Fm 31-30 D E> a Rtment of the Army/ Field Manual

Home , Special forces

Referencü

J'\ Jl-Jo Heierenc FM 31-30 D E> A RTMENT OF THE ARMY/ FIELD MANUAL

JUNGLE RAINING ND OPERATIONS

THE ARiY WASHINGTON

OÄ X>

a_ oF*i HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF T H E\ A R M Y SEPTEMBER 1965 I

) 1 FM 31-30

FIELD MANUAL ) HEADQUARTERS \ DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY No. 31-30 j WASHINGTON, D. C., 23 September 1965

JUNGLE TRAINING AND OPERATIONS

Paragraph Page

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ; 1-3 3 2. THE JUNGLE Section I. General 4-7 4 II. The jungle environment 8-16 5 III. Military aspects 17-23 31 CHAPTER 3. JUNGLE TRAINING Section I. The individual 24-38 33 II. Units 39-48 142 CHAPTER 4. JUNGLE OPERATIONS Section I. General considerations 49,50 174 II. Movements and marches 51-58 175 III. Combat intelligence 59-62 176 IV. Offensive combat 63-65 178 V. Related offensive and defensive action 66-69 182 VI. The defense 70-74 183 VII. Retrograde movements 75-78 187 CHAPTER 5. SPECIAL COMBAT TECHNIQUES 79-85 189 6. EMPLOYMENT OF COMBAT SUPPORT AND OTHER SUPPORTING SERVICES Section I. Infantry 86-91 194 II. Artillery' 92-101 196 III. Infantry/tank cooperation 102-107 198 IV. Air defense artillery and naval gunfire 108,109 199 V. Engineers 110-116 200 VI. Chemical, Biological and Radiological (CBR) Operations 117-123 201 VII. Close air support 124-132 203 VIII. Employment of Army Aviation 133,134 205 CHAPTER 7. LOGISTICS Section I. General 135-137 206 II. Medical Service 138-147 208 III. Evacuation 148,149 212 IV. Maintenance 150 213 APPENDIX I. REFERENCES 215 II. RECOMMENDED TRAINING PROGRAM 217 III. RECOMMENDED SOP, MANLOADS AND EQUIPMENT LISTS FOR OFFENSIVE COMBAT IN JUNGLE 220 INDEX 225

This manual supersedes FM 31—30, 5 October 1960.

TAGO 5511A 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. Purpose mensurate with importance in operations conducted This manual is for use as an aid to the indi- in jungle terrain. vidual soldier and the junior leader in learning how to prepare for and conduct jungle combat. 3. Publications Emphasis is placed on techniques which will en- a. This publication supplements and, in some able the soldier to fight, live, and move in the instances, amplifies pertinent portions of manuals varied types of terrain, vegetation, and climatic in current use. Emphasis has been placed on ap- conditions peculiar to jungle. It will furnish guid- plication of approved doctrine and techniques un- ance to commanders and staff officers in the prepa- der conditions imposed by jungle terrain. It is to ration of units for combat and will afford a refer- be expected that units preparing for or conducting ence on doctrinal concepts applicable to jungle jungle operations will find it necessary to consult operations. other appropriate publications. Those references 2. Scope applicable to training and combat in jungle are included in appendix I. This manual describes the distinguishing characteristics of jungle environment and the resultant b. To improve this manual, users are encouraged effects of these characteristics on individuals, equip- to submit recommended changes or comments. ment, and operations. Sufficient material is in- Comments should be keyed to the specific page, cluded to enable commanders to organize, initiate, paragraph, and line of the text in which changes and establish an effective jungle training program. are recommended. Reasons should be provided for Emphasis is placed on special techniques for use each comment to insure understanding and com- in jungle operations, employment of supporting plete evaluation. Comments should be forwarded arms and services, and communications. Adminis- direct to Commander, United States Army Forces tration and logistics also receive attention com- Southern Command, Fort Amador, Canal Zone.

TAGO 5511A 3 CHAPTER 2

THE JUNGLE

Section I. GENERAL

4. Prevalent Misconceptions (1) Topography—The shape or configuration The soldier who is not familiar with the jungle of the land’s surface. will suffer from conditioned fears and apprehen- (2) Hydrography refers to the study of oceans, sions when faced with the prospect of living and lakes and rivers (to include relief and fighting in a jungle environment. Popular repre- drainage) as affecting military utilization sentation of the jungle as being a veritable green of terrain. hell of large trees and dense underbrush growing (3) Vegetation—includes all plant life, both over vast expanses of flat, swampy ground and in- natural and cultivated. habited by thousands of animals, snakes, and in- (4) Surface materials—the nature of soils sects which are hostile to man, cause this fear. with particular emphasis on area traffic- Before such individuals even set foot in the jungle ability. they are appalled at the prospect of doing so. Cer- (5) Cultural features—includes all the works tainly the foreboding appearance of the jungle, the of man. oppressive humidity and heat, the unfamiliar noises, and the abject feeling of loneliness that d. Climate denotes the prevailing or average weather conditions of a specific place as determined one feels when entering the jungle intensify the already existing fear of the unknown. It cannot by the recorded temperature and meteorological be denied that the jungle presents some most un- changes measured over a period of years. pleasant aspects. But the individual must, through e. Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at systematic and thorough training and acclimation, a given place at a specified time. learn to know the jungle for what it actually is and not for what it is supposed to be or what it 6. The Tropical Zone might be. Once this knowledge is acquired, the The tropical zone lies between the Tropic of soldier will respect the jungle, not fear it. Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Within this zone there are such diverse environmental condi- 5. Definitions tions as snow-capped mountains, barren deserts, a. Jungle. For the purposes of this manual, the and steamy forests. This manual is concerned only word “jungle” means an area located in the wet with part of the tropical zone, the part in which tropics and dominated by large trees and varied the temperature and relative humidity remain high types of associated vegetation in which an abund- throughout the year. Areas within this part of the ance of animal, insect and birdlife exists. tropical zone are considered to comprise the humid tropics, and it is in the humid tropics that jungle b. Terrain simply refers to any area or tract of terrain is found. Figure 1 gives a generalized view ground which is considered with regard to its nat- of the areas of the world included in the humid ural and manmade features and the effects that tropics. these features will have on military utilization of the ground. 7. Basis of Jungle Warfare Doctrine c. Terrain Features include all of the elements The concept of warfare in the jungle is related which make up the earth’s surface. These elements to the conditions existing in the combat area which comprise : result from the combined effects of—

4 TAGO «511A a. Climate. This is the dominant factor in jungle (3) Vegetation. The element most often asso- areas. It is characterized by heavy rainfall, op- ciated with the jungle. Many types of pressive humidity and high temperatures. Besides plant growth exist in great abundance. having a definite effect on man, climate also affects This vegetation is characterized by rapid the form of the land and contributes to the thick growth, dense concentration and a natural plant growth found in the jungle. ability to resist enemies. b. Status oj Terrain Features. (1) Topography. Most jungle areas on the (4) Surface materials. Vary from the high- shores of large bodies of water, lakes and lands to the lowlands. The uplands soil rivers consist of alluvial plains and is usually composed of fine-grained ma- swamps. The presence of numerous ridges terials having a clay-like composition. The establishes a many-branched drainage sys- lowlands are generally of silty composi- V tem and causes a rugged and complex ter- tion. Trafficability afforded by either type rain structure (fig 2). soil is generally very poor, especially dur- (2) Hydrography. Jungle is characterized by ing rainy periods. many streams which drain the ridges and by large rivers which are deep, swift and (5) Cultural features. Are so scarce in most difficult to cross. Streams and rivers usu- jungle areas that any works of man, re- ally become raging torrents during the gardless of how primitive, are liable to rainy season. assume critical significance in combat.

Section II. THE JUNGLE ENVIRONMENT

8. Primary Characteristics of the Jungle semidarkness that prevails in this type of Trees interconnected by a network of thick vines jungle, only the leaves on the many thick, are the principle identifying features of a jungle. woody vines that hang from the trees and Primarily responsible for the lushness of the vege- grow along the ground aid the trunks in tation is a combination of high temperature and obscuring horizontal visibility. Heavy relative humidity throughout the year and a heavy rainfall throughout the year supports this annual rainfall. Much of this rainfall is in the forest and the ground is nearly always form of torrential showers, the runoff from which wet and slippery. The humidity remains causes flash floods and scours the stream courses. extremely high even during the hottest As a result, most jungle areas are cut by many part of the day because the canopy retards steep-sided gullies (fig 3). Another important con- the drying effect of the sun. For the most sideration in the jungle is the absence of moving part, this jungle is extensive only in areas air, a factor which makes conditions extremely un- remote from civilization. comfortable. These are the characteristics that (2) Highland Forests. As an illustration of prevail in all jungles, but not all jungles provide the extreme variations of climatic and vegetative conditions that are found in f the same operational environment. (For climatic details, see TM 1-300.) jungle areas, it is worthy to note and consider a variant of the evergreen rain- 9. Types of Jungle and Associated Terrain forests which is called a “cloud forest” or Features “moss forest” (fig 5). In mountainous terrain located near the equator at eleva- a. Primary Evergreen Rainforest. tions from 3,000 to 12,000 feet above sea (1) Lowland Forests. In these forests a con- level this type forest may be found. Large tinuous “canopy” of tree branches 100 to trees dominate but extensive growths of 200 feet above the ground blots out the ferns and mosses are also found. All vege- sun from the forest floor which, as a con- tation, the ground and prominent rock sequence, supports the growth of relatively formations are covered with a heavy slime few, shade-tolerant, shrubs (fig 4). In the or moss covering (fig 6). The tempera-

TAGO 5511A 5

-\ t-''

*rfi

jp o

«7 21 ¿7.

K. /t

' *,

fc -1 ¡*! j„,,... , ,¡„5 Figure 1. Shaded areas delimit the humid tropics. 1; ! •

9. o

«r¡*r:*r cc

5 í ' f If

tS •H =va iti— Là A NVSTROM Stnc* Of DUK MAPS No. D 9 J. NTSTROM & Co.. CHICAGO

6 TAQO 5511A TAGO 5511A t* W IP ü < m Ä * 1.2« % fi M •»S m* « mrnßiBg;', & * gullies and ravines. steep, extremely slick when wet and are usually shot through with numerous Figure 2. Typical topography oj jungle areas. The slopes of such hills are very ‘ »

Figure 3. Erosion hole in large gully which drains a high ridge. These holes are often very deep and are a serious hazard to troops especially when moving at night.

TAGO £911A 3# jät

V ■w r* V

__ , , '^Jl ^ - ~* -«.*w ri»

? vt*»-? -»Wi. iS

L-»

Figure I,. The jungle canopy. The interconnected system oj tree limbs forms a veritable roof over the jungle floor. A canopy of this type in primary rainforest may be well over a hundred feet above the ground. The presence of such a canopy hides the general configuration of the ground and prevents aerial survey for mapping purposes.

ture may go as low as 60° and the hu- 15 to 35 feet high. The top canopy is relatively midity is always high. There is a notice- open, allowing the sunlight to reach the ground in able scarcity of animal, insect and bird- numerous places. Because of this, the plants in life. Movement in this forest is extremely this forest form an almost impenetrable under- arduous and hazardous as the slopes are growth. Although this forest is not nearly as dark quite steep, the ground is slick and deep as the primary rainforest, the horizontal visibility layers of ground moss cover the ground is considerably lessened by the dense undergrowth. over hidden fissures of the surface. Al- The temperature is somewhat higher than in the though a cloud forest is a most eerie and primary forest and the humidity is somewhat less, uncomfortable place in which to live, it but overall it is just as uncomfortable for troops. would suit the needs of a guerrilla force c. Mangrove Swamp (fig 8). Associated with quite well. the evergreen rainforest, in coastal areas subject b. Secondary Evergreen Rainforest (fig 7). A to tidal flooding, are extensive mangrove swamps. dense, tangled mass of scrub trees, bushes, and Closely spaced trees with branching “prop” roots jagged grasses occupy the space between the tree form a barrier to any type of movement. With the trunks in this type of jungle. The upper story ground obscured by standing water nearly all of canopy of trees generally is between 50 and 100 the time and the steeply arching roots hampering feet tall, with a second story canopy ranging from horizontal visibility and providing an extremely

TACO 5511A 9 Figure 5. Typical moss or ’cloud" forest.

slippery surface on which to stand, a mangrove (2) Black” mangrove produces the maze of swamp is useful primarily as a place to hide. On their inland margins, where the water is less saline, ground roots usually associated with mangrove growths. However, aerial roots are mangrove swamps are bordered in many places by not usually found in this type swamp; other types of swamp. The various types of man- thus, it can be expected that movement grove swamps can usually be identified by the color of the bark of the larger trees. This is im- through this type would be comparatively easier than is the case with the red bark portant as there are distinct differences of growth type. Figure 10 shows this difference. intensity, degree of flooding and incidence of vines. All these factors have a potential effect on move- 13) “White” mangrove (figs 11 and 12), which ment and should be noted. Types of mangrove actually appears gray in color, has no tent- swamps and growths are: shaped mass of prop roots. Also, there is more space between the individual trees “Red” mangrove grows in deeply flooded and they are usually in a shallower stand areas and produces both aerial roots of ground water. For these reasons it is which drop to seek water and ground roots easily the best of the three sub-types for which branch out in a tangled, tent-shaped ground movement; but, it must be remem- mass, forming an almost impenetrable bered that even a white mangrove swamp barrier. Figure 9 shows a typical stand is a very dense and difficult place for a unit of “Red” mangrove. to operate. 10 TAGO MIIA V

m '.

***

Figure 6. A view of the forest floor in a typical moss forest. Here is the domain of gnarled trees, lichen-fringed and covered loith moss and liverwort. Movement through this forest is all but precluded by the thick mat of growths which may be as deep as a normal man’s height.

TÁQO 5S11A 11 Figure 7. Secondary evergreen forest.

d. Swamp Forest Sub-Types. should be understood that this type of (1) Palm Swamp. This is generally charac- forest can be found in most jungle areas of terized by flooded ground and no canopy the world. Catival swamp is the transition of overhanging trees. Two of the most between swamp forests and upland forests. common types are “Manicaria” and It is so named for the common Catival “Acosticum” palms. Manicaria palm pro- tree, which produces a high, closed can- duces common and useful palm fronds and opy of branches. These shut out the sun- usually stands in water that is not too light and prevent the growth of much low deep to traverse. It is also mixed, nor- vegetation. Sometimes catival swamp has mally, with many other types of growth, as standing ground water, but it is often dry. is common with most jungle vegetation. Figure 15 shows a typical stand of Cati- Acosticum palm, which produces a beauti- val. ful fern, normally stands in higher water (3) Coastal thicket is another sub-type of but usually grows by itself because of its tendency to choke out other plants. Fig- swamp forest. It is found along sandy ures 13 and 14 illustrate the several sub- beaches near sea level. It is very thick types of palm swamps. and dense, very hard to traverse, and can (2) The “Catival swamp” derives its name be recognized by the presence of scattered from the “Cativo” or “Catival” tree. Al- coconut palm trees which will grow very though this is a Latin American word, it close to salt water (figs 16 and 17).

12 TAGO 5511A ’ V/ . ' ' * <^rV-

à & m s^- % s ^4 £33 asa ÍTASâ

^5 *s 5! 5# in &

»■?: @ a

Figure S. Typical mangrove root maze shown at low tide. Caution must be exercised when attempting to hide in or move through such growths as a man who becomes entangled in the root system could be drowned by the rising tide water.

e. Marsh. In areas where the water is not from three to six months, with almost no brackish enough for mangrove, but where it is too precipitation. In contrast to the tropical wet for most forest trees, marshes can usually be evergreen trees of the rainforest, many of found. These generally are composed of tough, the trees in the areas experiencing a dry thick reeds up to 15 feet tall and form a solid season are deciduous, i.e., they shed their mass of vegetation; usually it is impossible to see leaves sometime during the year. This someone even a few feet away. Most of these does not mean that at the beginning of marshes are relatively small, but those that are the dry season the trees lose all of their situated adjacent to a trail are ideal places for leaves; neither does it mean that the for- ambushes. est achieves the bare look in the manner /. Dry Season Deciduous Forest. of a deciduous forest in the mid-latitudes. The leaves fall gradually and it is a rare Í1) All of the vegetative types mentioned tree that becomes completely bare. above occur in areas where the rainfall (2) The upper story canopy of a primary dry is fairly high throughout the year. Al- season deciduous forest generally is though there usually is a so-called dry formed by trees that are not more than season, it actually is more accurately a 100 feet tall. AVhere the canopy is con- less-rainy season. In much of the tropics, tinous the undergrowth is very light. however, there is a true dry season, lasting Where breaks occur in the canopy the

TAGO 5511A 13 Figure 9. Red mangrove growth. The aerial roots seek the water below and strike root into the ground.

undergrowth is very dense (fig 18). Ex- people depend on small scale agriculture tremely dense undergrowth is character- for their livelihood. istic of all of the secondary deciduous forest. High thorny shrubs, knife-edged and g. Cultivation. saw-toothed grasses, and spiny vines are (1) Throughout the tropical areas of the common features. Even during the dry world a large percentage of farmers till season these features reduce horizontal the land in a relatively similar manner. visibility to very short distances. During Several acres of trees are cut during the the rainy season climatic and soil condi- rainy season and the logs and stumps are tions within this type of forest are nearly left in the clearing. These then are burned identical to those in the rainforest; but during the dry season. At the beginning during the dry season the ground becomes of the rainy season the farmers punch dry and hard and temperature and hu- small holes in the ground with pointed midity fluctuations are much greater than sticks, drop a few seeds in each hole, cover in the rainforest. Since the climatic con- the seeds by stamping the ground with their ditions are somewhat more pleasant in feet, and wait for the crop to grow. After areas having a dry season than in areas the second year of use, a clearing is aban- where rain falls the year round, there doned and a new clearing is made. This is usually are more people living in the dry commonly called “slash and burn” agricul- season areas. The greatest number of ture (fig 19). Abandoned clearings usu-

TAGO 5511A Figure 10. Black mangrove. Note the absence of aerial roots.

ally contain a dense growth of scrub vege- skin while crossing these fields will al- tation in which relics of former crops,_such most certainly result in an infection. as bananas, may be found. (3) More closely associated with, and in some (2) The cultivation of wet rice, though not areas completely surrounded by jungle, directly related to jungle operations, is an are several types of tree crops, primarily important consideration in the more rubber and coconut. These trees generally densely populated parts of potential op- are grown in plantations, where the trees erational areas. Wet rice is grown on both are planted at regularly spaced intervals the lowlands and the hill slopes (fig 20). and all underbrush has been removed. In the lowlands rectangular fields sepa- Having the appearance of well-tended rated by dikes one to two feet high are parks, rubber and coconut plantations af- flooded during the growing season through ford a welcome respite from the jungle an intricate network of canals and irriga- but provide little concealment or cover. tion ditches. On the hill slopes terraces h. Savanna. Tropical grasslands begin along are constructed on which to grow the rice; the fringes of the dry season deciduous forests. The dikes surround the terraced fields and the only trees found in the savanna grow in scattered fields are flooded by gravity flow. Since small groves or isolated single stems. Grass which most of these rice fields are fertilized by is as much as 15 feet tall in the more well watered human feces, accidental puncture of the areas to as little as 3 feet tall in the more arid 75 w! «

9vi

es* -<£r*x ¥* *31

.■te.

Figure 11. White or gray mangrove. The trees are small and the water level is usually not as high as that found in other mangrove areas. sections comprises the principal vegetation. Hori- slow and arduous. Men used as cutters and trail zontal visibility in the tall grass is reduced to a breakers in bamboo growths should be relieved at few feet and in some places it is possible for walk- five to ten minute intervals. Inasmuch as bamboo ing men to be completely obscured from aerial ob- offers such great resistance to penetration and be- servation. The highest temperatures in the humid cause movement is out of necessity very noisy, it tropics are recorded in the savanna areas, and the should be avoided or bypassed if possible. daily differences in both temperature and humidity are greater than in the other areas described. See 10. Distance and Movement figure 21 for a representative example of savanna a. General. Vines that entangle and trip even grass. the most careful person, steep stream banks with i. Bamboo. This member of the tropical tree- slippery soils, shrubs and trees with thorns that penetrate and tear clothes, grasses with knifelike like grass family grows in clusters or concentra- and saw-toothed edges that cut the skin, combined tions of varying intensity throughout the wet with constantly high heat and relative humidity, tropics. The springy, hollow jointed stems vary make jungle an extremely difficult place in which greatly in circumference and height. Some growths to move. Even where trails are available condi- attain a height of well over a hundred feet. Hori- tions are not improved to any great extent espe- zontal visibility is extremely limited, usually to cially during, and immediately after, rains. In only a few feet. Movement through bamboo is areas where the vegetation is extremely dense and

16 TAGO 5511A !¿v*í

m At i £

Figure IS. Patrol moving through white mangrove. deep it may be necessary to follow the beds of movement rates can be expected to vary similarly. streams. If the stream bottom is either rocky or Because of many factors attendant to movement soft, movement may still be very difficult. Dark- such as physical condition of troops, equipment and ness, which occurs with great rapidity in the jungle, individual man loads, weather, etc., it is most diffi- compounds the problems of movement. In general, cult to estimate accurately travel times for move- tropical nights are approximately 12 hours long ment by infantry. It is best to express estimates throughout the year. Chief among jungle naviga- in terms of time and not distance. For planning tion problems is the difficulty of estimating dis- purposes the following data are offered, but it must tances. Rarely are there landmarks against which be kept in mind that accurate estimates can be to check as reference points for the distance trav- realized by commanders only through experience eled. Only in very few instances will it be possible and knowledge of troop capabilities: to correlate accurately a given jungle area to a map. In almost all cases a soldier will estimate (1) Primary evergreen j or est. The average that he has traveled much farther than he actually rate of movement is about 1000 meters to has because he usually will have expended a con- the hour, dependent upon the incidence of siderable amount of energy to go only a fairly hills, rivers or swamps which will slow short distance. progress considerably. b. Estimating Time-Distance Factor. Terrain in (2) Secondary evergreen forest. Average rate jungle areas offers many variations. As a result, about 500 meters per hour.

TAGO 5511A 17 Figure 18. Manicaria palm swamp. Note tolerance of this large tree jor other types oj plants.

(3) Swamps. Average rate about from 100- generally narrow-gauge and have very low carry- 500 meters per hour. ing capacities; most serve as feeder lines from a (4) Bamboo. Extremely slow, dependent upon commercial establishment (plantation, mine, or size. Closely growing bamboo is one vege- factory) to a port. Road nets are infrequent and tation that can slow movement to almost limited and most roads have loose surfaces; many a standstill. roads are impassable for vehicles during the rainy (5) Savanna. Rate of movement about the season. Trails passable only to pack animals or same as for secondary evergreen forest, men on foot even during the best conditions are the but more taxing and exhausting. only transportation links in large areas. In the (6) Trails. If their use is permitted or feasible more remote areas inland waterways are the princi- under the immediate tactical situation, the pal transportation arteries. These same waterways speed of movement will approach that of are major obstacles to movement on land. There movement in open country. All of this is are few bridges and most of these are not capable contingent upon the factors described. of supporting military vehicles heavier than a ^4 ton truck. Many streams are not even crossed by 11. Transportation Facilities foot bridges. Heavy equipment can be a definite detriment in such areas, providing more difficulties With very few exceptions surface transportation than help. Because of the lack of cross connections facilities in the humid tropics are poorly developed. between existing roads or trails, communications be- Railroads are rare and those that do exist are tween units moving on widely separated axes is an

18 TACO 6511A » S':>ví\Vtw

Figure 14- Acosticum palm of “fern” swamp. This palm tends to choke out all other types of growth. additional problem. The limitations of surface troops to harbor fungus. These organisms grow at transportation facilities transfer the major trans- an extremely rapid rate unless a constant effort is portation requirements to aircraft. When aircraft made to keep the body dry. Foot care is most im- are used, weight factors become very important. portant, although fungus infections also occur quite In forested areas, the problem of getting troops to commonly in the ears and on the hands. Water in the ground is paramount. The next problem is to most areas is polluted; unless precautions are taken recover these troops following execution of a mis- to purify it before drinking, it may cause intestinal sion. With all of the attendant problems, jungle diseases such as dysentery. Even wells used by operations will require the use of aircraft as a villagers are usually contaminated. Although na- major means of transportation. tives drink this water with impunity, troops can become violently ill. Malaria is another common 12. Diseases ailment of the humid tropics. All troop units going a. Prevalence. Troops operating in the humid into such areas for extended stays should be sup- tropics will be exposed to a variety of diseases plied with anti-malaria medicines. Nets should be which are seldom found in the mid-latitudes. Al- used to protect troops against insects when sleep- though many of the disease-producing organisms ing. live in the jungle some are common only in areas b. Seriousness. Such diseases as malaria, filaria- of human occupancy. Various types of fungi pro- sis (elephantiasis), dengue fever, yellow fever, and duce the most widespread infections. Constant ex- typhus will cause total incapacitation. Fungus in- posure to high heat and high humidity cause most fections, probably the most common of all dis-

TAGO 5511A 19 i

r^w

i-. te

Jr ■%

ÎW * r*r/

r f*r

T?b

Figure 16. Catival growth. The sparse undergrowth in this forest facilitates movement by foot troops.

