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Journal of Critical Reviews

ISSN- 2394-5125 Vol 7, Issue 9, 2020

EASTERN AND WESTERN LOOK AT THE HISTORY OF THE ROAD

Kobzeva Olga1, Siddikov Ravshan2, Doroshenko Tatyana3, Atadjanova Sayora4, Ktaybekov Salamat5

1Professor, Doctor of Historical Sciences, National University of named after Mirzo Ulugbek, , Uzbekistan. [email protected] 2Docent, Candidate of historical Sciences, National University of Uzbekistan named after Mirzo Ulugbek, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. [email protected] 3Docent, Candidate of Historical Sciences, National University of Uzbekistan named after Mirzo Ulugbek, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. [email protected] 4Docent, Candidate of Historical Sciences, National University of Uzbekistan named after Mirzo Ulugbek, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. [email protected] 5Lecturer at the History faculty, National University of Uzbekistan named after Mirzo Ulugbek, Tashkent, Uzbekistan. [email protected]

Received: 17.03.2020 Revised: 02.04.2020 Accepted: 11.05.2020

Abstract This article discusses the eastern and western views of the Great as well as the works of scientists who studied the Great Silk Road. The main direction goes to the historiography of the Great Silk Road of 19-21 centuries. Keywords: Great Silk Road, Silk, East, West, , Historiography, Qian, Sogdians, Trade and etc.

© 2020 by Advance Scientific Research. This is open-access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.09.17

INTRODUCTION another temple in , sacrifices are offered so-called to the The historiography of the Great Silk Road has thousands of “”, who according to a legend, with the help of 12 articles, monographs, essays, and other kinds of investigations. In animals invented a for the manufacture of silk fabrics. its development, we can trace the periods of rise associated with an increase in interest in the topic of studying the very history of Archaeological facts indicate that silk production in China began this Great Transcontinental Road. in the era. So, in 1926, a silkworm cocoon was discovered in the Neolithic city of Haiyun in province. It One of these periods dates back to the beginning of the 21st was dated back to 6 thousand BC. In 1973, a small bowl was century, when the revival of the Silk Road reappeared. In the found with an image of a silkworm engraved on it. The finding historiography of the history of the Great Silk Road of the was made in the Neolithic culture of Yuao (date from 6-7 beginning of the 21st century, there are various conceptual and millennium BC) in province. However, biologists methodological approaches. Having examined the eastern concluded that the silkworm shown was not yet domesticated at (Chinese) and western (Anglo-American) historiography of the that time. In 1958, archaeologists discovered a silk thread, silk Silk Road in this article, we would like to highlight the main parts ribbons and a piece of silk in Tsangshang, Zhenziang Province. of these approaches. These items date back to 4700 BC. The pieces of silk were dyed and seemingly made at household conditions. Further research MAIN BODY showed that this silk was made using a kind of loom. In 2006, the publishing house of the foreign press, published the monograph “The Story of Silk” by Zhiju an under the heading In 1984, in the cultural layers of Yangshao ( Province), the “Oriental Look”, in , China. remains of silk fabric were discovered, datedto more than 5 thousand years because of painted ceramics. The silk fabric was This section was created specifically for a foreign reader. The light crimson. series of books “The History of the Tree”, “The History of Bronze”, and “The History of ” published in English offer the Spindles with engraved patterns were found in the ruins of reader, in an accessible form, to get acquainted with the opinions Qishan, in Hebei province (dated back to 5 thousand years), of the Chinese researchers, scholars, historians and orientalists, Hemudu in Zhenjiang province (dated back to more than 4 as well as experts on various issues, related to the history of the thousand years), Wanpu in Shaanxi province (dated back to 6700 above mentioned subjects. - 5600 thousand years). The monograph “The Story of Silk” consists of eight chapters. The area where modern province is located combines mythical legends about silk and the traditional culture of its In the chapter I, which is called “The Origin of Silk”, the author production. Ancient records tell us that the first king of the wrote fascinating legends about the appearance of silk in state (the ancient name of Sichuan) was called Kok, which China.[1] In and natural philosophy, legends in translation means “the accumulation of silkworms”, and this have been preserved that prove that Empress first drew most likely implied a totem of its kind. Another confirmation of attention to the silk cocoon that fell into the cup during tea this is the bronze teapot dating back to the period of “The drinking, and she became the legendary ancestor for Fighting Kingdoms” (475 - 221 BC), which depicts a dragon that manufacturing silk fabrics. In her honor, and in honor of this surprisingly resembles a silkworm caterpillar.[2]One of the little- discovery, several temples were built, one of which was built in known “silk roads” passed along Sichuan. The road also crossed 1627, has survived to this day in the city of Suzhou, in the province and stretched to the northern borders of province of Jiangsu. The National Museum called “Chinese Silk” is Burma, and then across the Brahmapurthra River to along located in the neighboring city Hangzhou, and it contains the the Ganges coast to the Iranian Highlands. According to most ancient, rare and beautiful examples of silk products. In

