesternArizona, southernNew Mexico, Texas,the Gulf coast,Virginia andBermuda (casually farther north) south (mostly along coasts)to Guatemala,casually to Panama;and in the Bahamasand Greater Antilles (eastto PuertoRico; sightreports from the Virgin Islands). Migrates primarily through interior North America, and on the Pacific coast (north to southernBritish Columbia) and Atlantic coast(north to New Brunswickand Nova Scotia); a sightreport for southernQuebec. Birds from Atlanticcoast breeding populations apparently dispersenorthward, at least to New England,prior to fall migration. Casualin northeasternBritish Columbia,the CaymanIslands, Iceland, the British Isles, the Netherlands, and at sea several hundred miles east of Pernambuco, Brazil.

Sterna albifrons Pallas.. Sternaalbifrons Pallas, 1764, in Vroeg, Cat. Adumbr.,p. 6. (Maasland,Netherlands.) I-Iabitat.--Beaches, rivers, and lakes. Distribution.--Breeds in northern Eurasia from the British Isles, southernScandinavia, centralRussia, southeastern Siberia, Korea and Japan south to WestAfrica, theMediterranean region, the Middle East, southernAsia, Indonesia and Australia, and winters in the more tropical parts of the breedingrange. Casualin theHawaiian Islands (Tern Island, Midway, and, probably, French Frigate Shoals; Clapp 1989, Conantet al. 1991). Notes.--See notes under S. antillarurn.

Sterna antillarum (Lesson). . Sternulaantillarum Lesson, 1847, OeuvresCompl. Buffon 20: 256. (Guadeloupe,West Indies.) Habitat.--Sandy or gravellybeaches and islandsalong shallow coasts, rivers, and lakes; nestsalso on flat rooftopsof buildings;in winter, seacoasts,beaches, bays, estuaries,and lagoons. Distribution.--Breedsalong the Pacificcoast from centralCalifornia ( Bay) southto southernBaja California and Chiapas; in theinterior of NorthAmerica locally along the Colorado,Red, Arkansas,Missouri, Mississippi and systemsfrom northeastern Montana, western North Dakota, central and southeastern South Dakota, western Iowa, southeasternMissouri, southernIllinois, southwesternIndiana and centralKentucky south 202 FAMILY LARIDAE to southeastern Colorado, east-central New Mexico, central and northeastern Texas, central and northeasternLouisiana, western Mississippi, and westernTennessee; along the Atlantic- Gulf coastfrom Maine (Scarborough)south to Florida (includingFlorida Keys) and west to Tamaulipas;in the Atlantic-Caribbeanregion in Bermuda(at leastformerly), throughout the Bahamasand Greater Antilles, in the LesserAntilles (St. Martin, St. Kitts, Antigua, Guadeloupe),on the YucatanPeninsula (including Isla Cancun), off Belize (GrassyCay), in Honduras(on SandyCay near Utila Island, and at PuertoCaxinas), and on islandsoff Venezuela(Netherlands Antilles, Los Roquesand Margarita), possiblyalso Trinidad. Non- breedingbirds casuallyoccur in summernorth to easternWyoming, central Colorado, Min- nesota,southern Wisconsin, northeastern Illinois andcentral Michigan, southern Ontario and Ohio, and souththrough the wintering range. Wintersin SouthAmerica along the Pacificcoast south to Peru(casually north to Nayarit), and along the Atlantic coastfrom Colombia east to easternBrazil. Migrates throughoutthe Gulf-Caribbeanregion (includingthe LesserAntilles and Trin- idad), and along both coastsof Middle America. Casual or accidentalin the Hawaiian Islands,on the Pacific coastnorth to Washington, in southeasternCalifornia, southern Arizona, Peru andArgentina, and north to easternMon- tana, Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, Minnesota, Newfoundland, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia;a sightreport for Idaho. Notes.--S. antillarum has been consideredconspecific with S. albifrons,but seeMassey (1976). The two species,in additionto S. superciliarisand S. lorata Philippi and Landbeck, 1861 of South America, and S. saundersi , 1877 of the northwestern Indian Ocean region, appearto constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990). S. nereis (Gould, 1843) of Australiaand S. baleanarum(Strickland, 1852) of southernAfrica may be included.

$terna superciliaris Vieillot. Yellow-billed Tern. Sterna superciliarisVieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat. (nouv. 6d.) 32: 176. Based on "Hat/Ceja blanca" Azara, Apunt. Hist. Nat. P•ix. Parag., 3, p. 377 (no. 415). (Paraguay.) I-Iabitat.--Rivers and lakes. Distribution.--Breeds in South America east of the Andes from Colombia, Venezuela and the Guianassouth to centralBolivia, Paraguay,northeastern Argentina and Uruguay, and wintersin the breedingrange, wandering to coastalareas, Tobago and Trinidad. Accidentalin Panama(Coco Solo, Canal area, 17-20 October1977; Ridgely 1981: 366). Notes.--See comments under S. antillarum.

Sterna aleutica Baird. .

Sterna aleutica Baird, 1869, Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci. 1: 321. (Kadiak = Kodiak Island, Alaska.) Habitat.--Coastal waters,nesting on grassyor mossyflats, on smalloffshore islands and coastalspits, around lagoons or near river mouths,and foragingmainly offshore(breeding); pelagic (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in Alaska from the coast (from TasaychekLagoon eastto CapeKmsenstern and Kotzebue Sound) south along the westerncoast to the Aleutians (west to Attu) and Alaska Peninsula,and east along the southerncoast (including Kodiak Island) to Glacier Bay; and in Asia on the east coastof Kamchatkaand Sakhalin. Wintersat sea,range unknown,although recently reported from the Philippinesin May and Hong Kong (August-October). Casual in the Pribilof and Commanderislands, on St. Lawrence Island, and in Japan. Accidental in British Columbia (Queen Charlotte Islands) and Great Britain.

Sterna lunata Peale. Gray-backedTern. Sterna lunata Peale, 1848, U.S. Explor. Exped. 8: 277. (VincennesIsland, Paumotu Group = Kauehi Island, Tuamotu Islands.) FAMILY LARIDAE 203

I•abitat.--Coastal waters,nesting on sandybeaches or bare groundon islands(breeding); mostly pelagic (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from the northwesternHawaiian Islands (from Kure east to Kaula and Moku Manu off Oahu), and the Marianas (Guguan) southto the Phoenix, Fiji, Line, and Tuamotu islands. Winters at sea in the central Pacific Ocean, wanderingcasually to ClippertonIsland and the Moluccas.

