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Home , Daxia, Dayuan, Kangju, Zhang Qian

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GLOBAL CONTACTS: THE OPENING 25 OF THE ROAD

During the early (206 B.cE.-220 CE.) Chinese emperors began to send large amounts of silk-for both diplomatic and commercial reasons-to the of , especially the . Within a short time some of this silk found its way, by means of a type of relay trade, to . Modern scholars refer to the East- West routes on which the fabric, and other commodities, moved as the . By 100 CE. the land routes linking to Rome also had a maritime counterpart. Seaborne commerce flourished between Rome and via the Red Sea and the Ara- bian Sea. Other routes farther east, connected Indian ports with harbors in Southeast Asia and China. A great Afro-Eurasian commercial network had now come into being. Silk from China (the only country that produced it until after 500 CE.), pepper and jewels from India, and incense from Arabia were sent to the Mediterranean region on routes that ter- minated in Roman cities such as Alexandria, Gaza, Antioch, and Ephesus. In exchange for the precious commodities, the Romans sent large amounts of silver and gold east- ward to destinations in Asia. Because the long-distance trade of the classical period was mainly in luxuries rather than in articles of daily use, its overall economic impact was probably limited. Most present-day historians think that the Rome-India-China trade was significant pri- marily because of its role in promoting the spread of religions, styles of art, technologies, and epidemic diseases. The following selections are a mixture of Chinese and Roman evidence. How does the variety of materials in this chapter suggestthe growth of long-distance contacts dur- ing the classical period?

Selection I from Records of the Grand Historian by : Han Dynasty II, revised ed. Translated by (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 231-233. Selection II "Chinese Gifts of Silk to the Xiongnu" from Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Relations by Ying-shih Yu (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), p. 47. Selection III. Reprinted by permisison of the publishers and the Trustees of the Loeb Classical Library from Seneca: Volume III MoralEssays, LCL # 310, translated by John W. Basore, Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1935. The Loeb Classical Library @ is a registered trademark of the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Selection III. from Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars: Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, translated by Robert Graves (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1957). Permission granted by Carcanet press limited. Selection IV from The Travels of Fa-hsien (399-414 A.D.), or Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms, translated by H. A. Giles (Cam- bridge University Press, 1923), pp. 76-79, 81.

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INDIAN OCEAN ATLANTIC OCEAN India - East Roman Empire Sassanian Empire land routes a 500 1,000 Miles I I I I I Water routes a 1,000Kilometers ~ China

EstablishedTrade Routes, ca, 600 C.E. Chapter 25 I Global Contacts:The Opening of the SilkRoad 159

CHINESEAND ROMAN SOURCES

I.ZHANGQIAN'SJOURNEYWEST {Thedescriptionof Qian's mission to CentralAsia comesfrom Sima Qian, the Chinese historian who authored the descriptionof the Xiongnu nomads in Chapter 24. Although pinpointing the places early travelers visited is a notoriously difficult problem, modern researchersthink that probablyjourneyed asfar as today'sKyrgyzstan(Chinese: ) and (Chinese:).] Zhang Qian was the first person to bring back a clear accout of Dayuan [Kyrgyztan]. He was a native of and served as a palace attendant dur- ing the jianyuan era (140-135 B.C.E.). At this time the emperor [Han Wudi, reigned 140-87 B.C.E.]questioned various Xiongnu who had surrendered to the Han and they all reported that the Xiongnu had defeated the king of the people [also pastoral nomads] and made his skull into a drinking vessel. As a result the Yuezhi had fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu, though as yet they had been unable to find anyone to join them in attack on their enemy. The Han at this time was engaged in a concerted effort to destroy the Xiongnu, and therefore, when the emperor heard this, he decided to try to send an envoy to establish relations with the Yuezhi. To reach them, however, an envoy would inevitably have to pass through Xiongnu territory. The emperor accordingly sent out a summons for men capable of undertaking such a mission. Zhang Qian, who was a palace attendant at the time, answered the summons and was appointed as envoy to the Yuezhi. He set out from Longxi, accompanied by Ganfu, a Xiongnu slave who belonged to a family in Tangyi. They travelled west through the territory of the Xiongnu and were captured by the Xiongnu and taken before the Shanyu. The Shanyu detained them and refused to let them proceed. "The Yuezhi people live north of me," he said. "What does the Han mean by trying to send an envoy to them! Do you suppose that if I tried to send an embassy to the kingdom of Yue in the southeast the Han would let my men pass through China?" The Xiongnu detained Zhang Qian for over ten years and gave him a wife from their own people, by whom he had a son. Zhang Qian never once relin- quished the imperial credentials that marked him as an envoy of the Han, however, and after he had lived in Xiongnu territory for some time and was less closely watched than at first, he and his party finally managed to escape and resume their journey toward the Yuezhi. After hastening west for twenty or thirty days, they reached the kingdom of Dayuan. The king of Dayuan had heard of the wealth of the Han empire and wished to establish communication with it, though as yet he had been unable to do so. When he met Zhang Qian he was overjoyed and asked where Zhang Qian wished to go. "I was dispatched as envoy of the Han to the Yuezhi, but the Xiongnu blocked my way and I have only just now managed to escape," he replied. "I beg Your Highness to give me some guides to show me the way. If I can reach my des- tination and return to the Han to make my report, the Han will reward you with countless gifts!" .-