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scientists, the formation of this path began more than 3000 years military stationed in the region and guaranteeing the safety of ago. diplomats and caravan routes. Summing up the archaeological excursion, Liu Zhijunconcludes Soon, control over the Silk Road was divided between the major that “archaeological findings lie only in some places in China, powers of that time. The beginning of the road from Chanyani where silkworm appeared and multiplied and silk production (Xi’an) to Lobnor and was controlled by Chinese probably developed independently of each other”. , the middle part of the road was dominated by Persians, Sogdians and Kushans, and the western part was in the Further in the first chapter, the features of the technology for the hands of Greek, Armenian and Jewish merchants. production of silk and silk products in the pre- period (III - I millennium BC) are described. The book provides colorful A special role was played by the Chinese trade contacts with descriptions and illustrations of silk paintings, books made of silk warlike nomads. Peaceful relations with them were largely made in the “Spring and Autumn periods” and during the dependent on silk trade. Emperor Di also paved the so-called Western Zhou . Southern Silk Road to India through Yunnan. Soon, many central regions of China became familiar with each other and introduced In the “Book of Odas”, the first comprehensive collection of , , various spices, blankets, and grapes. poems and songs in Chinese, consisting of 305 verses (“Spring and Autumn periods”, dated back to 770 - 476 BC) and folk songs The second chapter of the book also explores the reasons for the of 15 States, (located on the site of modern provinces Henan, strengthening of trade on the Silk Road in the first centuries of Hebei, Shandu, Shaanxi) provides descriptions of mulberry our era. The author explains this primarily by the fact that the leaves, silkworms, silk fabrics and clothing. Persian merchants, who became the main intermediaries in the sale of silk to the Roman , sold silk 100 times more During the Late Zhou, special officials were appointed to oversee expensive than they could buy from Chinese merchants. the silk manufacturing process. For some time, only women could officially lead spinners and weavers. Others looked after The Han government sent Gan Yin with a mission to establish coloring only with natural and mineral paints. direct contacts with the through Persia. However, the Kushans and Persia themselves hoped to monopolize the silk During this period, silk was already exported by caravans. King trade. Mu’s Journey described landscapes and events that occurred and were seen during the crossings made by a silk caravan to the The latter send a delegation to the Han court with gifts, incl. . This silk road was in the south of the Tarim and other animals. And after that the Kushans in 90 A.D., Basin in Central , from where silk products reached , proposed to enter into an inter-dynasty marriage with the Han the evidence of it can be found in the discovery of Chinese silk imperial family. clothing in Germany, near Stuttgart (dated to VI century BC). Findings of a huge number of Kushan and Roman coins along the Chapters II, III and IV of the book dedicated to the Great Silk Silk Road also allow us to conclude that trade relationships Road (Chinese scientists use the term “Silk Road”, without the between countries were revitalized. The History of Western Han prefix “great” adopted in Soviet Russian and Western is a book that contains facts about the embassy that operated historiography). under the imperial court of the Roman emperor in the 2nd century. He was sent gifts such as ivory, rhino horn, shells of Chapter II “The Silk Road” tells of the direct discovery of the Silk turtles and many other things that the Chinese themselves began Road by . Zhang Qian’s journey to the Western region to use not so long ago. is reflected in the famous frescoes of Dunhuang in the Mogao grotto. Zhang Qian received important information about the This embassy indicates that both sides were looking for an governments and peoples of , as well as information alternative to the land route that would make Chinese silk less about the existence of the powerful (Anxi), the expensive for the Romans. Roman Empire () and India (Hindu). Based on the information of Zhang Qian, Emperor Wu Di implemented the The third chapter of “Silk Roads” tells about the increase in the concept of Chinese foreign policy and trade of this period. In the silk industry, the flourishing of silk production and its following years, Zhang Qian traveled twice to the Western specialization, and about foreign influences on Tang silk, on regions. He took with him a large number of gold coins and silk commercial centers of the Silk Road and the penetration of silk fabrics as gifts. In the book he stated: “During the , technology to the West. Chinese silk paved its way through the deserts to Central and The patronage of the power of foreign trade not only contributed Western Asia, through countries and the sea to , the to the development of silk culture, but also stimulated the growth Mediterranean to East Africa.” of Chinese cities. Many cities served as distributors of trade on In the era of the Han, Sui, Tang , changes are taking the Silk Road, especially in western China. They contributed to place in the very process of silk production. For example, the the integration of ethnic groups and various parts of the Han number of colors in one fabric reaches 20. Ornaments of silk Empire. Because of Silk Road, Western countries have figured fabrics are also diverse (geometric and plant patterns, images of that China as an important importer of , gunpowder, and animals and birds, color stamps, prints, gold and silver porcelain. However, silk remained a symbol of national power. , beads, etc.). During the three kingdoms of Wei, Shu, Wu (220-280 AD), a In addition, silk began to be produced starting from the special decree was issued in the kingdom of Wu, according to Han era. The author of the monograph, Liu Zhijuan, draws a which no one had the right to disturb people in the season of silk conclusion that silk becomes the cornerstone of the national manufacturing. economy during the Han Dynasty.[3] The kingdoms competed with each other over silk. The royal The Han Government opened four prefectures along the court of Wu ordered to close the silk delivery route to Wei, strategically important Hessian corridor leading to the West, and because silk in this kingdom was used as payment by officials established two guard posts in Yumin and Yangong in . and the military. It is known that, for example, in 263, Shu’s court allocated 200 thousand pieces of transparent and colored silk to Later in 60 BC the post of general governor in the Western region his army commander Jiang Wei to replenish the army’s budget. was created, and its responsibilities included commanding the