Sterna anaethetusScopoli. . $terna (Anaethetus)Scopoli, 1786, Del. Flor. Faun. Insubr.,fasc. 2, p. 92. (in Guinea = Panay,Philippine Islands.) Itabitat.--Coastal waters, nesting on islands usually in rocky areas or on coral, occa- sionally on sand, but generally in crevices, on ledges, or partially concealed(breeding); PelagicWaters (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in the PacificOcean (mostly on islets)in Nayarit (Isla Isabela,San Blas), Guerrero (near Zihuetanejo,White Friar Rocks), northwesternCosta Rica (Nicoya and Osa peninsulas)and southwesternEcuador (Isla Pelado), possiblyalso Honduras(Los Farallones) and Panama (Frailes del Sur, off the Azuero Peninsula), and from Taiwan and the Palau Islands south to Indonesia, New Guinea and Australia; in the Atlantic-Caribbean regionin the Florida Keys (PelicanShoals), Bahamas, Cuba (many smallcays), the Cayman Islands(Grand Cayman), Jamaica(Motant and Pedro cays, and off Port Royal), Hispaniola (Navassa, Seven Brothers and Beata islands), Puerto Rico (Mona and Desecheo islands), the Virgin Islands,Lesser Antilles, off the YucatanPeninsula (Cancun and Cozumel islands), Belize and Venezuela(Las Aves and Los Roques,formerly on Aruba and off Tobago);off Mauritania, and on islands in the ; the Red Sea and Persian Gulf; and in the Indian Ocean from off westernIndia southto the Seychelles,Mauritius, and the Laccadive and Maldive islands. Rangesat seain the Pacificoff Middle and SouthAmerica from Nayarit southto Ecuador, and widely in the westernPacific from the breedingrange north to Japan,Marcus Islands, and the Volcano and Ryukyu islands;in the Atlantic-Caribbeanregion widely in the West Indies, north alongthe Atlantic coast(most abundantlyafter storms)from Florida to North Carolina (casuallyto Maine), along the Gulf coastfrom Florida west to Texas, and rarely alongthe north coastof Venezuela;and in the Indian Oceanfrom India and Sri Lanka south in the breedingrange, and to the east coast of Africa. Casual in Bermuda. Accidental in Caribbean Costa Rica and Newfoundland, and in the British Isles, Denmark, France, and at Cape Horn; a sight report for Arkansas. Notes.--Mayr and Short (1970) consideredS. anaethetusand S. fuscata to constitutea superspecies.

Sternafuscata Linnaeus.. Sterna fuscata Linnaeus, 1766, Syst. Nat. (ed. 12) 1: 228. Based mainly on "L'Hirondelle-de-merbrune" Brisson,Ornithologie 6: 220, pl. 21, fig. 2. (in Insula Domincensi -- Hispaniola.) Itabitat.--Nests on islands on sandy beaches,bare ground or coral, most often with scatteredgrasses or herbspresent, less commonly on rocky ledges;generally forages offshore; Pelagic Waters (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds in the Pacific from the Hawaiian Islands (Kure east to Kaula, and Moku Manu andManana off Oahu),on islandsoff westernMexico (Alijos Rocks,Clipperton, Revillagigedo,Tres Mar/as, and Isabela), and the Ryukyu, Bonin, Marcus and Wake islands southto the Australianregion, , central Polynesiaand Tuamotuislands, also in the GalapagosIslands (Culpepper), and on SanFelix off Chile; in the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbean region on small islandsalong the Gulf coastof Texas(Matagorda Bay to CameronCounty), Louisiana (Chandeleur Islands) and the Yucatan Peninsula (Alacr•n reef, Isla Cancun, and formerly Isla Mujeres and CayosArcas), in North Carolina (Morgan Island, 1978), South Carolina (Bird Key, Cape Romaine), and Florida (Dry Tortugas,occasionally elsewhere), 204 FAMILY LARIDAE throughoutthe Bahamas,off Cuba,Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico (Monito andCulebra islands),in the Virgin Islandsand LesserAntilles, off Belize and probablyalso Honduras (Isla Roatgn),off the northcoast of Venezuela(Islas de Aves, isletsoff Tobagoand Trinidad, and formerly Margarita), French Guiana and Brazil (Rocas Reef, Fernandode Noronha, Trindade,Martin Vas), and in the tropicalAtlantic (Ascension,and isletsoff St. Helena and Principe);and in the Indian Oceanfrom the Mascarene,Seychelles, Laccadive, Maldive and Andaman islands to . Rangesat sea widely in the Pacific, throughoutthe Hawaiian Islands,off the west coast of Middle America from Sinaloa to Panama; and widely in the tropical and subtropical Pacific,throughout most of the Caribbean-Gulfregion, regularly from Texaseast to Florida (especiallyafter storms)and casuallynorth along the Atlantic coast to New England and Nova Scotia, also to Bermuda, along the coastof South America eastto the Guianas,to the British Isles, continentalEurope and the Azores, and off the coast of westernAfrica; and widely throughoutthe tropical and subtropicalIndian Ocean. Casual inland after storms in the Atlantic statesnorth to New York, and to western Texas, Arkansas,Wisconsin, Tennessee and West Virginia, and in California and at Lago de Nic- aragua;sight reportsfor southernOntario. Notes.--See comments under S. anaethetus.

GenusPHAETUSA Wagler PhaetusaWaglet, 1832, Isis von Oken, col. 1224. Type, by monotypy,Sterna magni- rostris Lichtenstein = Sterna simplexGmelin.

Phaetusa simplex (Gmelin). Large-billed Tern. Sternasimplex Gmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 606. Basedon the "Simple Tern" Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds 3(2): 355. (in Cayenna = Cayenne.) Habitat.--Rivers and lakes;in nonbreedingseason, also seacoasts. Distribution.--Breeds in SouthAmerica in westernEcuador (at leastformerly), and from Colombia,Venezuela (including Margarita Island), Trinidad and the Guianassouth, east of the Andes, to central Argentina, and rangesto seacoastsin the nonbreedingseason. Casual in Panama (Coco Solo, Canal area, and vicinity; and near E1 Rinc6n, Herrera). Accidental in Bermuda, Cuba (Nipe Bay) and Aruba, also records(of individualswhose origin has been questioned)for Illinois (photograph,Lake Calumet,Chicago), Ohio (sight report, Evans Lake, near Youngstown)and New Jersey(photographs, Kearny Marsh).

GenusCHLIDONIAS Rafinesque ChlidoniasRafinesque, 1822, Ky. Gazette(new ser.)1(8): 3, col. 5. Type, by monotypy, Sternamelanops Rafinesque = Sternasurinamensis Gmelin -- Sternanigra Linnaeus. HydrochelidonBoie, 1822, Isis von Oken, col. 563. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray 1841), Sterna nigra Linnaeus.

Chlidoniasleucopterus (Temminck). White-winged Tern. Sterna leucoptera Temminck, 1815, Man. Ornithol. (ed. 1, 1814), p. 483. (les bords de la M6diterran6e, etc. = Mediterranean Sea.) Habitat.-•Marshes (breeding);coasts, rivers and lakes (nonbreeding). Distribution.--Breeds from easternEurope east to southernSiberia, Sakhalin and Man- churia, and winters from tropical Africa, India, SoutheastAsia and easternChina southto southernAfrica, Madagascar,Sri Lanka, the East Indies, New Guinea,Australia and, rarely, New Zealand, migrating throughEurope, Korea and Japan. Casual or accidentalin Alaska (Nizki Island in the Aleutians, Homer), Manitoba, Wis- consin,Ontario, Quebec (Saint-G6d6on;bred successfully,paired with C. niger and raised young), New Brunswick,Vermont, Massachusetts,New York, New Jersey,Delaware, Vir- FAMILY LARIDAE 205 ginia,the Bahamas(Great Inagua), Virgin Islands(St. Croix), Barbados,Guam, the northern Marianas,and Palau; sightreports for Indiana and Georgia. Notes.--Also known as White-winged .