Chapter 25 / Global Contacts:The Opening ofthe Silk Road 159

CHINESEAND ROMAN SOURCES

I.ZHANG QIAN'SJOURNEY WEST

[The description of Zhang Qian's mission to Central Asia comesfrom Sima Qian, the Chinese historian who authored the description of the Xiongnu nomads in Chapter 24. Although pinpointing the Places early travelers visited is a notoriously difficult problem, modern researchersthink that Zhang Qian probably journeyed as far as today's Kyrgyzstan (Chinese: Dayuan) and Afghanistan (Chinese: Daxia).] Zhang Qian was the first person to bring back a clear accout of Dayuan [Kyrgyztan] . He was a native of Hanzhong and served as a palace attendant dur- ing the jianyuan era (140-135 B.C.E.). At this time the emperor [Han Wudi, reigned 140-87 B.C.E.] questioned various Xiongnu who had surrendered to the Han and they all reported that the Xiongnu had defeated the king of the Yuezhi people [also pastoral nomads] and made his skull into a drinking vessel. As a result the Yuezhi had fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu, though as yet they had been unable to find anyone to join them in an attack on their enemy. The Han at this time was engaged in a concerted effort to destroy the Xiongnu, and therefore, when the emperor heard this, he decided to try to send an envoy to establish relations with the YUezhi. To reach them, however, an envoy would inevitably have to pass through Xiongnu territory. The emperor accordingly sent out a summons for men capable of undertaking such a mission. Zhang Qian, who was a palace attendant at the time, answered the summons and was appointed as envoy to the YUezhi. He set out from Longxi, accompanied by Ganfu, a Xiongnu slave who belonged to a family in Tangyi. They travelled west through the territory of the Xiongnu and were captured by the Xiongnu and taken before the Shanyu. The Shanyu detained them and refused to let them proceed. 'The Yuezhi people live north of me," he said. "What does the Han mean by trying to send an envoy to them! Do you suppose that if I tried to send an embassy to the kingdom of Yue in the southeast the Han would let my men pass through China?" The Xiongnu detained Zhang Qian for over ten years and gave him a wife from their own people, by whom he had a son. Zhang Qian never once relin- quished the imperial credentials that marked him as an envoy of the Han, however, and after he had lived in Xiongnu territory for some time and was less closely watched than at first, he and his party finally managed to escape and resume their journey toward the Yuezhi. After hastening west for twenty or thirty days, they reached the kingdom of Dayuan. The king of Dayuan had heard of the wealth of the Han empire and wished to establish communication with it, though as yet he had been unable to do so. When he met Zhang Qian he was overjoyed and asked where Zhang Qian wished to go. "I was dispatched as envoy of the Han to the Yuezhi, but the Xiongnu blocked my way and I have only just now managed to escape," he replied. "I beg Your Highness to give me some guides to show me the way. If I can reach my des- tination and return to the Han to make my report, the Han will reward you with countless gifts!" .