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The royal minister of Shudynasty,provided silk assistance to From dawn to sunset, special markets operated in Jiuquanand in ethnic minorities during the epidemic. All this contributed to the Shichen, which located in the west from Dunhuang, both places spread of silkworm culture in certain areas of China, the had a special area for foreign merchants. emergence of new types of silk fabrics. In 609, Emperor Yang from the Sui Dynasty traveled to the In “The Chronicles of the Southern and Northern Dynasty” (420- Western Territory to attract a large number of foreign 561), Liu Fang mentions various types of silk and . Silk merchants. This made a great impression on guests from 27 clothes became an indispensable attribute of the aristocracy at countries. Foreign merchants accompanied him everywhere: in that time. In particular, when the emperor and empress of the Sui shops, inns, on the streets. The government gave special passes dynasty used to leave the palace, 1000 rolls of purple silk were for caravans from the Western Territory. carried behind them. In Dunhuang, the Silk Road was divided into three directions: Purple, dark red, yellow, blue become the main colors of the silk southern, middle, and northern. The southern and middle produced during the reign of Sui (581 - 618) and Tang (618 - directions went along the northern and southern edges of the 907) dynasties. , respectively, then they intertwined in Kash Magnificent silk of various types, produced at that , () in . The southern route passed through Lob can be seen today in the imperial treasury ofShōsō-inin Nor, partly was in Kroraina, and went through Charkliq, (Nara). Charchan, Minfeng, , Yarkand (Shache) to reached Kashi (Kashgar). The middle path that passed through, Lake Aydinkul This era is characterized by a creative approach to the inDunhuang reached . Itwent through Karashar, Kuqa, manufacture of silk products. Shirts, bathrobes, shoes, Aksu before reaching Kashi. It also had an extra road that crossed tablecloths, bottles for wine, vases made of silk with plants’ and led to Indo-Scythia and ." The northern route images, embroidery with gold and crystals, decorative patterns passed through Hami, Urumchi, Almaty, and then led to depicting dragons and running animals, printed etc. made of the rich . satin and brocade were discovered inthe burials of Turpan, Kroraina and other ancient cities of the Xinjiang, which is a The intensification of silk trade in the , and the partUygur Autonomous Region. emergence of new shopping centers led to the fact that the technology of silk production graduallypenetrated the West and During the , silk fabrics and clothing experienced a ceased to be the secret prerogative of the Chinese." strong foreign influence. This was the result of cultural interventions through the Western regions along which the Silk Monk , in the book “Notes on the Great Tang and the Road passed. These interferences began back in the Han era, Western Regions”, describes how a Han princess married to a when noblemen and officials in Luoyang dressed in clothes sewn man in Khotan and had a silkworm cocoon in her hair during the in a western fashion, listened to Western music and drank wedding. The findings of mulberry trees on the edge of the western drinks. Not only the forms and types of silk products LobNor desertdate back to the 4th century. On a wooden board were changed, but also the on silk. Thus, with the discovered in the ruins of Hotan resembling images were found spread of , the image of the Buddha and the (dates to the beginning of the 4th century AD). Bodhisattva, which was sometimes embroidered next to the traditional (burial place of Mingfeng, Xinjiang), The Roman historian says that the cocoon from China became a popular way. to Constantinople was secretly taken out by an Indian monk in 550, during the reign of Emperor Justinian. The art of making silk An image of a lotus was borrowed from Gandhara, while grapes spread to Persia, which soon became the second silk producer in was taken from the western regions, and some images of birds the world after China. and were borrowed from the . Another proof that indicated foreign influences on Tang silk is the Persian Providing silk to Western Asia and Europe, Persian merchants inscription embroidered on silk, which was found in Dolan, ousted Chinese merchants and manufacturers from the routes of Qinghai Province. the Silk Road. At that time, Chinese silk begins to get into the markets of . An increase in the number of trade caravans required the establishment of cities and towns for service along the Silk Road. The entered from Persia into and the Arab In the cities there were caravanserais, places of entertainment, countries, then into . In the 12th century AD sericulture bazaars where expensive goods were sold. The path sometimes spreads in , and then in the 15th centuryAD in . resembled a relay race from town to town. With the decline in The fourth chapter of the monograph “ Road” includes commercial activity along the Silk Road, cities fell into decay, and such sub-chapters as: “Culture of Sericulture under the Song many turned into ruins, gradually buried in sand. During the rise Dynasty” ; “Types and kinds of silk products”, “Moving the of the Silk Road’s land route (from the Han dynasty to the Tan), centers of silk production to the south”, “Embroidery on silk”, the main cities in the central regions of China were considered to “Origin of the Sea Silk Road”, “Sea Silk Road during the Song be Luoyang and Chanan. In the West, well-known international Dynasty”. markets as Dunhuang, Khotan, Shule River, Luntai, Kroraina, Turpan were flourishing. Under the rule of the (960 - 1279) and Yuan (1206 - 1368), the northern and northwestern regions of China became Chang’an was the starting point of the Silk Road during the Han the main bases of the separatist regimes and were controlled by and Tang Dynasties. The huge capital of China was the heart of various political forces and ethnic minorities. The climate of the international trade and exchange. Merchants from all over the Tarim Basin became increasingly arid and oases began to world assembled here. Nine city markets were centers of trade disappear. and cultural exchange. Foreign diplomats and businessmen lived in houses for foreign guests in Chan'an. The government has Liu Zhijuanwrites: “The movement along the Silk Road has appointed special officials to control operations with silk and declined and the main roads through Central Asia are no longer gold by foreign merchants. And only some of the Chinese controlled by China.” merchants, after approval by the government, could directly The center for the production of Chinese silk moves to the trade with foreigners. The Chinese exported silk and varnish southern regions from the downstream of the Sichuan River. products in exchange for horses, mules, diamonds, jade, colored glaze, spices, coral, and medications.