Chlidonias hybridus (Pallas). .

Sterna hybrida Pallas, 1811, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat.2: 338. (circa Ja¾cumseu Rhymnum, australemVolgam et ad Sarpaelacus = SouthernVolga andSarpa Lake, southeastern Russia.)

Habitat.--Marshes, lagoons,rivers and lakes (breeding);coasts, rivers and lakes (non- breeding). Distribution.--Breeds from southernEurope, southern Russia and southernSiberia south to South Africa and Australia, and winters in Africa, and from southern Asia to Australia. Accidentalin New Jersey(Cape May) and Delaware (DelawareBay, sameindividual, 29 June-6September 1993, photograph;VIREO; publishedphotograph, DeBenedictis 1994b), andin Barbados(16-23 April, 1994, photograph;1995, Nat. AudubonSoc. Field Notes49: 204). Notes.--Also known as .

Chlidonias niger (Linnaeus).Black Tern.

Sterna nigra Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 137. (in Europa -- near Uppsala, Sweden.)

Habitat.--Extensive marshes,sloughs and wet meadows,primarily fresh-water(breed- ing); pelagic, as well as along seacoasts,bays, estuaries,lagoons, lakes and rivers (non- breeding). Distribution.--Breeds in North America from central and northeastern British Columbia, northern Alberta, south-centralMackenzie, northwestern Saskatchewan,northern Manitoba, northernOntario, southernQuebec, southern New Brunswickand centralNova Scotiasouth locally to south-centralCalifornia, northernNevada, northernUtah, central and eastern Colorado, Nebraska, Missouri (formerly), central Illinois, Kentucky (formerly), northern Ohio, Pennsylvania,western New York, northwesternVermont and Maine (one old record from Fort Yukon, east-centralAlaska); and in the Old World from Iceland, northernEurope, north-central Russia and central Siberia south to the Mediterranean Sea, Asia Minor, Tur- kestan,and the Caspianand Aral seas.Nonbreeding birds occur in summersouth on the Pacific coast to Panama, in the interior to Arizona and New Mexico, and in eastern North America to the Gulf coast, where abundant. Winters on the west coast of the Americas from Jalisco (casually north to California) southto Peru, and on the northerncoast of South America from Colombia to Surinam; and in the Old World primarily in tropicalAfrica southto Angola and ,casually to Madeira and northern China. Migrates throughthe interiorof North America southof the breedingrange; along both coastsand through the interiorof Middle America;along the Atlanticcoast from Nova Scotia southto Florida and the West Indies (rarely southto Barbados);and often far at sea. Casualin the Hawaiian Islands,Alaska, Yukon, ClippertonIsland, Bermuda,Chile, and northernArgentina.

Genus LAROSTERNA Blyth

LarosternaBlyth, 1852, Cat. BirdsMus. Asiat. Soc.(1849), p. 293. Type, by monotypy, Sterna inca Lesson. 206 FAMILY LARIDAE

Larosterna inca (Lesson). . Sterna Inca Lesson, 1827, Voy. Coquille, Zool., Atlas, livr. 3, pl. 47. (Lima, Peru.) Habitat.--Coastal Waters; nests on islands Distribution.--Breeds in Peru and Chile, and ranges along the Pacific coast of South America. Casual off the Pacific coast of Panama (Bay of Panama), where present in moderate numbers,31 May-27 June 1983 (maximumof 65 individuals),in apparentassociation with a major "El Nifio SouthernOscillation" (Reed 1988; photograph).

GenusANOUS Stephens AnoasStephens, 1826, in Shaw,Gen. Zool. 13(1): 139. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Anoas niger Stephens= Sterna stolida Linnaeus. MegalopterusBoie, 1826, Isis von Oken, col. 980. Type, by monotypy,Sterna tenui- rostris Temminck.

Anous stolidus (Linnaeus). . Sterna stolida Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 137. Basedmainly on Hirundo marinaminor, capite albo Sloane,Voy. Jamaica1:31, pl. 6, fig. 2, and "The Noddy" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 88, pl. 88. (in America: Pelago = West Indies.) Habitat.--Pelagic Waters;nests on islandson bare ground,rock ledges,sandy beaches or in trees. Distribution.--Breeds in the Pacific Ocean from the Hawaiian (from Kure eastto Kaula, Lehua off Niihau, and Moku Manu andManana off Oahu),Ryukyu andBonin islandssouth to northernAustralia, Norfolk Island and the TuamotuArchipelago, and islandsoff western Mexico (Revillagigedo,Tres Madas, Tres Marietas, and Isabela;possibly Las RocasPotos0 southto CostaRica (CocosIsland, possibly also on the SantaElena Peninsula)and Colombia (Octavia Rocks, GorgonaIsland); in the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbeanregion from the Bahamas and Florida Keys (Dry Tortugas)south through most of the Antilles to islandsoff the coasts of the Yucatan Peninsula (Alacrfin reef), Belize, Isla San Andr6s, Venezuela (Las Aves east to Margarita, Tobago and Trinidad), and French Guiana; and in the Atlantic Ocean on Trindade,Ascension, St. Helena, Tristan da Cunha and Gough, also islandsin the Gulf of Guinea; and in the Indian Ocean region from the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Laccadive Islandssouth to Madagascarand the Seychelles. Wintersat sea,generally in the vicinity of the breedinggrounds, ranging casually (mostly after storms)in the Atlantic-Gulf-Caribbeanregion north to New Jerseyand southto the coastsof Middle America (Caribbeancoast and islandsoff E1 Salvador and Honduras,and both coasts of Panama). Casual in Bermuda. Accidental in Massachusetts,Rhode Island, Louisiana and Texas, also in Norway and Germany. Notes.--Also known as Noddy Tern or Common Noddy.

Anous minutus Boie. . Anous minutus Boie, 1844, Isis von Oken, col. 188. ( -- Raine Island, Australia.) Habitat.--Pelagic Water; nestson islandsin trees or on rock ledges. Distribution.--Breeds in the tropical Pacific Oceanfrom the Hawaiian Islands(through- out), and Marcus and Wake islands south to New Guinea, northeasternAustralia and the TuamotuArchipelago, also off the coastof Middle America on ClippertonIsland, and on (off Costa Rica); in the Caribbeanregion off Belize (formerly on Southwest Cay in Glover'sReef, no recentrecords), in the LesserAntilles (Sombrerooff Anguilla), and off Venezuela (Los Roques, Aruba since 1992, and possibly Las Aves); and in the tropical SouthAtlantic from St. Paul'sRocks and Fernandode Noronhato St. Helena and FAMILY LARIDAE 207

(formerly) InaccessibleIsland. Summersin small numbers(since 1960) in the Florida Keys (Dry Tortugas). Winters at sea in the vicinity of the breedinggrounds. Casual in Isla Cancun, Anguilla, and the NetherlandsAntilles (); sight reports from Honduras(Isla Utila) andthe Bahamas.Accidental on the centralcoast of Texas(Nueces County). Notes.--Some authors(e.g., Vaurie 1965) treat A. tenuirostris (Temminck, 1823) of the Indian Ocean as conspecificwith A. rninutus;they constitutea superspecies.With a single speciesconcept, White-capped Noddy is the appropriateEnglish name.