160 Section Two I The Classical Period, 1000 B.C.E.to 500 C.E.

The king of Dayuan trusted his words and sent him on his way, givinghi guides and interpreters to take him to the state of []. Fro there he was able to make his way to the land of the Great Yuezhi. Since the king of the Great Yuezhi had been killed by the Xiongnu, hisso had succeeded him as ruler and had forced the kingdom of Daxia [Afghanistan] t recognize his sovereignty. The region he ruled was rich and fertile and selda troubled by invaders, and the king thought only of his own enjoyment. He consid: ered the Han too far away to bother with and had no particular intention of aveng ing his father's death by attacking the Xiongnu. From the court of the Yuezhi. Zhang Qian travelled on to the state of Daxia, but in the end he was never ableto interest the Yuezhi in his proposals. Mter spending a year or so in the area, he began to journey back along th Nanshan or Southern Mountains, intending to re-enter China through the terri- tory of the Qiang barbarians, but he was once more captured by the Xiongnu and detained for over a year. Just at this time the Shanyu died and the Luli King of the Left attacked the Shanyu's heir and set himself up as the new Shanyu (126 B.C.E.). As a result of this the whole Xiongnu nation was in turmoil and Zhang Qian, along with his Xiongnu; wife and the former slave Ganfu, was able to escape and return to China. The: emperor honoured Zhang Qian with the post of palace counsellor and awarded Ganfu the title of "Lord Who Carries Out His Mission". Zhang Qian was a man of great strength, determination, and generosity. He trusted others and in turn was liked by the barbarians. Ganfu, who was a Xiongnu by birth, was good at archery, and whenever he and Zhang Qian were short of food he would shoot birds and beasts to keep them supplied. When Zhang Qian firstset out on his mission, he was accompanied by over 100 men, but after thirteen years abroad, only he and Ganfu managed to make their way back to China. Zhang Qian in person visited the lands of Dayuan, the Great Yuezhi, Daxia, and Kangju, and in addition he gathered reports on five or six other large states in the neighbourhood. All of his information he related to the emperor on his return. . ..

II. CHINESE"GIFTS" OF SILKTO THEXIONGNU

[Ran Wudi used Zhang Qian's report to extend Chinese military power deep into Central Asia. A string of Chinese fortresses and checkpoints soon reached to Afghanistan. Diplomatic

and commercial relations between the Chinese and the Central Asian nomads increased.At I the heart of these contacts was the exchange of horsesfrom Central Asia (called ""bythe Chinese) for silk from China (called "gifts" by the Chinese). The disguised trade of horses1m silk along routesnewlysecuredbythe Chinesemarks the opening of theSilk lWad. Oneaspect of this trade is illustrated in the table.]

Year (B.C.E.) Silk Floss (catties) Silk Fabrics (pieces) 51 6,000 8,000 49 8,000 9,000 33 16,000 18,000 25 20,000 20,000 1 30,000 30,000 Note: 1 catty equals approximately 1/2 lb.

...... - Chapter 2S I Global Contacts:The Opening of the Silk Road 161

III. SILK IN ROME

A. Caesar's Canopies, ca. 50 B.C.E. [The following passagefrom the historian Cassius Dio (164-224 c.E.) describesa huge celebration that Julius Caesar staged in his own honor around 50 B.C.E.] If! mention one feature of his [Caesar's] extravagance at that time, I shall thereby give an idea of all the rest. In order that the sun might not annoy any of the specta- tors, he had curtains stretched over them made of silk, according to some accounts. Now this fabric is a device of barbarian luxury, and has come down from them even to us to gratify the fastidious taste of fine ladies.

B. Seneca on Silk and Gender [The following passage from Seneca, a leading writer of the 1st century C.E., typifies much Roman writing about silk.] I see there raiments of silk-if that can be called raiment, which provides nothing that could possibly afford protection for the body, or indeed modesty, so that, when a woman wears it, she can scarcely, with a clear conscience, swear that she is not naked. These are imported at vast expense from nations unknown even to trade, in order that our married women may not be able to show more of their persons, even to their paramours, in a bedroom than they do on the street.

C. An Emperor Wears Silk [Suetonius, a leading historian of the 2nd century C.E.,describesthe clothing worn l1yEmperor Gaius (nicknamed "Caligula"), who reigned briefly in the 1st century.] Caligula paid no attention to traditional or current fashions in his dress; ignoring male conventions and even the human decencies. Often he made public appear- ances in a cloak covered with embroidery and encrusted with precious stones, a long-sleeved tunic and bracelets; or in silk (which men were forbidden by law to wear) or even in a woman's robe; and came shod sometimes with slippers, some- times with buskins, sometimes with military boots, sometimes with women's shoes. Occasionally he affected a golden beard and carried Jupiter's thunderbolt, Nep- tune's trident, or Mercury's serpent-twined staff. He even dressed up as Venus and, long before his expedition, wore the uniform of a triumphant general, often embellished with the breastplate which he had stolen from 's tomb at Alexandria. . . .