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For the convenience and development of international trade, sea and other precious goods on their ships. Indian merchants transportation begins to replace the traditional land Silk trade bought silk for resale in Central and Western Asia, and the route. Mediterranean countries. During the Song Dynasty, the first fundamental books on In the 2nd-3rd centuries AD, Roman merchants attempted to and silk technology appeared: “The Book of Silk Cocoons” by reach South China for direct purchases of silk from Chinese written Qin Gan (1049–1100) and “The Book of Agriculture” by merchants. Chen . They contained text, graphic illustrations with details of the silk production process. Often, the sea route was the only channel of trade between East and West. And as a result, the South China port of A new type of silk, which appeared in the Song era, is became a major trading port. characterized by massive applications of twisted gold and silk brocade woven with pure gold thread. In 266, according to sources, the first Roman merchants reached China. In the 4th century AD Chinese merchants visited Persia. Common styles of embroidery on silk were called “treasure things” (included ancient coin, book, chess, painting, zither, etc.), The emperors of the Sui and Tang dynasty attached great and “immortal things” (included fan, bottle made from pumpkin, attention to the relations with Southeast Asia. They sent flute, lotus, peach blossom, shoot, sword, cypress embassies to South and Malaysia. branch) and “prophetic things” (included colored umbrella, shell, Historical annals contain data on merchants from more than 50 parchment scroll, magic pot, Buddhist wheel, double fish, etc.). countries (India, East Africa, Southeast Asia), who sailed to South Silk embroidered with gold served to decorate the palaces of the China for silk. Chinese emperors. Today, these are not only of great The invention of the compass, and the improvement of artistic, but also material value. One of these pieces of silk, hand- navigation devices contributed to sea travel. In 1980, a made by order of the Emperor Qianlong, was sold at auction in shipwreck belonging to the Song Dynasty was discovered in the China for 3,575,000 yuan (about 4.8 million dollars). off the coast of Province. On the ship, During the Tang and Song dynasty, calligraphic inscriptions about 80 thousand different good, which is much more than any appeared on silk (for instance, italics, simple font, printed caravan of could transport, were discovered. letters). It becomes modern to draw on silk by copying the works During the Song Dynasty, two main forms of trade were deemed of famous artists such as portraits, landscapes. to be common. The first one called “trade in the form of tribute” The National Palace Museum in China stores a large number of was about the foreign visitors, who gave the imperial court goods samples of such silk. As an example, one can cite the work of of their country, and the emperor in the form of gifts presented master Shen Qifanfrom Wu Prefecture (modern Suzhou), who them with silk and other expensive things. The value of imperial during the rule Southern Song created a painting on silk called gifts often exceeded the value of “tribute”. Another form of trade “Flower and Bird”, copying the of the famous work of was the so-called “ship trade”, which was an ordinary the same name, and was able to reflect the finest shades of commercial trade.[4] The Song Government appointed special flowers, leaves, birds, etc. observers to manage maritime trade in the cities as Guangzhou, After the relocation of the capital to Hangzhou during the reign of Hangzhou, Mingzhou, and Wenzhou. The authorities imposed the Song Dynasty, silk production was further stimulated here. In special taxes on the export of silk, ceramics and tea. the 20s of XII century in Suzhou and Hangzhou, more than 9 Trade stimulated silk production in the Pearl River Delta and thousand weavers worked in the silk industry. The Sea Silk Road Province, as well as in shipbuilding and marine became an alternative to the land trade route to the Western industry. regions discovered by Zhang Qian. There were actually two sea routes. One led through the East China Sea to and Japan, The fifth chapter of the monograph tells the story of Silk in the while the other led from the South China Sea to the . Firstly, it mentions about the technical Mediterranean and East Africa. development of silk production, in particular, about embroidery with gold and bronze applications on silk. Back in the days of the Zhou Dynasty, King Wu sent his envoy Zi Qi to Korea. The latter, having reached Korea by the sea, planted The Yuan Dynasty (1279 - 1368) actively encouraged foreign mulberry trees and trained local residents in the art of growing merchants to trade in the empire, and promoted silk on world silkworms, processing cocoons and making silk. markets. The famous traveler , who visited China in the early years of the Yuan dynasty, mentioned about 20 places Later, Emperor sent 500 young boys and girls to in China where silk products were made. Polo wrote: “In the east, led by , in search of an “elixir of immortality”. XuFu Hangzhou there is the main residence of silk clothes from head to and his people reached the shores of Japan and introduced toes”. sericulture to local people. This is why the Japanese call Xu Fu the “Silk God”. Medieval historians claimed that in the ports of China there were simultaneously 200 thousand foreign merchants: Indians, , During the reign of the Sui and Tang dynasties, the sea route Persians, and Armenians. The Yuan government established between China and Japan was often used by silk merchants who seven maritime trade superintendent posts in the cities of made huge wealth. Guangzhou, Ningbo, Shanghai, Kampu, Wenzhou, Guangzhou and The Sea Silk Road running through the South China Sea was Hangzhou, which were distinguished by the highest trading created as a land silk road in southern China. The beginning of activity of foreign merchants. the road was in Sichuan, passed through Yunnan, then through The Moroccan traveler noted: “Guangzhou is really a the southern Yongchang (Baoshan) region and along the big city. It is one of the largest commercial ports in the world. In Irrawaddy River to Yangon (Rangoon, ). The path the port of Guangzhou, the number of large ships is often more continued to the west coast of India and through the Indian than one hundred, and small ships are simply countless”. In Ocean led to . China, silk is a material even for the clothes of the poor.” And if It is known that repeatedly sent marine silk was not produced for trading and shipping on ships, it would embassies to Southeast Asia, which reached Vietnam, Sri Lanka, not cost anything”. the western coast of India. Chinese diplomats carried silk, gold