GenusPROCELSTERNA Lafresnaye Procelsterna[subgenus] Lafresnaye, 1842, Mag. Zool. [Paris] (2)4 (Ois.): pl. 29, p. 1. Type, by monotypy,Procelsterna tereticollis Lafresnaye = Sterna ceruleaBennett.

Procelsternacerulea (Bennett).Blue-gray Noddy. Sterna cerulea ED. Bennett, 1840, Narr. Whaling Voy. 2: 248. (Christmas Island, Pacific Ocean.) Habitat.--Pelagic Waters;nests in recessesand shallowcavities on rocky islands,and in the open on sandyislets. Distribution.--Breeds in the tropical Pacific Ocean from the Hawaiian Islands(Gardner Pinnacles,French Frigate Shoals,Necker, Nihoa and Kaula) and JohnstonAtoll south to southwesternMicronesia and Polynesia,and east to San Ambrosio and Easter islands. Wintersat sea in the generalvicinity of the breedinggrounds. Notes.--Also known as Gray Ternlet. Procelsternacerulea and the southwesternPacific P. albivitta Bonaparte,1856 constitutea superspecies;they are consideredone speciesby Sibley and Monroe (1993).

GenusGYGIS Wagler Gygis Wagler, 1832, Isis von Oken, col. 1223. Type, by monotypy,Sterna candida Gmelin = Sterna alba Sparrman.

Gygis alba (Sparrman).Common White-Tern. Sterna alba Sparrman,1786, Mus. Carlson., fasc. 1, pl. 11. (in India orientali, ad promontoriumBonae Spet Insulasquaemaris pacifici = AscensionIsland.) Habitat.--Pelagic Waters;nests on islandson bare limbs or crotchesin branchesof trees (no nest),less commonly on rocky ledgesor coral, sometimesin old nestsof Anousrninutus and on various man-made structures. Distribution.--Breeds [alba group] in the tropical South Atlantic on Fernandode No- ronha, Trindade, Martin Vas Rocks, Ascensionand St. Helena; on islandsin the tropical Pacific Ocean [candida group] from the Hawaiian (Kure east to Kaula, and on Oahu), Carolinaand Marshall islandssouth to Norfolk, Kermadec,Tonga and Societyislands, also on Clipperton Island and Cocos Island (off Costa Rica), in the GalapagosIslands, and on Easterand Sala-y-Gomezislands, and in the Indian Ocean in the Seychelles;and [rnicror- hynchagroup] on the larger MarquesasIslands and . Rangesat sea generallynear the breedingrange. Accidental [candida group] in the RevillagigedoIslands (Oneal Rock near Socorro,er- roneouslyreported breeding); and [alba group] on Bermuda (7-9 December 1972; photo- graph of individual referableto this group) and Tobago. Notes.--Also known as White Noddy, , or , the latter name now restrictedto Sternanereis (Gould, 1843) of the southwestPacific. Groups: G. alba (Sparrman, 1786) [Atlantic White-Tern], G. candida (Gmelin, 1789) [Pacific White-Tern], and G. rni- crorhynchaSaunders 1876 [Little White-Tern].The latter is given speciesrank by Pratt et al. (1987) and Sibley and Monroe (1990), althoughsome hybridization occurs in the Mar- quesasIslands and Kiribati (Holyoak and Thibault 1976). 208 FAMILY ALCIDAE

Subfamily RYNCHOPINAE: Skimmers

Genus Linnaeus RynchopsLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 138. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Rynchopsnigra Linnaeus.

Rynchopsniger Linnaeus.. Rynchopsnigra Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 138. Basedmainly on the "Cut Water" Catesby,Nat. Hist. Carolina 1: 90, pl. 90. (in America -- coastof South Carolina.) Habitat.--Primarily near coastson sandybeaches, shell banks,coastal islands, tropical rivers, and locally, gravelly rooftops,occasionally inland in floodedfarmlands; in migration and winter, also bays, estuaries,lagoons and mudflats(Tropical to Temperatezones). Distribution.--Breeds in westernNorth Americain southernCalifornia (north to Orange County and the SaltonSea; since 1994 also in San FranciscoBay), possiblyalso in Baja California, and along the Pacific coastof Sonora,Sinaloa, Nayarit, and Oaxaca;and locally on the Atlantic-Gulf coast from southernMassachusetts, Connecticut (Bluff Island), New York (Long Island) and New Jerseysouth to southernFlorida (Miami area), and from western Florida (south to the Tampa Bay region) along the Gulf coast to Texas and southto the Yucatan Peninsula;and in South America southalong the Pacific coastto westernEcuador and in the Caribbean-Atlanticdrainage, in the middlereaches of largerivers (Orinoco, Cauca, Amazon, Paran/i) to northernArgentina. Winters from southwesternCalifornia, Sonora,the Gulf coast,and Florida (rarely from North Carolina) south along the coastsof Cuba (rare but regular), Middle America and SouthAmerica (including Margarita Island and Trinidad)to centralArgentina. Postbreeding individualswander rarely northto centralCalifornia and (usuallyfollowing storms)to Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Casual inland in coastal states, on the Mexican Plateau, and to Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas,Tennessee, Indiana, western and southernOntario and southern Quebec, also to Bermuda,the Bahamas(Bimini, Great Inagua), the Cayman Islands,His- paniola (off the coast),the Virgin Islands,Guadeloupe, and Grenada.

Family ALCIDAE: Auks, Murres, and Notes.--The positionof the auks and their relatives with respectto other groupsin the Charadriiformeshas been subjectto considerablecontroversy. Opinions have rangedfrom consideringthem as a subfamily of the Laridae (Sibley and Ahlquist 1990) to the sister group to the rest of the Charadriiformes(Mickevich and Parenti 1980, Bj6rklund 1994). They are here accordedfamily rank, but conclusionsconcerning their position within the order must await further studies.See Strauch (1985), Moum et al. (1994), and Friesen et al. (1996) for phylogenetichypotheses, generally concordant,concerning relationships among tribes, genera,and species.

Tribe ALCINI: Dovekies, Murres, and Auks

Genus ALLE Link Plautus Gunnerus,1761, TrondheimskeSelks. Skr. 1: 263, pl. 6. Type, by monotypy, Plotus eller Plautus columbarius Gunnerus = Alca alle Linnaeus. (Unavailable name; see Wetmore and Watson 1969, Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Club, 89, pp. 6-7.) Alle Link, 1806,Beschr. Naturh. Samml. Univ. Rostock1: 46. Type, by monotypy,Alle nigricansLink = Alca alle Linnaeus.

