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A Hydromorphic Reevaluation of the Forgotten River Civilizations of Central Asia

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A Hydromorphic Reevaluation of the Forgotten River Civilizations of Central Asia A hydromorphic reevaluation of the forgotten river civilizations of Central Asia Willem H. J. Toonena,b,1, Mark G. Macklinc,d,e,1, Giles Dawkesf, Julie A. Durcang, Max Lemanh, Yevgeniy Nikolayevh, and Alexandr Yegorovh aEarth and Climate Cluster, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; bEgyptology Unit, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; cSchool of Geography and Lincoln Centre for Water and Planetary Health, University of Lincoln, LN6 7DW, United Kingdom; dInstitute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, 4474 Palmerston North, New Zealand; eCentre for the Study of the Inland, College of Arts, Social Sciences and Commerce, La Trobe University, DMBE 116, Melbourne (Bundoora), Australia; fInstitute of Archaeology, University College London, WC1H 0PY London, United Kingdom; gSchool of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, OX1 3QY Oxford, United Kingdom; and hJoint Stock Company Institute of Geography and Water Safety, 050010 Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan Edited by Frank Hole, Yale University, New Haven, CT, and approved October 30, 2020 (received for review May 15, 2020) The Aral Sea basin in Central Asia and its major rivers, the Amu located at the confluence of the Syr Darya and Arys rivers in Darya and Syr Darya, were the center of advanced river civiliza- southern Kazakhstan (Fig. 1). This includes radiometric dating tions, and a principal hub of the Silk Roads over a period of more of irrigation canals and geomorphological investigations of river than 2,000 y. The region’s decline has been traditionally attributed channel and flood regime dynamics, on which the success and to the devastating Mongol invasion of the early-13th century CE. failure of floodwater farming in these so-called “oasis” urban However, the role of changing hydroclimatic conditions on the centers depended. development of these culturally influential potamic societies has not been the subject of modern geoarchaeological investigations. Study Area In this paper we report the findings of an interdisciplinary inves- Archaeological and Historical Context. Historically, the northern tigation of archaeological sites and associated irrigation canals of foothills of the Tien Shan and Pamir mountains have been an the Otrar oasis, a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cul- important cultural cross-road, where pastoral nomads and sed- tural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site located at the entary floodwater-farming people interacted (4, 11, 12), and confluence of the Syr Darya and Arys rivers in southern Kazakh- where regional superpowers collided (Fig. 1; extended setting in stan. This includes radiometric dating of irrigation canal abandon- SI Appendix, S1.1). Early western historical references to the ment and an investigation of Arys river channel dynamics. Major region come from the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest, phases of fluvial aggradation, between the seventh and early halting at the Jaxartes River in 329 BCE, which was then per- ninth century CE and between 1350 and 1550 CE coincide with ceived as the northern limit of urban civilization. The region economic flourishing of the oasis, facilitated by wet climatic con- flourished during classical Antiquity and became known as ditions and higher river flows that favored floodwater farming. Transoxania––beyond the Oxus. It was described as the “land of Periods of abandonment of the irrigation network and cultural the thousand cities” (13); archaeological surveys have identified decline primarily correlate with fluvial entrenchment during pe- hundreds of fortified towns in the region, dating from the mid- riods of drought, instead of being related to destructive invasions. first millennium BCE to the Late Medieval Period (4, 14). Therefore, it seems the great rivers of Central Asia were not just static “stage sets” for some of the turning points of world history, but in many instances, inadvertently or directly shaped the final Significance outcomes and legacies of imperial ambitions in the region. Our paper challenges the long-held view that the fall of Central floodwater farming | Otrar | OSL dating | Syr Darya | Asia’s river civilizations was determined by warfare and the fluvial geomorphology destruction of irrigation infrastructure during the Mongol in- vasion. An integration of radiometric dating of long-term river dynamics in the region with irrigation canal abandonment hile the great river civilizations of the Old World (1) have shows that periods of cultural decline correlate with drier been the subject of archaeological and scientific study for W conditions during multicentennial length periods when the more than a century, the