20 TAGO 5511A Figure 16. Coastal thicket. orders, generally are more annoying and painful discussion of medical problems encountered during than incapacitating. Social diseases such as jungle operations. syphilis and gonorrhea are quite common in native villages; it is important, therefore, that troops 13. Visibility avoid intimate contact with the local women. Im- a. Limits. Horizontal visibility in the areas of aginary ailments, with symptoms unheard of in the humid tropics varies according to the type of medical books, often affect troops when they are vegetation (figs 22, 23 and 24). In the primary first introduced to jungle environment; these im- rainforests visibility is hampered by both the semi- aginary diseases sometimes can be even more seri- darkness which prevails throughout the day and the ous than those which are real. The stress of violent vegetation, which, though not closely spaced, is action under the conditions of high heat and hu- relatively large in diameter. Even in the most open midity may cause troops to become unconscious. spaces in these forests a field of vision of more than This phenomena is not imaginary and may occur 100 feet can be rarely obtained. In the secondary to both acclimatized and unacclimatized troops. rainforest and both the primary and secondary Maintaining a healthy force under these extremely deciduous dry season forests the fields of view are reduced to 30 feet or less in many places. In some trying conditions is one of the most difficult of all secondary growth, views may be reduced to as little the operational problems that troop commanders as 10 feet. In the plantations of tree crops it is may encounter. quite possible to obtain views of up to 300 feet. See paragraphs 8 through 16 for a more detailed In mangrove swamps visibility is hampered more

TACO 55UA 21 Figure 17. Another view oj coastal thicket. In some areas the vegetation grows down to the water’s edge. A clearing such as the beach in the foreground is potentially key terrain. by the darkness than by the prop roots so it is normally limited to scope for this reason. Opera- possible in some of these areas to see as much as tions are usually conducted by small units to lessen 50 feet. In the marshes and in the tall grass sa- the problems of control. vanna fields of vision are reduced to only a few feet. In short grass savannas surface irregularities 14. Plant Life provide the principal hindrances to long distance Plants suitable for use as food abound in most views. Observation from the air is very difficult jungle areas. For a complete discussion of useful in all of these areas except the short grass savanna. plants, see TM 10-420, FM 21-76, and paragraph b. Problems. Control measures must be increased 29 of this manual. for operation in the jungle. At the same time, however, the need for silence is imperative. Even if it 15. Animal Life is not possible for men to see each other, they must Most animals in the jungle will not attack man have a method of knowing that the adjacent person unless they are frightened. There are a few ex- is friendly. Whoever is doing the navigating ceptions, however; the Asiatic Tiger, the Latin through the vegetation must be able not only to American Jaguar, and Peccaries (commonly called maintain the direction of movement but also to wild boars) may attack unprovoked. These ani- relay information regarding progress, state of the mals are in the minority and are rarely encountered. ground, and other pertinent data to the commander Even snakes will not usually attack unless they of the unit. Objectives in jungle operations are are molested. Some reptiles, such as the crocodile,

22 TAGO fiSHA *

1 v • * - ....w-- .XT-- Tv’.v — VT ’' •* x.i«••*» ► ^ iv- .-. ••-. r-'s* -' f-’:’' ' i . ..A(*.- m ! ' _ ■ J»/.1- . ^ ■ :• : fT . J •o>' -H » - . ^ • . -J*

V-'' : ■ r /

■* - — '■.'J'? *~

Figure 18. Dense undergrowth jound at a break in the high canopy. and some fish, such as the Piranha of Northeastern with the head man of a village or tribe because the South America, will attack anything that moves. possibility of projecting the information desired is For the most part, the animals that inhabit the greater through this means. Local interpreters, in jungle are the least significant hazard troops may their desire to be helpful and to maintain their encounter. favored position in the community or tribe, cannot afford to indicate they do not understand and they 16. Natives will provide the answers that they think are wanted. The natives of an area can provide valuable The following concepts should be considered when assistance if they are made to feel that there is dealing with native populations: some reason for giving their help. It is necessary 1. Be friendly but cautious. before going into an area, to learn about, or at 2. Be courteous. least become familiar with, the customs, habits, and 3. Respect customs, religious beliefs, and taboos of the natives. By violating a sacred taboo, property. it is possible to alienate the entire native element in an area and thus cut off a source of intelligence 4. Offer gifts with prudence. and a supply of potentially willing workers who 5. Avoid threatening gestures. could be employed as scouts, guides, carriers, con- 6. Do not molest women. struction workers, and litter bearers. The use of 7. Offer all assistance possible, especially local interpreters when dealing with the native medical aid. population can be more harmful than valuable. It 8. Do not confiscate food, etc.; pay a fair is more advantageous to use sign language directly price for everything.

TACO 551IA 23 ■T*'

âsi

'Ä*.

f?% 4

«i

**.* r> / «

SÉ ^8

Figure 19. Dense undergrowth resulting jrnm abandonment oj clearing in the “slash and burn’’ agricultural process used by many natives in jungle areas.

24 TAGO 5511A Figure 20. Juncture of grassland and cultivation with primary jungle. Terraced rice fields are in the foreground.

TAGO 5511A *

V ft

Figure 21. Savanna grass. Note absence oí large trees.

26 TAGO 5511A s©

Sj-ïi-':,

Figure 22. Jungle trail. Horizontal visibility is frequently restricted on these trails and the trail can be lost from view quite easily if individuals step to one side more than a few meters.

TAQO 5511A 27 Figure 23. Troops moving doum a wide trail, Horizontal visibility is restricted by varying light conditions as shown in the photograph.

28 TAGO S511A X l* m ñ

% i Â

Figure 24. Large diameter tree common to •primary rainforests. The limbs of these trees usually do not branch out from the trunk except at heights from SO to 100 feet above ground level. It is not difficult to see how these large trees would restrict horizontal visibility severely even when the underbrush is sparse.

TAGO 5511A 29 X m %

Figure 26. These photographs illustrate the problems ol visibility and control caused by jungle vegetation. In the top inclure the soldier teas photographed at a distance of nine feet; he took two paces and was partially hidden from view as shown in the center photo; two more paces and he was completely lost from sight.

30 TAGO MUA Section III. MILITARY ASPECTS

17. General short. Short range, quick-burst, quick-response Movement either by vehicle or on foot is ex- weapons are the most useful. tremely difficult in jungle areas. Minor terrain features can present major obstacles to movement 19. Concealment in combination with the dense vegetation. Because In nearly all types of vegetation in jungle areas bridging equipment generally will not be available the concealment potential is tremendous. The op- at any depth in the jungle, it is necessary to im- portunity to conceal troops from most types of provise for almost every river crossing where ford- surveillance devices is afforded in all types of ing is not possible. Planning criteria must first be vegetation except the very young secondary growth developed on the time factors involved rather than group. If camouflage techniques are used properly the distance to be covered. Defensive action in there are very few situations or conditions in which jungle terrain is considerably aided by natural troops cannot be concealed from ground observers. features. Small units are the essential element in Seasonal changes of coloration must be studied. all jungle operations. They must be kept fully Stringent discipline must be maintained in all informed of the known situation, so they can make movements and bivouacs to insure against unneces- competent plans and decisions. sary clearing of overhead cover and thereby permit aerial observation. Many of the vegetative features 18. Observation and Fields of Fire that afford concealment because of their opaque a. Observation. Ground observers are at a dis- surfaces provide no resistance to bullets. It is easy tinct disadvantage in jungle areas. As mentioned for troops to mistake concealment for cover. in paragraph 13, the range of horizontal visibility is extremely limited (fig 25). Aerial observation 20. Cover will provide little useful information because the Except in the primary evergreen rainforest, the jungle canopy will conceal most activity under- trees in most jungle areas will not provide exten- neath. This activity may include movement of sub- sive cover. Average tree trunks are generally not stantial bodies of troops over fairly long distances. more than 12 inches in diameter; in areas where Undetected movements of this type can mean dis- large trunked trees are located the trees are usually aster if defending troops cannot properly man de- widely spaced. Most of the cover in jungle areas fensive positions before the attack. Conversely, the will be afforded by surface irregularities, such as attacking forces may also use the jungle cover and ravines, gullies, and large rocks. These are to be concealment to get into positions undetected by found in abundance. and unknown to the defenders. In these areas of limited observation and fluid frontal conditions the 21. Obstacles control of the fighting becomes doubly difficult. The jungle itself is the obstacle. This feature Flanks can be turned, fronts can change, and the with its attendant psychological pitfalls and its leaders of the operation may never know that these physical adversities must be overcome before any events have occurred. thought can be given to an enemy force. The b. Fields of Fire. The traditional employment stresses placed on men to merely traverse the of automatic weapons is impractical in jungle ground and the heat generated by such stresses in- areas. It is not normally advisable to clear fan- duce a type of hypnotic spell in which the next step shaped fields of fire to provide maximum arc and becomes the most important consideration, all of coverage of sectors with these weapons. To do this which dulls the mental discipline necessary to re- would indicate clearly to the enemy the friendly main alert. Augmenting the natural conditions that fields of fire. Rather, “fire tunnels” should be care- serve to break down the spirit and fighting will of fully hollowed out of the vegetation to define the the soldier are the manmade obstacles erected by sectors of fire. For the most part coverage will be the enemy. If these obstacles are encountered when limited to the control of trails and other routes of troops are in a state of fatigue they may forget movement and fire will be confined to very shallow that the obstacles are almost always controlled by areas. Even the range for snipers will be very maximum enemy firepower. Only a determined,

TAGO 5511A 31 disciplined force in peak physical condition can 23. Avenues and Routes of Approach hope to move and fight successfully in the jungle. It is not possible to provide a formula for de- 22. Key Terrain Features ciding the approach route that would serve the needs of the commander best. If he has a choice, All features that expedite movement, resupply, his immediate needs and the time/distance factor and evacuation may be key terrain features. Roads will guide him in his decision as to routes for are the most critical; trails that afford relatively movements. Consideration should be given to the easy access are next in priority. Navigable water- fact that in any movement security is of major ways are also significant. Any clearing in which a importance. Although the terrain may permit helicopter can load or unload may tactically be a movement along trails, ridgelines and valleys, nor- key feature in a major operation (fig 26). Vil- mally these routes will be guarded by enemy forces. lages, bridges and prepared fords must also be considered. Unlike conditions in more barren areas, On the other hand, while travel across ridgelines high ground is not necessarily important; from the and valleys will normally offer more security, it heights the possibility of controlling or observing will be much slower and extremely tiring for the trails or critical approaches through the valleys is troops, especially so if large quantities of food and rather remote. ammunition are to be carried.

Figure 26. A jungle clearing. When these clearings are encountered deep in jungle they should be considered danger areas. They should be plotted on the map as they are potential helicopter landing areas and can be used jor artillery registration ij plotted accurately.

32 TAGO 5511A CHAPTER 3

JUNGLE TRAINING

Section I. THE INDIVIDUAL

24. General ployment to wet tropics from temperate areas takes place. A practical appraisal of the abnormal difficulties inherent in jungle operations will reveal that the b. The objectives of jungle training are to pre- only remedies for such conditions are training and pare the individual and unit to function effectively experience. Unless, however, experience is based in jungle environments. Training situations should on sound, thorough, realistic and constant train- be created which require execution of missions by ing it is liable to be quite costly. Therefore, the small units operating independently. Control of individual soldier and operational units should be units should be decentralized requiring reliance prepared to live and fight in jungle environment upon the junior leaders and even the individual before such a mission is actually assigned. Training soldier. Training should demand individual self- conducted in actual jungle constitutes the ideal reliance, teamwork, skill, and determination on the training situation; however, application of guid- part of participating troops. The scope of the train- ance herein described, in areas other than the ing program should extend from survival of the jungle, will benefit the soldier, in event jungle individual in the jungle, to participation of units areas are not available. Under circumstances of in combined operations. the nonavailability of jungle terrain, commanders must employ vigorous and imaginative approaches 26. Acclimation to Heat and Humidity to training for jungle combat taking advantage of a. General. One of the secrets of successful the opportunities offered by dense woods, river training or fighting in a wet tropical climate is the beds, swamps, marshes or thickets for training pur- knowledge and proper use of information regard- poses. Application of night fighting techniques ing the acclimation process of the body, heat dis- when utilizing conventional or relatively barren orders, and basic heat rules. It must be empha- terrain for training will prove to be quite effective sized that understanding and remembering this in- in simulating the reduced ranges of assault, re- formation are not enough ; only by proper use of stricted movement, and control difficulties imposed this knowledge can troops avoid becoming heat by the jungle. casualties. 25. Initial Training Objectives b. Heat. Heat is a physical form of energy generated through combustion, chemical action, or a. The first concern of commanders who are faced friction. There are two types of heat which are of with the task of preparing individuals for jungle interest to the soldier, the heat of the environment combat is the physical and mental acclimation of caused by the sun, and the heat of the body gen- troops to the oppressive jungle environment. Psy- erated by converting food into energy. The normal chological conditioning and knowledge imparted temperature of the human body is between 98° F through sound instruction are the only means to and 99° F depending on the individual. When ex- eliminate the common fear of snakes, insects, ani- cess heat acquired by the body from the environ- mals, and unknown, foreboding terrain. Troops ment or from energy producing foods is not dissi- must not only be physically hardened; in addition, pated, and this internal temperature departs sig- they must be able to adjust to weather, climate, nificantly from normal, serious sickness or even and temperature changes to be expected when de- death will result. The human body dissipates ex-

TAGO 5511A 33 cess heat in three ways: conduction, radiation, and one to two weeks after departure from evaporation. Conduction of body heat occurs when wet tropical environment. the temperature of the air is less than the body (2) Proper clothing for the acclimation proc- temperature. Radiation of body heat occurs when ess. the surface temperature of surrounding objects is (o) Clothing must fit loosely. Tightly fitted lower than the surface temperature of the skin. uniforms will become saturated with Normal responses to heat stresses are dilation (en- sweat and will hinder the cooling proc- \ largement) of the blood vessels and an increase in ess of evaporation and air circulation the rate of heartbeat. These adjustments increase around the body. the temperature of the skin and thus increase heat (b) One loose layer of clothing is the most loss through conduction. When radiation is not effective dress for the jungle as it affords sufficient to maintain the normal body temperature, some protection from brambles and in- the activity of the sweat glands increases and sects and allows rapid evaporation of evaporation of the perspiration from the surface sweat. of the skin becomes the most important means of cooling the body. 27. Heat Disorders—Prevention and Treat- ment c. The acclimation process. Acclimation can be a. General. Heat disorders are a serious prob- defined as the adaptation by the individual to work lem in the wet tropics. The best defense against in the heat with maximum efficiency and least dis- this potentially fatal threat is knowledge. Troops comfort. If the body does not become accustomed must know what these disorders are, what causes to heat, the individual becomes irritable and slug- them, how to prevent them, and how to recognize gish and is unable to sleep. In general, the per- the symptoms as evidenced by a victim. Of spe- formance of this individual becomes substandard cial importance is the individual soldier’s ability and inefficient. Some soldiers may never become to render effective treatment either to himself or to acclimated but, fortunately, the percentage is Very others in event of occurrence of these disorders. small. The acclimation process is automatic. The ease and rapidity with which the body becomes ac- b. Dehydration. Approximately two-thirds of climated depends upon several variables. One such the human body is water. If water is not replaced variable is the degree of temperature change be- as it is lost in exposure to heat, the body becomes tween the two climates involved. Troops going to dried out—dehydrated. Individuals become slug- the wet tropics from a southerly location in the gish and listless as this condition develops. mid-latitudes will become acclimated easier and c. Heat Exhaustion. After dehydration the most faster than troops from a place farther to the North. common heat disorder is heat exhaustion. It is A similar condition would exist if such a move is caused by excessive loss of water from the body. made in the summer instead of the winter. A sec- Symptoms of heat exhaustion are headache; con- ond variable is the abruptness of the change from fusion; dizziness; drowsiness; weakness; incoordi- one climate to another. Troops who are transported nation; loss of appetite; vomiting; visual disturb- to wet tropical areas by surface transportation will ances; rapid, weak pulse; and cool and wet skin. not experience as much discomfort when they ar- To treat a victim of heat exhaustion, remove him to rive as would troops who are transported by air. a cool, shaded place for rest; elevate his feet to (1) Characteristics of the acclimation process. improve circulation of the blood and give him salt (а) Acclimation begins the first day of ar- solution (two salt tablets, well crushed, dissolved rival in the wet tropics and is well de- in a canteen of cool water) to drink. Prevention is veloped by the fourth day. much easier than treatment; make sure that there is ample water available and that troops drink (б) As the process continues, sweating in- enough to avert heat exhaustion. During normal creases and begins more readily, but operations, soldiers should drink from 6 to 15 can- salt loss becomes less. teens of water a day, depending on how much the (c) Physical exercise speeds the acclimation individual sweats. At temperatures of 100o-200° process by inducing profuse sweating. this should change to as much as 25 canteens per id) The body will remain acclimated from day. Water must not be rationed in training. There

34 TAGO 5511A are ample sources of water in the jungle to provide acclimation process is completed is recom- sufficient water during actual operations; however, mended. troops must not he allowed to drink water from (3) Troops should use extra salt with food and these sources without purifying it. water. Both salt and water are needed to prevent all heat disorders. d. Heat Cramps. A third type of heat disorder is heat cramps. Heat cramps result primarily from (4) Soldiers should eat their heavy meal dur- excessive loss of salt from the body. Severe and ing the cool of the day if this is possible. painful muscle cramps arc tine symptoms of this Food is the most important source of salt disorder. A victim suffering from heat cramps for the body. should be moved to a cool place and treated as pre- (5) Troops should dress properly for heat. The scribed for heat exhaustion. Salt leaves the body fatigue jacket should be worn outside the through sweat and urine. It is when salt is not re- trousers and undershirts should not be placed that heat cramps occur. The way to prevent worn. This is application of the “single heat cramps is to insure that troops take salt tab- layer” principle. lets with water, at the rate of two salt tablets per canteen of water, but not to exceed six tablets per 28. Living in the Jungle day. Salt tablets now issued are coated so that they a. General. It is essential that the individual no longer produce the gastro-intestinal- disorders soldier be conditioned to the peculiarities and the of formerly used salt tablets. unique jungle environment before he is committed to actual combat in this type of terrain. If not c. Heat Stroke (Sunstroke). This major heat properly acquainted with the jungle, troops are disorder is a serious condition with a high mortality rate. Heat stroke is caused by a breakdown liable to become occupied solely with their surroundings and give little attention to the assigned of the body’s heat regulating mechanism, and is mission. Troops must know how to protect them- particularly prone to occur in individuals who are selves from the elements and difficulties of the not acclimated to the heat. The individual may ab- jungle, if their fighting efficiency is to be main- sorb heat from the ground and air. The symptoms are: headache, nausea, dizziness and, most impor- tained. This is best accomplished by practical sur- tant, a hot, red, dry skin. There is an absence of vival training which emphasizes the importance of sweating. A heat stroke victim must receive prompt individual resourcefulness, imagination, and determination. The soldier should acquire and apply attention or he will die. Cool him immediately. Put him in’a creek or stream; pour canteens of water sound habits to the everyday routine of living when operating in the jungle for extended periods. Jungle on him and fan him; use ice if it is available. The operations require independent actions by small victim’s temperature will rise, very high (106°- units. As a consequence, the soldier must be pre- 110° F) and the brain will literally bake in the skull unless the temperature is lowered immediately pared to care for his own needs. ^ to at least 102° F. As soon as possible, evacuate b. Aspects Affecting Troops Living in the Jungle. him to medical aid. Every soldier must know the (1) Individual uniforms, clothing, and equip- symptoms of heat stroke and how to render prompt ment. Troops conducting jungle opera- and proper treatment. tions will usually have to manpack their /. Basic Rules for Prevention of Heat Disorders. essentials as normal methods of logistical support will not usually b.e available: (1) Troops should drink plenty of water. Each Therefore, each soldier must learn. what individual will need from 6 to 15 canteens his requirements for clothing'and equip- of water daily during normal jungle train-: c ment are, how to keep these requirements ing or operations. • to a minimum, and hów-best to use them. (2) Soldiers must become acclimated. The (a). Combat uniform (fatigues).. This cloth-: acclimation process must be understood ing is adequate, as issued, for wear in and basic principles previously described the jungle. To insure maximum cooling must be applied. Alternate periods of of the body, ventilation, must carry work and rest for 7 to 10 days until the away body heat. The fatigues, there-

TAOO 5511A 35 fore, must fit loosely; they should not (b) Poncho. The poncho is a raincoat and be “cut-down” or tailored. To aid is issued as such. However, if the ventilation, troops should be allowed to poncho is worn as a raincoat its non- wear the jacket on the outside of the porous structure will cause perspiration trousers. To take advantage of the and will cause the soldier to be more blending color of the fatigues with the uncomfortable, and wetter, than he background offered by the jungle, the would be if he did not attempt to clothe clothing should not be excessively faded himself against the rain. Also, the vege- from the original olive green color. tation will literally tear the poncho from Faded and light colored fatigues will the wearer’s body. By employing the outline the wearer’s form against the poncho as an expedient it will be found jungle green. Fatigue clothing should that it has many more useful purposes also be in serviceable condition. Worn that will serve troops better. The poncho or threadbare cloth will not protect the soldier from insect bites, brambles, and is 'very useful in the construction of direct sunlight as well as new or heavy shelters. Figures 27 through 35 illus- cloth. The skin needs all the protection trate some of the varied uses of the it can be given. Troops should not de- poncho. The poncho can also be used pend upon a uniform that may tear to gather rain water, as an improvised easily and expose areas of the body. parachute for material drops and for the

•sr-.

irr.

'Aß*r Vv, *r

. ^ \ .V! aro. -s .i. : 'Jwv

Figure £7. Improvised pup tent constructed ¡rom forked sticks and two ponchos.

36 TAGO 5511A I

m v

Sekr-' LSSS Figure SS. Hnsly lean-lo made with poncho and forked sticks.

construction of brush rafts ( figs 36 and can then be fastened onto the top of the 106). combat pack with straps, or attached to (c) The jungle boot. It is light weight and the suspender harness with light rope lias built-in drainage screens located at if the pack is not worn. The mosquito the inside arch. These two features aid bar should be utilized whenever troops swimming while wearing the boots. An sleep in the jungle. If conditions pre- outstanding advantage offered by the vent construction of a shelter the bar boot is its cleated sole, which aids in can still be used by tying to trees or negotiating steep slopes and ground cov- brush. Besides providing protection ered with wet and decaying vegetation. from insects, the mosquito bar will offer If jungle boots are not available, cleated protection from bats, whose bites are a soles should be provided on the stand- potential source of rabies. One word of ard combat boot. caution. Troops should not allow any (d) The insect (mosquito) bar. The mos- portion of the body to contact the mosquito bar is a most important item of quito bar when it is hung, as mosquitos equipment. Although it is very light it and bats will bite through the net. can be bulky if not folded carefully. (e) Gloves. If available, soldiers should For efficient packing the mosquito bar wear gloves when moving through vege- should be folded inside the poncho, the tation. Some protection from thorns, roll being as tight as possible. This roll brambles, insect bites, and snake bite

TAGO 5511A 37 AS A SLEEPING BAG

Figure 29. The poncho as an improvised sleeping bag. The poncho should be used in this manner only during the cool of night because its nouporous fabric may gically increase perspiration.

will thus be afforded. Gloves will also effective weapon as well as an excellent protect the hands from blisters when cutting tool. The employment of the using the machete for prolonged periods machete as a weapon can be integrated of time and will prevent burns when with other combat training. As a tool, rapelling rapidly. When not actually however, the machete shows its worth. needed, they should not be worn, be- To gain the maximum use from the ma- cause they will soften the skin unneces- chete, it is necessary to learn and prac- sarily. tice the proper grip (fig 37). The (/) Suspenders. The suspenders issued with proper way to grasp the machete is as the combat pack should be worn when follows: take a firm grip on the handle, the accouterment belt is worn. Because the power of the grip being asserted by it is advantageous to travel light, troops the thumb, the index finger and the should not wear the combat pack except third finger; the ring finger and the when the mission dictates. As much as small finger should be held loosely possible, individual equipment and am- around the handle; the last two fingers ■ munition should be worn on the belt. will be tightened around the handle im- The suspenders will help support the mediately prior to the blade striking the weight by relieving weight from the hips target. Simultaneous with this last ac- and, as a result, the load will be easier tion a pronounced “snap” of the wrist to carry, being better distributed. will be made. This will increase the (¡7) The machete. The machete is the most power of the strike. To realize the max- important and useful piece of equipment imum efficiency of the blade, the angle available to the jungle fighter. It is an of strike should be 45°. Figure 38 illus-

38 TAGO 5511A mm ÍLV*m * l Ä \~ rtfiluor ** *

f^*

«ii

.* i ’ «'■ HUNG FROM BUSHES Figure 30. Hasty shelter made by suspending the poncho from low underbrush. The simplicity of this shelter allows erection during darkness.

trates this angle. Caution should be ex- from the user’s immediate vicinity any ercised to insure that the blade does not snakes that might be there. Certain pre- strike the target at an angle greater cautions must be taken when troops than 45° as the blade will make only a use the machete. Users should not cut shallow cut. If the target is struck at towards the body; they should swing an angle less than 45°, the tendency is the blade away to the left or right. In to ricochet. Besides being ineffective, cutting vines, when making a trail, the this is very dangerous to the wielder of cut should always be upward to avoid the machete and to those around him. jerking the tree tops to which the vine The machete is also used to cut grass. is fastened, and thus alerting any en- However, when the machete is employed emy observation. Individuals should to do this, repeated blows may be neces- not work too closely to one another. sary to cut one clump of grass. This is The back of the blade is thin and can caused by the resiliency of the grass and injure, so care should be exercised when the resultant lack of resistance offered the blade is drawn back in preparation to the blade. A simple expedient can for a strike. When not in use the ma- solve this difficulty. A forked stick will chete should be sheathed. If it must be compress the grass so that the blade will carried unsheathed, it should be grasped cut it. This stick will also flush away by the back of the blade between the

TAGO 5511A 39 % *

€

kil/ W - ^

iv\)b ' S (i I1 W' •nil I. .l.l| 1 1 , ««fix A Ik. ' '

PITCHED CANOPY FASHION

Figure SI. Hasty shelter constructed with the poncho.

40 TAGO 8511A € =x?

AS A LARGER SHELTER

Figure 32. Two ponchos fastened together in this manner will shelter jour men from the rain.

thumb and the index and third fingers. health. The characteristics of wet tropi- Thus, if a soldier should fall the blade cal areas favor disease. The warm and will be dropped and the reflexive action humid climate favors rapid reproduction, of extending the arms to break the fall growth, and spread of disease-causing will not result in injury. Like any other germs. Most of these areas have a high tool, the machete must be properly rate of endemic disease; the primitive maintained. sanitation systems compound this condi- (2) Sanitation and personal hygiene. In no tion. All wet tropical areas have great other type of military operations is sani- numbers and varieties of insects that tation and personal hygiene more impor- spread and carry disease-causing germs. tant than in jungle combat. Jungle opera- The problem posed by disease in jungle tions place greater responsibility for safe- areas has previously been mentioned in guarding health upon the individual chapter 2. A detailed discussion of the soldier. In jungle areas, units and indi- types of diseases prevalent in jungle areas viduals will not have the protection af- can be found in paragraphs 138 through forded by the modern sewage and water 147. systems of built-up areas. Each unit will (3) Water. The very abundance of water have organic medical personnel, but since found in the jungle can cause many prob- the jungle favors operations by small lems if the greatest care is not taken to groups operating on their own, every sol- properly purify it before consumption. dier must have at least an elementary There are many sources of water in the knowledge of how to care for his own jungle. Streams and rivers, water holes,

TAGO 5511A 41 "V-

Figure S3. Jungle bed ¡or one man. Poncho may be used as a roof.

and “water vines” will furnish water for the water from vines, bamboo, and ba- the soldier. Actually, there is no such nanas must be purified prior to consump- thing as a water vine; any vine can be a tion. Boiling, for at least one minute plus source of water if it passes three tests for one additional minute for every 1000 feet potability. A segment of large vine should above sea level, or chemical purification be cut in a length of about three feet. If by halazone or iodine tablets, is neces- the sap is clear, odorless, and tasteless, sary. Troops should be made to practice the water is safe to drink. Banana tree these precautions regardless of the area stalks, wrung out like a wet cloth, are a in which they are training or operating. source of water. Bamboo saplings have a (4) Jungle shelters. It is essential that troops good supply of water in the lower sections. be able to protect themselves from the ele- Rain is a good source of water. However, ments when they must live in the jungle the jungle canopy is inhabited by thou- over extended periods. Sleeping on the sands of arboreal creatures. Troops should ground will cause the soldier to suffer the wait for the rain to fall for ten to fifteen effects of dampness and from the various minutes to insure that water that falls insects that inhabit the jungle floor. through the canopy is free from contami- Therefore, in the course of training, troops nation caused by excretion of these crea- should be trained to construct appropriate tures. Special care must be taken against shelters. water-borne diseases. All water, except (a) Types of shelters. Jungle materials are

42 TAGO 6511A Figure 34. Four-man shelter using two ponchos as a hasty roofing expedient.

available for construction of shelters of selection of the site. High ground many types, the only limitations being should be selected if available and the the imagination of the individual sol- tactical situation permits because of dier, restrictions of the tactical situa- better drainage, the possibility of a tion and time available. Temporary breeze, and, as a result, freedom from a shelters are constructed from a combi- great variety of insects. nation of jungle materials and issue (c) Collection of building materials. For clothing and/or equipment. These construction of jungle shelters only liv- shelters can be erected with minimum ing materials of the hardwood variety time and labor and are intended to be should be used. Wood that is dead de- occupied for short periods. A semi- teriorates very rapidly and is usually permanent type, constructed entirely of infested with insects. For roofing jungle materials, is more elaborate and thatch, either banana leaves, palm requires more labor and time, but can fronds or other suitable green leaves be occupied for extended periods. Fig- can be used. These materials are ures 39 through 41 show representative either split for shingling, used without examples of the various types of jungle splitting or a combination of both. The shelters. most workable combination is palm (6) Building sequence. The building se- fronds and banana leaves, if these ma- quence for jungle shelters begins with terials are available.