Alle alle (Linnaeus). Dovekie. Alca Alle Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 131. (in Europa•,America• • oceano.Restricted to Greenlandby Vaurie [ 1965: 504].) FAMILY ALCIDAE 209

Habitat.--Mostly pelagic;nests in creviceson steepcoastal cliffs. Distribution.--Breeds on eastern Baffin Island, and in the Palearctic in Greenland, Ice- land, Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen,Bear Island, Franz JosefLand, Novaya Zemlya and North Land; also probablyislands in the Bering Sea (St. Lawrenceand Little Diomede),and possiblyon easternEllesmere Island. Nonbreeding birds occur in summeralong the Atlantic coast to Maine. Wintersoffshore from the breedingrange south to SouthamptonIsland, Ungava Bay, the Gulf of St. Lawrenceand (irregularly along the Atlanticcoast as far as North Carolina), and in the easternAtlantic to the Canary Islands,Azores, France and the Baltic Sea,also casually south to southernFlorida, Cuba, the Bahamas (Grand Bahama), Bermuda, Madeira and the western Mediterranean Sea. Casualalong the Arctic coastof Alaska (PointBarrow) and Canada,Melville Islandand Keewatin,on islandsin the southernBering Sea (St. Matthew, St. George,St. Paul), and in the interior of northeasternNorth America west to central Manitoba, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan,Ontario and New York; alsoin the BritishIsles and interior of Europe.Accidental in westernFlorida (Bay County);sight reports for the AleutianIslands (near Unimak) and Illinois. Notes.-•Also known as .

Genus Brisson Uria Brisson, 1760, Ornithologie 1: 52; 6: 70. Type, by tautonymy, Uria Brisson = Colymbusaalge Pontoppidan.

Uria aalge (Pontoppidan).. Colymbusaalge Pontoppidan,1763, Dan. Atlas 1: 621, pl. 26. (Island = Iceland.) Habitat.--Pelagic and alongrocky seacoasts;nests in coastalcliff ledges. Distribution.--Breeds in North America along the Pacific coast from westernAlaska (Cape Lisburne,Kotzebue Sound, Diomede Islands) south through Norton Soundand the BeringSea (St. Matthew,Nunivak and the Pribilof islands)to the Aleutians,and from south- coastalAlaska to central California (including the Farallon Islands,and southto Monterey County,formerly Santa Barbara County); in easternNorth Americafrom Labrador(locally east from NunarsukIsland) and southeasternQuebec (north shoreof Gulf of St. Lawrence, Anticosti and Bonaventureislands, and Bird Rocks) southto Newfoundlandand Nova Scotia (at leastformerly); and in the Palearcticfrom Greenlandand Icelandeast to Norway, and southto northernFrance and centralNorway, and from the CommanderIslands and Kam- chatka southto southernSakhalin, eastern Korea and Japan. Wintersprimarily offshore in areasnear the breeding grounds, in thePacific south regularly to southernCalifornia and (rarely) northernBaja California; in easternNorth America south to Massachusetts,casually as far as Virginia (Back Bay); and in the Palearcticto northern Europe. A sight report for Sinaloa. Notes.--Also known as Thin-billed Murre and, in Old World literature, as the .

Uria lornvia (Linnaeus). Thick-billed Murre. Alca LomviaLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 130.(in Europaboreali = Greenland.) Habitat.--Mostly pelagic;nests in steep,coastal cliffs. Distribution.--Breeds in westernNorth America from northernAlaska (Cape Lisburne, KotzebueSound, Diomede Islands) south through the Pribilofsto the Aleutiansand to British Columbia(Triangle Island), east to Kodiak,Middleton and St. Lazariaislands, and in north- westernMackenzie (Cape Parry); in easternNorth Americafrom PrinceLeopold, Cobourg, Bylot andeastern Baffin islandssouth to northernHudson Bay (CoatsIsland and ), northernQuebec (Ungava Bay to ), Labrador,the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Newfoundland(), formerly to Maine (PenobscotBay); and in the Palearctic from Greenland,Iceland, Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen,Novaya Zemlya, northernRussia and 210 FAMILY ALCIDAE northern Siberia south to the Chukotski Peninsula, Kamchatka, and the Commander and Kuril islands. Winters primarily offshorefrom the breedinggrounds, in westernNorth America south to southeasternAlaska, casually to central California (Monterey Bay); in easternNorth America southalong the Atlantic coastto New Jersey,casually south to Florida and inland to the Great Lakes region (recordedfrom Michigan, Ontario and Quebecsouth to Iowa, Indiana, Ohio and Pennsylvania);and in the Palearcticsouth to northernEurope and Japan. Notes.--Also known as Brunnich's Murre and, in Old World literature, as Brunnich's Guillemot.

Genus ALCA Linnaeus

Alca Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 130. Type, by tautonymy,Alca torda Linnaeus(Alca, prebinomialspecific name, in synonymy).

Alca torda Linnaeus. .

Alca Torda Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 130. (in Europa•borealis oceano = Stora Kads6, Baltic Sea.)

Habitat.--Mostly pelagic;nests in coastalcliffs and on rocky shoresand islands. Distribution.--Breeds in North America from extreme southeastern Baffin Island and the coastof Labradorsouth to southeasternQuebec (north shoreof Gulf of St. Lawrence,Cape Whittle, Bird Rocks, and Anticosti, Bonaventure,Magdalen and P•lerins islands),eastern Newfoundland, southern New Brunswick (Grand Marian, Machias Seal Island), eastern Maine (Matinicus Rock) and Nova Scotia; and in the Palearctic from Greenland east to the British Isles, Bear I., Scandinaviaand northernRussia. Recordedin summer(and possibly breeding)on DiggesIsland, off northwesternQuebec. Wintersoffshore from the breedinggrounds in North America southto New York (Long Island), casuallyto South Carolina and Florida (includingthe Gulf coast) and inland to southern Ontario; and in the Palearctic from southern Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea south to the western Mediterranean Sea. Accidental in central New York (SenecaCounty). Notes.--Also known as Razor-billed Auk.

Genus PINGUINUS Bonnaterre

Plautus(not Gunnerus)Brtinnich, 1771, Zool. Fund.,p. 78. Type, by monotypy,"Bril- lefuglen" = Alca impennisLinnaeus. PinguinusBonnaterre, 1791, Tabl. Encycl. M6th., Ornithol., livr. 47, pp. lxxxiii, 28. Type, by subsequentdesignation (Ogilvie-Grant, 1898), Alca impennisLinnaeus.

?Pinguinusimpennis (Linnaeus)..

Alca impennisLinnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 130. (in Europa arctica = Nor- wegian Sea.)

Habitat.--Mostly at sea;nested on low coastalrocky islands. Distribution.--EXTINCT Formerly bred in the Gulf of St. Lawrence(Bird Rocks),New- foundland(), Greenland,Iceland and the Outer Hebrides (St. Kilda), possibly in the Faeroe Islandsand on Lundy, doubtfully on the Isle of Man. Winteredfrom the breedinggrounds south to Maine and Massachusetts,casually to South Carolina; and to the British Isles, France, Spain, Denmark and Scandinavia. Last verified record: two taken in Iceland on 3 June 1844. Notes.--Strauch (1985)'s analysisof primarily morphologicalcharacters indicated that Pinguinusshould be mergedinto Alca. FAMILY ALCIDAE 211

Tribe CEPHINI:

Genus Pallas

CepphusPallas, 1769, Spic. Zool. 1(5): 33. Type, by monotypy,Cepphus lacteolus Pallas = Alca grylle Linnaeus.