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The Yuan Dynasty has signed commercial treatises on maritime The first and second chapters of the book traditionally cover the trade with several countries. ships were well- production and Zhang Qian's journey to the West. equipped, with soldiers on board to repel pirate attacks. Chinese [5] merchants regularly exported silk, raw, silk , silk fabrics including embroidered with gold, brocade, satin and other types The third chapter, “China and Rome: Mysterious Strangers,” of silk products to the Philippines, Indonesia, Calcutta (India), the contains the legends about silk that were manufactured by the Strait of Hormuz (Iran), Basra (Iraq), Aden (), Mecca Romans and a description of Rome, Romans, etc. through the (Saudi Arabia), Dumietta (Egypt), Tangier (Morocco), to eyes of the Chinese. Mogadishu, Tanzania and further south. The Yuan government The fourth chapter deals is concerned about many ethnic groups, often accompanied diplomatic embassies in Korea, Vietnam, and the so-called “minorities” that inhabited northwest China at the neighboring countries by presenting them the gifts from silk, the time of the discovery of the Silk Road. delivery of which over time became a national ritual. The emperor of the Yuan Dynasty banned the sale of silk production The chapter tells about the history of the ancient oasis in the to foreigners. However, the latter, bypassing the rules, tried to middle of the desert in Loulan, the home of heavenly create joint ventures for the production and sale of silk. horsesUsuni, and the mysterious oasisNiya. The sixth chapter called“Silk in the Ming and Qing Dynasties,” China was in continuous wars with the , and more than and addresses the issue of continuity, tradition, and innovation in 20 thousand horses were lost in 121 - 116 BC. It was Usun horses silk production technology. The author devotes a separate that were sent first as a gift to the court of Emperor Wu and were paragraph of the chapter to domestic and foreign trade in silk. supposed to replace the lost ones. They received the name “heavenly”. As a consequence, after the discovery of by Under the Tang and Ming dynasties, diplomatic trade voyages Zhang Qian, the Usun horsesinferior to the Ferghana horses were were organized by the central government. So, from 1405 to renamed as “Western horses”. A poem was even composed about 1433, the Chinese during seven trips, visited with trade purposes them: the islands of Ryukyu, Philippines, Malaku, and through East Mozambique reached East Africa. At the same time, in 1415- “Heavenly horse came from the Westfall 1420, Chinese ambassadors visited Ulugh Beg twice. Trade Smart and powerful, defeating the enemy. served as an incentive for the development of the silk industry in We crossed mountains and rivers on it, Suzhou, Guangzhou and other cities. Subjugating wild tribes”. The famous marinerZheng He visited more than 20 new ports and opened 42 trade routes for the Chinese. He visited 30 Chapter five“The Emergence of Trade on the Silk Road” examines countries of Asia and Africa, having overcome more than 50 the rise of trade during the Han Dynasty and indicates the role of thousand km. As part of his expeditions, there were 62 ships and Greek and Jewish businessmen as intermediaries on the Silk 30 thousand sailors. Zhengtook more than 50 kinds of silk as gifts Road. The author states that the Greek influence on trade along and for trade. the Silk Road is related to the Greek trade colonization and the trips of . The who lived in , Another feature of this period was that at this time, silk trade , Egypt, Babylon, Port Said, in Madagascar actively began to to be taken over by foreign merchants. Guangzhou, mediated silk trade between China and the Mediterranean. Kwangzhou, Ningbo become the largest port cities specializing in foreign trade. Their competitors were Jewish merchants. They monopolized maritime trade in Alexandriacontrolled the markets of Syria. The invention of the flying in led to a decrease in Babylonian Jews established the textile process of silk the production of silk-made products in China, because many production. Beirut became the center of the silk industry of the begin to focus on the sale of raw silk. Jews in the I - II centuryAD The seventh chapter “The Four Famous Types of Embroidery,” and the eighth “Silk Clothes and Decorations,” immerse the In their workshops, special accessories were made (beads, and reader in the world of amazingly beautiful silk items from China. etc.) for embroidery on silk. They content of these chapters includes the text with beautiful Jewish merchants in the 4th century AD were not afraid to reproductions of imperial Dragon costumes (Imperial Dragon conduct operations with exotic products that were imported to Robe), traditional Chinese clothes, national qipao dresses China from the countries of the southern seas. decorated with embroideries such as Han, Guan, Shu, Xiu, and The sixth chapter “Introducing China to Buddhism through the silk paintings. Silk Road” is about the spread of Buddhism from India to China. The chapter mentions , a famous Parthian, who was a Each of the silk thing is a real work of art, looking at which it is missionary monk that introduced China and its capital Luoyang difficult to believe that this is done by human hands. to Buddhism, Buddhist works, and translated more than 30 Buddhist texts into Chinese. The monograph of Liu Zhijuan“The Story of Silk” makes a special contribution to the study of the history of silk and the Silk Road. The chapter also focuses on the Chinese Buddhist preachers, who It is based on ancient Chinese chronicles, annals, notes,artefacts visited Kashmir, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and spreaded of archaeological excavations and museum exhibits in many Buddhism, translated holy books, and built monasteries (, countries of the world, and does not leave indifferent any of its , etc.). readers. The peculiarity of scientific material, the decoration of the book, many previously little-known information about silk The monks, who built the famous (Dunhuang) with makes the work of a Chinese scientist outstanding, and can the caves of the “Thousand Buddhas”as a part of their service, rightly be considered a popularizer of the history of the Silk overcame thousands of deserts and the highest mountains. Road. They had their motto: “I will die. You must live and move Another scientific work published in China is “Story of the Silk forward”. Road” by Zhang Yiping. There’s a peculiarity of the book due to The polemical seventh chapter, once again confirms the well- the author attempt to shed a light on the history of the Silk Road known fact about direct and indirect (through the Sasanian in the context of world history, in the whole variety of processes Empire, Iran) contacts of China with the . taking place on its routes.