TAGO 5511A 43 m J-x & %> « äü}* '/T-.

CL —VWC-*!-

Figure 36. Jungle mattress. The poncho can be placed on vegetation jor protection against insect bites.

(d) Lashing materials. The jungle soldier that they overlap at least two or three should not use rope, if this has been inches. Bark rope is very handy in issued to him, for lashing the shelter to- making small ties and in the construc- gether. There are other uses for his tion of traps. rope. The vegetation of the jungle of- (e) Useful hints. fers excellent lashing materials in the 1. Occupants of shelters should always form of vines and inner bark of softwood hang personal clothing inside the trees. In selecting the vine, it should shelter. This will enable clothes to dry be tested by tying a knot in the vine and will minimize the chance of insects and tightening it. The tighter the sol- or snakes crawling into the folds of dier is able to get the knot, the the clothing. Boots should always be stronger the vine. Vines can be used placed inside the shelter also; before in the construction of traps as well as a boot is placed on the foot it must be shelters. Another substitute is the inner shaken vigorously to dislodge insects bark of softwood trees. To obtain the or snakes. inner bark, cut the tree at the desired 2. If the shelter is off the ground the oc- length and peel off a portion of bark. cupant should always inspect the Care must be exercised in separating ground before stepping down. the inner bark from the outer bark. The 3. The roof of the shelter should be thickness of the rope will be determined struck several sharp blows before the by the width of the bark and the num- occupant exits the shelter. Snakes and ber of strands used. To make a strong, insects are attracted by sources of durable rope, three strips of the bark warmth, especially at night. Some of can be braided together. To do this, these may have found their way onto first tie the three strips in a knot at one the roof of the shelter. end and then weave the three strips by 4. Upon awakening, the shelter occupant alternately taking the outer strip and should carefully inspect the area in the placing it in the center. When the bark immediate vicinity of his body before has been braided to the end, another moving; some snakes and insects are knot is tied. This rope can be extended alarmed by sudden movement. by adding strips at the end, insuring 5. Soldiers must keep shelter areas me-

44 TAGO 5511A *r>ii /*. , ' • “ 'SP V^,;?:- . V« -V': .NS ■ . *w '4

r; ■ :■ s^.- -áPS ÄS Í5±^E2^_^jMS2Í^á! Figure SO. Brush rnjl made from green vegetation and two ponchos. Lashings are taken from the inner bark of a sojtwood tree.

ticulously clean at all times. All 29. Tropical Plants and Foods waste materials must be promptly a. General. So. much has been written about the buried. Even water that has been used dangers and discomforts of jungles that the fact for washing or shaving must be placed that more people live in them than in any other in a sump. The oils from the skin that tropical environment is often overlooked. The are washed away by this water will at- tropical areas of the world are particularly well tract ants; ants will attract lizards, supplied with plant, fruit, and nut species. They lizards will attract small animals and vary greatly in flavor, shape, quality, and season small animals attract snakes. of maturity. The principal factors that affect plants and fruits are elevation, rainfall, sunlight, (/) Traps and snares. Wild game abounds humidity, soil, and winds. There may be occasions in jungle areas. Traps should be set where individuals or small groups will be required along game trails, feeding areas or wa- to live off the land for considerable lengths of time tering places at sundown. The soldier while accomplishing their mission. It is beyond should avoid disturbing the immediate the scope of this manual to cover all the plants and vicinity of the trap. The trap should be foods found in the wet tropics. Only a few of the more easily identified edible plants and foods, a checked at dawn; if delayed, predatory few poisonous plants and foods, and some general animals will usually rob the catch. Each rules on how to recognize the various kinds of foods soldier should become proficient in the which are common throughout the tropical areas construction and erection of traps as de- will be discussed. In the course of training, troops scribed in FM 21-76. Figure 42 shows should be exposed to the prospect of depending upon one of the more easily constructed trap wild produce for subsistence. By thorough famil- and trigger devices. iarization with this aspect of survival, troops will

TAGO 5511A 45 fe fe o *1 isa:

Figure 37. Proper initial grip on the machete handle.

TAGO M11A V7" 0-0 •o 6. o'

O o H SX

°n% o

É7

¿Cr9

¿3

Figure 38. Cutting a sapling with the machete employing the correct grip, snap of the wrist and angle of strike technique. The "break” of the wrist has increased the velocity of the blade to the degree that it was not caught in flight by the camera. Note the complete severance of the tree.

TAGO 5511A $7 Figure 39. Four-man jungle shelter. not only become more efficient but self confidence in secondary growths some trees can be found still will increase. This will do much to dispel many producing fruit. They usually are of poor quality, misconceptions about the jungle. thick skinned, sour, small in size, and grow sparsely b. Finding Food. Many of the foods discussed on a tree. All citrus fruits are eaten in the conven- here will not be found growing in the jungle itself tional manner; however, in an emergency they can but will be found in cultivated or semicultivated be eaten green but will taste quite sour or bitter. lands and in secondary growth areas. The sec- Some nourishment can be had by making a tea out ondary growth areas, as mentioned previously, are of the leaves of the lemon and lime trees. Figures areas that were once cultivated and subsequently 43 through 47 show some of the wild citrus fruits abandoned. Many foods, once cultivated, can be common to the tropics. found in these areas. d. Other Edible Fruits. c. Citrus Fruits. Throughout the tropical and (1) Banana. The banana (musa sapientum) subtropical areas the citrus fruits are found in is the most prolific food crop and is grown great quantity and varieties. However, they are all in most tropical areas. Many species and quite similar to those found throughout the temper- varieties can be found. The banana grows ate zones. There are numerous species of oranges, on a plant that is from 10 to 20 feet high lemons, limes, grapefruit, and tangerines. They are and has large, long, broad leaves protrud- basically a cultivated crop but after years of neglect ing from the head or top of the stem

TAGO 8511A Figure 40. Thatched hut. This is an excellent semipermanent shelter. A smoldering fire can be maintained under this shelter to drive away insects at night. Note placement oj split palm frond ribs as seen through the entrance.

(trunk) of the plant. The fruit is borne bud of the bitter variety will be encoun- on a stalk which is made up of from 5 to tered. In this case, the cooking water must 20 hands with 12 to 15 fingers to each be changed a few times; the bitter, harm- hand. At the end of the stalk there grows less tannic acid will then disappear. a purplish terminal bud or flower. The (2) Plantain. Plaintain (musa paradisica) can stalks grow so that the fingers on the hand be safely eaten in the raw state when ripe, point upwards. When ripe, the banana but must be cooked when green. Plantain may be green, yellow, brownish or red in is usually cooked and used as a potato sub- color (fig 48, 50, 51, 52 and 53). When stitute. It can be prepared in as many ways as potatoes. The plaintain grows on ripe, they may be eaten raw. If only green a plant that is almost identical to the bananas are available they may be cooked banana. The easiest way to distinguish be- and made into excellent potato substitute. tween the two plants is that the stalk of The tender portion of the inner stalk or plantain has only a few hands with 3 to 6 trunk, near the root, has a high starch fingers on each hand. The hands as well as content; it also may be cooked and eaten. the fingers are spaced further apart than The purplish terminal bud (fig 48) may the banana. The finger of a plantain is be boiled like cabbage and it can be eaten much larger than a finger of a banana. as a vegetable substitute. Occasionally a Figures 49 and 50 illustrate this difference.

TAGO 5511A 49 m

I à i v^ «s ¿5 *% . X g*» _ "^r* * ^ v*^ ^ • ^ ÜU> ^."•r >á J • i A TfJ •x<_ «« ..'-TOlhr V

Figure 41 ■ Semi-permanent shelter for a rifle squad.

(3) Mamey. The Mamey is a compact, erect, hundreds of varieties and species of Mango tall tree with dense, dark green, glossy, (Mangifera Indica). They are native to oval leaves 5 to 8 inches long which grow the Himalayan mountains and today are clustered towards the top or crown of the found in a cultivated and a wild state in tree. The fruit is round, 4 to 6 inches in all tropical areas of the world. They are diameter, brownish in color, with firm yel- generally the same shape but differ in size, low to reddish flesh. It is good tasting and color, and taste. Mangoes will weigh from is flavored somewhat like a clingstone a few ounces to over a pound and vary peach. The fruit has a definite projection from green, brownish, bluish, yellowish, or nipple. It contains from 1 to 4 large, purplish, or reddish in color. It is possible rough seeds. It may be eaten raw when for the mango to be a combination of col- ripe or stewed with sugar. The green ors. The mango is sweet with a yellow/ mamey should be cooked prior to being orangish, stringy pulp and a very large eaten. The mamey (Mannea Americana) seed. Most mangoes have a taste that sug- is found in the West Indies and in the gests a tinge of turpentine. The thick peel- American tropics. It is found cultivated ing should not be eaten since it contains a and wild in the mountainous regions. substance that will cause some people to (4) Mango. The Mango is considered to be the break out in a rash. In addition, peelings apple of the tropics. There are literally of the poorer varieties contain a purgative 50 TAGO 5511A € ^T1 ^ « «ip W V ^TSjtf^V sr^- -—«JcT'^ -. «■." ' ' ‘**^v"¿i.**£*& ■." ^r^afcrr^

2K *£*

w» - Ii -r^KB*.‘iJU

fe. *’* ^ ""^t; -í¿^.•.s^SfBBÉ & C' .- ÍÉí^^^V^S

«Jr,* -^-í

<0* uaßirt- - ^Zirr; - - fí-;.

w, X * it y t¿ ir* i** _—,. .'.A-. .M.^r: *~ *—.—_—»i.., —. ir^.-. JJ

Figure 42. A box jail trap. Photograph shows details of trigger 4 device.

agent. The mango tree grows to a height be eaten raw but should be cooked like a of about 35 feet. It has dark green, some- vegetable when green. The center of the what leathery leaves, from 4 to 6 inches fruit is hollow with many black, rough long. Figure 54 shows a type mango. seeds clinging to the inside wall of the (5) Papaya. The Papaya (Carica Papaya) pulp. The papaya is found cultivated and grows on a tree-like plant which is soft- wild. The wild variety usually has very stemmed and unbranched. The tree grows small fruits measuring about 2 to 3 inches to a height of from 6 to 20 feet. The large, in diameter. Although the papaya is native dark green, many fingered, rough edged to the New World tropics, in recent years leaves are clustered at the top of the plant. it has spread throughout the tropics. Sol- The fruit grows on the stem clustered under diers should be extremely careful while . the leaves. There are several varieties picking or preparing papaya. The slightest which differ in size, shape, and flavor. The cut will cause a milky sap to flow from the most common are similar in shape to a rind as well as the plant itself. The com- small watermelon. The fruit averages from mercial meat tenderizer and digestive en- two to eight pounds, but some species grow zime (Papain) is derived from the milky much larger. The skin varies from a green- sap. If this sap should get into the eyes, ish to a yellow color. The meat or pulp it could cause temporary or permanent can be orange or red when ripe, and can blindness. Some natives wrap meat in the » TAGO Mil A 51 r * • m n.

A y° I 34

n»n i u ut in PH

■ ¿y

■ .rJS« I*, > -’■T*-. ■ ' . C» -•-

Figure 43. Wild sweet orange. This fruit, in common with most wild fruits, has a thick skin. Figure 44- Tangerine.

leaves of the papaya taking advantage of the pale brown bark that is smooth and its tenderizing qualities. The papaya is peels off in thin sheets like paper. Its appreciated as a dessert, a salad, and spe- leaves are light green with fine hairs under- cifically for its digestive and laxative qual- neath. The venation is deep on top and ities. Figure 55 shows the papaya fruit. raised to prominent veins underneath. (6) Guava. The Guava (Psidium Guajava) is Some natives claim that a tea made from famous for the jelly made from the fruit. the leaves of the guava tree is a good cure It is a yellow, tough skinned fruit with a for dysentery (fig 56). whitish or pinkish meat containing an (7) Sour Sop. The Sour Sop (Annona Muri- abundance of seeds. It grows on a large cata) is a very curious looking fruit. It is spreading shrub or small tree. The tree green in color, very spiny and grows as attains a height from 10 to 20 feet. The large as a man’s head. It may weigh up fruit is about the size and shape of a large to 12 pounds. When ripe the sour sop can crab apple. The fruit can be eaten raw be eaten raw. The chief use is for making when ripe if one ignores the musky odor. a beverage by crushing the pulp and then When the guava is green it should be adding water or milk and sugar. The sour cooked. The tree is easily recognized by sop is a good water substitute. The leaves

52 TAGO 5511A Figure 4S. Sour orange. Figure Iß. Lime.

of the tall, sparse tree are smooth, dark like the sour sop, is a native to the Ameri- green, and approximately 4 to 6 inches can tropics and can be found from Florida long growing opposite each other. The in the United States to the northern and leaves have a strong scent when crushed. eastern South American tropics. It has Some natives brew a tea made from the been introduced into many places in the leaves as a cure for an upset stomach (fig Old World tropics. 57). (9) Other sops. There are two other fruits that (8) Sweet Sop. The Sweet Sop (Annona Squa- are kin to the sops. They are the Cheri- mosa) is a cousin to the sour sop. This moya (Annona Cherimola) and the Cus- small tree with simple, oblong leaves has tard Apple (Annona Reticulata). The a fruit shaped roughly like a long, blunt Cherimoya, native to the mountain valleys pinecone with thick grey-green or yellow of Peru, looks similar to the sour sop, but scales. The fruit is easily split or broken the skin is much smoother. The pulp is when ripe, exposing numerous dark brown less cottony, and more creamy in consist- seeds which are imbedded in the cream ency when it is ripe. It has fewer seeds colored, very sweet pulp. The sweet sop than the sour sop. The fruit varies in is always eaten raw and is used in the same weight from 4 to 16 pounds. It is the best manner as the sour sop. The sweet sop, tasting fruit of the Sour Sop family. The

TACO 5511A 53 Figure Ift. Wild lemon.

Custard Apple is an excellent and substan- bedded in a brownish, granular pulp. The tial fruit of a small tree native to the West grayish or brownish skin is smooth and Indies, Mexico, and Northern South Amer- slightly rough in texture. The tree grows ica. It may be called under the local name up to 60 feet tall and has dark green “bullocks heart” suggesting its shape and leaves. The sap is milky but not poisonous. appearance. When ripe it begins to dis- The sap of the nispero is not a good substi- color and blacken like the sour sop. At tute for water. The nispero fruit is eaten this stage the white or cream colored flesh fresh only. becomes sweet and aromatic. It has nu- (11) Ice Cream Bean. The Ice Cream Bean merous large brown seeds and is always (Inga Spectobilis, Inga Ingridea) is often eaten raw. There are many hybrids and referred to as Inga. It is quite common in varieties derived from the custard apple. wet tropics. The leaves are 6 to 8 inches (10) Níspero. The Níspero or Sapodilla (Man- long, are dark green underneath and light ilkara Sapodilla-Arches Sapota) is one of green and hairy on top. The leaves grow the most common of the tropical American fruits. It originally came from the Yucatan opposite each other. The fruit is a bean Valley where the wild trees are tapped for type pod, about 15 inches long, greenish their white sap which gives Chicle for brown in color. When the pod is broken chewing gum. Cultivated fruits vary in open numerous sections of whitish soft pulp size, but are usually shaped like a ball covering the large seeds can be seen. The about 2 inches in diameter. There are from white pulp is eaten raw and tastes like 3 to 6 glossy, blackish-brown seeds im- watered down vanilla ice cream.

TACO 5511A VW

Kîi|

.i.

; 3i>. I

/r-

4 k 1* (

Figure J¡8. Stalk of cultivated bananas. The -purple terminal at the end of the stalk is edible.

TAGO Bill A 55 Il III n i il i ISltUi ^r. sa 9i.-: <5» *4»'^ ■’ --V.» r«pé

«*<* *iP V«

kr'li.

Figure 40. The plantain. The large size of thin specie oj the banana family is otic of its most distinctive characteristics.

(12) Malay Apple. The Malay Apple (Sy- fruits are round and are from one to two zygium Malaccensis) has its origin, as its inches in diameter. They are usually whit- name indicates, in Malaya. It has since ish or ivory colored. The crisp, white flesh been introduced into the Hawaiian Islands is thin and there is usually a hollow cavity and tropical America. The tree attains a between the meat and the large seed. height of from 30 to 60 feet and has large oval leaves. On the naked branches of the (14) Pineapple. Contrary to popular belief, the tree a great profusion of flowers form and Pineapple (Ananus Comosus) is not native are followed by egg or pear shaped fruits. to Hawaii but to tropical America. It has The fruits, waxy in appearance, are rose, become one of the most important tropical striped or white in color, depending upon fruits and is grown in almost all tropical the amount of sunshine that reaches the areas. The plant is basically a rosette of fruit. The meat is somewhat dry, insipid, long, stiff, spiny leaves. The fruit is borne white, and rose-scented. They may be on a leafy stalk up the center of the plant. made into desserts and jellies (fig 58). The basic difference between the wild and (13) Rose Apple. The Rose Apple (Syzgium the domestic fruit is the size, the wild fruit Jambos) is often confused with the Malay being considerably smaller. The wild pineapple. The rose apple is a small garden apple plant also has spiny edges on the leaf, tree native to Indo-China or Java. The where the much cultivated varieties have

56 TACO 5511A Figure ôü Commercial banana. Compare with figure 49 and note the subtle differences from and similarities with the plaintain.

a smooth edge. Figure 59 shows a wild (16) Sapote. The Sapote or Zapote (Calo- pineapple. carpum Mammosum) is one of the best (15) Star Apple. The Star Apple (Caimito) is known fruits of tropical America and common in the tropical forests of the closely resembles the mamey. It is culti- Americas. The tree grows up to a height of vated and is sometimes found wild. It is a 60 feet.. The leaves are dark green on top milky-sapped tree which sometimes attains and have shiny, silky, brown hairs on the the height of 100 feet. The fruit is shaped bottom. The fruit looks like a small apple like a ball, 4 to 8 inches in diameter, with or plum with smooth greenish or purple rough, brownish skin and pink or reddish skin. The meat is greenish colored and meat in which there are imbedded several milky in texture. When cut through the large, brown, shiny seeds. The fruit is center the brown elongated seeds make a usually eaten raw but is sometimes made figure like a 6 to 10 pointed star. The fruit into a preserve. The Zapote has a scent of is sweet and eaten only when fresh. When bitter almonds and is used for flavoring cut the rind will, like other parts of the purposes. The tree is easily recognized by tree, emit a white sticky juice or latex its size and shape of the fruit. The leaves which is not poisonous. cluster at the end of the branches, are

TACO 5511A 57 5. ' ' < ' ' 6. ‘ ' » * 7i ' , ‘‘l l'ö '

Figure 51. Apple banana. This variety of the specie is quite delicious. The specimen shown is unusually large.

slender and light green in color and are world. It has a sweet juice which is the from 6 to 12 inches long. common source of sugar. It is normally (17) Jackfruit. The Jackfruit (Artocarpus found growing in clumps in secondary Heteraphylla) is a large, handsome tree growth areas. The soft, juicy stalks can be native to India and has long been grown chewed to obtain the juice. Sugar cane has in the Malayan tropics. The Jackfruit has green to reddish leaves, often striped sil- since been introduced into the American very. It is best to remove the hard outer tropics. It has a simple, dark green, shiny layer before chewing (fig 61). leaf and produces a rough or prickly com- (19) Hogplum. The hogplum (Spondias) can pounded fruit the size of a large water- be found in cultivated and uncultivated melon. The fruit grows on a short stalk areas in the tropics. Usually its color directly from the branches or on the trunk varies from yellow to red and in size from proper. The large, brown seeds are edible Vk inch to l1/^ inches. It grows on trees when roasted. The fleshy, sweetish, yellow from 15 to 30 feet high. The fruit has a pulp about the seeds is boiled. The pulp sweet pungent smell similar to normal itself has a very musky odor (fig 60). plums (fig 62). (18) Sugar Cane. Sugar cane (Saccharum e. Edible Nuts. Officinalis) is a well known giant grass (1) Coconut. The largest and probably the grown throughout tropical regions of the most common nut found in wet tropics is

58 TAGO 5511A #

¡ ‘ 6

Figure 52. Red bananas.

the coconut. The coconut has three stages meat has fallen away from the inside of of development. It is edible in all three the shell and has absorbed the water. The stages but its use will vary depending on meat is then found in a spongy ball. The the state of its growth. When green, the nut has started to grow with shoots pro- coconut is an excellent source of water; truding from the coconut hull. The meat the fluid is always cool regardless of the of the coconut is edible in the sponge state; outside temperature. The meat is soft and however, there is no water. (Figure 63 can be scooped out of the shell with a shows the coconut in the three stages of spoon. The green coconut and its water act development.) To husk a coconut, cut a as a mild laxative and may adversely length of hard wood (iron wood or guava affect susceptible persons. The ripe coco- are excellent) about S1/^ feet long and 2 nut produces the copra of commerce. The inches in diameter, sharpen one end and firm meat is most commonly shredded and place the dull end firmly in the ground. used in pastries and candies. In this stage Hold the coconut horizontally by two ends the meat of the coconut is firm or hard. and drive it down on the husking stick The milk or water of the coconut is less forcing the coconut downward until all the plentiful, stronger in taste, but it is still outer husk is off (the dry husks make good to drink. The germinating or sponge excellent tinder). The nut can then be coconut is less desirable. In this stage the opened by punching a hole or by hitting

TAGO 5511A 59 because the steam or smoke can cause temporary or permanent blindness (fig 64). (3) Almond. The Indian or Tropical Almond (Terminaba Cutuppa) is widely dispersed in all tropical countries and is primarily found in cultivated and secondary growth areas. The tree attains a height from 50 to 60 feet. In some areas, it may be as high as 100 feet. The leaves are dark green, shiny and are somewhat tear-drop shaped. Some of the leaves may be red in color. The nut is inside the fruit which forms a fibrous exterior hull. When ripe, the hull can be chewed to provide some nourishment. The seed inside the shell can be eaten raw or roasted. Although this is not the almond of commerce, it is a cousin to the commercial almond and has a simi- PWîPWmPl lar flavor. The nut is borne on the end of the branch amid a cluster of leaves. When ripe the hull turns a yellowish color. The tree is deciduous and bears two crops annually just prior to dropping the leaves (fig 65). (4) Black Palm. The Black Palm (Asira- caryum Standleyanum) is quite prevalent in most wet tropical areas. The tree is easily identified in that it has uniform bands of stiff black, needle-like spines pro- truding from the trunk. It produces an edible fruit and nut. The fruit is ball Figure S3. Another view of the red banana. shaped, roughly l1/^ inches in diameter and is orange or red-orange in color. The fruit firmly in the center with a blunt instru- is sweet and, although stringy, it can be ment such as the back of a machete. eaten. The nut is oily and is flavored like (2) Cashew. The Cashew (Anacardiuma coconut. Occi- The black palm nut can be dentale) is a peculiar fruit. It is pear or eaten raw only. The nut is inside an ex- bell-pepper shaped, reddish when ripe. It tremely hard protective shell (figs. 66 and is soft, sweet and edible in the raw state. 67). It bears, at the tip, a hard, kidney-shaped (5) Canna Brava. Another common palm is nut which is smooth, shiny and green or the Canna Brava (Bactris Minor). This brown in color (according to its stage of plant is a small palm with stems from 1% maturity). In this kidney-shaped pod is to 2 inches in diameter. It usually grows found a seed which is the cashew nut of in clumps and has long, thin, needle-like commerce. The nut is edible only after spines on the stalk. These spines, or being boiled or roasted until all its oil is needles, grow on the trunk as well as on gone. Troops should avoid the green or the palm fronds and are usually brown in brown hull surrounding the nut as it con- color. It is often confused with the black tains an irritant poison which will blister palm. One sure distinction is the fruit. The the skin like poison ivy. Caution must be fruit of the canna brava is purple when taken when roasting or boiling the cashew ripe, and the clusters are quite small as

60 TAGO 5511A -•i-M 3

►■«'• ►,

ï**»’ -

Figure 51,. The mango.

compared to tlie long, hanging bunches of The potato is not common in the wet trop- the black palm. The fruit and nut can be ics; however, potato substitutes take its eaten raw. Both the fruit, which is fibrous, place in the basic diet of native peoples. and the nut, which is coarse, are of poor One of the most common of the potato sub- quality and taste (fig 68). stitutes is the plaintain or cooking banana (6) Corozo. The Corozo (Scheeles Zonensis) is (para 29d). one of the most common palms in the (2) Breadfruit. The Breadfruit (Artocarpus American jungles. The trunk may be thick Communis) tree is from 30 to 40 feet high and short or it may be very high, resem- and has enormous dark green, shiny, leath- bling a royal palm. The fronds may be ery, many fingered leaves. The fruit, borne over 30 feet long and up to 6 feet wide. The on the branches, are green, somewhat scaly drooping bunches of fruit are 4 to 6 feet and from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. The long and grow very close together. The breadfruit is normally cooked and eaten orange colored fruit looks like small coco- the same as the white potato but the core nuts (fig 69). The oil from the nuts must and seeds are not eaten. It can also be be squeezed out and is excellent for cook- eaten in its raw state when ripe; simply ing. Like most palms, it has a “heart” or peel or scrape the outer skin off, separate folded, young, unborn leaves near the top the pulp from the core and seeds and eat it. of the tree which can be eaten raw or The breadfruit is native to the East Indies cooked. This “heart of palm” resembles (fig 71). crisp cabbage or heart of lettuce and is a (3) Taro. Taro is one of the most common good vegetable substitute (fig 70). potato substitutes found growing in the /. Potato Substitutes. wild state in wet tropics. However, it is (1) General. Probablycalled the bymost many basic names. food There are almost served, in the western world, is the potato. as many varieties of taro as there are

TAGO 5511A 61 “

rts

>= m. XT Ä- J - I

n¿ msm mm%m Cil mmmg. -J J.Ü ■

WMmm mm.