Cepphusgry!!e (Linnaeus)..

Alca Grylle Linnaeus,1758, Syst. Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 130. (in Europa•borealis oceano = Gotland, Sweden.)

Habitat.--Mostly coastal;nests in holesunder rocks (rarely in ground)on rocky islands, in crevices in base of coastal cliffs, and (in Alaska) in or under beach flotsam. Distribution.--Breeds in northernAlaska (along the Chukchiand Beaufort seacoasts from Cape Thompsoneast at leastto ,possibly also on St. LawrenceIsland in the BeringSea) andnorthern Yukon (); in easternNorth Americafrom Ellesmere, Devon, Somerset,Bylot and easternBaffin islandssouth to the Melville Peninsula,South- amptonIsland, northernOntario (Cape HenriettaMaria), the easternshore of Hudsonand Jamesbays, Newfoundland, shores and islandsof the easternSt. LawrenceRiver (P•lerins Islands), Gulf of St. Lawrence,New Brunswick, Maine and southernNova Scotia; and in the northernPalearctic from Greenland,Iceland, Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen,Bear I., Franz JosefLand and NovayaZemlya eastto the New Siberian,Wrangel and Herald islands,and southto the British Isles, Scandinavia,and the coastof northernRussia and northernSiberia. Recorded in summer west to Banks Island and northern Keewatin. Wintersfrom the breedinggrounds south in the BeringSea ice frontto thePribilof Islands, and in easternNorth Americato New England,rarely New York (Long Island) and New Jersey;and in the Palearcticto northernEurope. Casualor accidentalinland to Alberta, Saskatchewan(sight report), Mackenzie, Manitoba, southernOntario, northeasternOhio, easternPennsylvania (Delaware River near Chester) and New York, and south to South Carolina. Notes.--C. grylle and C. ,and possibly also Asiatic C. carbo Pallas, 1811 (Mayr and Short 1970), constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Cepphuscolumba Pallas. .

CepphusColurnba Pallas, 1811, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat.2: 348. (in oceanoarctico parit- erquecirca Camtschatcam et in omni freto inter Sibiriamet Americam= Kamchatka and .)

Habitat.--Mostly coastal;nests in crevicesin coastalcliffs, excavatedholes in banksor amongrocks along shoresalso under docks and piers. Distribution.--Breeds [colurnbagroup] in westernNorth America t¾omnorthern Alaska (Cape Lisburneand Cape Thompson)south through Norton Sound,Cape Newenhamand CapePeirce, and the Bering Sea islands (Diomede, St. Lawrence,St. Matthew,Hall, Nunivak) to the Aleutians,and southalong the Pacificcoast to southernCalifornia (to SantaBarbara Island,and on the mainlandto northernSanta Barbara County); and in easternSiberia from the Chukotski Peninsula south to Kamchatka and the Commander Islands. Nonbreeding individuals[colurnba group] occur in summerelsewhere in the BeringSea (Pribilof Islands) and in Baja California. Winters[colurnba group] offshore near the breedinggrounds, in North Americafrom the Pribilof and Aleutian islandssouth to central California (casuallyto San Diego County), and in Eurasia southto northernJapan. Resident(snowi group) in the Kuril Islands. Notes.--Groups:C. colurnba[Pigeon Guillemot] and C. snowi Stejneger,1897 [Kuril Guillemot]. See commentsunder C. grylle. 212 FAMILY ALCIDAE

Tribe BRACHYRAMPHINI: BrachyramphineMurrelets

Genus Brandt BrachyramphusM. Brandt, 1837, Bull. Sci. Acad. Imp. Sci. St.-Petersbourg2(22): col. 346. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Colymbusmarmoratus Gmelin.

Brachyramphusperdix (Pallas). Long-billed Murrelet. CepphusPerdix Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat.,2, 1811, p. 351, pl. 80. (Bering Sea and Sea of Okhotsk.) Habitat.--Oceanic, most numerouson near-shorewaters and bays. Nests on massesof lichensin coniferoustrees and (probably)on the ground. Distribution.--Breeds in easternAsia, along the westernshores of the Sea of Okhotsk from the PenzhinaDelta southto Olga Bay,',onboth coastsof Sakhalin Island, and from the southernKurile Islands(Urup, Iterup) to northeasternHokkaido (Mt. Mokoto), and on the east coast of Kamchatka.(The report of nesting on the CommanderIslands is not consideredvalid by recentRussian authors.) Winters south along both coastsof Japan,regularly to northernHonshu and rarely or casuallyto southernKorea and Amami-oshimain the Ryu-kyu Islands. Casual in interior North America: Alaska (Denali National Park), California (Mono Lake, 4 specimens),Montana, Colorado, Arkansas, Indiana, Ohio, Quebec,St. LawrenceRiver (Ontario/New York). Massachusetts,North Carolina, SouthCarolina, and Florida; accidental in coastalCalifornia (Humboldt Bay); also sight reportsfor this or B. marmoratusfrom Saskatchewan,Iowa, and Indiana (Lake Michigan); see summaryin Sealy et al. (1991). Notes.--Treatedas a speciesby Ridgway(1919) andAOU (1931), but subsequently(e.g.. AOU 1957) generally considereda subspeciesof B. marmoratus.Molecular data (Friesen et al. 1996) indicatethat B. brevirostrismay be more closelyrelated to B. marmoratusthan is B. perdix; other moleculardata (Zink et al. 1995) also show a degreeof differentiation betweenperdix and marmoratuscomparable to that between well-differentiatedspecies. Also known as Asiatic Murrelet.

Brachyramphusmarmoratus (Gmelin). . Colymbusmarmoratus Gmelin, 1789, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 583. Based on the "Marbled Guillemot" Pennant,Arct. Zool. 2: 517, pl. 22, right fig. (in America occidentaliet Camtschatca= Prince William Sound, Alaska.) Habitat.--Mostly coastal; nests on large horizontal branchesin coniferoustrees near coasts,occasionally on islandson open barrenground. Distribution.--Breeds definitely in southernAlaska (Kenai Peninsula,Barren Islands, Baranof Island), coastalBritish Columbia (including lakes near the coast,Campbell et al. 1990), westernWashington and central California (Santa Cruz County). Occursin summer andprobably breeds in North Americafrom southernAlaska (the Aleutians, Alaska Peninsula and south-coastalregion) southto centralCalifornia. Wintersoffshore near the breedinggrounds from southernAlaska (casuallythe Aleutians and Pribilofs) southto central California, casuallyto northernBaja California. Notes.--See commentsunder B. perdix.