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“The Great Tang Dynasty and the Golden Age of the Silk Road” is The tenth chapter of the monograph “Tang Monks in Search of a heading namethat already indicates the content of the eighth True Buddhism in India” addresses two subjects: “establishing chapter of the monograph. The rise of silk trade was during VII - friendly relations between China and India” and “Xuanzang, who X centuries. The Tang Empire was called by the contemporaries was a devout follower of Buddhism.” as “an open empire,” and its capital Chang’an was called as “the capital of the world.” The eleventh (“Sogdians: wealthy merchants and artists on the Silk Road”), twelfth (“The Rise of the Arabs”), thirteenth The chapter contains descriptions of two main cities: Chang’an, (“Penetration of Byzantine art into Eastern culture”) chapters 3 which was an international metropolis, and Dunhuang, that was are devoted to the cultural influences of various peoples on China as a city of integration of all Chinese and foreign. and the scale of their impact on the Silk Road. Here is what Zhang Yiping wrote about Chang’an the following: It is quite interesting to examine the views of the Chinese “Chang’an was the most beautiful capital, and one of the largest scientist on the Sogdians and their role in the history of the Silk cities in the world, the center of eastern during the Road. Here is an abstract about them: “Sogdians professed rule Tang Dynasty. . They built the ancient cities of and Maracanda (). They established commercial trade It was visited by tens of thousands of merchants, tourists, between Asia and Europe from India to the Black Sea. scientists and representatives of various religions from around the world. After the Turks established control over Central Asia, the Sogdians continued to engage in their traditional craft such as The city was built in the style of ancient Chinese architecture and commerce and trade. covered an area of 81.8 km. The Daming Palace wasmajestic imperialpalace, located on in the north of the city. There, the As religious documents from Dunhuang prove that, some emperor received foreign diplomats. The city had temples of Sogdians were followers of Manichaeism and Buddhism. various faiths, and representatives of difference faiths visitedthe city. The wide boulevard located in the city center, was 155 Sogdians from the Zarafshan valley reached Yumen and Lanzhou. meters wide (and the widest street in Rome at that time was only Some of them migrated to the central regions of China and 12 meters). engaged in trade there. They founded their settlements and took the control over caravan trade. Chang’an’s East and West markets had a total area of 1,050 square metres. There were 40 thousand shops. Foreign Between 550 and 670 Sogdians introduced China with their merchants in these markets bought goods from South and South- agriculture, production commerce, art and culture. West Asia intended for export to Europe. They bought pearls, In agriculture, they cultivated two types of cherries and wild corals, diamonds, spices, , precious stones, ivory, cherries in the imperial gardens of China. They taught the tortoise-shell, rhino horn, glassware, wool, paint hair . inhabitants of the Tarim Basin to use the qanat method of In the markets of Chang’an, exclusively Chinese goods were also irrigation. sold: bronze products, porcelain, paper, various types of tea. The famous Sogdian fruit, which was called “golden peaches”, Some merchants from Persia and Central Asia opened their shops also grew in the central regions of China. in the markets of Chang’an and made a fortune. Persian Sogdians produced and woolen products known merchants were buying up rare things (treasures). They advised worldwide for their quality. buyers on antiques and art. Chinese historical sources mention metal armor made by Merchants from Persia and Central Asia traded not only in Sogdians, that were used until the end of the Middle Ages. Chang’an, but also in Luoyang, Yangzhou, Guangzhou and other cities. They often acted as bankers and money lenders. At this time, the Sogdians opened the production of stained glass. In the V century, they revealed the secret of the technology of its During the Tang Dynasty, Chang’an had 12 gates. The Kaiyuan manufacture in China. Sogdians traded with Persia, , Gate in the west of the city was the starting point of the caravans India, and nomads. following the Silk Road. Guests from the Western Territory arrived in Chang’an through this gate. The Tang Imperial Court Art and culture, the spiritual views of the Silk Road are explored established friendly relations with more than 70 countries. byZhang Yiping. in the fourteenth (“Cultural Differences on the Silk Road”), the fifteenth (“Western religious practices in China”) It is known for certain that envoys from 61 regions of the chapters. Western Region arrived to the funeral of the Emperor Gaozong of Tang.The widowed empress ordered to carve 61 sculptures from In particular, they describe Buddhist cave temples, cave art, stone, to capture the appearance of the messengers. The stone monuments of Christianity (), Zoroastrianism, figures that have survived to the present days were set in front of Manichaeism, Islam on the Silk Road. the emperor's mausoleum. The journey of Marco Polo to the east can be found in the Songs and dances from Central Asia were borrowed by the Tang sixteenth chapter of the monograph. Court, which pursued liberal policies. The next seventeenth chapter “: The Silk Capital of Europe,” The ninth chapter called “International Trade in the Tang is interesting in regards to its content and facts. In this chapter Dynasty” is a continuation the previous chapter. the author considers issues related to silk production in the The author notes that under the Tang Dynasty, a special travel French city of Lyon in the 15th – 16th centuries. registration system was introduced. All of them had to provide The interaction of eastern and western , the spread information about their name, age, purpose of the trip and pay a of in Chinese society, and Chinese inventions certain fee. Military troops were deployed in the main cities and that were used in the West are described in the next chapter. strategic points of the route to guarantee security on the Silk Road. The government purchased horses, mules, camels, leather, “The Revival of the Silk Road and the Buddhist Manuscripts of woolen products, gems, jade, corals, stained glass, medicines and Dunhuang” is the nineteenth chapter, which focuses on three spices, in exchange for gold and silver in the Western regions heroic, legendary personalities: the Swedish traveler Sven Hedin, horses. the English archaeologist Marc Aurel Steinand, and the French