-3 ■îrn:.

k»*;;Pt‘;î ifs,*, (r.;

Figure 65. The papaya.

names. Discussion here will be confined to are poisonous but are destroyed by cook- the most common species. ing. The calcium oxalate or oxalate of (a) Dasheen. The Dasheen (Colocasia Esca- lime crystals will cause a sharp, hot, lenta) is grown for its potato-like tuber. burning sensation in the mouth. The It is eaten in a manner similar to the crystals are broken down and disappear potato and must be cooked. Dasheen when heat is applied. The tender leaves grows wild; however, it is also widely of the plant can be boiled and eaten. cultivated. The leaves and the tubers The plant is from l1/^ to 3 feet high with contain calcium oxalate crystals which the leaf stem growing from the base of

62 TACO 5511A Figure 66. The guava.

the plant. The leaves of the dasheen are The tubers of the Oto are much smaller shaped like an arrow with the part of than the dasheen and grow off the side the V at the base slightly filled in and of the main root whereas the dasheen rounded. The leaf stem joins the leaf tuber grows straight down. The leaf is towards its center. The dasheen leaves shaped like an arrow and is very similar are dark green with a purple tinge along to the elephant ear. The leaf stem joins the leaf stem. There is usually a purple the leaf at the apex of the V. However, spot on the upper part of the leaf where the leaf is on the same plane as the the stem joins. The green leaf is luster- ground. The leaf and leaf stem are dark less (figs 72 and 73). green and lusterless. The edges of the (b) Oto. The Oto is a Latin American name leaf also have the purple coloration (figs for a variety of Taro. The Oto is a 74 and 75). potato substitute and also contains poi- (4) Yams. The Yams and Yampi (Discorea sonous, stinging oxalate crystals of lime alta, bulbifera, esculerta) are excellent which are rendered harmless by cooking. potato substitutes. The yam grows on a This edible tuber also must be cooked. twisting vine and is common in the culti-

TAGO 5511A 63 Figure 57. The sour sop.

vated and the wild state (fig 76). Most (6) Coat with ashes. yams grow under the ground like sweet (c) Soak in a stream or salt water for 3 to potatos. Some will weigh up to 30 pounds. 4 days. The color of the flesh will vary from white (d) Dry in the sun. to purple. The vine leaves of yams can be (e) Cook them changing the water a few distinguished by their heart or arrow shape. times. Some yams have leaves which are small (/) Eat a little of the yam and wait for about and pointed with each leaf having 3 or 5 3 hours. If you have no ill effects, eat points. The vines of the yam resemble the remainder of the tuber. creeping vines and normally dry up when (5) Yuca, Cassava or Tapioca (Manihot Escu- the yams are ready to be taken from the terto). These can be eaten only when ground. Some yams are poisonous in their cooked. The stalk-like leaves are deeply raw state and since the soldier cannot nor- divided into numerous (3 to 7) long, mally distinguish between the safe and the pointed sections or fingers. The woody poisonous, all yams should be thoroughly stem is slender and at points appears to be prepared. To prepare yams that are not sectioned like a bamboo. Yuca grows to a definitely known as safe, use the following height of 7 feet. The brown tubers are procedures: white inside. The yuca can be boiled, baked (a) Cut the yam in thin slices. or roasted and eaten like potatoes. The

TACO 5511A Figure 5S. The malay apple.

white meat of the tuber can be grated, g. Vegetables and Vegetable Substitutes. dried, and powdered into flour. This is the (1) ,Akee (Blighia Sapida). A tree of West commercial source of tapioca. There are African origin and cultivated throughout two distinct varieties, the sweet and the most of the tropics, the tree is small (ap- bitter. There is no sure way to tell the proximately 20-30 feet high) and has dou- varieties apart without tasting them. Both ble leaves and about 10 large, oblong leaf- varieties contain poisonous Hydrocyanic lets. The fruit is three-celled, colored from Acid, which breaks down and disappears a range of yellow to a reddish or reddish when cooked. The bitter variety contains orange, and shaped somewhat like a bell a larger quantity of the acid giving it a pepper. The Akee fruit contains three bitter, burning taste. The sweet variety, if large, black, shiny seeds that are located eaten raw, may not have any effect on the at the end of the white pulpy mass. The digestive system; however, it should be seeds and hull are poisonous and must eaten only after cooking as the poisonous NEVER be eaten. The white meat, shaped (bitter) variety cannot be distinguished by like a half walnut or brain, is the only observation or smell (fig 77). part that is edible. The white meat is

TAGO 5511A 65 Figure 69. The wild pineappte.

TAGO 5Í11A 66 1

r % * fe oO I*

> fi <» u"> ** 7 ,i / / ro

: / (N

Figure 60. The jackfruit. This native oj India reaches a length of over 2 feet and may weigh as much as 60 pounds at maturity.

TAQO U11A 67 \ hr

o -’*•

Figure 61. Sugar cane. This tropical member oj the grass family may be found in cultivated areas or in secondary growth. It may also be found growing wild in some swampy areas.

TAGO 5511A 5 6 3E ö

Figure 62. Hog plum. This very small fruit has a sweet taste and smell.

usually boiled in salt water and fried; flavor and is extremely tasty in salads. however, it can be eaten raw. When ripe, The large nut or seed can be eaten; how- the fruit opens naturally, exposing the ever, it is of poor flavor. The avocado has black seeds and a portion of the white been nicknamed “Soldiers Butter” because meat. The fruit must be gathered at the it is soft when ripe and has been used as a right time, because if it is unopened or spread for use on bread (fig 80). overripe (opened too long) it is DEFI- (3) Heart of Palm. Every palm tree, regard- NITELY POISONOUS. If other foods less of size, has a “heart”. The heart is are available, the Akee should be avoided merely the “unborn leaves” (underdevel- (figs 78 and 79). oped leaves) of the tree. It is found at the (2) Avocado (Perseatop Americana). of the tree, Thejust underfruit the base of the is also called the alligator pear. It is native fronds, in the top center portion of the to tropical America but is widely grown trunk. The heart may be used as a lettuce in other tropical areas. The avocado tree or cabbage substitute and makes an excel- grows to a height of about 60 feet. It has lent salad. It is also called “Swamp Cab- dark green, leathery leaves which are ap- bage” (fig 70). proximately 6 inches long. The^peeling is (4) Bamboo. Bamboo shoots may be cooked green in color during all ktages of develop- and eaten. They are wrapped in protective ment. The meat varies from a yellow to sheaths which are tough and coated with yellow green when ripe. It has an excellent tawny or red hairs. If eaten, these hairs

TAGO 5511A 69 t- \

"'».V

X’ ¡s\ N

!V »—ySr'

*vs w

Figure 63. The coconut is shown here in the three distinct stages of development. At the top is a green coconut, in the center is a ripe nut and at the bottom is a germinating or “sponge” coconut.

70 TAGO 5511A '-iJ

Figure 6J,. The cashew. The nut is the small, kidney-shaped appendage at the end oj the fruit.

cause much irritation of the throat. Re- the 12 to 15 foot shrub are leathery, light move these outer sheaths carefully before green and oval shaped and are about 8 to eating the shoots. Bamboo deserves special 10 inches long. The stem, when cut or mention because of its many uses to the broken, also emits the white milky sap. It soldier in the jungle. Two or three sections is commonly found along the roadsides of bamboo can be fashioned into excellent and in other secondary growth areas. It is canteens that will carry almost a gallon of dangerously called the “wild tomato” by water. By poking through the inner sec- some people. tions of the bamboo, a soldier can fashion (2) The Sand Box Tree (Hura Crepitans). an excellent waterproof map carrier. Bam- This is a common jungle tree found in the boo sections split and packed with plastic American tropics as far north as Mexico. explosive make excellent expedient explo- The tree is usually medium in size but it sive containers. is not uncommon to find one that is over h. Poisonous Plants. 100 feet high. The trunk is densely covered (1) Huevo de Gato (Thevita Nitida). One of with short, sharp, rose-like thorns. The the most common poisonous plants found trunk is usually a gray-tan color while the in the American tropics, it has a scarlet light green leaves are usually clustered at colored fruit that looks like two fruits the top of the tree and usually form a grown together. When cut, the fruit will canopy. The fruit of the Sand Box is 2 to dispense a white milky sap. The leaves of 4 inches wide and is shaped like a pump-

TAGO 5511A 71 VJ €

Figure 65. The Indian almond.

TAQO 5511A 72 € Figure 06. Block palm nuts.

kin, turning brownish in color when ripe. dasheen, oto or other varieties of taro. The Inside the fruit there are about 15 one- leaves are shaped like an elephant’s ear or seeded, woody cells that look like sections an arrow. The leaves vary from a light of an orange. When ripe, the fruit explodes green to a dark green in color and have a violently with a loud report throwing the yellowish leaf stem. The leaf is very waxy seeds a considerable distance. The seeds in appearance. The leaf joins the leaf stem are poisonous and contain an oil which is at the apex of the V. However, the axis of violently purgative. Death is sometimes the leaf is on the same plane as the leaf caused from eating these seeds. The milky stem. There is no edible tuber; however, sap of the tree is also poisonous and seri- since it is a member of the Arum family, ous inflammation is caused when it comes as is the Oto and Dasheen, its young, ten- in contact with the skin. If the sap comes der leaves can be eaten in an emergency if into contact with the eyes, it can cause boiled and the water changed often. The temporary or permanent blindness (fig 81). resulting product will resemble spinach (3) Elephant Ear (Alocasia Macrorhiza). This (fig 82). poisonous plant has a heavy concentration (4) Strychnos. There are at least two distinct of oxalate of lime crystals. It is used species, the Strychnos Toxifera and the mainly for ornamental purposes but is dis- Strychnos Panamanthis. Both are poison- cussed here because it is very similar to the ous with similar properties. The Strychnos « :

■A - W

•A _

Figure, t>7. A section of the black palm tree. The spines, or needles, of this tree are very hard, extremely brittle and puncture the skin quite easily.

Toxifera is a slender, woody vine or shrub tom of the kettle. It has been used by the which has opposite growing leaves with South American Indians (Jívaro) for poi- green veins ; one vein runs down the center soning their arrows and darts. of the leaf and two are located on each i. Distinguishing Edible and Inedible Plants. side of the center vein paralleling the out- There is no absolute method that can be used to side edge of the leaf. The two outer veins determine whether an unidentified plant or fruit is are not prominent in a young leaf and, at edible or poisonous. However, an expedient method, times, are obscure in a matured leaf. The which is not positive, will probably suffice in an plant stem as well as the leaves are easily extreme emergency. If the plant or food in question recognized by the numerous brown hairs emits a white milky sap, it should be discarded. If that give it a wooly, soft appearance. The the plant has no milky sap but emits an unpleasant nickname “Cat’s Paw” is derived from the odor, it is unsafe. If the fruit or plant passes these shape of the soft, wooly leaves. The fruit first two tests satisfactorily, it should then be tasted is shaped like a ball and is usually two by placing the tongue on a very small portion of inches or so in diameter and has a hard, the substance. If the taste is agreeable, the plant green or yellow skin. The fruit has several should then be peeled and cooked. The water should large seeds. This plant is famous as one be changed three or four times. A very small portion of the sources of CURARE, one of the of the food should then be eaten and the consumer deadliest poisons known. A small quantity should wait three or four hours before a decision is in the blood stream will soon cause death made to eat the remainer. as the motor nerves are paralyzed almost instantly. If curare were injected into any j. Preparation of Rice for Consumption. In most part of the body, death would occur in a tropical areas of the world the cereal grain rice is a matter of seconds. Curare is obtained from staple food. This is especially true in the Orient. the bark and roots by mashing them in The individual soldier should know how to prepare water and boiling until a small amount of this food properly either in small portions or in brownish colored paste remains in the bot- quantity. To prepare rice for one soldier utilizing a

74 TAGO 5511A Figure 6S. Canna brava nuts.

TAGO 5511A 75 JW

Figure 6!). Coroza nuts. Note the large size of the cluster. canteen cup as the cooking vessel, the following is apparently healthy, if freshly killed and properly procedure is recommended: prepared, can be eaten. Any bird or fowl that di- (1) Take one-quarter canteen cup of rice. gests its food can be eaten. Boil all fowl for at least 20 minutes to kill all parasites. The buzzard ingests (2) Add one-half cup water. its food and its meat is not appealing or appetizing (3) Add salt. but it can also be eaten. Any snake that is healthy (4) Place the cup on the fire until the rice can be eaten. To be safe, cut off the head 4r-6 inches begins to boil. from the tip. Water is abundant in the jungle, thus (5) Cook until the water level meets the level providing a source of fish of all types. Avoid all of the rice. ugly looking fish with parrot-like mouths, puffed up (6) Take it off the direct fire and place it near bodies, spine covered bodies, or sunkey eyes. This the heat where it will not scorch. applies especially to fish which are caught along (7) Steam the rice until done. When cooking coastlines, inside reef barriers, coral holes, lagoons, larger quantities use the same cooking or sheltered coves. process, 1 part rice to 2 parts water by 30. Jungle Animals and Other Wildlife measure. a. General. The wet tropics abound in wild ani- k. Other Wild Foods. In all tropical areas there mal life. The tremendous varieties of animal species is an abundance of food, in the form of animal life, that are found in jungle areas throughout the world fowl, snakes and fish. Any fur-bearing animal that preclude discussions of each in this manual. How-

76 TAGO 5511A /

i Jr

Figure TO. Heart of Palm. This is a very good vegetable substitute that can be eaten raw or cooked. Removal of the “heart’’ will kill the palm. ever, a description of the more prominent species is Nam. Tigers may reach a height of 40 necessary as the soldier should be able to recognize inches and a weight of 500 pounds or more. these inhabitants of the jungle environment. It is These cats are distinguishable by their essential that troops realize that just as man has an yellowish-orange coat with vertical, black, inherent fear of some animals, the opposite is also generally looped stripes, white underside true. With some exceptions, animals of the jungle and white patches over the eyes. Tigers will withdraw from any encounter with man. By habitually frequent forest and thick jungle, becoming familiar with the wild inhabitants of the with which their color harmonizes. In the jungle, the soldier will better understand this type wet tropics they rest during the heat of the of environment. This will induce him to respect, not day and prowl after sunset, often travelling fear, the surroundings in which he must fight. great distances in search of prey. Victims b. The Cat Family. of the tiger consist mainly of deer, wild (1) Tigers (Panthera Tigris). Among the larg- pigs, cattle, and goats. Tigers will eat car- est members of the cat family, tigers are rion and, when hungry enough, frogs, tor- found only in Asia where they occur as far toises, lizards^, fish, and even insects. As a north as Mongolia. The tiger is quite rule, tigers are wary of men, but there are prevalent in the jungle areas of China, many instances in which they have become Burma, India, Malaya, Laos, and Viet “man eaters”. This occurs when the stimu-

TAGO 5511A 77 *

*!» * » *

.Tr?- ^ ' i* 'i' ’A '• ‘s - 1 i Jtr " -r ,;* -r ^ • >» *Nf Je» ■ as.

a r -¿j" r

r, "•'■ y X \

V 7 %

» -

<*y /

Figure 71. The breadfruit.

TAGO MU A 78 € I r 1

Figure 72. Leaf of a dasheen plant. » TAGO 5511A 79 i

Figure 73. The dasheen tuber.

80 TAQO5U1A € TAGO 5511A Figure 75. Oto tuber.

lus of hunger overcomes timidity, leading pale central area and sometimes containing to the discovery that man is by nature one or more small black spots. Both color- defenseless and easily killed. When any ing and patterns are subject to much varia- tiger is surprised or alarmed it may attack tion. The leopard ranges over parts of both man. Africa and Asia. It thrives in the jungles (2) Leopards or Panthers (Pantera Pardus). of the Indies and Ceylon. It penetrates The leopard is distinguished by the spotted the heavy forests of Africa which the lion pattern of its coat. It has a longer tail will not enter. At one time it was supposed than the tiger and is smaller in size. The that the Panther and the Leopard were two coat is rosette patterned. Each rosette is distinct species. It is now accepted that composed of four or five solid spots form- there is but one species represented by a ing a round or angular figure enclosing a number of local races differing in color and

82 TAGO 5511A Figure 76. One type oj yam.

size in accordance with varied environ- shoulders and a total length of about 7 ments. The dominant type is the yellowish feet, of which the tail is less than 3 feet. leopard of the jungles of India and the (3) Jaguar (Panthera Onca). The largest, most East African fringe. The Javan leopard powerful member of the cat family and the is smaller and more rusty in hue. The sole representative of the leopard group, black leopard replaces the spotted in the jaguar is found in the American tropics. Generally, it can be said that the Southern Malaya. The voice of the leopard jaguar has a golden yellow coat spotted is distinctive; it is like a deep, rapidly re- wtih black rosettes. This cat closely repeated, barking cough, comparable to the sembles the leopard in color and pattern sound made by a coarse saw passing of the coat and voice and habits, but may through hard wood. The leopard is a tree be distinguished by its larger head, shorter climber and frequently lies in ambush tail, and more robust build. As a rule, the along branches overhanging a forest. They rosettes are large, and fewer, than the are seldom dangerous to man unless leopard. The male attains a length of 6 to wounded, alarmed, or cornered. The leop- 9 feet, with a tail about 20 inches long, ard grows as large as 2 to 3 feet high at the and weighs up to 250 pounds. Its legs are

TACO 5511A 83 Figure 77. Yuca tubers.

short and muscular. The jaguar is an agile the occupants. The puma, however, should climber. It hunts monkeys and birds and not be trusted when encountered in dense is at home in the water, being an excellent forest. swimmer and fisherman. It is primarily a (5) Ocelot (Leopardus Pardalis). The ocelot dweller of forests and jungles and feeds abounds in the jungles of Central and upon deer, peccaries, and other small ani- South America. It is a small, lean savage mals, in addition to monkeys, birds, and cat whose coloring closely resembles that fish. of the jaguar. While resembling a jaguar, (4) Puma or Cougar (Puma Concolar). This its markings are more beautiful and intri- animal ranges throughout the Americas. cate. Most of the ground tint of the fur is The coat of the puma is a cinnamon color smoky-pearl in color with black “rosettes” or egg-shaped ocelli, ranging from dots on tinged with gold. While it feeds primarily on small game, it often kills calves and is the legs to large markings on the body. The ocelot will attain a weight of approxi- especially fond of young horses, killing mately 40 pounds and a length of 3 feet many annually. It is believed to be more when fully grown. It can be easily tamed friendly toward man than any other cat when young but becomes increasingly un- because of its practice of playing around manageable with growth. Typical ocelots camps at night without offering to harm are shown in figure 83.

TAQO MU A WMifiMiameiBßMmmmmmumHm 111,11 IJI ù u :: Í v- - is i:; • /»ii tmSSSmm

VIMv-z

Figure 78. Akee. This photograph shows two Akee fruit which have opened. This is the only stage of growth during which the Akee may be eaten.

(6) Jaguarundi (Felis Yaguarundí). This cat in most jungle areas. They are not abundant due to is fairly common in the Central American the fact their only defense against the arch enemy, jungles. It is extremely savage by nature cats, is flight. In the Asian jungles several species and will not hesitate to attack a larger of deer frequent the low, marshy areas adjacent to animal. It attains a size, when fully grown, rivers. In the American jungle, two species of deer of about 30 inches in length. The color of are most common. The “white tailed” deer of the the jaguarundi ranges from a dark brown jungle is found in thick upland forest. It is much to a light, rusty red. The jaguarundi, like smaller than the North American species and sel- most cats, is nocturnal and does most of dom attains a weight of more than 80 pounds. its hunting at night. Another deer found in the American jungles is the (7) Margay. The margay is the smallest mem- “brocket” or jungle deer. This is a small, reddish ber of the cat family found in the Central brown deer which attains a height of about 23 and South American jungles. It is golden inches. Extremely shy, it is found mostly in dense yellow in color, with small black spots and cover as it has no defense against other animals. resembles the ocelot. When fully grown, d. Pigs. All jungle areas have members of the pig it is about the size of a very large house family. In habit pigs are gregarious and are om- cat. nivorous in diet. They will eat any small animals c. Deer. Members of the deer family are found they can kill, although they feed mainly on roots,

TAGO 5511A 85 r » “ •

•’S*»* -l!_ ' te. Figure 79. Another view of the Akee. The brain-like pulp is the ONLY part oj this fruit that can be eaten. The rest of the fruit is POISONOUS.

tubers, and other vegetable substances. The most vidually they are not particularly dangerous, a pack common species found in the Old World jungle are can effectively repel any enemy and can make short the Javan wild boar, the Indian wild boar, the Babi- work of a jaguar, cougar, or man. There are re- russa of the Celebes, and the Central African Forest corded instances of such happenings. Both type Hog. In the American tropics, peccaries are com- peccaries have musk glands which are located four mon. These pigs are represented by two species, the inches up from the tail on the spine. This gland “white lipped” pecarry and the “collared” peccary. must be removed immediately when the animal is Both, being a basic grizzled black color, are dis- killed, otherwise the flesh will become tainted and tinguishable by the markings from which they de- unfit for consumption (fig 84). rive their names. The white-lipped peccary, the e. Raccoons and Kinkajous. larger of the two, is black in color with a white (1) General. The number of genera (different under-snout and has the reputation of being the animals within a family) and species of more ferocious. It attains a height of approximately raccoons are comparatively small. They 18 inches. The collared peccary, reaching a height are found only in America. In the Central of 15 inches, is identified by the white or grey band and South American jungles, the most around the body where the neck joins the shoulder. common are: Peccaries travel in small or large packs with as (a) Forest Raccoon. This animal may be many as 30 or more comprising a pack. While indi- recognized by the black mark around its

86 TAGO 5511A Figure SO. Avocado.

eyes and its ringed tail. Grey in color, always have scouts when crossing danger this raccoon has long hair and five toes areas. Usually the older ones lead with on all feet. It is noted for washing all its the younger ones bringing up the rear. food prior to eating it even if the food is Figure 85 shows the distinctive charac- caught in the water. The forest raccoon teristics of the coati-mundi. weighs about 20 pounds, and eats small (2) Kinkajou. This member of the raccoon mammals, birds, eggs, corn and grain. family is a small animal about the size of (6) Crab-eating Raccoon. This animal is the common house cat. It has a coat which brown in color and is slightly larger and is usually light brown in color. The pre- considerably stronger than the forest hensile (well adapted to grasping, like a raccoon. Its principal sources of food hand) tail is quite prominent. The Kinka- are fish, crabs, frogs, and other amphibi- jou uses his paws quite well and has a very ans. He is an excellent swimmer. Rac- large tongue which is used to draw food coons are formidable fighters and troops into the mouth. Food consists primarily of should be cautious when attempting to honey, bees, and insects. kill them for food. /. Rodents. (c) Coati-Mundi. This member of the rac- (1) General, jungle areas have large numbers coon family is identified very easily. Its of the various species of mice, rats, squir- long, pig-like snout is usually carried rels, and rabbits. Only the more unusual close to the ground as the coati is one of ones will be discussed here. the best scavengers in the jungle. Its (2) Capybara. The capybara is the largest long, hairy tail is usually carried high, rodent in the world. It is found only in the vertically from the ground as the animal American jungles. The capybara is about trots through the jungle. The coati- the size of a small pig and may reach a mundi varies in color from a dark to length of 4 feet and weigh over 100 pounds. light brown and its kinship to the rac- It has webbed feet, small ears, coarse coon can be seen by the face mask which brown hair, and no tail. It is an excellent is a dark color. Coati-mundis may travel swimmer and lives in or near water, eating in packs up to 20 or more in number and vegetation both in and out of the water.

TAGO 5511A 87 a T“. -in m i '

Figure 81. A sand box tree. Note the shape oj the thorns on the bark. This tree is ojien cut into small pieces and pulver- ized by jungle natives. The pulp is then thrown in large pools oj water or slowly flowing streams to stupefy fish. This allows easy collection oj large numbers oj fish and, curiously enough, does not taint the flesh. The sand box tree may exceed 3 feet in diameter at maturity.

TAGO SMI A Figure S3. Leaf and tuber of the Elephant Ear. (The tuber ù NOT edible.) 1 TAGO 5511A # #

« «

# # ; Í5

'.Çnr

rf r

r «

ÜÈ* *? i BP h ~Jb r* Bí=»*

rr i-r "r £ > r

m Figure 83. Ocelots.

90 TAQO Í511A € I

m VA

(C¡. * íie § -JA íB*£ m 1 m

S-S t •«

—•> ’•* -s-, F r «Iti-f i >5- I Í¿r'*¿' ¿XZf'sr** 2®T x^y' m e\*rte 4-S •»w ?h- ?to. ?" 'e^. -■» ¿.•fSßs*: r: -fii® 9 » •> ^ “«rt Msî Í.'ÍJ s 3 rs US i tv SM íl iÄÜtr* CSfó s* «fiZS Figure 84- Peccary.