Brachyramphusbrevirostris (Vigors). Kittlitz's Murrelet. Uria brevirostrisVigors, 1829, Zool. J. 4 (1828): 357. (San Blas [Mexico], error = North Pacific.) Habitat.--Mostly coastal,showing preference for ice-filled waters(Kessel 1989); nests in coastalcliffs, andbarren ground, rock ledgesand talusabove timberline in coastalmoun- tains. Generally near snowfields. Distribution.--Breeds in Alaska from Point Hope south to the Aleutians and east to Glacier Bay, and along the north shoreof the ChukotskiPeninsula. FAMILY ALCIDAE 213

Winters generally offshorefrom the Aleutians east to Glacier Bay. Casual in the Kuril Islands.Accidental in British Columbia (Victoria), Washington(San Juan Island) and southernCalifornia (La Jolla). Notes.--See commentsunder B. perdix.

Tribe SYNTHLIBORAMPHINI: SynthliboramphineMurrelets

Genus Brandt

SynthliboramphusM. Brandt, 1837, Bull. Sci. Acad. Imp. Sci. St.-Petersbourg2(22): col. 347. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Alca antiqua Gmelin. EndomychuraOberholser, 1899, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 51: 201. Type, by original designation,Brachyramphus hypoleucus X•ntus de Vesey. Notes.--Strauch (1985) merged Endomychurainto Synthliboramphus(cf. Moum et al. 1994), and placedSynthliboramphus in the Cepphini.

Synthliboramphushypoleucus (Xfintus de Vesey). Xantus's Murrelet. Brachyramphushypoleucus X•ntus de Vesey, 1860, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 11 (1859): 299. (Cape St. Lucas,Lower California = 14 miles off the coastof Cape San Lucas, Baja California.) Habitat.--Coastal Waters, Pelagic Waters; nests on islands on the ground, in crevices beneathlarge rocks, or under denseclumps of vegetation. Distribution.--Breeds on islandsoff southernCalifornia (San Miguel, Santa Cruz, An- acapa,Santa Barbara, San Clemente,and, formerly, SantaCatalina) and westernBaja Cal- ifornia (Los Coronados,Todos Santos,Natividad, San Benito and Guadalupe).On large islands(e.g., SanMiguel, SantaCruz, SanClemente, Guadalupe) confined largely or entirely to offshore rocks (Drost and Lewis 1995). Winters primarily from northern California (rarely) south to southernBaja California, casuallyfarther north (recordedfrom off the coastsof Oregon, Washington,and southern British Columbia). Notes.--There is some evidence that S. hypoleucus[Xantus's Murrelet] and the form S. scrippsi (Green and Arnold, 1939) [Scripps'sMurrelet], here considereda subspeciesof hypoleucus,breed in the San Benito Islands and on Santa Barbara Island with but limited hybridization;thus there may be two specieswithin this complex (Jehl and Bond 1975). Synthliboramphushypoleucus and S. craveri were formerly consideredconspecific, but both apparentlybreed in the San Benito Islands with very little hybridization(Jehl and Bond 1975). Synthliboramphushypoleucus and S. craveri constitutea superspecies(Mayr and Short 1970). These two specieswere formerly placed in the genusEndomychura.

Synthliboramphuscraveri (Salvadori). Craveri's Murrelet. Uria Craveri Salvadori, 1865, Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Milano 8: 387. (Golfo della California,Lat. 27ø 50' 12" Long. 110ø 10' 45" -- Isla Natividad, Baja California; Violani and Boano, 1990, Riv. Piem. St. Nat. 11: 155-162.) Habitat.--Coastal Waters, Pelagic Waters; nestsin rock creviceson islands. Distribution.--Breeds on most islandsin the Gulf of California (north to ConsagRock), and probablynorth along the west coastof Baja California to MagdalenaBay and the San Benito Islands. Wintersat seain the Gulf of California and to the coastof Sonora(possibly farther south off western Mexico). Wandersafter the breedingseason along the Pacificcoast of Baja California andCalifornia north (uncommonly)to MontereyBay and southto Nayarit; a sightreport for centralCal- ifornia (Farallon Islands). A record from Oregon is erroneous. Notes.--Olson (1996) pointedout that the singularpossessive form of the Englishname 214 FAMILY ALCIDAE of this speciesis technically incorrect becausethe specieswas evidently named for the Craveri brothers.See commentsunder $. hypoleucus.

Synthliboramphusantiquus (Gmelin). . Alca antiqua Gmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 554. Basedon the "Antient Auk" Pennant, Arct. Zool. 2:512. (in mari inter Camtschatcam,insulas Kuriles et Americam inter- medio = Bering Sea.) Habitat.--Mostly pelagic; nestsalong rocky seacoastsin crevices,under rocks, and in in the ground. Distribution.--Breeds in western North America from southern Alaska (the Aleutian, Sanak and Kodiak islands) south to British Columbia (Queen Charlotte Islands), casually to northwesternWashington (Carroll Island);and in easternAsia from the CommanderIslands and Kamchatkasouth to Amurland,Sakhalin, northern Japan (Hokkaido and Honshu),Korea and Dagelet Island. Wintersprimarily offshorein North America from the Aleutian Islandssouth to central (rarely southern)California; and in Asia from the CommanderIslands southto Taiwan and the RyukyuIslands. Post-breeding dispersal reported north through Bering Straits to Chukchi Sea (Kessel 1989). Casual in Baja California and in the interior of western and central North America in southern Yukon, and from southern British Columbia, Alberta, Idaho, Montana, southern Manitoba, the Great Lakes region and southernQuebec south to southeasternCalifornia, Nevada, Utah, northern New Mexico, central Colorado, Nebraska, Louisiana, central Illinois, northwesternIndiana, northernOhio and Pennsylvania. Accidental in the British Isles. Notes.--S. antiquusand the Japanese$. wurnizusurne(Temminck, 1835) [Japaneseor Temminck'sMurrelet] constitutea superspecies(Sibley and Monroe 1990).

Tribe AETHIINI: Auklets

Genus PTYCHORAMPHUS Brandt

PtychorarnphusM. Brandt, 1837, Bull. Sci. Acad. Imp. Sci. St.-Petersbourg2(22): col. 347. Type, by monotypy,Uria aleutica Pallas.

Ptychoramphusaleuticus (Pallas). Cassin'sAuklet. Uria Aleutica Pallas, 1811, Zoogr.,Rosso-Asiat. 2: 370. (Russiaad Oceanumorientalem = North Pacific Ocean.) Habitat.--Mostly pelagic; nestson islandsin burrowsin the ground. Distribution.---Breedslocally on coastalislands from southernAlaska (westto Buldir in the Aleutians) southto southernBaja California (includingAsunci6n, San Roque and Gua- dalupe islands). Wintersalong the Pacificcoast from southernBritish Columbia (Vancouver Island), rarely from southeasternAlaska, south to southernBaja California. Accidental in the Hawaiian Islands (Oahu).