ancient irrigation based urban cultures North Atlantic Oscillation had mostly positive index values. that developed along the great rivers of Central Asia (Fig. 1) are There is no evidence that large-scale destruction of irrigation virtually unknown in the West. Soviet archaeologists in the systems occurred during the Arab or Mongol invasion specifi- 1950s–60s (2, 3) demonstrated that the Amu Darya (Oxus) and cally. A more nuanced interpretation identifies chronic envi- Syr Darya (Jaxartes) rivers, that flow northwest from the Pamir ronmental challenges to floodwater farming over the last two and Tien Shan Mountains and drain to the Aral Sea (Fig. 1), millennia, punctuated by multicentennial-length periods with were the centers of flourishing potamic urban societies from favorable hydromorphic and hydroclimatological conditions prehistory to the late Middle Ages (4, 5). The 50,000-km2 area of that enabled irrigation agriculturists to flourish. floodwater irrigated land was estimated to have been twice that ’ of Mesopotamia (2). The region s stagnation at the end of the Author contributions: W.H.J.T. and M.G.M. designed research; W.H.J.T., M.G.M., G.D., Medieval Period is generally attributed to a combination of the M.L., Y.N., and A.Y. performed research; W.H.J.T., M.G.M., and J.A.D. analyzed data; destructive early-13th century CE Mongol invasion and the and W.H.J.T., M.G.M., G.D., and J.A.D. wrote the paper. progressive decline of the Silk Roads trade network (5–7). The authors declare no competing interest. However, the hydroclimatic and hydromorphic contexts of these This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. changes are largely unknown with only a handful of sites having Published under the PNAS license. – been radiometrically dated (8 10). 1To whom correspondence may be addressed. Email: [email protected] or mmacklin@ In this paper we report the findings of an interdisciplinary lincoln.ac.uk. investigation of archaeological sites and associated irrigation This article contains supporting information online at https://www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/ canals of Otrar oasis, a United Nations Educational, Scientific doi:10.1073/pnas.2009553117/-/DCSupplemental. and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site First published December 14, 2020. 32982–32988 | PNAS | December 29, 2020 | vol. 117 | no. 52 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2009553117 Downloaded by guest on October 2, 2021 Fig. 1. Research area in Central Asia. Transoxanian historical timeline: Achaemenid Empire (AE), Hellenic rule: initial conquest and successor states (HR), EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC, AND PLANETARY SCIENCES Sassanid Empire (SE), Turkic rule (TR), Mongol Empire and later Khanates (MR), Timurid Empire (TE), Uzbek and Kazakh rule (UR/KR), Russian Empire, its successors and the current Republic of Kazakhstan (RE/RK). Black bars indicate nomadic pastoralist cultures; white bars indicate sedentary cultures. The period of migration refers to the displacement of Saka, Kangju, Yuezhi, and Wusun nomadic confederacies in the region (SI Appendix,S1.1). The Arabs invaded Transoxania between 650 and 760 CE and The valleys of the Arys and its tributaries have well-developed consolidated control after defeating the Chinese Tang armies in fluvial terraces created by phased Late Pleistocene and Holocene ∼ the battle of Talas near the city of Taraz in 751 CE (15). The channel entrenchment. At Otrar, the present river is situated 6m ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES region flourished throughout the Medieval Period and was a lower than the surface of the oasis on which the ancient irrigation center of the Early Medieval Islamic renaissance (16). A pivotal system was constructed (20). There is a northward downslope moment in world history took place in 1218 CE at the city of division of canals that feed a complex patchwork of fields covering ∼ 2 Otrar. A Mongol ambassador of Chinggis Khan was murdered an area of 200 km with several large fortified towns and nu- ’ merous small villages (Fig. 2 E and I). Fortified settlements are on the orders of Otrar s governor. In response, Mongol armies G invaded and sacked Otrar, but also other major cities in the re- located at the bifurcations of principal feeder canals (Fig. 2 ), presumably for regulation and protection (21). Otrar was the gion, including Samarkand and Bukhara (17). This incident administrative center; the fortified city covered an area of triggered a change in the direction of Mongol expansion from 2 ∼0.2 km and stood 18 m above the surrounding urban develop- southeast to west, resulting in large-scale and profound societal ment (Fig. 2F), housing >20,000 people (20). transformations in the Middle East and Eastern Europe (18). After a partial recovery during the Timurid Period (1370–1507 Methods CE), Otrar finally demised in the 16–17th centuries CE (6). Until the annexation
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