(3) Paca. The paca is a rodent similar in The crab-eating fox of Central and South America appearance to a large guinea pig, weighing is not a palatable meal because of its fishy diet. about 20 pounds. The toes are hooflike and h. The Primates. Tropical areas of the world the tails are very short or entirely absent. abound in monkeys. There are tremendous numbers The name “painted rabbit” has been ap- and varieties of sub-orders of the monkey family plied to this animal by natives of the and it would not be possible or practical to attempt American tropics because of the white to discuss all of the species of monkey that are found spots, or broken lines, down each side. It in jungle areas. Monkeys offer a source of food to is mainly a forest animal, but it also lives troops operating in the jungle. Monkeys are curious on the plains. It feeds on grass, plants, and can jeopardize operations by the noise they and leaves of all kinds. create and the attention they draw. In Old World g. Canines. The dogjungles family some is ofnot the prevalent man-like in apes, such as the gorilla wet tropics. Jackals are found in some areas of the and the mandrill of the African jungles, are large Asian jungles and wild dogs live in the South Ameri- and powerful enough to constitute a danger to man. can jungles and in the Indian jungles. By far the i. Anteaters. These are odd-looking and rather most common representatives of the dog family in clumsy animals. Only the more common types will jungle areas are the foxes. Care should be taken be discussed here. when preparing fox as food. Many have offensive (1) Great Anteater. This animal grows to a musk glands that must be removed prior to eating. length of about 4 feet although some re-

TAGO 5511A 91 *

■i&Êt—¿á

Figure S5. Coati-mundi. Shown in a most unusual pose as these animals usually carry their tails high at a very jaunty angle.

ports indicate it may reach a length of ture that browses on forest foliage and dashes away twice that. It is completely devoid of through the underbrush when alarmed or plunges teeth, relying on an extremely long tongue into a river to escape an enemy. It is mostly noc- to procure its food which consists mainly turnal and solitary, two or three at most being of ants, termites and their larvae. A sticky found together. It grows to about 4 feet in height saliva traps the food and the tongue with- at the shoulders and weighs up to 600 pounds. Its draws into the tiny mouth at the end of a coat is dark brown or black, the hair is thin and the long tubular muzzle. skin is very thick. The tapir is pig-like in appear- (2) Lesser Anteater. The lesser anteater is ance, but has a proboscis or trunk about 12 inches about one-half the size of the great ant- long. The fore feet have four toes, the hind feet eater and weighs about 15 pounds. It is have three toes and all are encased in large, horse- black, white, and tan in color with a pre- like hoofs. The tail is a mere stump. The tapir is hensile tail which acts as a fifth limb, an excellent swimmer, sometimes diving into a river allowing the animal to climb and move and walking on the bottom. It is a vegetarian and its cry is a shrill whine or whistle, like that of a bird about in the trees. or very small animal. Figure 86 shows one of these j. Tapir. The tapir is indigenous to the American unusual animals. The East Indian or Malay Tapir tropics and the jungles of the Malay Peninsula, is distinguished by its peculiar color and markings. Sumatra and Borneo. It is a timid, inoffensive crea- The head, fore quarters and legs are black and the

92 TAGO 5511A msmmi á

AS w. « % il 7J tar. M

itï

» j&' 3® Mf

y> X

Figure H6. Tapir. loins are white. It is larger than the American black in color and has two claws on the fore legs tapir, standing over 4 feet high. and three on the hind legs. The three-toed sloth, or k. Sloth. Native to the American jungles, the ai, is white or dirty grey in color and has three claws sloth is completely arboreal (adapted to tree life). on all legs. The sloth eats leaves found in the trees It will eat nothing but leaves and is practically it inhabits, gaining sufficient moisture from them to defenseless. Nature has not been kind to the sloth satisfy its water needs. The sloth’s defense against as regards its appearance and its small and poorly enemies is to curl into a ball while hanging sus- developed brain. The head is round and the mouth pended from a limb. This presents a striking re- and ears are small. The hair of the sloth is shaggy semblance to the stump of a lichen covered bough. and arranged so that heavy rain downpours will The sloth is an excellent swimmer (figs 87 and 88). drain readily. This creature spends almost all its 1. Amphibians. Jungle areas are infested with life hanging upside down from the branches of trees. crocodiles and related amphibians. The crocodile is The sloth moves very slowly. It seldom falls as its aggressive, vicious, and powerful. Troops should be slow movement allows a secure hold on one branch cautious when approaching a river bank or swim- before moving to another. It sprawls when on the ming across a river in the jungle when crocodiles are ground, however, and has great difficulty in moving. near. The crocodile reaches a length of sixteen feet The sloths are equipped with long, curving claws on and has an olive green skin with black markings. both fore and hind legs for climbing and hanging in The shape of the head is triangular and the snout the trees. The two-toed sloth, or unau, is brown or is pointed. These features distinguish the crocodile

TAGO 5511A 93 Figure 87. Three toed sloth. from the cayman (alligator), which is native to from rivers, streams, or pools. Elephants are gre- Central and South American jungles. The cayman garious and travel in herds. Their eyesight is poor is similar in appearance to the crocodile, grows to and their hearing is not good ; however, their power about 12 feet in length, is dark brown in color and of scent is unusually keen. They move exceedingly has a broad, wide snout (fig 89). The cayman is well in spite of their bulk and can climb steep in- not as aggressive as the crocodile. Crocodiles must clines very fast. Elephants are dangerous when in be considered man-eaters in Central and South musth, alarmed, wounded, or when calves are with American and Indian, Asian and African jungles. them. Under these conditions they are apt to charge. Although primarily fresh-water dwellers, they are Elephants will consume several hundred pounds of found in salt water on the shores of jungles in India, foliage, grass, cane, fruit, bark, tubers and the like Ceylon, Southern China, North Australia, and the each day. An elephant observed alone should be Malay Archipelago. avoided, as chances are that such a solitary animal m. Elephants. There are two kinds of elephants, has been expelled from a herd and could be an extremely dangerous “rogue” elephant. the Asiatic or Indian and the African. Although there are differences between the two, this is an n. Wild Cattle and Buffaloes. academic consideration and will not be discussed. (1) Gaur. The gaur is one of the largest and Elephants arc vegetable feeders and need plenty of handsomest of the wild cattle. It is a huge food and water. They are normally found in the animal with large curved horns, standing jungle, heavy forest, or bush and are never very far six feet at the shoulders and weighing as

94 TAGO M11A V* V ' 4k

! ; i'-hir.* ! i .i*: Pits v>'.:

A-.-' :

Figure 88. Two toed slolh. Although stupid and sluggish, sloths udll fight if molested. The claws will inflict a painful wound and, because of the filth of these animals, immediate infection will set in.

much as a ton. Gaur are native to the and lying for hours immersed in water, jungles of India, Burma, the Malay Penin- with only the head above the surface. sula, Laos, Viet Nam and Cambodia, and Water buffaloes have large horns and they are usually found in marshes and low, are usually black in color. swampy places. When alarmed or wounded o. Insects. The intense heat, high humidity, heavy it is extremely dangerous. rainfall, and incidence of low swamplands coupled (2) Buffaloes. The animals of this family are with dense vegetation of the jungle constitute an often called “water buffaloes’’. Water buf- ideal environment for insects. These pests exist in faloes are native to the jungles of India, an astounding number and variety. Aside from the Burma, Malaya, Laos, Viet Nam, the Phil- fact that some insects are carriers of serious diseases, ippines and other islands dominated by they constitute a serious threat to health of troops jungle. Some water buffaloes are huge by promoting infections. The natural tendency of (example: the Indian buffalo is about 5% a victim is to scratch an insect bite which, in the feet at the shoulders and may grow to 9 jungle, leads to infection. The soldier must be made feet in length) and many have little fear to understand this threat to his health and must be of man. They live in herds, usually in made to apply medication to even the most trivial swampy areas and get the name “water bite. Leeches are a serious problem in the Asiatic buffalo” from their habit of mud-wallowing jungles. Troops should cover the maximum surface

TAGO 5511A 95 IF />•»* ÍSV* ■&+ .■AiyCktu.' ‘¿¿iâtbà 50¿ ,V* '4S. . ■', ► Jr , J , ■V,’'-* »

Figure 89. Cayman. of body skin when moving in water-covered ground 31. Snakes or when swimming rivers. At the first opportunity a. General. The widespread terror of “the snake each individual should closely inspect his body for infested jungle” prevalent in the minds of most leeches as their presence is not usually felt until peoples is an imaginary mental image. It is true some time after they attach themselves to the body. that the number and variety of snakes are high in They will cause profuse bleeding in some cases. The the wet tropics; however, the incidence of poisonous individual must not pull the leech out of his skin. snakes is no higher than in some of the swamp areas Tobacco juice or a lighted cigarette should be ap- of the Temperate Zone. Although snakes are gen- plied to the leech; this will cause the parasite to erally classified as poisonous or nonpoisonous, back out of the skin. This is necessary as the head troops should be conditioned to consider all snakes will be left in the skin if the leech is pulled out and to be poisonous until positively identified. Because serious infection and bleeding will result. This same of the threat of snake bite and the requirement for procedure applies to the removal of ticks. In addi- proper first aid in event of bite, the individual sol- tion to leeches, ticks, lice, and mosquitoes, ants are dier should be able to identify common poisonous another enemy of the jungle soldier. Some are snakes of the tropics. The following descriptions merely irritating; some are so large that their bite consider snakes by geographical areas. can be incapacitating. Troops must be required to make maximum use of the mosquito bar and insect b. Snakes of the American Jungles. repellant. For a detailed discussion of diseases (1) Bushmaster (Lachesis Muta). This oval- caused by insects, see FM 21-76, FM 21-10, FM headed, longest and heaviest viper of the 21-11, and paragraphs 138 through 147 of this American tropics averages between 7 and manual. 12 feet in length. It is the only American viper which lays eggs ( 10 to 14 at a time), p. Birds. Tropical birds exist in the greatest all the others producing living young. It variety and abundance in the jungle. Although their brilliant plumage assists in easy detection, they are is the second largest poisonous snake in very difficult to obtain as food. They are very noisy the world, second only to the King Cobra. and contribute heavily to the constant, weird noises This snake has a saddle pattern of black heard in the jungle. When alarmed, birds may also and brown with triangular white patches, betray the movement of a body of troops. scaly skin, and a sharp ridge surmounting

96 TAQO Mil A h• V •'Æa ■ <ÜL ^ %mimm•-r

rSr‘. ■ » :

« <4% < >. 15 jâ ■4^ *- >: I^8*4 Figure 90. Bushmaster. Note the pebbly texture oj the skin and the prominent Hdge down the buck apron. These are sure marks oj identification oj this snake.

the back. The venom of this great pit viper throat and lower jaw area and by the is not as deadly as that of some other New X-like design of body markings. The length World species, but great fang length and of this snake may reach 8 feet though some the large amount of poison injected by a species are much smaller. Coloration is single bite make it the most formidable of variable, from grey to olive green, brown, the New World poisonous reptiles. It is or even reddish, with dark, light-edged most frequently found in lowland forests crossbands or triangles, the apex of which on slight ground elevations—seldom in extends to the center of the back. The hollows. The poison of the bushmaster is definition of the name signifies “head of both meotoxic, destruction of the red blood a lance” and is appropriate as the snout is corpuscles, and neurotoxic, destruction of pointed, the temporal region swollen and the nervous system. Figure 90 shows typi- the aspect of the head like a javelin point. cal markings of the bushmaster skin. A female fer-de-lance has 40 to 70 live (2) Fer-de-lance. In Central and South Amer- young; all are fully-charged with poison ica this snake is sometimes called “barba at birth. The poison (venom) is hemo- amarilla” or “Equis”, which translated toxin, which destroys the red blood cor- means “yellow beard” or “X”. This is puscles. Figures 91 and 92 describe the prompted by a yellow color found on the markings of the fer-de-lance.

TACO 5511A 97 3#

.J*

imß1

»*' i v v«' *i.*.^"g* . ' s^S:*ïc€i;■ ' c » *v , «<*>" •t'*.< n * _ tvj ¿F* z'f ?-'•

« ÿffr:»« & ^ ^

art e: ■* *

•p : » ys. M '•*1 3r. ««'

its name. Figure 91. Fer-de-Umce. This photograph shows the characteristically lance-like head which gives the snake

TACK) SSllA Figure 9¿. Another view of the jer-de-lance. This picture shows the X-like markings on the sides and back of this snake.

(3) Hog-nosed vipers. Pacific coastal species (4) The Eyelash Viper (Bothrops Schlegelii). (Bothrops Lansbergil) and Atlantic coastal The eyelash viper is the most common species (Bothrops Nasutus) are true pit arboreal viper found in the American jun- vipers, very poisonous and must not be gles and reaches a length of 22 inches. It confused with harmless namesakes found is widely distributed and can be expected in the Temperate Zones. Both are dark in any thickly-wooded area from near sea brown or black with faint brick red rhom- level to elevations of 3,000 or more feet. It boid markings on their backs and from 12 is sometimes called the “palm viper” but to 18 inches long. The tipped-up nose of this is somewhat misleading in that these the Atlantic species is more prominent snakes do not confine themselves to palm than that of its Pacific relative. Both trees alone but may be found in any type species arc predominately ground snakes of bush or low tree growth. The eyelash and spend little of their time in the forests. viper is markedly different from the other They are less apt to strike than the fer- species by having 2 or 3 pointed, horn-like de-lancc, and few bites from either species scales between the eyes and the appear- are known. The venom is composed of ance of having eyelashes. This pit viper powerful hemotoxin, which destroys the red may occur in two distinct color phases— blood corpuscles. one a mossy olive green with red and black

TAGO 5511A 99 ir»

-î¥* «c v«- * ■<*&* v 4! *3*:k»Æ>àrt Ltf-

, le.- í ^ ír^ v -

• "T -.-.:4rt;\V’ CS«1 j, -i i. .T <, «%»'*¿ -i^.. wtr Vk! -V SSa Kfc-l'i' *' - * ír»,' ' ’1 !»•<.»•SL\-*. C- * V.T- . SSk. i. W* * ■•. C r. y,' v. --*►•.■ £> -V « Ni w ií* í?l ü JL ^5 ^V•Hs ■i-\ 'J& ^v. -;>5: «r » . » » -’ •*»» 1. ‘ •C . * 'S» n 4f 'i. *'^*4 V^4 , Ib *4. •S4Ö \ JM fe® *»?^5 4 r.'. * ¿ »' •i» •1. 4 A . ' * *■ r % Sdl *w m ’/: .r c »4Í k>- t*: % a AíLm >•** fA \ ■*» t- A 1 rSr 4 ril 4^ *% « > 5/ •* • »\ •«S.VH.-V''^ *4 * *v , ~Z * * *+<** *• *♦* ^ i «■ * ***•» . * ' fe.»* > ''..<» vi •V4 . »*-. *'• - ■ '«Hi*r.« ^ ^ - k%lA,_±

Figure 93. Boa Constrictor. This snake is in molt. Note the saddle markings^ jrom the head to the midsection and the X patterns on the skin toward the taU. The Boa is often confused with the Bushmaster during this molting stage as the skin becomes rough and scaly much like that of the poisonous snake.

and the other being a pale lemon color with The tip of the snout and all of the upper black markings. surface of the head as far back as the eye (5) Coral Snakes. There are many species and are black. The eye is very small, being subspecies of coral snakes which are well little more than pinhead in size. The paired known. In Central and South America poison fangs are small, permanently erect, alone over 40 different species have been grooved, needle-sharp teeth located near identified. They normally are found from the front of the upper jaw. For the coral sea level to altitudes of 4,000 feet. These snake to eject its venom, it is necessary for snakes average 12 to 40 inches in length it to chew. and are brightly colored with bands of red, (6) Sea Snake. There are more than 50 differ- white, yellow, and black normally encir- ent species of sea snakes. Superficially, cling the body. All such colored snakes they resemble äh eel in having a long, should be considered poisonous until flattened head and compressed paddle-like proven otherwise. Thé head of the poison- tail which is used in swimming. Their ous coral snake is little, if at all wider than colors vary as well as the pattern marking. the body, and a neck does not exist as it Most will have black and yellow markings, does in other snakes such as the pit vipers. with half the snake being one color and

TAGO 6511A 100 mi V:vy» & m UE SK ■ r*' M <=#t m W| «R¡«vía « Vg Z* «ÿ »¡s W SP Ki'* Hb« ■*<* -+ SS

Figure 9/t. Another view oj a boa conatrictor. The smooth, shiny skin is a distinguishing characteristic of this snake.

the other half being another. On some the two snakes are often mistaken one for snakes the pattern will be in broad stripes the other. For this reason, and because the from head to tail and on others it will be boa is an excellent food source and rela- in broad, faint circles around the body. tively easy to catch, this snake deserves Their length averages from 2 to 3 feet. The some discussion. The boa constrictor is snake has the same type of short, erect, second in size only to the anaconda among immovable front fangs as the coral and the serpents of the Americas. It is a hand- cobra. Curiously enough, the sea snakes some snake, particularly in South America are perhaps the most venomous of the where the markings are a combination of poisonous snakes, but at the same time pale tan and dark brown or black. The they enjoy the reputation of being the most paler marks are arranged in a series of harmless. This is because cases of sea boldly defined, elongated saddles on the snake bite are rare. A good way to dis- back. The dark markings give way to a tinguish between a sea snake and an eel is rich, reddish color toward the rear of the that sea snakes have scales whereas eels body where brick red or crimson may be do not. marbled with darker and paler hues. Cen- (7) Boa Constrictor. The boa is not a poison- tral American specimens are usually much ous snake; however, it is very similar in darker, with smaller and more obscurely outward appearance to the bushmaster and defined saddles. One variation, defined as

TAQO SS11A 101 B

800 PACES 800 PACES

COURSE 40 DEC COURSE 40 DEG

RIVER '

ESTIMATING DISTANCE AND AVERAGE ANGLE OF DEPARTURE

U) Figure 95. Bypassing obstacles.

a sub-species is olive brown with black annoyed, the neck dilating, or spreading markings. A dark bar from eye to eye and instantly. Not all cobras can spread the a central band on the head from a cross- neck so widely as the King Cobra, which like marking. The boa of South America is also the largest species, up to a length seldom attains a length in excess of 12 of 18 feet. The markings of cobras are feet, but in Central America it grows to 15 generally brilliant, varying from yellow- feet. The boa constrictor, even though a brown or olive-green with back bands or non-poisonous snake, can be harmful to patches of reddish-orange at the throat. individuals, not necessarily by his ability Cobras will attack men. to kill by constriction, but by the infection (2) Kraits. These snakes are very abundant which could result from a bite. When an in southeast Asia and are almost as poison- individual is bitten, the tendency to jerk ous as cobras. They are 4 to 5 feet long, away from the snake could cause the black or dark brown in color, with tan or snake’s teeth to break off under the indi- yellow bands across the back. A ridge ex- vidual’s skin, resulting in infection if not tends down the back, topped by a row of properly treated. Figures 93 and 94 show large scales. The head is small and the skin typical boa constrictors. surface is smooth and glistening. Kraits c. Snakes of the Asian Jungles. are nocturnal in habit and like to cover (1) Cobras. The cobras arethemselves members withof the warm dust on trails and viper family. Common species are the King roads. They attack without coiling. Cobra and the spectacled cobra found in (3) Russel’s Viper. This snake is slow and India, Southern China, and the Malay sluggish but rivals the cobra as a killer Archipelago and the Philippine cobra. among oriental snakes. The venom coagu- Cobras are fierce, aggressive. and among lates the red blood cells and causes death the most venomous snakes. They hurl from hemorrhages, tetanus, or gastric dis- themselves into an upright position when turbances in from^T to 14 days. RussePs

102 TAGO 5511A r

COURSE w

TALL TREE a / PROMINENT PEAK

DETOUR

USING A PROMINENT LANDMARK AS A GUIDE

(2) Figure 95—Continued

viper is a rich tan color with three rows of an important food source. The Indian black rings bordered with white or yellow Python which is also found in Ceylon, is running the entire length of the 5-foot shorter than the Regal. It has two distinct body. Although this viper usually avoids types of coloration, one dark olive with thick jungle it is found in the plains adja- black markings, the other tan, marked with cent to the jungle and even in woods as olive-brown and usually showing a pinkish high in elevation as 7,000 feet. line on either side of the head. (4) Pythons. The Regal Python of the Ma- d. Snakes of the African Jungles. laysian jungles is the largest known snake, (1) Mambas. These snakes are found in the reaching a length of 25 feet. The glistening central African forests and the South Afri- skin of this snake is covered with an intri- can bush and are among the most danger- cate yellow-brown and black design. The ous of the African snakes. They are tree head is brown with a narrow black line cobras, whip-like in appearance, extremely extending backward from the snout, and active, and attain a length of 10 to 12 feet. the eyes are red with vertical pupils. The Coloring is either greenish or black. Regal Python is a constrictor and is not (2) Puff Adder. This snake is orange-brown in poisonous. Since most adults weigh color and averages about 4 feet in length. around 200 pounds, the Regal Python is It likes to lie concealed on jungle trails and

TACO 5511A 103 2S

zr jîïir r COURSE 20 DEG JWI. SWAMP tí

■OHL 90 DEG 90 DEG M, ■w±.

500 PACES 500 PACES

90 DEG 90 DEG

1000 PACES

COMPENSATION BY PACES AND RIGHT ANGLES

(3) Figure 95—Continued

makes no effort to flee, if stepped on it blotches margined with brown can be seen. responds viciously. The name comes from It rarely exceeds 30 inches in length. the habit of the snake of hissing violently (4) The Rhinoceros Viper. This snake inhabits with each breath. Coloration varies from tropical West Africa. Its skin is rich olive sooty black chevrons separated by cream- thickly peppered with black. The top of colored crescents to dull buff with dark the body is punctuated by pale blue brown or gray chevrons. blotches and orange-yellow bands; on the (3) Gaboon Viper. The gaboon inhabits the sides are ruddy-brown triangles. This col- whole of tropical Africa. The eyes are oration is brilliant and beautiful but this silvery white and the pattern of the skin 4-foot long snake is dangerous. The name looks like it is woven. On the back are comes from the two blunt horns on the oblong, buff markings which are enclosed snout. within irregular brown rhombus. This pat- e. Snakes of Australia. tern is enclosed by a chain of irregular, (1) Black Snake. The 5-foot Australian black purplish markings. The head is brown and snake is a slender species with neck ribs on the sides of the body triangular purplish that form a hood about half as broad as

104 TAGO 6511A Figure 96. Patrol moving through fern swamp. Although horizontal visibility oj these men is severely limited in this type of vegetation notice how easily they are detected from above.

that of a cobra. Its smooth scales are blue- tened, provided with enlarged, over-lapping black on the back while the underside is a scales and terminating in a long, thin spine. bright red. These snakes live in marshes On its back its color is brown and yellow and are dangerous. crossed by darker bands. It is found in the (2) Tiger Snake. The name of this snake comes forests of New Guinea as well as Australia. not so much from its ferocity but from the /. Snake Venom. Venom is actually a potent banded color design on its skin. This snake, saliva derived from the paratid gland of the snake which is considered to be one of the most which is similar to the human salivary gland. The virulent of all serpents, is common in use of venom defensively is a secondary adaptation Australia. The scales are smooth and the because its primary use is to kill and digest the prey. markings somewhat variable, usually olive Hence, a snake uses up most of its venom in killing or brown with dark cross-bands. They are and consuming its victim. Venoms are complex pro- irritable and strike swiftly. teins of high toxicity and act usually in the following (3) Death Adder. This snake has a short, stout ways: one, an effect on red blood cells and the walls body with keeled sides and a head that is of blood vessels, causing dissolution of the red blood flat and distinct from the neck. The eye cells and hemorrhages from the damaged capillaries; has a cat-like, vertical pupil. Most charac- another, affecting the nervous system, inducing teristic is the tail, the tip of which is flat- paralysis of muscles, especially the nerves which

TAGO 5511A 105 "*v>

t r

4 • LV^t

!»

Figure 97. Typical cliff formations found in jungle, terrain. Such ground formations demand that troops be adept at moun- taineenng techniques. Note the blending of individuals to terrain and vegetation. Arrows indicate the presence of five soldiers.

opérate the respiratory muscles; and a third con- trees where visibility is impaired. The fol- sisting of a general digestant action on all tissues, lowing procedures should be followed when especially after the local death of tissue resulting rendering aid to a snake bite victim: from the other effects. The digestant action of (1) Within practical limits, effect immediate, venom is an advantage during suction treatment of absolute immobilization of the affected snake-bite by widening the fang channel and facili- part in a position below the level of the tating the" outflow of tissue juice containing the heart. venom. (2) Place a constricting band (tourniquet) 2 to fif. Snake Bite. To minimize the chance of being 4 inches closer to the heart than the site bitten by a snake, troops should follow these general of the bite and reapply the constricting rules. band ahead of the swelling if it progresses (1) Never travel alone if it can be avoided. up the arm or leg. The constricting band (2) Groups should travel with a minimum of should be placed tightly enough to halt the four members ; adequate help is then avail- flow of blood in the superficial blood vessels, but not tightly enough to stop the • able if something should happen. pulse (arterial flow). (3) Exercise extra caution at night and when (3) In case the bitten person stops breathing, climbing or descending cliffs, ridges, or prolonged mouth-to-mouth or mouth-to- ll Oê TACO 5511A Figure 9S. Another example of jungle clij} formation.

nose artificial resuscitation, as appropriate, This procedure involves gentle massage should be employed. with the teeth, as well as suction. (4) Assistance from the nearest medical source (c) Do not make any incisions, since these or transportation of the patient to a treat- may cause a more severe injury by sev- ment facility should be accomplished as ering an artery or a vein. soon as possible. Attempt to identify the (6) Do not panic. Mortality from snakebite, snake. If the snake is killed, take its head properly treated, is less than 1%. It is only and a part of its body to the medical 10% to 15% without any treatment— facility with the victim. chances are good. A'' (5) If the individual bitten by a snake is on (7) If a./tourniquet must be left on over an his own and/or medical assistance is not hour (possible since it should not have available, the following method or treat- been applied too tightly), release it for one ment apply : minute, tighten again. Gradually increase (a) Employ treatment indicated in (1) and the time “off” and decrease the time “on”. (2) above. This action permits the body to receive (b) Then apply mouth suction at once to the and absorb any remaining poison gradu- region of the fang holes, encompassing ally, allowing the body systeins a better the area widely with the teeth and lips. opportunity to counteract it.

TAGO 5Í11A 107 • . A,/ . •' Vi * .»■ j** - "" P 1 "> ^ z ■ ïrtër* ir *&'. '-fi, >»- l/v" ^ .r-

# m-

JH*» *, O»« *•

'»Ml*

Figure 99. Single strand rope bridge. Soldier is shown crossing a narrow, deep jungle river using the “British Crawl” method. It is important that the soldier push with the foot on the rope as well as pull with his arms to conserve strength.

32. Jungle Navigation in any kind of terrain, these landmarks are the sur- a. General. The principles of military map read- est guides in map reading. ing and land navigation as set forth in FM 21-26 b. Navigational Aids. apply in all types of terrain. It is not the intent of (1) Maps. Because of the isolated nature of this manual to repeat the provisions of the standard jungle terrain, the rugged contour of the manual on map reading; rather, the aim is to con- ground and presence of the jungle canopy, sider some aspects of navigation relevant only to survey is extremely difficult and is done overland movement in jlingle and to emphasize some mainly from the air. Although such a of the basic principles. Map reading and navigation method of survey does not provide sufficient in conventional terrain or open country, where land- detail to show main hill features, ridge marks are easily seen and recognized, are fairly lines and streams are generally accurate. straightforward.. In the jungle it is possible to see Individuals should be aware of the limited for only short distances. For this reason, and the accuracy of jungle maps; however, they fact that maps of jungle areas are generally very should be cautioned not to disregard the inaccurate, the individual must be skilled in the use map as a navigational aid. Careful map of the compass. Landmarks consist largely of jungle study is an essential preliminary to jungle covered hills (making it difficult to distinguish one navigation. This study will usually reveal hill from another), streams, and rivers. However, as the best route to be taken and areas to be

108 TAGO SS11A •s» *%

* : «■ »a F' ' Awi SÄ ; i?; +* ar.

■ *4 ^».^<8 -,i #'«.?■

• •“ if-Änffc V . *' , „ ’»■. Rrr iiiL' *w /*c<'5

•r^ , 1 #4 •■ ^ 3^. ;:v

^1-

«<* « ftf

Figure 100. Double strand bridge. Notice that this soldier has oriented his weight forward against the hand rail and tkat the shanks of both boots are locked onto the tread rope.

TAQO M11A 109 Figure 101. Soldier being transported over a river by suspension traverse.

avoided. It will reward the soldier by attached to the belt. It is vital that the helping him to visualize the lay of the land, soldier be taught to place complete faith to assist his sense of direction, and to in- in his compass and that the natural temp- crease his confidence. If this careful map tation to use sense of direction be avoided. study is not done before moving through (4) Sun, moon and stars. These may be help- , the jungle, the chances of becoming lost ful, but they will usually be obscured by are increased. the jungle canopy. The sun is an inaccu- (2) Aerial 'photographs. Complete aerial pho- rate reference when high, due to proximity tographic coverage of a given jungle area of the equator in most areas and it should is usually not available. However, if cov- not be used with the watch/sun method. erage of specific areas over which troops However, in early morning and late after- will move is made available it will prove noon an approximate East or West bearing to be a valuable check. Stereo pairs may may be indicated by the sun. be used with a stereoscope for contour c. Navigational Technique. determinations. It is important to check (1) Planning. Map study can assist in route the dates of aerial photographs as trails planning. The following factors should be and clearings can become overgrown in considered : three or four months. (o) Compartmentation. It is easier to follow (3) The compass. The value of the compass in corridors than it is to cross them. Thus, the jungle cannot be overemphasized. A a direct route from one point to another lanyard should be used and the compass is convenient and fast only in flat jungle.

TAGO 5511A Figure IOS. Snatch block with shell closed. Figure 108. Snatch block with shell opened.