Genus Merrem

Aethia Merrem, 1788, Vers. Grundr.Allg. Ges. Nat. Eintheil. V6gel 1 (TentamenNat. Syst. Avium): 7, 13, 20. Type, by monotypy,Alca cristatella Pallas. CyclorrhynchusKaup, 1829, Skizz. Entw.-Ges.Eur. Thierw., p. 155. Type, by mono- typy, Alca psittacula Pallas. Notes.--See Strauch(1985), Moum et al. (1994), and Friesenet al. (1996) for merger of Cyclorrhynchusinto Aethia. FAMILY ALCIDAE 215

Aethia psittacula (Pallas). ParakeetAuklet. Alca psittacula Pallas, 1769, Spic. Zool 1(5): 13, pl. ii; pl. v, figs. 4-6. (in mari Kamtschatkam... et circa insulaspartim versusIaponiam partim versusAmericam septentrionalemsparsas = Kamchatka.) Habitat.--Mostly pelagic; nestsalong rocky seacoastsin crevices,among boulders on beaches,and on rocky slopeswith densevegetation. Distribution.--Breedsin westernAlaska from the DiomedeIslands, Fairway Rock, and Norton Soundsouth through the Bering Sea (St. Lawrence, St. Matthew and the Pribilof islands)to the Aleutians, and eastto islandsin Prince William Sound;and in eastern Siberiaalong the Gulf of Anadyr and in the CommanderIslands. Winters at sea in the North Pacific from the Pribilof and Aleutian islands south well offshorerarely to central (casuallyto southern)California, and in Asia southto Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands,rarely to Japan. Casual in the Hawaiian Islands (Kure, Midway) and northern Alaska (Point Barrow). Accidental in Sweden.

Aethia pusilla (Pallas). . Uria pusilla Pallas, 1811, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat.2: 373. (circa Camtschatcam= Kam- chatka.) Habitat.--Mostly pelagic;nests on talus slopesand rubble, occasionallyin small crevices in coastal cliffs. Distribution.--Breeds in westernAlaska from the DiomedeIslands south through islands of the Bering Sea (including the Pribilofs) to the Aleutian, Shumaginand Semidi islands; and in easternSiberia along the ChukotskiPeninsula and the CommanderIslands south to the central Kuril Islands (Jones 1993). Wintersin the southernBering Sea, at seaoff the Aleutians,and from the coastof eastern Siberia southto Kamchatka,Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and northernJapan. Casual north to northern Alaska (Point Barrow) and east to northern Mackenzie (Kitti- gazuit). Accidentalin California (San Mateo County).

Aethia pygmaea (Gmelin). . Alca pygrnaeaGmelin, 1789, Syst.Nat. 1(2): 555. Basedon the "Pygmy Auk" Pennant, Arct. Zool. 2: 513. (circa insulam avium, inter Asiam septentrionalemet Americam = St. Matthew Island; Feinstein, 1959, Auk 76: 60-67.) Habitat.--Mostly pelagic;nests in crevicesin talusslopes, among boulders along beaches, and on lava flows on high slopes. Distribution.--Breeds in southwesternAlaska in the Aleutians (east at least to Unimak Pass and west to Buldir, possibly also in the Near Islands), and in the Commanderand central Kuril islands. Winters at sea off the Aleutians, and from the Commander Islands and Kamchatka south to the Kuril Islandsand Japan. Casualnorth in the Bering Sea to St. LawrenceIsland and Bristol Bay, and southto Japan.

Aethia cristate!!a (Pallas). . Alca cristatellaPallas, 1769, Spic. Zool. 1(5): 18, pl. iii; pl. v, figs. 7-9. (Ultimarum versusJaponiam maxime incola et circa insulamMatmey -- Hokkaidoto Kamchatka.) Habitat.--Mostly pelagic; nestson talus slopesand beach boulder rubble, occasionally in crevices in cliffs. Distribution.--Breeds in westernAlaska on BeringSea islands (from the Diomedessouth, includingKing, St. Lawrenceand St. Matthew, to the Pribilofs), and in the Aleutianseast at least to the Shumaginand Semidi islands,but not in the Near Islands); and in eastern Siberia from the Chukotski Peninsula south to Sakhalin and the central Kuril Islands. Non- 216 FAMILY ALCIDAE breedingbirds occurin summernorth to northernAlaska (Wainwrightand Barrow), and to Wrangel and Herald islands,off northernSiberia. Wintersin open watersof the Bering Sea and aroundthe Aleutians,east to the vicinity of Kodiak, and in Asiatic watersnear breedingareas, straggling south to Japan. Accidental inland in Alaska (Nulato), in British Columbia (VancouverIsland), in California (Marin County),and in the North Atlantic off the northeasterncoast of Iceland;sight reports for coastalOregon and Baja California.

Tribe FRATERCULINI: Puffins

GenusCERORHINCA Bonaparte Cerorhinca Bonaparte,1828, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N.Y. 2: 427. Type, by monotypy, Cerorhincaoccidentalis Bonaparte = Alca monocerataPallas.

Cerorhinca monocerata (Pallas). . Alca monocerataPallas, 1811, Zoogr.Rosso-Asiat. 2: 362. (circapromontorium S. Eliae Americae et ad littora insulae Kadiak = Cape St. Elias, Alaska.) Habitat.--Mostly pelagic;nests on islandsin groundburrows. Distribution.--Breeds on islandsalong the Pacific coastof North America from south- coastaland southeasternAlaska (Barren, Middleton, St. Lazaria and Forresterislands) south to southernCalifornia (to SantaBarbara County, off SanMiguel Island);and in easternAsia from southernSakhalin and the southernKuril Islandssouth to Koreaand Japan. Nonbreeding birds occur in summersouth casually to southernCalifornia (San Pedro). Wintersoff the Pacific coastof North America from southernBritish Columbia (casually from southernAlaska) southto Baja California (SantaMargarita Island); and in Asia in the southernpart of the breedingrange. Casual in the Aleutian and Commander islands. Notes.--Also known as Horn-billed .

Genus FRATERCULA Brisson

Fratercula Brisson,1760, Ornithologie1: 52; 6: 81. Type, by tautonymy,Fratercula Brisson = Alca arctica Linnaeus. Lunda Pallas, 1811, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat.2: 363. Type, by subsequentdesignation (G. R. Gray, 1840), Alca cirrhata Pallas.

Fratercula arctica (Linnaeus). . Alca arctica Linnaeus,1758, Syst.Nat. (ed. 10) 1: 130. (in Europa:borealis oceano = northernNorway.) Habitat.--Primarily pelagic;nests on rocky island slopesand seacoasts,usually in bur- rows, rarely in cliff crevices. Distribution.--Breeds in easternNorth America from Labrador (north to Nain) southin coastalareas to southeasternQuebec (Mingan, Anticosti, Bonaventure and Magdalen islands, and Gasp6Peninsula), Newfoundland, southwestern New Brunswick(Machias Seal Island) and easternMaine (Seal Island and Matinicus Rock), alsoon DiggesIsland off northwestern Quebec;and in the Palearcticfrom Greenland,Iceland, the FaeroeIslands, Spitsbergen, Bear Island and Novaya Zemlya southto the British Isles, northernEurope, southern Scandinavia and the coast of northern Russia. Winters in the North Atlantic off North America from Labrador south to Massachusetts, casually to New Jersey,Maryland and Virginia; and in Eurasia from the breeding range southto the easternAtlantic islands,northwestern Africa, the westernMediterranean region, and southernEurope. Casual or accidental in Ohio (Toledo area), Ontario (Ottawa; Cochrane), southwestern Quebec(Lake St. Peter), Vermont (Rutland) and Florida (Martin County).