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Sinologist Paul Pelliot. In the late XIX - early XX centuries. These study of the Silk Road artifacts by scientists from different scholars did everything to “rediscover” the Silk Road from a countries, using technology.[7] scientific point of view. They discovered and explored ancient trading cities buried in the sands: aLoulan, Khotan, Niya, , With the active participation of Whitefield, more than 50 etc. They also explored the Great Wall of China, old Sogdian thousand manuscripts from Dunhuang (the latest dates to11th letters, and Dunhuang caves and manuscripts in dead languages. century) were posted on the Internet. Thus, the world scientific community was provided with wide access to the manuscript The book is provides colorful, black, and white illustrations. treasures of the Great Silk Road.[8] Many rarely seen pictures are also presented. Such as, for Susan Whitefield is the author, translator, and editor-in-chief of example, photo of Baron von Richthofen with his family. In that the following books on the , Central Asia and the photo the famous German geographer and geologist coined the Great Silk Road: “Dunhuang and Turfan”, “Dunhuang Manuscript term “Silk Road” with his wife, while both of them were dressed Forgeries”, Aurel Stein on the Silk Road”, The Silk Road: Trade in Chinese national clothes. The book includes a photo of Paul Travel, War and Faith”, “Cave temples of Dunhuang: art and Pelliot’s room in the with antiquities collected by him history on the silk road”, and etc.[9] during his journey along the Silk Road, and his photo with the members of the expedition can be found in the book. The rest of In 2012,a famous researcher Hansen published a monograph the book indicate the photo of the part of the Great Wall of China called “The Silk Road: A New History” in Oxford.[10]Valerie discovered by Marc Aurel Stein, photographs of ancient Chinese Hansen teaches a course on the history of the Silk Road in Yale. manuscripts, and the ruins of ancient trading cities in western This work was highly acclaimed by the scientific community and China, silk samples from the National Museum of China and the received the prize at International Convention of Asia Scholars, collection of the Lyon Museum of Silk in France, murals and and at the Gustav Ranis International in Yale University. sculptures of cave temples in Dunhuang, a photo of ancient Its main value lies in the fact that the author describes the Chinese silks depicting a silk production process contain famous archaeological findings that radically change our ideas It is necessary to point out say the maps and diagrams given in about ancient trade routes, the main role of which was to give a the book. There are 16 of them, and they include travel routes of glimpse into the achievements of humanity, technical such people as , Marco Polo, innovations and cultural exchange between the multinational communities that once inhabited China, Central and Central Asia. Baron von Richthofen, Paul Pelliot, and also maps of the Silk Road. Valerie Hansen has undoubtedly done a great job, both in the selection of sources, documents, artifacts, and in their A western look at the history of the Great Silk Road is interpretation, as well as in the compilation of maps, diagrams, represented by the works of American (Valerie Hansen) and tables. English (Susan Whitefield) historical schools. Prominent scholars as Franz Grenet, , Georges- One of Susan Whitefield's most interesting works called “Life Jean Pinault, along the Silk Road”, was first published in 1999, and in 2004 reprinted with certain additions.[6] Nicholas Sims-Williams, Étienne de La Vaissière and many other specialists in the and China, Eastern This monograph is distinguished by its focus on original languages, culture and art, provided consultation, and presentation of scientific material, where the images and contributed to the research characters of the people of the Silk Road, their aspirations and activities somehow connected with the trade route. At the same The scientific work consists of seven chapters: “At the crossroads time, the author examines thoroughly political, socio-economic of Central Asia”, “Gate way to the languages of the of the Silk and cultural occurrences that took place in the Eastern part of Road”, “Midway between China and Iran”, “Homeland of the the Silk Road between 750 and 1000. Sogdians, the Silk Road Traders”, “The cosmopolitan Terminus of the Silk Road”, “The Time Capsule of Silk Road History”, The main part of the book consists of ten stories. The hero or “Entryway to Xinjiang for Buddhism and Islam.” heroine of the story is characteristic to a certain period of time: a merchant (“The Merchant’s Tale”), a soldier (“The Soldier’s Instead of making a conclusion, the author systematizes the Tale”), a horseman (“The Horseman’s Tale”), a princess (“The history of land routes through Central Asia. Princess’s Tale”), a monk (“ The Monk’s Tale ”), courtesan (“The The book thoroughly examines the life in the seven oasis as Niya, Courtesan’s Tale”), nun (“The Nun’s Tale”), widow (“The Widow’s , Turfan, Dunhuang, Khotan, Chang’an (China), Samarkand Tale”), official (“ The Official’s Tale ”), artist (“ The Artist’s Tale ” (Uzbekistan) and the oasis on Mount Mugh () during its "). Many of them are real historical figures. emergence, and active functioning. Moreover, it is important to Nowadays foreign and local scientists are coming to the note that there is always an emphasis on the Sogdian community, conclusion that historical processes must be described through Sogdians or relations with Sogdiana in the description of all these the prism of human destinies, experiences, and personal cities. experience. Depersonalized story needs to be humanized. The book contains data based on archaeological findings of Whitefield successfully examined it in her thesis. Western scholars of the late XIX - early XX centuries (Marc Aurel The monograph, which takes place in Samarkand, , Stein, Sven Anders Hedin ), proving that had active trade Dunhuang, Chach (Tashkent), , Miran(Xinjiang), Hotan, ties with oasis on the Silk Road, which was not previously Chang’an, and etc., presents sources (Chinese, Turkic, and published in Russian historiography. Sogdian) and analysis of a large array of scientific works of Particularly, in the documents found in Niya, the envoy of the Chinese, English, French, Japanese, German, American scientists. king of Fergana the Great is mentioned. And in a huge The study provides a historiographic review of the scientific coffin 2 meters long, on four wooden legs (dates back to II - IV literature on this topic. centuries AD), where the bodies of a man and a woman were Susan Whitefield is one of the creators of the International located, the remains of clothes made of cotton and wool were Dunhuang Project. The Dunhuang International Project, based at discovered (the oldest sample of cotton fabric found in China). the British Library in , was founded in 1994 for the joint Chinese experts cite a source, which says that in 331 AD the emir of Fergana presented cotton fabric and glass to one of the northern Chinese rulers.