In hilly jungle, such a route may prove to be most demanding on the physical (c) River lines and stream beds. While large condition of troops. rivers are useful aids to maintenance of (6) Ridge lines. Tops of the ridges and hills direction, it is poor policy to follow usually contain sparser jungle than the them. They are always meandering, are valleys. Animal trails and native trails bordered by dense jungle, and numerous, are often found on the ridges and, there- deep sloughs usually punctuate the fore, marching on ridges is usually easier, banks. On the other hand, a stream bed faster, and less tiring for troops. Once may make a good approach route in the effort of climbing a hill is over, upland forest when travelling over ridge troops can expect a comparatively easy lines. Troops should be cautioned about march while moving along the ridge. the danger of flash floods when using

TAGO AMIA 111 (c) Sighting the desired azimuth and guiding a man forward until he is on line with the azimuth, then moving to him and then repeat the procedure. Sighting on an object in line with the azimuth is undesirable in jungle terrain as all trees and bushes look alike. It is difficult to determine exactly which tree, for example, was sighted on once the compass team moves up. When holding the compass at waist level and walking on the azimuth line there is a tendency for the compassman to follow his natural drift which will be either to the left or right while moving. If this method is used, the compass should be set as in night navigation with the long, luminous line placed over the luminous North arrow when the desired azimuth is under the black index line. The method of sighting along the desired azimuth and * guiding a man forward until he is on line with the azimuth is the most accurate to use in jungle during the daylight hours. In this manner the compassman guides a member of the compass team forward and sights on him. By using this method, there is a definite aiming point and the compassman will not become confused with others. In addition, the compassman can release the compass on its lanyard and use both hands, if necessary, as he moves up to the guide. •m (3) The navigational team. Because of the difficulties inherent in navigation in the jungle, it is recommended that personnel charged with the responsibility of directing Figure WJ/. Sling hitch made ¡rom 1-inch manila rope jor a troop column be organized as follows: use with snalch block on suspension traverse. (a) Guide—The guide is sent to the front to clear the way for movement and to assist stream beds as routes even in the dry the leader in maintaining direction. This season. is the man on whom the compass is (2) Following a set azimuth. The three most sighted. common methods used when following the (b) Compassman—The compassman is the readings of a compass are: leader. He sets the azimuth, maintains (a) Sighting along the desireddirection, azimuth, and iden-supervises the actions of tifying an object forward that is on line the team. with the azimuth and marching on azi- (c) Map reader—The map reader maintains muth'line to the object. the team’s location on the map and (£>) Holding the compass at waist level and records pertinent information. In addi- walking in the direction of and on line tion, he can also be used as an additional with the set azimuth. pacer.

112 TAGO 5511A &

? L6 l t My r > <-> 1 J A a»/ *■% 1 ♦3

r m X «f ' /■ y «« îm / N Y ?* _ j^* y f Jr pt*'' V •W&P * 41

/’■ J

Figure 106. "X-jrame" made from jungle materials for poncho brush raft. Notice the GREEN (living) vegetation that has been cut for the raft.

TAQO 5M1A 113 STICKS USED IN LIEU OF RIFLE ACCORDING TO TACTICAL SITUATION

PONCHO CLOTHING, BOOTS Pi BELT, ETC.

PAO

TIED OFF HOOD KEPT INSIDE PACKAGE & l'"\\ PONCHO HOOD PULLED TAUT, BENT DOUBLE, TWISTED INTO GOOSENECK AND TIED OFF

BOOTLACE # 1

IF ONE PONCHO HAS HOLES USE FOR INNER PACKAGE

ONE PONCHO FORMS INNER PACKAGE BOOTLACE # 2

SECOND PONCHO IS WRAPPED AROUND INNER PACKAGE AND SECURED WITH (3) BOOTLACES

DIMENSIONS BOOTLACES # 3 & # 4 42" x 15" x 10"

Figure 106. Australian poncho raft.

114 TAGO ÍM1A Figure 107. Improvised canteen safety belt.

(d) Pacer—The pacer keeps an accurate be attached to the back of the head- record of the distance covered. This can gear. Two strips will aid depth percep- be done most reliably by tying a knot tion and reduce the hypnotic effect in a string for each 100 meters traversed brought about by only one strip. by the team. 2. When the night is exceptionally dark, (e) Measuring Pace. Each soldier should troops should close up and hold onto know what his pace ratio is, i.e., the the pack or belt of the man immediately individual should know how many steps preceding. This prevents straggling he must take to walk 100 meters. This and separation of individuals. can be determined by counting the num- 3. The compass should not be worn around ber of steps necessary to walk a carefully the neck but should be affixed to the measured 100 meter distance. Because belt. of the extreme unevenness of terrain in 4. The pacer should carry a piece of string the jungle, detours, obstacles, and the or rope and tie a knot in it for each difficulty of maintaining a measured 100 meters traveled. pace, it is recommended that individuals 5. The guide should carry a long stick with increase their pace ratio by one half to luminous tape affixed to the end. This compensate for these variables. For stick serves a dual purpose as it can be example, if a soldier must walk 120 steps used to indicate the guide’s location as he moves and the guide may use the to cover 100 meters on flat ground, his stick as a probe. This probe may pre- pace ratio for the jungle would be 120 vent serious injury as it will warn the plus 60 (i/ of 120) or 180 paces. 2 team of any obstacles or sudden drop- (/) Provisions jor night movement. offs that might be encountered. 1. Luminous6. The tapemap shouldreader shouldbe attached assist theto pacer the back of each team member’s uni- in maintaining an accurate account of form. It is recommended that two distance traveled during night move- strips, each the size of lieutenant’s bars, ment.

TACO 5511A 115 Figure 108. Corred position oj the canteen safety belt before entry into the water.

(4) Actions during the march. Once the march (d) Pacing should be checked with the begins, checking of position and progress elapsed time from the beginning of the should be continuous. The following means march and the type of country traversed. of checking should be used: Common sense with regard to these fac- (a) All features such as hills, ridge lines, and tors will lessen the tendency to overesti- rivers should be checked as they are mate the distance traveled. reached and identified on the map. The (e) Troops must understand that fatigue is direction of flow of all encountered the greatest enemy of good navigation. streams should be noted and checked To blunder on, hoping for the best, is a with the map. sure way to get lost. (b) Trails should be identified on the map. (5) Action if lost. The feeling of being lost If they are indicated on the map they should be regarded with suspicion for it tends to create mental panic. Troops who is easy to place too much confidence in have reason to believe that they are lost trails which may not be properly, marked should: on the map. (a) Sit down, calm down, and begin to ap- (c) Firebreaks and jungle edges adjacent to praise the situation. grasslands or cultivations should be (b) Make every attempt to locate the posi- noted and compared with the map. tion on the map.

TAQO Mil A i

(c) After a careful map study, make a plan tation of the jungle. This method is which will take them to one of the recog- illustrated in (2), figure 95. nizable terrain features such as a river. (c) Compensating by paces and right angles Move to it and then proceed to the march is a third means of bypassing obstacles. objective. Upon encountering an impassible obsta- (d) Control panic at all times. cle the compass team moves at a right (6) Bypassing obstacles. Quite often obstacles angle (90°) to the original course until encountered in the jungle force a compass the flank of the obstacle has been team or unit to detour from the planned reached. At this time the compass team course. There are several methods of cir- again moves at a right angle onto a cumventing obstacles without losing the course parallel to the initial course until original course completely. the obstacle is cleared in depth. Upon (а) The first method is estimating distance bypassing the obstacle the team moves and average angle of departure. Upon at a right angle until it has returned to finding that the desired course intersects the original course. The drawing in (3), an insurmountable obstacle the compass figure 95 gives a schematic indication of team can deviate right or left of the orig- how this is done. inal azimuth a known number of degrees and move a known distance until it is 33. Crossing Jungle Obstacles apparent that the obstacle has been by- a. General. Previous discussion has emphasized passed. At that time, the compass team the fact that jungle terrain presents obstacles of the reverses the direction of the deviation greatest severity and variety to any operations con- back towards the original course. The ducted therein. For all the special considerations team then follows the initial azimuth. that must be taken into account when preparing In effect, the compass team has moved individuals and units for jungle combat it will be on the two legs of an isosceles triangle seen that one facet of warfare is common to all around the obstacle. This method is best operations by ground forces in any type of terrain. illustrated by the following example This is the principle of war which is called maneu- ((D.fig 95): ver. All other principles and techniques of warfare Hypothesis: If the angle of departure are corollary to this consideration for jungle opera- A is 50° to the left then tions. In the jungle, this principle of war is most the azimuth of the first difficult to apply. Jungle operations are usually leg is 40° — 50° — characterized by deep penetrations of small units —10° or 350° ; upon operating independently in matters of maneuver, reaching point B or the tactics and resupply. The individual soldier will deviation back to the usually be required to man-pack his own weapons, original course the azi- ammunition, rations, and special equipment. It is muth for 800 paces obvious that if special equipment is used it must be would be 40° + 50° = kept to a minimum. The soldier must be conditioned 90°. to the fact that movement in the jungle will be This particular means of detouring ob- arduous, that obstacles will occur as the rule and stacles is best suited for open and semi- not the exception, that he will have to provide his open country and is not often possible in own means to overcome these obstacles and that no obstacle is insurmountable or impenetrable. To en- dense jungle. able the soldier to meet this criteria, he must be (б) Another means of, circumnavigating an trained to— impassible obstacle is using a prominent (1) Recognize and identify the obstacle as to landmark as a guide. This method requires that members of the compass type. team be readily able to observe and (2) Improvise a means to negotiate the ob- identify prominent terrain features ; this stacle using a minimum of equipment is difficult to do through the dense vege- and/or only the materials at hand.

TAQO M11A 117 m

s I

r-* as

ssr. B tmr Kj*«rK %

Figure 109. Improvised poncho safety belt.

(3) Overcome the obstacle with a minimum rerouting is required. As a consequence, expenditure of effort and time. the jungle soldier must possess the knowl- b. Types of Jungle Obstacles. There are primarily edge and develop the skill to cope with three types of obstacles that will impede movement obstacles presented by rugged elevation in the jungle. These are: and ground contours (figs 97 and 98). (1) Vegetation and swamps. Knowledge of basic mountaineering techniques is most essential. These basic (2) Steep hills and cliffs. mountaineering skills may be classified as (3) Wide rivers and streams. “unassisted techniques” (mountain walk- c. Methods of Crossing the Different Types of ing and balance climbing) and “assisted Obstacles. techniques” (rappelling and belays). The (1) Vegetation and swamps. When confronted proper methods for training individuals by especially thick vegetation or swamps and units in the execution of these skills the jungle soldier can pass through by em- are discussed in detail by FM 21-50 and ploying map study, accurate plotting of the FM 31-72. desired course, security during movement, (3) Wide rivers and streams. Water barriers and accuracy in navigation (fig 96). In may be crossed by several means. Some of some instances, the tactical situation and the expedient means are: time element may allow detours around (a) Fording. If a wide, shallow (less than especially difficult areas of vegetative 1.5 meters deep) stream is encountered, growths. It should be emphasized in train- a secluded shallow spot for fording ing that vegetation is not as difficult an should be selected. Security and recon- obstacle to overcome as the other types naissance elements should cross first and mentioned in b above. Exceptions to this secure the far bank. They should move are vast expanses and growths of mangrove rapidly across in a column, the lead man swamps and bamboo forests. probing ahead with a fathoming stick. (2) Steep hills and cliffs. Movement often must If the water is flowing rapidly, a safety be made cross compartment or detours and rope should be secured on both banks,

118 TAGO 5511A when possible, to prevent falling and square knot and half hitches, doubling being carried downstream. the rope thus formed, and placing the (b) Rope bridges (figs 99 and 100). Rope square knot in the upper third. An over- bridges provide temporary and impro- hand knot is tied into the loop above the vised systems for crossing streams, small square knot and a second overhand knot rivers, gorges, etc., where the span is not is then tied slightly below it. The belay great, the traffic not too heavy, and rope is tied to the center of the three where there would be a saving in time loops of the carrying rope and then a over crossing methods, or by locating and snaplink is inserted into the upper small using a bypass. For a detailed descrip- loop and into the static line. To secure tion of the various types of rope bridges, either loads or troops to the static line to include construction, employment and this carrying rope is merely passed utilization, see FM 21-50, and FM thrqugh the seat or lashings and the 31-72. larger loop snapped into the snaplink or (c) Suspension traverse. The suspension the static line. When the man or load traverse can be used to move a rela- has been hooked onto the static line, a tively large number of troops (a rifle belayer lowers the load by using a body company) or heavy equipment over wide belay, a belay through a snaplink, or rivers, ravines and up or down cliffs in around a tree, and stops him gradually a short period of time. Because of the as he nears the bottom. If it is a steep heavy and bulky equipment required for traverse, and the descent is rapid, pro- this device, in jungle operations it would tective padding must be used by the be- be practical only if the necessary mate- layer to reduce the friction on the body. rials could be transported to a pre- If the load is being raised or the traverse selected site by air or surface means is horizontal, it will be necessary to have (watercraft, pack horses or native por- a belay rope from both anchor points ters) prior to arrival at the site by the and to pull the load up or across and to using unit. The traverse may be made retrieve the carrying rope. A suspension on a plane varying from the horizontal traverse can also be installed to utilize to the near vertical. To install a suspen- block and tackle. This combination of sion traverse a suitable route for the rope and equipment is especially suited traverse must be reconnoitered, with for transport of troops as it is rapid and emphasis placed on the location of suit- safe. Rope is reeved or threaded through able anchor points. These must be of a blocks, which may have one or more sufficient height to allow clearance of “sheaves” or rollers. Blocks are used to loads being transported over any ob- reverse the direction of ropes, and usu- stacles. The static line must be carried ally consist of a shell (frame) which to the upper, or farther anchor, by a supports the ends of a sheave pin on single man or a climbing party, and which the sheave (a grooved pulley) re- secured. It is then secured to the other, volves. A hook, usually free to revolve, usually the lower, anchored and tight- is attached to one end of the shell of the ened by use of a tightening knot. If block. A “snatch block” is a simple nylon climbing rope is to be used as a sheave block made so that the shell opens static line, it should be used double to on one side at the base of the hook to minimize sagging and offset shearing or permit a rope to be slipped over the burning inherent to nylon rope thereby sheave without threading the end of it increasing the safety margin. A % inch through the block. To attach a load to or 1 inch “manila” rope should be used the hook of the block a “sling” is used. for installations which will receive heavy The most efficient sling and the easiest use. A carrying rope is then made by to construct is the “endless sling”. These tying the ends of a sling rope with a devices are made by splicing together

TACO S511A 119 Hw-

% I 1 %

Figure 110. One method for wearing the ■poncho safety belt.

the ends of a piece of rope, usually one- aft with ropes tied to each shore. The inch manila. AVhen an endless sling is raft may be used to carry weapons and passed around an object that is to be equipment. Members of a group hold on lifted and both remaining loops are to the sides of the vessel and are towed slipped over the hook of a block, this to the far bank. The standard air mat- arrangement is called a “basket hitch”. tress can also be used to float individuals This type of hitch lends itself well to or equipment across bodies of water. An movement of personnel on the suspension excellent expedient is the poncho raft. traverse. Figure 101 shows a suspension There, are two types and because of their traverse installed to utilize block and efficiency and ease of construction they tackle. Figures 102, 103 and 104 show the details of tbe sling and snatch block have an important application in jungle combination. operations. To insure a common and (d) Crossing by surface means. There are complete comprehension of methods used several ways that the jungle soldier may to fabricate these expedients, construc- cross deep streams and wide rivers using tion steps should be performed in surface means. A three-man pneumatic sequence. rubber raft may be used to shuttle (e) Poncho brush raft (fig 36). To construct equipment by securing the raft fore and this raft, use the following procedure: no TAGO 5511A t h

üé «i

u4 U» ?v

** %

«tr SK

Figure 111. Alternate method for wearing the poncho safety belt.

TAGO 5511A 121 Figure 112. Coconuts tied together to jorm expedient flotation device.

1. Obtain two ponchos and tie the neck of brush. This bundle is rolled over into each tightly by using the drawstring. the center of the spread poncho and the 2. Spread one poncho on ground with hood second poncho is tied across the sides up so that it will end up inside the raft. and diagonally across corners. This 3. Cut fresh, green brush (avoid thick raft will safely float 250 pounds and is branches or woody stalks) and pile on very stable. When launching the raft, poncho to a height of approximately 18 take care not to drag it on the ground inches. thereby causing punctures or tears. An 4. Place an X-frame made of small sap- empty canteen tied to one end of a lings on brush. Anchor this frame by rope with the other end tied to the raft tying drawstring of poncho to the cen- assists in towing. ter of X-frame (fig 105). (/) Australian poncho raft (fig 106). Where 5. Pile another 18 inches of brush on top brush is not available or when speed is of X-frame. 6. Compress brush slightly and fold up essential, this raft can be constructed poncho, tying ropes or vines diagonally quickly using only individual equipment across from comer grommets and for bulk. It is more waterproof than the straight across from side grommets. poncho brush raft but will sustain only The sides of the poncho will not touch. about 80 pounds of weight. It is con- 7. The second poncho is spread on the structed as follows: ground, with hood up, adjacent to the 1. One poncho is placed in the ground bundle made of the first poncho and with the hood facing up, after closing

122 TAGO 8511A the neck opening and tying it off with pigtails with the second boot lace or the drawstring. other tying material. 2. Individual weapons are placed on each 15. The third and fourth boot laces are tied side of the neck opening, butt-to-muz- around the ends of the raft, going zle, and running the long axis of the underneath the boot lace tied to the poncho. Operating rod handles face pigtails. toward the center. 16. The raft is now ready to be placed in 3. Laces are taken out of two individual’s the water. boots if vines or other tying materials {g) Other flotation expedients. For non- are not available. Socks are used to pad swimmers, weak swimmers or injured the front and rear sights of weapons. personnel, there are several expedients 4. Packs are placed inside and at the ends which will provide means to cross a river of the two weapons. in the event no other equipment is avail- 5. Clothing is neatly folded and placed able or if there is no time to construct inside the weapons and the packs. Care a brush raft. should be taken to place clothing as 1. Canteen safety belt (figs 107 and 108). level as possible. If at least eight EMPTY water can- 6. Harness and webbing are placed on top teens are securely affixed to the pistol of clothing. Helmets, if worn, are belt or tied to a rope which would then placed on top of the packs. be used as a belt, a weak swimmer or 7. Boots are placed on top of the harness. a nonswimmer will be able to float his 8. Members of the team move to the flank body in the water. Care should be of the raft and fold up sides of poncho taken to insure that the caps of the over the top of the equipment. Snap canteens are tightly screwed on and together all snaps on the sides. that each cap has a cork or plastic 9. Working together at the center, the washer. Metal canteens can be very team rolls the sides of the poncho noisy when used in this manner; troops towards the equipment. Roll tightly should, therefore, insure that the tacti- and together so that the roll does not cal situation will permit employment become loose. Roll down to the of this expedient. equipment. 2. Poncho lifebelt. If green vegetation is 10. Roll out to both ends, keeping poncho tightly rolled inside a poncho and the as tight as possible. At the ends, twist ends folded over and made water tight, the poncho to form a pigtail. Keep the an improvised lifebelt will result. The pigtail tight. poncho should be rolled up like a 11. While one member of the team holds sausage at least 8 inches in diameter. the pigtails to keep them from untwist- Worn around the waist or across one ing, the other member ties the pigtails shoulder and under the opposite arm tightly together with boot laces, vines like a bandoleer such a belt will easily or other tying material. support a man in the water (figs 109, 12. Spread the second poncho on the 110 and 111). ground, neck closed and facing up. If 3. Water wings. Two or more plastic bags more buoyancy is desired, brush and of the type used to pack radio batteries grass may be placed between this pon- can be used to fashion water wing ex- cho and the first one. pedients. Care must be taken that the 13. Place the equipment bundle formed mouths of the bags are securely tied with the first poncho in the second and that the bags are properly affixed poncho with the pigtails facing down- to the soldier’s body. Four of these ward. bags can be tied to two poles, the poles 14. Roll the sides of the second poncho the lashed about a foot apart with vine, same as the first poncho. Tie off the wire or rope and a raft-type float will

TAGO 5511A 123 Figure 113. Square knot. To join ends of ropes of equal diameter.

result. Other items such as ammunition boxes, canisters and even coconuts (fig 112) can also be used as expedient flotation devices.

34. Ropes and Knots a. General. To further develop individual self- reliance, training should be conducted in the utilization and employment of ropes and lashing and rigging techniques. Particular emphasis should be placed on the proper choice of ropes to suit a par- Figure 114. Sheet bend. To join wet ropes and ropes of ticular requirement with equal stress on the knots unequal diameter. that best serve the needs of the tasks to which ropes are assigned. TM 5-275 and TM 5-279 present a c. Types of Ropes. Descriptions will be limited detailed discussion of the technical aspects regard- to synthetic and vegetable fiber rope. ing the theories of lashing and rigging. FM 21-50 (1) Synthetic fiber (nylon). Nylon rope is and FM 31-72 describe the various combinations of most commonly used in climbing. The rope 7 ropes and knots that are used for mountaineering is T ïï inch in diameter and is issued in 120- foot lengths. The actual breaking strength activities and the construction of rope bridges. when dry averages 3,840 pounds (5 percent b. Elements of a Rope. The three elements in a variable factor). Strength is reduced by 18 rope are fibers, yarns, and strands. A number of percent when the rope is wet. Nylon sling fibers are twisted together to form a yarn, then a ropes are commonly used in 12-foot number of yarns are twisted to form a strand. lengths. They are used by the individual Finally, a number of strands are twisted to form a soldier for safety and utility and are the rope. The direction of twist for each successive ele- same diameter as the nylon climbing rope. ment is reversed. The reason for the reverse twist- (2) Vegetable fiber. By reason of its avail- ing is to put the rope in balance and to prevent ele- ability in tropical areas, vegetable fiber ments from unlaying when a person or load is sus- ropes are the most commonly used in pended from it. jungle operations. The designation or

124 TAGO 5511A Figure 116. Clove hitch.

Figure 116. Round turn and two half hitches. name of the different kinds of fiber rope will usually indicate the type of plant . strongest fiber rope made. It is usually fiber from which they are made. soaked in tar to preserve the rope from (a) Manila. The manila rope is the most deterioration caused by dampness. The practical and usually the most available tar tends to reduce its strength and flexi- type of rope for use in the jungle. It is bility. Tarred hemp is known as “mar- made from the fibers of plantain leaves, line” and is a standard item of issue. which are readily available in jungle Hemp rope coated with tar is not prac- areas of the world. The fiber varies in tical for use by infantry troops in mov- color from a yellow-white to a dark ing situations because of weight. brown. The quality of the manila fiber (d) Coir. Coir rope is another rope readily varies with the color. The lighter shades available in jungle areas as it is made are soft and clean and used in the best from the fibers of coconut husks. It is a rope. The darker shades, used in poorer very elastic, rough rope about ^4 the quality rope, are coarse and harsh. strength of hemp and is light enough to Manila rope made from lighter shades float on water. with long fibers is superior in elasticity, (e) Cotton Rope. This rope is very smooth strength, and resistance to wear and de- and is usually white in color. However, terioration. It is smooth and runs well for use in the jungle, it should be treated over blocks and sheaves. with a preservative as it tends to de- (b) Sisal. Sisal rope is made from fibers of teriorate rapidly. Cotton rope is best aloe leaves and is a hard fiber, similar utilized for small lashings such as in to manila fiber in color. However, it is construction of brush rafts or float lighter and about 80 percent as strong. expedients. Sisal rope stands exposure to sea water very well and is used in many installa- d. Rope Sizes and Strengths. Military designation tions for this reason. of rope size is usually expressed in terms of inches (c) Hemp. Hemp rope is made from fibers of diameter; in commercial fiber, rope sizes are of the hemp plant and has short, soft sometimes designated by inches of circumference. fibers. However, it is a strong, rather For this reason, most reference tables concerning tough rope. Untarred hemp is the rope describe them both in terms of inches of

TACO 5511A 125 Figure 118. Butterfly. To take up slack in a rope.

decreasing the strength of the rope and an allowance should be made for this in estimating the strength of used rope. A rope slung over a hook or containing a knot is reduced in strength by approximately 30 percent. Sharp bends over corners reduce the strength approximately 50 percent. Exposure to heat or boiling water will decrease rope strength approximately 20 percent. Sand or grit between fibers of rope will rapidly cut the fibers, sharply reducing the strength. The breaking strength and safe load capacity for the two most useful sizes of ropes usually employed by jungle troops are: 1-inch diameter manila rope—breaking strength, 9,000 pounds; safe load capacity, 2,250 pounds; and V^-inch diameter manila rope—breaking strength, 3,650 pounds; safe load capacity, 660 pounds. Figure 117. Bowline. To form a loop that will not jam or slip. e. Breakage of Fibers. The strength of fiber rope decreases rapidly with use because of breaking or slipping of the fibers. The fibers will slip a small diameter and circumference. The strength of rope amount under each strain in spite of the twisting, will vary considerably according to the load, type, and no attempt should be made to load a rope to its and condition of the rope. The breaking strength maximum after it has been used for some time. of a rope will always be found to be considerably Breakage of fibers should be avoided as much as greater than the safe working capacity. The ratio possible. Factors to consider: is called the “factor of safety”. Individual ropes and circumstances of their use cause considerable (1) Clean muddy ropes by washing in water. variation in the minimum breaking strength. Under (2) Avoid pulling rope over sharp edges. Place no circumstances should rope be loaded to more a board or layers of heavy cloth between than twice its rated safe working capacity. Even the rope and sharp edge to reduce break- though the rope may not break under the load, the age of the strands. fibers stretch beyond the elastic limit and reduce (3) Sand has an abrasive action on the inner the strength of the rope for future use. Exposure, fibers of rope. Avoid dragging rope through wear, use and bending have a cumulative effect in sand or dirt.

126 TACK) 5511A 9

&7 \

ti'CT)

«Pfe

Figure 119. Stick placed in butterfly. knot to facilitate untying.

TAGO U11A Figure IZO. Prussik knot.

(4) Whenever possible, use knots that can be fibers of the strands will have a dark, stained untied easily to eliminate the necessity for appearance. Broken strands or broken yarns are cutting the rope. ordinarily easy to find. The presence of dirt and (5) Repair broken strands in rope as soon as sawdust-like material inside the rope are indications possible. of damage. Since any weak point in a rope weakens the entire rope, it should be examined at a number /. Inspection of New Rope. The outside appear- of places. If the rope appears to be satisfactory in ance of fiber rope is not always a good indication all other respects, pull out a couple of fibers and try of its internal condition. The rope will soften with to break them. Sound fibers should offer consider- use and deteriorate according to the manner in able resistance to breakage. When any unsatisfac- which it is handled. Dampness, the amount of tory conditions are found, the rope should be de- strain to which a rope has been subjected, the fray- stroyed or cut up in short pieces. This is to prevent ing and breaking of strands, and chafing on rough the use of the rope for hoisting. The short pieces edges all tend to weaken a rope considerably. Rope can be used for miscellaneous purposes such as should be inspected carefully at regular intervals toggle ropes but none of them should be left long to determine its exact condition. Since the surface enough to permit other use. appearance of a rope is not a good indication of its condition, the strands should be untwisted slightly g. Knots. There are many knots and combi- to open the rope so that the inside can be examined. nations of knots that can be tied in a single rope or Mildewed rope will have a musty odor and inner that can be tied to join two or more ropes together.