IV. SAILING FROM SRI LANKA TO CHINA:THE HOMEWARD JOURNEY OF A BUDDHIST MONK

[Around 400 C.E. a Chinese monk named traveled through Central Asia to India in order to visit the Buddhist holy places. After spending more than a decade away from home, the monk decided to return to China l1ysea. Departing from a port in Sri Lanka, he and his shiPmates encountered stormy seas. Faxian's book about his travels is the earliest first-hand account of the sea route from India to China.] Faxian remained in this country [Sri Lanka] for two years; and after repeated search he obtained a copy of the Disciplines according to the school of 'The Faith Prevailing"; also copies of the long Agamas [Buddhist teachings] on cosmogony, ....

162 Section Two I The Classical Period, 1000 B.C.E.to 500 C.E.

and of the miscellaneous Agamas on ecstatic contemplation, and subsequ

of a collection of extracts from the Canon, all of which China waswithout\' . he had obtained these in , he took passage on board a largemerch; vessel, on which there were over two hundred souls, and astern of which!Ii was a smaller vessel in tow, in case of accident at sea and destruction ofthe vessel. Catching a fair wind, they sailed eastward for two days; then theyenc( tered a heavy gale, and the vessel sprang a leak. The merchants wishedto~ aboard the smaller vessel; but the men on the latter, fearing that they would1 swamped by numbers quickly cut the tow-rope in two. The merchants were te~ fied, for death was close at hand; and fearing that the vessel would fill, th promptly took what bulky goods there were and threw them into the sea.Faxi; also took his pitcher and ewer, with whatever he could spare, and threw them iu the sea; but he was afraid that the merchants would throw over his books and! images, and accordingly fixed his whole thoughts upon Guanyin, [the comp2 sionate Bodhisattva], the Hearer of Prayers, and put his life into the hand ofd Catholic [Buddhist] church in China, saying, "I have journeyed far on behalf the Faith. Oh that by your awful power you would grant me a safe return fromI wanderings. " The gale blew on for thirteen days and nights, when they arrived alongside an island, and then, at ebb-tide, they saw the place where the vessel leakedan forthwith stopped it up, after which they again proceeded on their way. This sea is infested with pirates, to meet whom is death. The expanse of ocean is boundless, east and west are not distinguishable; only by observation of the sun, moon, and constellations, is progress to be made. In cloudy and rainy weather, our vessel drifted at the mercy of the wind, without keeping any definite course. In the! darkness of night nothing was to be seen but the great wavesbeating uponone; another and flashing forth light like fire, huge turtles, sea-lizards, and such-like monsters of the deep. Then the merchants lost heart, not knowing whither they were going, and the sea being deep, without bottom, they had no place where the~ could cast their stone-anchor and stop. When the sky had cleared, they were ableto tell east from west and again to proceed on their proper course; but had they struck a hidden rock, there would have been no way of escape. I

And so they went on for more than ninety days until they reached a country 1 named Java, where heresies and Brahmanism were flourishing, while the Faithof Buddha was in a very unsatisfactory condition. After having remained in this country for five months or so, Faxian again shipped on board another large merchant-vessel which also carried over twohun- dred persons. They took with them provisions for fifty days and set sail on the 16th day of the 4th moon, and Faxian went into retreat on board the vessel. A north-east course was set in order to reach Canton [today's in China]; and over a month had elapsed when one night in the second watch (9-11 p.m.) they encountered a violent gale with tempestuous rain, at which the travelling merchants and traders who were going to their homes were much fright- ened. However, Faxian once more invoked the Hearer of Prayers and the Catholic [Buddhist] Church in China, and was accorded the protection of their awfulpower until day broke. As soon as it was light, the Brahmans took counsel together and said, "Having this Shaman [monk] on board has been our undoing, causing us to

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164 Section Two I The Classical Period, 1000 B.C.E.to 500 C.E.

4. How did Faxian travel home? What does his mode of travel suggest about tradl between India, Southeast Asia, and China in the late classical period? Whl were the monk's shipmates? How does his voyage illustrate the connection between trade and religion? 5. How does Faxian's memoir illustrate the spread ofIndian culture to Southeas~ Asia? How did Brahmanism and get to Java? 6. Why do you think this chapter does not include an account of a Chinese tray-. eler to Rome or an account of a Roman traveler to China? 7. In what sense did the process of "globalization" begin in the 1st century C.E.?

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