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In another burial place in the southwest of Luoyang, a dead man Dynasty. The person with that title he was also entrusted with was found buried in red woolen clothing with an intricate design the consideration of disputes. consisting of pairs of pomegranate trees, animals and human figures that are combating with swords. Scientists have In Xi’an and other Chinese cities, archaeologists unearthed crypts suggested that the fabric is of the Bactrian origin and was decorated with scenes from the teachings of Zarathustra about inspired by Greco-Roman past patterns on it. the afterlife. On the wall of one of the crypts, a biography of the deceased was found in Chinese and Sogdian. In the textbooks on the History of Uzbekistan, the Sogdians’ colonies along the Silk Road is repeatedly mentioned, dwelling in CONCLUSION detail on only one of them in Dunhuang. Valerie Hansen In general, the work of Valerie Hansen leaves a double examines the life of Sogdians in other oasis. impression. On the one hand, she collected the maximum amount of sources and analyzed a huge amount of foreign books, which “The people of Turfan were different due to a large mixture of proves the greatness of the world trade along the Silk Road. peoples... The largest communities formed here were immigrants, who came from an area called Sogdiana... The On the other hand, relying on the same sources, she infers that Chinese inhabitants of Turfan listened to Iranian music and the trade relations are narrowly local: “The smallest number of performed the Sogdian dance that involves men and women caravans in human history has passed through the Silk Road,” in a frantic whirlwind”. which makes us look at it from a completely different angle. This dance became known largely as a result of the discovery in Thus, summing up the historiographical excursion, we can state Xi’an. It was a painted stone panel from the burial place of the that for eastern and western researchers, there are general Sogdian elder An Jia (died in 579). A total of 12 carved panels questions in studying the history of the Great Silk Road (for were discovered, decorated with a small relief, painted with red, example, Sogdians and their role in trade, trade routes in the black and white pigment on a gold background. They depict Middle Ages, goods and cities of the Silk Road religions of the Silk scenes from the life of the deceased, giving a one-of-a-kind view Road, etc.) and the classified ones (artifacts and archaeological of the life of Sogdians in China. findings, manuscripts and their interpretation, contacts between East and West and their intensity). Sogdians arrived in Turfan during the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, but the number of immigrants increased sharply after the Arabs REFERENCES conquered Samarkand in 712 AD. 1. Zhijuan Liu. The Story of Silk. – Beijing: Foreign Languages Sogdians were considered to be famous merchants, but those Press., 2006, - 160 p. who moved to Turfan were related with a variety of activities, 2. Zhijuan Liu. The Story of Silk. – Beijing: Foreign Languages including agriculture, military service, maintenance of lodging Press., 2006, - p.7 houses, painting, and leather dressing.[11] Despite the fact that 3. Zhijuan Liu. The Story of Silk. – Beijing: Foreign Languages the Chinese usually called Sogdians the people of “nine jewelry Press.,2006, - p.27 ”, the vast majority of them chose one of seven 4. Дреже Ж.П. Шелковый путь. – М.: АСТ-Астрель, 2006. – С. traditional Chinese names: immigrants from Samarkand 34. preferred the surname Gan; from Bukhara - An; from Qabodiyon, 5. Zhang Yiping. Story of the Silk Road /Translated by located north to the River - Cao; from Kushani, located JiaZongyi. – Beijing: ChinaInternationalPress.,2006. – 176 p. between Samarkand and Bukhara - He; the surname Mi was (the book was first published in 2005 In Chinese). taken by migrants from the southwestern bank of the Zeravshan 6. Whitfild S. Life along the Silk Road. – London.: John Murray River or from Panjakent; the surname Shi, written as one Publishers. 2004., – 242 p hieroglyph, was chosen by people from the city of Kesh, 7. This project, which examines the heritage of Dunhuang, has nowadays called Shakhrisabz; and the surname Shi, indicated by combined the efforts of scientists from the British Library, another hieroglyph, was loved by those who moved from the city the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum of Chach or present-day Tashkent. In recent years, two Japanese (London, UK), the ChesterDeatty Library (Dublin, Ireland), scholars Yoshida Yutaka and Kageyama Etsuko, whose studies the National Library of China, the Dunhuang Academy the , restored 45 different Sogdian names, (China), and the Institute of Oriental Studies (St. Petersburg, originally written in . These names were ), National Museum (New Delhi, India), Ryukoru carried by many of the original Sogdian immigrants, who moved University (Kyoto, Japan), State Library of the Berlin- to Turfan under these names, but those who lived in China for Brandenburg Academy of Humanities (Berlin, Germany), several generations preferred to give traditional Chinese names National Library, Guy Museum me (, France), National to their successors. Museum of Ethnography, Sven Gedin Foundation (Stockholm, ), Art Gallery, Smithson Institute (New Along with the change of names, the Sogdians who moved to York, USA). Turfan, gradually adopted the way the deceased were buried 8. Project website.- http://idp. bl.uk from the Chinese rituals. Since Zoroastrians regarded human 9. Whitfild S. Life along the Silk Road. – London.: John Murray flesh as dirt on clean soil, they traditionally used to leave the Publishers., 2004. – 188p corpses to animals, and then clean bones were buried in 10. Hansen V. The Great Silk Road. - Moscow: Centerpoly graph, crypts.[12] Zoroastrians sacrificed animals to their main deities. 2014. –C. 476 11. Hansen W. The Great Silk Road. - Moscow: Centerpoly Many Sogdians living in Turfan adopted Chinese burial methods, graph, 2014.-- S. 168. including putting wooden bars in a room with the deceased, 12. Zhao S. On the monuments of Sogdian emigrants by the instead of servants to serve the deceased in the next world. name of Shi of the 6th – 7th centuries in Chinese Turpan // “Dunhuang Letters” discovered by Marc Aurel Stein in 1907, Actual problems of Central Asia and the Caucasus. - reveal that Sogdian colonies existed in Luoyang, Chang’an, Moscow: Socium, 2015.-- S.133-138. Lanzhou, Wuvei, Jiuquan and Dunhuang. As soon as the community of Sogdians reached a certain number, supposedly 40 people, they constructed a temple of fire. Conducting rituals or rather maintaining fire at the altar and conducting ceremonies during the celebrations of Zoroastrians, was carried out by Sabao (the official for religious affairs of the fire worshipers of the Tang

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