128 TACO 5S11A f w

% /

Figure 121. Prussik knots affixed to 1-inch manila suspension traverse line to brake speed of descent of a load carried by snatch block and sling.

TAQO Mil A 129 0L

% *àb lé Nt 1» r". jkrf: % %

it s«i

».

Figure 122. Prussik knot braking descent of soldier on suspension traverse. Notice that the snatch block has completely stopped and that the camera has caught the'man’s hat in midair. The blur caused by the sudden movement of the man’s feet gives an indication of hie speed when his block hit the knot. The jolt of this sudden stop is softened by the cushion effect of the suspended traverse line.

There are also many combinations of knots that of the rope is not placed across another can be used to fasten a rope to an object or to lash part of the same rope. several objects together. Only the more practical (c) Loop. A loop is a simple bend or inter- and useful knots will be discussed here as FM 21- ruption in a rope in which the rope 50, FM 31-72, TM 5-275 and TM 5-279 describe crosses itself. the many different kinds of knots and their use in (d) Hitch. A hitch is a loop placed in a detail. rope to fasten to an object. (1) Definitions. (a) Ends. Each rope has two ends. The (2) End of rope knots (figs 113 and 114). “working” end or “running” end is the This category of knots includes the part of the rope that is utilized to tie a “square knot”, “sheetbend”, and “double knot. The balance of the rope plus the sheetbend”. These knots are used for opposite end is called the “standing” end joining ends of rope together, the square or part. knot for joining ends of rope of equal (b) Bight. This is a simple bend or U-shaped diameter and the sheetbend knots for join- interruption in a rope in which a part ing wet ropes or ropes of unequal diameter.

TACK) Ï811A 130 m

i ■MT /

ù * ■A

4* Y*} Í* W figure 123. Uncamouflaged soldier in position for sniping (upper right of picture). Severed men similarly emplaced in trees could ambush a troop column on the ground with small arms and grenades. Troops must observe ABOVE as well as to the front, rear and flanks when moving in jungle.

TAGO M11A 131 ï

, if

fite

Figure 124- Fire team deploying during encounter drill. Notice the difficulties caused by the dense vegetation. Control of fire team leaders, movement of troops and maintenance of straight skirmish lines are adversely affected by the jungle growth.

Working in wet jungle, troops will find the be cut due to difficulty in releasing the sheetbend knots to be very useful. knot, as is the case with many other knots. (3) Anchor knots (figs 115 and 116). Ties of (5) Square knot. The square knot is quickly this category include the “clove” hitch and and easily tied and will not slip, but as it the “round turn and two half hitch” knots. tightens under pressure, it is most difficult These knots are used to tie the end of a to untie. It is used to join ends of ropes rope which is supporting heavy weight or of equal diameter. which is under constant tension. They are (6) Butterfly (fig 118). This knot is used to easy to tie and untie and facilitate fasten- take up slack in a rope. As neither end of ing of rope bridges to jungle trees which the rope is used to tie this knot it is often are large in diameter. called a “middle-of-the-rope” knot. After (4) Bowline (fig 117). This knot is used to tying a butterfly knot on a rope bridge, or form a loop in a rope that will not jam for any other purpose where a great or slip. It is very easily untied. This is a amount of strain or tension is applied to most practical knot for the individual the rope, it becomes almost impossible to soldier as it can be used on the same rope untie the knot. By inserting a piece of many times without causing the rope to wood or pipe through the two loops or

TAQO 5511A J fe S4 CfSS

LS»

A * «

*■- -»J «

Figure 125. View from ground level down jungle trail. It is obvious that observation would be better from the 'prone or squatting position as vegetation tends to interwine above the ground rather than on it.

wings (fig 119) of the knot, it can be quite 35. Conditioned Reactions (Firing Exercises) easily untied after removing the stick or a. Certain aspects of jungle terrain are definite pipe. limitations for the individual soldier. The way to (7) Prussik knot (fig. 120). The primary use minimize these undesirable aspects is to train to of the Prussik knot is to tighten a fixed fire and hit ground and aerial targets that are fleet- line. It has many other purposes, one of ingly seen or vaguely defined. Well-controlled and these being to serve as a brake on a rope effectively delivered firepower is the means to suc- traverse line (fig 121). This is done simply cess in jungle combat. Because the range of assault by tying the Prussik knot around the or fighting is reduced, troops must be able to react traverse line and applying pressure by to unexpected developments rapidly and accurately. pulling on the ends of rope as the equip- Preliminary to success in jungle shooting is the ment or personnel cross the traverse rope ability of the soldier to shoot from the standing or and descend to the end of the rope. The squatting position. Speed and accuracy in shooting same effect is produced by applying the from awkward or “off balance” positions are ab- brakes of a car. Figure 122 illustrates the solutely essential. Commanders should first develop employment of a Prussik knot to arrest the the natural reactions of troops to a point where descending speed of a soldier crossing a immediate response to any situation is automatic. wide river by means of the suspension Once this is done, training exercises conducted traverse line, a sling, and block and tackle. under realistic conditions should require troops to

TAQO U11A 133 /

# »JL t

«rV

■m %

^¿riL«Zj^’

«¡Í?. Í*5l#fe

‘$$*9'~-

Figure 126. Soldier carrying complete three^man pneumatic raft.

TAGO 5611A fire and hit targets by reflexive reaction. This is possible, live fire exercises should complement the best begun by a firing exercise utilizing blank blank firing ambush drills. ammunition in which rapid response, to sudden b. Contact (Immediate Action) Drills. A unit situations, is the main teaching vehicle. moving through jungle terrain will most likely en- b. Good Instruction and Practice. The constant counter the enemy by surprise at short ranges. At need for practical firing exercises by troops training this point there is insufficient time for the unit for jungle combat cannot be overemphasized. These leader to make an estimate of the situation, follow exercises should be done at every available oppor- troop leading procedures and issue necessary orders tunity on whatever ranges are available. Ingenuity to take immediate action against the enemy. In and imagination on the part of commanders and order to prevent such an occurrence, it is necessary instructors can provide ranges for some form of live for the unit to be capable of action in whole or in fire practice, whether shooting at bottles, cans part without an order being issued. This can be floating down a stream, or other .improvised targets, accomplished with contact drills. Each man in the or at towed or radio-controlled aerial targets. unit must be proficient in the techniques used in contact drills. In order to become proficient in the 36. Reaction (Blank Firing) Exercises drills the unit must rehearse them repeatedly so Instructors should insure that these training ac- that the reactions to various situations becomes tivities require application of individual efforts and spontaneous. Three squad-drills for this training skills as well as unit participation. The objective are: of these exercises should be to impress upon the (1) The encounter (fig 124). Often a unit will soldier that personnel targets are rarely visible ex- run headlong into an enemy force at point- cept at extremely close ranges (50 meters or less), blank range. This engagement may be that targets are most often detected by movement, called an encounter. If the unit encounters smoke, noise or flash and must be taken under fire the enemy at close range and the point or immediately and accurately and that the danger of scout sees that it is not possible to set an ambush in the jungle is ever present (fig 123). immediate ambush, he must take immedi- Equal emphasis should be placed on small unit ate action to enable the rest of the unit to (squad) reactions to situations requiring siting and take the initiative and follow the orders execution of a hasty and deliberate ambush, battle of the unit leader. To accomplish this, the drill for deployment upon unexpected encounters point man signals or shouts “contact for- with enemy troops and execution of plans for ward” (the signal could be the point man counterambush measures. To stimulate maximum opening fire) and takes cover and engages troop interest and to give commanders an accurate the enemy. The automatic weapons, in appraisal of individual and squad proficiencies it is absence of any orders to the contrary, recommended that checklists be used and exercises move to a firing position and engage the graded. enemy. The riflemen cover the flank and a. Deliberate Ambush Drill. The emphasis in rear, awaiting orders from the unit leader. this training exercise should be placed on correct They must not become pinned down by siting of the ambush, use of natural materials for enemy fires. The unit leader will then camouflage, emplacement of weapons, control of move forward and make a hasty estimate fires, and the withdrawal. The compatibility of of the situation. This drill fixes the enemy jungle terrain and the ambush tactic make it essen- and gives the unit leader time to make tial that troops appreciate and understand the im- plans and issue orders prior to using fire portance and potential of this form of combat. Á1Í and maneuver to destroy, the enemy. squads, therefore, should receive drill not only in ambush execution but in counterambush actions as (2) Hasty (immediate) ambush. The hasty well. A disadvantage, or at least a limitation, of a ambush is. the product of an ideal combat blank firing exercise giving drill in deliberate am- situation in which the point man, not hav- bush is the inability of all concerned to determine ing been seen- himself, sees the eneiny the effectiveness of the fire. This can only be deter- approaching. This situation provides an mined by use of live ammunition and targets. If excellent opportunity for an immediate

TAOO Sill A 135 ambush which can be set quickly, quietly, d. Field Signals and Control Measures. The drill and without confusion by the use of the exercises described above require an effective sys- following drill. The point decides that an tem of arm and hand signals. immediate ambush is possible, gives the appropriate signal and steps off in the 37. Live Fire Exercises and Weapons Train- direction the ambush is to be set. On ing receiving the signal, the other members of a. Fire Distribution and Effects. This firing ex- the point must immediately take cover ercise should continue and complement the drill of and remain still even if they have not the blank firing exercises. In addition to the prob- taken up a good firing position. The re- lems of visibility caused by dense jungle vegetation, mainder of the unit will have more time the soldier must become familiar with other prob- to choose good positions, conceal them- lems. Natural concealment made possible by the selves and site automatic weapons. The thick growth requires that the soldier develop an last man in the unit springs the ambush almost supersensory skill at detecting targets. thus allowing the greatest number of the Lastly, the soldier must learn that it will not always enemy possible to enter the killing zone. be possible to detect a target’s exact location. He If the ambush is discovered before the last must realize that the requirement of hitting such an man opens fire, any member of the unit unseen target is intensified and made even more may start the action. The point moves necessary by the close range of combat. The intent into position after the firing starts and of this exercise should be, therefore, to illustrate to acts as a cutoff to seal the enemy’s retreat the soldier the close range of assault, restrictions on route to the rear. There must be a pre- target detection, necessity for rapid and accurate arranged signal to cease fire. The unit will, individual reactions, destruction of unseen targets in most ceases, have little idea of the by intense, well distributed shoulder fire and de- strength of the enemy they are ambushing. struction of covered and protected targets by con- Therefore, on the signal to cease fire, all trolled fires. troops must be ready to act quickly on (1) Review of basic considerations. This exer- order should the situation require imme- cise is conducted with service ammunition diate evacuation of the area. under conditions which should closely (3) Counter ambush. When a unit is caught approximate that of an actual situation. A in an ambush the following drill should review of the following considerations be executed. Those men caught in the should be given to troops prior to par- actual ambush will return fire and will yell ticipation. “ambush left” or “ambush right”. They will be the base element and set up a base (a) Characteristics of jungle encounters. of fire for the maneuvering element. Those 1. Because of the inherent nature of the men not caught in the ambush will form a jungle, observation is severely limited. skirmish line and attack the flank of the Cover and concealment opportunities enemy ambush position immediately. This accrue to both antagonists. Conse- must be done without hesitation and with- quently, encounters are most likely to out any orders from the unit leader. Where take place unexpectedly as to time and the whole unit is caught in the ambush, place and one, perhaps both, of the fire is returned immediately to create weak opposing forces will be surprised. This condition demands advanced individual points in the enemy positions. Troops training, alertness, and rigid self-dis- should then aggressively exploit these cipline on the part of the soldier. weak points by immediate assault. This 2. Combat will usually be at extremely action must take place regardless of close ranges, well under 50 yards. Thus, casualties incurred to prevent complete the soldier must react almost automati- annihilation. (See paragraphs 41 and 42 cally to unexpected developments; this for detailed information on ambush and adjustment must be rapid, and it must counterambush techniques.) be accurate. Rapid and accurate firing

136 TAGO 0511A reaction may overcome initial enemy gularly spaced, using concealment of the advantages. vegetation and cover of ground folds, 3. Actions in jungle combat are character- rocks, large trees, and hardwood roots. In- ized by surprise and maximum fire- asmuch as this type target is hard to de- power action or reaction. There is also tect, you must also watch for the flash and the difficulty of locating the direction smoke of weapons and try to locate targets of the attack and it is often impossible by sound. Targets detected by any means to determine the size of the attacking usually will be seen only for a few force. The only means to combat such moments and must be taken under fire and a situation is offensive action—attack! attack immediately. The soldier must, at The force which attacks gains or re- the same time, realize the nature of a tar- tains the initiative, and by retention of get, the terrain and the prepared positions this element of combat the very vio- often used may preclude the use of the lence of the action itself can be turned prone position. Jungle conditions do, how- against the enemy. ever, favor the supported positions such 4. The ambush tactic and jungle terrain as the foxhole standing and squatting posi- are complementary. Complete destruc- tions. There will be times that the stand- tion of a force by ambush is quite pos- ing position is best. The soldier must be sible. A force which is ambushed must made to understand that targets which spontaneously, in accord with rehearsed cannot be detected and/or seen can be plans, assault the ambush positions by attacked and destroyed. A means to real- fire and maneuver. A retrograde move- ize this absolute necessity is a technique of ment in lieu of an assault will most fire that is called “fire distribution”. likely result in severe damage to the (3) Technique of fire. “Fire distribution” is a ambushed element. term which simply describes the placement 5. Control is extremely difficult. There of fires against the enemy in such a man- are many means through which control ner as to most effectively engage the tar- can be exerted. get. Fires may be distributed on a target (b) Voice control. Voice commands are nor- of width, or depth, or both. mally the best if the noise level and (a) To cover a target of width, the squad security of the action permit. Mechani- leader designates the center and flanks cally produced sounds are effective but are subject to the same limitations. of a wide target. This can be done at the Pyrotechnics are very limited due to scene of action, or designation can be poor visibility. Hand and arm signals made prior to action by the “clock sys- are very useful when executed properly tem”. Repeated rehearsals are necessary and when the terrain allows visual per- to insure effective and correct compre- ception. It is essential that every unit hension by all squad members. The member understand them. There is, squad leader usually assigns each fire however, no substitute for direct physi- team half of the target, but the terrain cal contact by a leader with his sub- may dictate that one team cover a ordinates to control his force. This re- larger portion than the other. The nor- quires initiative, self-reliance, profes- mal deployment from the squad’s com- sional skill, and dynamic leadership. bat formation places the “Alfa” team (c) Arm and hand signals. For detailed in- on the right and the “Bravo” team on the left. Each automatic weapon firer formation on these signals, see FM covers the entire width of his team’s 21-60. target, making sure to overlap its flank. (2) Target detection in the jungle. Personnel Each rifleman covers his team’s target in targets are rarely visible in the jungle the following manner. Initially, the left except at extremely close range. Most flank rifleman covers the left portion, the combat targets will consist of men, irre- center rifleman covers the center portion,

TAGO S511A 137 and the right flank rifleman covers the By utilizing a maneuver element, the • • right portion. After covering all known enemy is forced to defend in two direc- or suspected enemy locations in his own tions, thus splitting his control and. his portion of the team’s target, the rifleman fires. The support can inflict casualties fires at known or suspected enemy loca- upon the enemy prior to the assault, and, tions throughout the team’s target. most important, enable the maneuver ele- When the team leader fires he covers his ment to close with the enemy. In the entire team target. He must frequently jungle, only close combat provides for check with the squad leader for signals complete destruction of the enemy. Im- and instructions, and is responsible for mediate consolidation and reorganization adjusting his team’s fire, or shifting it, must be effected at conclusion of the as- if necessary, to any portiqn of the sault. Any element must, expect an im- squad’s target. The squad grenadiers mediate counterattack and prepare ac- fire on assigned portions of the target cordingly. and in addition, are responsible for en- b. Quick Fire (Jungle Firing Lane) Exercise. gaging targets of opportunity. Also, they The purpose of this live fire exercise is to practice . may be used by the squad leader for quick and accurate shooting at targets representing specific firing missions. If the squad enemy soldiers while the firers themselves are on leader gives them separate missions the move down a jungle trail. If units are conduct- while the squad is engaging a wide tar- ing training in terrain other than the jungle, a trial get, the Bravo team leader covers the should be cut through the most dense and concen- grenadier’s portion of the target or trated growths that can be found and which meet shifts the fire of his riflemen to cover it. local safety requirements. Targets should be mobile, (b) To cover a target of depth the squad i.e., as the firer moves down the trail targets should leader designates the center, front, and be presented to him from unexpected directions and rear of the target. He may assign one at close ranges. The targets should be partly con- fire team to cover the front half and the cealed when they are presented to the firer. If the other fife team the rear half, basing the moving or “pop” targets are hand controlled, an assignment, usually, on the terrain and instructor following behind the firer must operate the location of the target. Attack by fire the wire or signal for presentation of the target at alone seldom produces the desired, or at the right moment. The advantage of using moving least significant, results. Designated targets is that they can be made to appear for a elements of the force must assault the definite timed exposure. If stationary targets are enemy, i.e., physically close with the used, they should be placed so that as the firer walks hostile position and destroy it in close combat. For a description of assault around a bend or comes to a certain point the target fire, see FM 7-15. comes into his vision to the front or flank. The (4) Maneuver in the jungle. The initial con- advantage offered by fixed targets is that the firer sideration in a maneuver tactic is that the is required to pick out a silent and stationary target. plan must be simple and that the maneuver They are a better test of powers of concentration element must not mask the fires of the and observation than the pull-type target. Each support element. Control is difficult in the soldier’s proficiency and progress should be scored jungle and requires leadership and alert- and assessed. ness of all squad members. Support fires c. Shotgun Familiarization. The shotgun as a must saturate the hostile force even if weapon of close combat has proven itself under the targets cannot be discerned or seen. It most varied conditions. It has been used in trench muet be remembered that proper fire dis- warfare and in jungle combat. Its potential for tribution by the squad and the penetration jungle use is high because of the close-in fighting capability of the service rifle and ammuni- which dominates jungle operations. Troops should tion will enable destruction of targets receive training on the shotgun that will familiarize afforded protection by jungle vegetation. them with all important aspects of this weapon. A

138 TAGO 55] 1A detailed discussion of this weapon follows in addi- eter lead pellets. Originally developed tion to information relative to range firing of the for deer (buick) hunting, the load is now weapon. used for combat and guard missions. (1) Pertinent definitions.Different sizes are:

(a) “Shell” is the standard nomenclature Designation No. pellets denoting the shotgun cartridge. All 1. 00 Buck 9 components necessary to constitute the 2. 0 Buck 12 round- are contained in a heavy brass 3. 1 Buck 16 and paper, brass and plastic, or all brass 4. 4 Buck 27 ■ receptacle (“shell”). The preferred (2) Characteristics and advantages. The shot- terminology is “shot shell” and not gun weighs, in the riot/combat .version, “shotgun shell”. about 6.5 pounds and is shorter than the (b) "Choke” refers to boring of the barrel, service rifle. This short length makes it which varies in degree from full cylinder easier to use in dense jungle. The simple to full choke. The bore of a shotgun and rugged mechanism, constituted of only barrel has two diameters: the chamber seven major parts or parts groups, simpli- diameter, and the true bore diameter. fies maintenance and repair and reduces The chamber diameter is greater than the chance of malfunction in tropical en- the true bore diameter, and these two vironment. An outstanding attribute in- diameters are joined by the tapered sec- herent in the shotgun is its flexibility, tion usually termed the “forcing cone”. because the ammunition is available in Choking is usually accomplished by bor- various loads. The user can exercise a ing the barrel so that the diameter of the choice in selection of a load to suit the bore near the muzzle end is slightly less nature of the target. Because the shotgun than that of the true bore. The degree is a multiple projectile weapon, rapid en- of choke in a barrel is measured by the gagement of targets is possible. dispersion of the pellets contained jn the (3) Disadvantages. In tropical areas, shotgun shot charge at a given distance from the ammunition constitutes the primary limi- muzzle. This dispersion is measured by tation. It is bulky and heavy and in- the percentage of the number of shot creases the resupply problem in jungle pellets contained in the charge which 'operations. Because of the construction of will be contained within a 30-inch circle the round, shot shell ammunition is sus- at 40 yards distance from the muzzle. ceptible to rapid deterioration, especially Choke borings yield these percentages: by moisture. The shotgun has a limited 1. Full Cylinder 40% effective range. The maximum effective 2. Improved Cylinder 50% range is 100 yards or less. Shot shells do 3. Modified Choke 69% not allow deep penetration and this limits 4. Full Choke 75% selection of targets. Because of the size (c) “Gage” (gauge) is a scale originally de- and bulk of the ammunition, even repeat- veloped as thç number of lead balls of ing shotguns have limited magazine ca- bore diameter to equal one pound. Thus, pacity. Six rounds (five in magazine and a 12 gage shotgun has a bore the diam- one in chamber) are usually the limit. eter of which is such that it would take Single round loading necessary to charge 12 lead balls of equal diameter to total the magazine is an undesirable factor. one pound. A partial list of gage sizes: (4) Shotgun types. It is necessary to be 1. 10 ga 710 in familiar with the different forms of the 2. 12 ga 645 in weapon for two reasons. First, the U.S. 3. 16 ga ¿10 in Army has not developed its own guns for 4. 20 ga 545 in guard jiuty and special combat purposes, (d) “Buckshot” loads are powerful car- but rather has purchased civilian types tridges loaded with heavy, large diam- from manufacturers. These guns, with

TAGO 8Ä11A 139 slight modification, suffice for military out reloading. Such guns are manually needs. The types used by the U.S. Army operated by means of a sliding action are the slide action and semiautomatic which loads, cocks, and clears the gun arms. Thus, familiarity with at least two when operated. This is the action design types is necessary. Because it is a common of the shotguns primarily used by the weapon for hunting, many civilians own U.S. Army. them and are a potential source of weapons (d) Auto-loading repeaters have a single in any guerrilla action. Because shotguns barrel with a tubular magazine below it are procured from many independent and are capable of firing from 3 to 5 sources, there is little uniformity of nomen- shots without reloading. Such guns must clature. Many of the guns have similar be loaded manually for the first shot. types of mechanisms but corresponding When the gun is fired, the recoil operates components may have widely differing the mechanism to clear, cock and load names, often conflicting with other estab- the gun from the magazine. lished uses of the words. Therefore, a need (e) Multi-barrel guns have three or more for study and training relative to this sub- barrels. Usually they have two shotgun ject obviously exists. The primary types barrels mounted side-by-side with a of shotgun in use today are: rifle barrel below. Such guns are usually (o) Single-barrel. of the hammerless design and are man- (b) Double-barrel. ually operated. (c) Manually operated repeaters (slide (6) Nomenclature and functioning. For a de- action and bolt action). tailed discussion of nomenclature and (d) Auto-loading repeaters. functioning of the various shotgun types in (e) Multi-barrel. current use, see TM 9-285 and TM 9-2117. (5) Characteristics of shotgun(7) Rangeby types. and fieldA firing. After receiving the training program should be designed to preliminary training as described above, familiarize troops with the various types troops should fire the shotgun either on a of shotguns and the characteristics of each. known distance range or on a jungle firing This will enable the soldier not only to lane. See TM 8-55 for additional infor- differentiate between the types but will mation concerning range layouts and tar- enable him to determine and understand get configurations. the best military application for each. 38. Night Fighting (a) Single-barrel guns, as the name implies, have one barrel only and are thus capa- a. General. Night fighting in the jungle is ex- ble of firing but one shot without re- tremely difficult but troops must be conditioned to loading. Such guns may be of the the fact that it is not impossible. In primary hammer or hammerless (usually) design jungle where there is a canopy, night brings com- and are manually operated. plete darkness to the ground. This condition forces (b) Double-barrel guns have two barrels the soldier to develop his senses of smell, hearing, mounted either side-by-side or one under and touch to a high degree. Troops, as a conse- the other. In the latter case they are quence, should receive intensified night training termed “over-and-under” guns. The conducted either in jungle terrain or in dense woods. side-by-side design, usually termed The soldier should be made aware that thick vege- “double-barrel”, may have hammers or tation and heavy rain tend to muffle sounds, slow be hammerless, while the “over-and- movement, and increase the difficulties of maintain- under” design is usually hammerless. ing contact within groups. All of these factors Both design are capable of firing two should be related to the problems normally asso- shots without reloading. ciated with night operations in any type of terrain. (c) Repeating guns have a single barrel with b. Employment of the Senses. a tubular magazine below it, and are (1) Sight. Troops should not expose their eyes capable of firing from 3 to 6 shots with- to any light after they have adapted them

140 TAOO 5511A to the dark. The principles of night vision thumping noise made by a falling tree or are especially important in the jungle. Due large limb. Jittery and edgy troops un- to the complete darkness, the soldier must accustomed or unfamiliar with this sound be particularly alert to note any indica- can cause a fire fight among friendly forces tions of light. Care must be taken, how- at night or give away a unit’s position to ever, as some types of rotten wood are the enemy by firing at these noises. Troops phosphorescent and give off light. must be taught to distinguish these noises (2) Smell. Wet, decaying vegetation has a and be required to learn the more common characteristic odor. The soldier must learn sounds associated with friendly troops and to distinguish this smell and not permit it to cover other smells that may give indi- their equipment. cation of enemy troops who might be very c. Voice Communications at Night. Just as we close. Their perspiration may be permeated may be able to identify the enemy by sounds, he by odors peculiar to certain foods; for may be able to identify us. Troops must eliminate instance, fish, garlic, and curried rice give unnecessary noise when communicating by voice. off very definite, characteristic odors. A good way to talk at night is to cup the hand to Troops must learn to be alert for these the other man’s ear and whisper or use a low voice signs. for instructions. The rustle of leaves and natural (3) Touch. It may be necessary for troops to noises will cover such low level conversations. identify the enemy or one another by touch. Prearrangements may be made for d. Night Movement and Maintaining Contact. this. For example, members of the same During the night movement in the jungle is most squad can be required to wear an item of successful when confined to established trails and equipment in a certain way or on a certain stream beds. It must be remembered, however, that part of the body. When identifying a man such trails and defiles, are potential killing grounds in this manner the soldier should be pre- for enemy ambushes. Groups using these routes pared to strike a killing blow immediately must be prepared for immediate action. If it is not if identification reveals an enemy soldier. possible or feasible to use these routes, troops The enemy’s racial characteristics (i.e., should be prepared to move crosscountry. This custom of wearing beards or long hair, movement will be slow, arduous, and exhausting. body build, etc.) and the nature of his Extensive night movement is not practical, espe- clothing and equipment should be known. cially for sizable units. The problems of control Knowledge of these items will enable the and maintaining contact will be difficult and will soldier to identify the enemy by touch require thorough planning. Some suggestions to aid under conditions of complete darkness and night movement are : absolute silence. Of particular importance (1) Have thé lead party string communica- is the soldier’s ability to operate, load, and tions wire or engineer tape and have each maintain his weapon by touch. man follow the wire or tape, holding it in (4) Hearing. Generally, nightfall imposes a his hand. The trail man should pick it up requirement for absolute silence by troops as he- advances to prevent leaving a trail in tactical situations in thé jungle. Sound for the enemy to follow. is a primary means of target detection, (2) Close up and hold onto the man in front. especially at night. Troops will become (3) Attach some luminous material to the back aware that the jungle is never silent. Ani- of each man. Compasses, luminous watch mal ànd bird calls, buzzing of insects, dials, phosphorescent wood, or luminous movement of the wind through the crowns tape may be used. If luminous tape is of trees, and the dripping of water from available, one method is to sew the tape trees are heard constantly. A sound that to the back of the collar or cap to help is charactèristic of the jungle is the dull main control and the desired interval.

TAGO SM1A 141 (4) Have a set of simple, silent, but well re- next to the front or rear a specified num- hearsed signals for the more common ber of times. actions expected. This could be anything e. Night Fighting Techniques. For a detailed from covering the tape on the back of the account and description of the techniques of night cap two or three times, to tapping the man fighting, see FM 21-50 and FM 21-75.

Section II. UNITS

39. General rilla forces. Patrol techniques for the jungle are a. General. Contacts with enemy forces in the not basically different, but because of the terrain, jungle will usually be sudden, violently fought en- vegetation and usual guerrilla jungle tactics, some counters between small troop elements. Primarily, modifications to normal technique and methods are such actions will be fought by patrols where the advisable. The basic aspects of patrolling are cov- essential requirements for success will be strong ered in FM 21-75 and advanced training in this and effective junior leadership and high state of subject as well as a description of patrolling oper- training of the individual soldier. High standards ations in FM 21-50. can only be achieved and maintained by a progres- b. Types and Missions. Patrols are classified as sive program from individual through unit training. either reconnaissance or combat, the designation b. Training Priorities. generally indicating the mission. (1) First -priority. Commanders should ar- (1) Reconnaissance patrols. These are small range training programs to require drill, patrols which are sent out to seek infor- practice, and rehearsals until proficiency mation by stealth, avoiding contact with of units is attained in the following sub- the enemy. A reconnaissance patrol in the jects and skills: jungle should not exceed 6 men due to the (а) Patrolling. difficulty in moving silently through dense (б) Ambush. vegetation; a larger number of men is (c) Counterambush. liable to cause noise which would increase (d) Guerrilla and counterguerrilla opera- chances of detection. Because of the usual tions. scarcity of information about the terrain (e) Jungle base operations. and the probable unfamiliarity of troops (2) Second priority. The following subjects with the lay of the ground, these patrols are important and may be readily com- should be detached from a combat patrol, bined with first priority training activities. if possible. The combat patrol will then Maximum integration of the following have the advantage of some members who subjects should be effected during all unit are familiar with the terrain in the imme- jungle training: diate vicinity. This would be especially (a) Small boat handling techniques (to in- advantageous if the combat patrol is sent clude improvised obstacle crossing ex- out over the same routes used by the re- pedients) . connaissance element. (b) Communications and communications (2) Combat patrol. These patrols may vary in expedients. size from a squad to a company. Gen- (c) Supply and evacuation techniques. erally, a combat patrol is dispatched to (d) Construction of trails, bridges and roads. contact and eliminate an enemy force or (e) Identification and engagement of air- installation. In jungle operations this type craft. of patrol may be assigned specific missions 40. Patrolling to— a. General. Patrolling is important in all types (a) Attack enemy patrol bases. of warfare; however, it has increased importance (b) Attack guerrilla base camps and/or under jungle conditions, especially against guer- destroy their cultivations.

142 TAGO 5511A (c) Pursue a guerrilla force after attack by or the dampness of ground and vegetation a larger unit or after a guerrilla raid or which also muffles noise of movement. , incident. (2) Disadvantages. Primary among disadvan- {d) Ambush enemy elements. tages brought on by the influencing factors (e) Dominate or interdict an area to prevent is the problem of control and movement. guerrilla elements from contacting All movements by troop elements in the friendly civilian elements. jungle must be considered tactical move- (/) Search (or “sweep”) specified areas. ments. The ease with which enemy ele- (3) Common mission. All patrols are a source ments can infiltrate deep into supposedly of intelligence and must be prepared to “friepdly” areas, require that no relaxation report all information, topographical or into “administrative” conditions or situ- enemy, which is discovered. Combat ations be permitted once troops start a patrols are often a better source of infor- tactical exercise. This requires extensive mation than a reconnaissance patrol be- control measures that must be effected by cause combat patrols contain more men all leaders. Rate of movement in primary who are able to observe, remember, and and secondary jungles is seldom more than report enemy activities, terrain character- one half mile or one kilometer each hour. istics or other important and unusual oc- Troops must be conditioned to this fact currences. Further, a combat patrol and must be trained not to overestimate usually is successful in finding and fighting the distance actually traveled. Occasion- the enemy. As a result, members are in a ally there are small clearings where the position to find out more about the enemy, overhead branches of trees are not thick. his equipment, his morale, his fighting It is possible to receive air drops in these qualities, and his state of training, than clearings provided adequate air-ground are members of a patrol whose mission is signals are available. Patrol leaders should merely to observe the enemy without con- attempt to accurately locate cleared areas tacting him. The mission of intelligence on the map for later aerial resupply sites cannot be overemphasized in the jungle or medical evacuations. It would appear because of the difficulty in obtaining ac- that because of the shade provided by curate information. In training, troops trees, movement in the jungle could be should be continually reminded that they made over reasonable distances without represent the primary means to acquire great physical discomfort from heat; how- such detailed information. ever, the high humidity and the heat from c. Influence of Jungle Terrain on Patrolling. the ground magnify the sensation of heat. Many conditions of the jungle affect patrolling The combination tends to exhaust troops quickly and lessens their normal powers actions. These influencing factors, which have been of endurance. Owing to the restricted previously mentioned and described are vegetation, visibility in the jungle the only sure means climate, weather, terrain, and animal life. This com- to maintain direction is by compass. Every bination of factors and elements severely limit the leader down to the mo$t junior must be range, speed, and extent of patrol actions. able to use the compass with confidence (1) Advantages. andIn spiteaccuracy. of the Movementgeneral hostile through swamps nature of these factors some advantages is the most tiring and slowest of the condi- are offered. The dense vegetation affords tions likely to be encountered. excellent concealment and some cover (3) Minimizing the effects of the influencing which tends to favor the patrolling unit. factors. Troops must be trained to pace The dense vegetation and terrain obstacles themselves to the limitations imposed upon will also hinder enemy movement and ob- patrol actions by the jungle; they must be servation. Advantage can also be taken trained to feel at home in the environment of the elements, such as rain which covers and made to realize that the jungle pro- the sound of movement by its own noise, vides good cover and concealment which

TAQO Í511A 143 may enable them to close unobserved with route with litter and waste food; these the enemy and destroy them more easily. should be buried carefully. Troops on d. Movement of Patrols in the Jungle. patrol should be permitted to have only ( 1 ) Silence. Silence, with respect to both voice the barest essentials and the minimum and movement, is essential at all times. of comfort items when operating. Lead- With practice it is possible for troops to ers must be constantly alert to prevent move at a good speed in comparative men from plucking leaves or breaking silence. Each soldier should move steadily, twigs, especially at breaks. deliberately, and carefully, parting the (d) When patrols move through close, hilly undergrowth rather than crashing through ; country, troops should avoid small sap- attention should be given in training to lings. The shaking of overhead branches correcting and eliminating the tendency can be seen and heard at a distance. of some to blunder forward. This mistake (e) When moving through tree cultivations, not only causes bruises, scratches, and loss patrol members must keep off trails, if of direction but is also very noisy. Troops only by walking a few feet off these must be taught not to walk on dry leaves, trails. sticks, rotten wood, etc., wherever this is (4) Speed of movement. The general restric- possible. tions on movement indicated by paragraph (2) Cutting trail. Troops should use their 10 of this manual apply in the instances machetes to cut trail only as a last resort of patrols. However, because patrols usu- or to avoid excessive detours. There is ally must operate according to a most nearly always a route or way nearby where stringent time schedule some discussion of movement will be easier. Cutting a trail this facet of operations is considered ap- has the following disadvantages: propriate. Speed of movement is dictated (a) It is not silent. by the nature of the country, the mission, (b) It reduces speed of movement. and the schedule previously mentioned. (c) Fatigue of soldiers in the leading element Speed in moving from one location to an- is increased. other will be better obtained by intelligent (d) Quick handling of weapons is prevented. route planning than by trying to push (e) It leaves a well marked trail. quickly and blindly forward. It is impor- (3) Trails and trail discipline. Movements on tant to emphasize in training that speed trails should be avoided; however, it may will always be limited by the necessity to sometimes be necessary when speed is avoid noise in movement; also, movement essential or when moving in mountainous must be expected to be painfully slow. country. Not only should patrols avoid Movement in the jungle is fatiguing, both established trails but should make all pos- physically and mentally, and a balance between the desire to move quickly must sible effort to hide signs of movement to be maintained with the necessity of keep- prevent leaving a trail themselves; this is ing troops fresh, strong, and alert for action extremely important when moving through once the objective is reached. Halts must virgin country. Some aids to practice in be called for observation and listening and training are: less frequently for rest. In training there (a) All troops should wear the same pattern should be no set routine for rest breaks. sole on the combat boot. If these rest periods are allowed at regular (b) The last man in a column should brush intervals, troops may look forward and the path made by the other members concentrate on the anticipated halts to the with a small branch after the patrol has exclusion of all other considerations. Ter- passed to smooth it out or make it look rain difficulties will usually dictate when as natural as possible. to take breaks. It must be emphasized in (c) Troops must be required to observe trail training that all members of a patrol must discipline. They must NOT signpost the concentrate with all their senses to the

144 TAQO HUA task at hand; the jungle is no place for should stop and listen. At halts, every allowing the mind to wander or to allow member of the patrol concentrates on lis- the soldier to be preoccupied with his own tening and reports anything he hears. discomforts. When halted, troops must Troops must be trained to disregard the always take up positions providing for all general pattern of foliage immediately sur- around security. When marching in single rounding them and to look “through” file it may be necessary to delegate re- rather than “at” the vegetation. A better sponsibility for protection and lookouts view is often obtained by looking through down to groups. As a guide, it is suggested jungle at ground level (fig 125). If any that, when working out times for rest halts, unusual sign or sound is noted a patrol the patrol leader consider the ground over must “freeze” in place silently; there which the unit is moving. In relatively should be no other movement until the easy terrain he should start with the usual patrol leader has investigated the situation. ten minutes in the hour for rest breaks; e. Control Measures. It is obvious that when under such conditions he should not march confronted with the many problems presented by for longer periods as the men may resent the jungle a patrol leader must concern himself this. However, when traversing difficult with the means to control his force. Voice commands country halts must be more frequent ; only are of limited effectiveness and are a threat to a patrol leader who knows the physical secrecy; other audible signals suffer from the same condition of his men can determine how disadvantages. The most effective control means frequent these halts should be. After pass- available to a patrol leader are silent arm and hand ing through a swamp or climbing a steep signals. A number of these signals has been dis- slope, it is a good plan to call a short break. cussed previously. Any number or combination of It is important that the patrol leader ascer- signals to denote specific meanings may be devel- tain that the entire patrol has passed oped within units. It must be remembered, how- through a defile, cleared a swamp, or ever, that signals must be kept to a minimum com- ascended a steep slope to relatively level mensurate with the needs of a patrol and that once ground before ordering a halt. If this is not a standard pattern is adopted it must be practiced done, only the leading elements will be in training situations or rehearsed until the entire rested. Of more serious consequence will code is understood by all members of a unit or a be the detrimental effect on morale; the selected patrolling force. men to the rear will have serious doubts (1) Formations. about the patrol leader’s concern for their ( ) Squad. Generally, two types of forma- welfare if they experience many “rest а tions for squad-sized patrols will suffice breaks” in swamps, steep slopes, ant- for movement in the jungle. These are infested clearings; prickly saw-tooth grass the single file and open formations ; these patches, or other poor sites. are similar to the “column” and V for- (5) Observation. A soldier must notice every mations used in more open terrain. sign of movement around him, all marks ( ) Platoon. The squads of a platoon will or signs on the ground, and all instances б of broken, cut or trampled vegetation. The usually have to move in file or column sense of smell must be keen and free from formation in the jungle. At times the cigarette smoke, the odor of candy, the nature of the terrain may require a more smell of hair oil, shave lotion, or talcum open formation; in this case rifle squads so that the individual soldier will immedi- may move, two or three forward, on par- ately notice any strange smells. All of allel axes. The patrol leader must con- these unnecessary items should be denied stantly analyze the ground and vary troops in training to illustrate the detri- formations of the patrol to suit it. mental effects they can produce. Periodi- (2) Position of leaders. Squad leaders should cally, depending on how close the patrol remain with and control their squads. This leader suspects the enemy to be, the patrol can usually be done from near the head of

TAGO Mil A 145 the column ; maximum use should be made (4) Maintaining contact. The patrol leader of fire team leaders to maintain control and must always adapt his speed of movement man-to-man contact with squad members. to that of his rear elements; in other words, Leaders of platoon-sized or commanders of responsibility for keeping touch must be company-sized patrols will be located from front to rear. The flanks or flank within their patrols according to the dic- security must maintain their position by tates of the ground, the tactical situation the center of the column. The only excep- and the formation used. These positions tion to this rule will be the lead element should be sufficiently far forward to— whose whole attention must be focused (o) Allow the leader to influence the action forward. from the start. Although it is not desirable for the leader to be caught in open- 41. Ambush ing bursts of fire he should place himself a. General. In no other type of military operation where he can direct and quickly exploit is the ambush more important, more effective or immediate action drills. more frequently employed than in jungle combat. (6) Enable the leader to exercise and en- An ambush is a specialized form of combat in which force control measures, control the point the principles of concealment, surprise, and offen- and navigation team, read the map, and sive action are used to inflict maximum casualties, order halts properly when deemed confusion, and destruction to any enemy on the necessary. move. Since the ambush does not require the seizure (3) Guides. The word “guide” is used here as and holding of ground, it is a favorite tactic of the denoting someone with an intimate knowl- guerrilla who will make every effort to infíltrate the edge of an area or anyone who can lead jungle for purposes of ambush. The basic elements friendly forces to a known enemy location. of ambush are covered in other publications such These may be surrendered enemy person- as FM 21-50, FM 21-75 and FM 31-16. However, nel, captured enemy personnel, or natives. because of their application in jungle operations a Information received from any of these detailed discussion of this subject is included. sources should be carefully evaluated and b. Role of the Individual Soldier in an Ambush. used with reservation. It is unwise to The individual boldier must be impressed with the completely depend upon all information fact that he alone is the key element in an ambush. offered by “friendly” natives or enemy In the jungle, his self-discipline and readiness will personnel. If patrol leaders are not careful, be a deciding factor in success or failure. there will be a tendency to allow guides to c. Ambush. Ambush may be defined as: “A trap lead a patrol. This is most certainly wrong sprung on a moving or temporarily halted enemy because — column and is based on concentrated surprise fire (a) They are not trained scouts and are not from concealed positions.” Special note should be part of the military team. Their func- taken of the words “trap” and “sprung” and the tion, if reliable, is merely to show direction. phrases “concentrated SURPRISE fire” and “con- (b) If enemy troops are encountered en cealed positions”. A trap is “sprung” because it route, guides may panic and prejudice moves suddenly, rapidly, and without warning. The the patrol’s chances of accomplishing the fires of weapons are “concentrated” because the mission. target area is small and the volume of delivered (c) Patrol leaders must be ever wary of fire is of great intensity ; these fires can be directed being led into an ambush by treacherous at a single point or small area because the delivery and seemingly well-meaning guides. The is made suddenly, violently, and without prior indi- correct position of a guide, if used on a cation. “Concealed positions” prevent members of patrol, is with the patrol leader. The the ambush and their equipment from being seen patrol leader will make decisions as to by the enemy. This is the absolute requirement of direction and tactics, using the guide’s ambush, for without concealment there is no sur- advice as he deems appropriate. prise and without surprise there is no successful

146 TAGO Mil A ambush, and an unsuccessful ambush is frequently e. Characteristics of Ambush. fatal to those who fail. (1) Surprise. The most important element of d. Purposes of Ambush. Generally, ambushes are an ambush is surprise. If surprise is not executed to reduce the enemy's combat effectiveness achieved there is no ambush. It is the de- by the physical damage caused and through the cisive factor which shifts the immediate harassment involved. control of the combat situation to the ambushing force. It consists of striking the ( 1 ) Means to accomplish these» purposes. enemy when, where and in a manner for (a) Destruction is the primary purpose, be- which he is unprepared. If the enemy can- cause loss of men and equipment criti- not be taken completely by surprise, he cally affects the enemy. He will have to must become aware too late to react effec- divert troops from other missions to pro- tively. Surprise can be achieved by speed, tect himself against ambush. The failure secrecy, deception, by variation in means of reconnaissance and combat patrols to and methods and by using seemingly im- accomplish their missions because they possible terrain. Effective firepower must were ambushed deprives the enemy of exploit surprise. valuable contributions these patrols (2) Control. Control is difficult to establish would make to his combat efforts. and maintain. Control is necessary during (b) The damage caused by the harassment the movement to, occupation of, and withof frequent ambushes is less apparent drawal from the ambush site. The most than physical damage, but is very im- crucial time of the ambush operation is the portant. When ambushes are frequent, moment the enemy arrives at the site. Con- troops tend to be reluctant to go on trol measures must be provided for open- patrols, move in convoys, and move in ing fire. The time the enemy’s lead element small groups. They become less aggres- arrives at a certain location may be desig- sive and more defensive minded; they nated as the time to open fire. In any avoid night operations, become more event, opening fires must be in direct con- subject to confusion and panic if am- trol of the ambush commander. Communi- bushed, and, in general, decline in cations with security elements is essential effectiveness. and with higher headquarters is desirable. (c) An ambush may be an ideal method to Exacting control must be exercised to in- obtain intelligence. A successful ambush sure that the ambushing force is alert and enables us to capture prisoners, docu- silent. Assembly and rallying points are ments, and pieces of ordnance, make designated to assist in control during with- identification of enemy units by observ- drawal. ing insignia on dead or captured soldiers, (3) Concentrated fires. The short killing time give us indications of enemy combat pro- demands highly concentrated fires which ficiency level by their reactions to am- are achieved by careful planning and posi- bush and give us information on the tioning of weapons. The fires of all weap- status of combat equipage. The extent ons, including rifles, close-in automatic of the enemy’s familiarity with the ter- weapons, rocket launchers, grenade launch- rain may also be revealed by his actions. ers, claymore mines, and other weapons (d) Patrols operating deep in enemy areas are tied into the fire plan. The assignment may be able to partially or completely resupply themselves through ambushes of sectors of fire, and the location of set to seize supplies and equipment, thus friendly elements are considered. Plans are increasing combat effectiveness at the made for isolating the ambush area to pre- expense of the enemy. In many in- vent escape and reinforcement by the stances, this is the primary source of enemy. Effectiveness of the ambush de- supplies and materiel for guerrilla ele- pends upon the surprise delivery of a large ments. volume of fire. Fire from at least two

TAGO Mil A 147 directions and converging on the target is (c) Organization and size of ambush. desirable; care must be exercised to pre- id) Type of ambush. vent friendly troops from firing into other (e) Equipment to be taken. friendly positions of the ambush when con- if) Actions to be taken. verging fire is used. ig) Routes to be followed. (4) Simplicity. Another essential characteristic (A) Formations on the march. of the ambush is simplicity. Simple plans 1. When developing the plan, it must be and orders are easily understood and exe- kept simple to eliminate confusion. If cuted, particularly if the ambush is to be one man forgets what he is supposed in position for a long period of time; to do, the entire ambush is endangered. lengthy detailed orders are not likely to 2. The next consideration is the equip- be remembered exactly and consequently, ment to be taken. Special equipment are either not carried out or are misinter- might be needed above that which the preted. This may occur even after detailed men of the patrol are normally rehearsals. equipped. Examples are: infrared (5) Concentration of action. Once sprung, an equipment, mines, demolitions, sound- ambush must use all available firepower. powered telephones, ropes and gags for To do this requires careful attention dur- prisoners, and extra machineguns or ing training. Under excitement some men automatic riñes. will shoot ineffectively, or fail to fire their 3. Routes are carefully selected. A good weapons. In addition, due to the limited patrol leader avoids danger areas, such zone of fire, some of the enemy may escape as roads, bridges, fords, known enemy the initial fire. This can be overcome by locations, civilians, and villages. Gen- a determined assault against the enemy by erally, the patrol should not use the all or part of the ambush patrol. same route back as it used on its trip (6) Discipline. The last characteristic is self- to the ambush site. discipline. Remaining in a set ambush can 4. Another important element of the plan be a boring and uncomfortable job. It may is the formation to be used. Only basic be necessary for the soldier to forego smok- formations should be prescribed. One ing; to endure in silence, insect bites, formation is the single flanking force thirst, and the desire to ease cramped legs, which requires that the patrol be placed or to perform normal body functions. Sys- along the side of the area to be am- tematic and continuous training is neces- bushed. The advantage of this forma- sary to develop the required patience and tion is its ease of control, and the use self-discipline. of but one rallying point. Disadvan- tages lie in the fact that the enemy /. Factors of the Successful Ambush. There are may escape from the ambush patrol several considerations or factors that affect the con- and the lateral dispersion of a large stitution of a successful ambush. These factors are: force might be too great for effective (1) Plan. The plan for an ambush (deliberate) coverage. Another formation is the sin- must provide for every conceivable course gle flanking force with a decoy. The of action the enemy is capable of adopting decoy may be a piece of equipment or and must be rehearsed in detail. Tentative other item that will attract the atten- plans must be made for ambushes of op- tion of the enemy soldiers causing them portunity, adopting or modifying as appro- to bunch up. When the enemy is gath- priate, at the ambusli site. The plan must ered around the decoy, the patrol opens provide for— fire, killing as many of the enemy as (o) Ease and completeness of expression by possible in the opening volley. This operations order. formation has all the advantages of the (6) Deployment—ambush formations to be single flanking force; however, there is used. the disadvantage that the attempt at

148 TAGO Mil A ruse may become apparent and alert a patrol can also ambush an enemy ele- the enemy. Another formation that ment in a situation in which contact may be prescribed within the plan is cannot be avoided. the L formation and its companion the (2) Site. When siting an ambush the terrain V formation. In these formations, the must be carefully analyzed. A careful patrol is split into two groups, one study must be made using maps, aerial group is placed alongside the trail while photographs, and when possible, a per- the other group is perpendicular to the sonal reconnaissance. The ground must trail; in the V formation, the apex of enable occupation and/or preparation of the V meets at the trail and the patrol concealed positions. All reconnaissance is disposed laterally along both sides of and movement into position must be from the trail, making sure that one group the rear of the selected ambush position. does not fire into the other. The ad- Covered routes of withdrawal should be vantages of these formations are that available to enable the ambush to break the enemy is caught in a cross-fire and contact and avoid pursuit by fire. Favor- fewer escape routes are available to able fields (tunnels) of fire must be al- him. Disadvantages are found in that lowed the ambush. The site selected control is difficult because the patrol should impose canalization of the enemy is split, two routes of withdrawal and force into the killing zone; the site should, additional rally points are usually re- of course, afford a position insuring con- quired and there are fewer sites that tact with the enemy. The site must con- favor these formations. tribute to, or at least not detract from, the 5. The plan must provide for the organi- surprise of the ambush. Considering this, zation and size of the ambush patrol. the ambush patrol leader does not have to Determining factors here are the pur- select the best ground or terrain suited pose of the ambush, the enemy force to tactically for his ambush. Many times the be attacked and the personnel, weap- selection of a site for surprise alone will be ons, and equipment available. more advantageous than attempting to 6. The general type of ambush must be ambush an enemy from a spot of which determined and be stated in the plan. he is sure to be suspicious. Therefore, the The deliberate ambush is executed ambush might be laid downhill from the when prior information of the targets enemy as well as uphill. When downhill permits detailed planning before the from the enemy, it becomes more difficult patrol departs for the ambush site. for him to escape since he will have to Likely targets would be: any enemy escape uphill. If the ambush is uphill from force, when prior information is known ; the enemy, it is easier for him to escape by enemy patrols operating on a pattern of running downhill. However, if advantage times and routes ; or carrying parties is taken of natural obstacles or mines, the moving on patterned routes and time uphill position should be the more success- schedules. A hasty ambush would be ful of the two. used when available information does (3) Positions. When the patrol reaches the not allow detailed planning prior to site, the patrol leader first places his departure of the patrol. There are sev- security force out to prevent being sur- eral courses of action to govern conduct prised while positioning his ambush force of such' an ambush patrol. Immediate proper. The next elements to go into posi- reconnoitering of a suitable ambush tion are the automatic weapons. These area could be made allowing execution positions are selected so they can allow against the first target of opportunity. fire along the entire killing zone. If this is Or, such a patrol could depart after not possible, these weapons are given over- dark, ambush the first target of oppor- lapping sectors of fire, making sure the tunity and return before daylight. Such entire killing zone is covered by automatic

TACO 5511A 149 weapons fire. After the automatic weapons nal for execution may be the exploding of are positioned the patrol leader selects his mines, or it may be a shot fired by the position. He should be located at the point ambush patrol leader or his assistant. in the ambush where he can tell when the Other signals are rapping or snapping proper time comes to commence firing. sounds such as hitting the helmet with a After he has selected his position, he or his stone, hitting two metal objects together, assistants place the riflemen in position. or the breaking of a stick. For the signal The riflemen are placed so they can cover to withdraw, voice commands, whistles or any dead space left by the automatic pyrotechnics may be used. The signals weapons. Positioning of weapons should should be changed frequently so as not to allow mutual support by assignment of compromise them. sectors of fire. (6) Fire discipline. A key part of the ambush, (4) Camouflage. Camouflage plays an im- in effective execution, is fire discipline. portant role in the ambush. The aim of the The timing and delivery of fires must con- ambush is to kill the enemy by surprising tribute not only to surprise but to the him, and to do this each member of the actual destruction of the enemy. This re- ambush patrol must be hidden from the quires control, and the patrol leader exer- enemy’s view. Before moving out each cises this control by assigning sectors of patrol member camouflages his person and fire and by commands. his equipment; he also tightens his equip- (7) Withdrawal. Before the withdrawal be- ment to prevent rattles. After going into gins, several actions might have taken position he carefully conceals himself to place. First, the patrol was successful and prevent being seen. Lastly, there must be destroyed the enemy forces, or accom- no unnecessary talking, smoking, or move- plished its assigned mission thereby elimi- ment. If reliefs are to be used, they should nating any immediate danger to itself. In be prearranged. Once the relief begins, that case the patrol leader would move his only a few men should move at a time, patrol back to the rallying point, complete because it is less likely that one or two any necessary reorganization, and return men moving at once will be spotted, to friendly lines quickly but carefully. If whereas if the entire relief moved at once, one of the patrol’s missions was to search the chances of being seen would become the dead for documents, seize equipment, much greater. In no other operation is or take prisoners, that portion of the camouflage discipline more important than patrol assigned this task would carry it out in the ambush. Weapons should fire while the other members of the patrol through screens of undisturbed, living would cover them. Then the patrol would foliage, and all spoilage resulting from withdraw the same as in the first example. preparation of positions should be re- If the patrol could not overcome the enemy column, it would become necessary for the moved. patrol to immediately withdraw and move (5) Signals. An ambush patrol leader will with deliberate speed to the rally point, need at least three signals for his ambush : quickly reorganize, and depart the area. a warning signal, a signal for execution, Regardless of what happens, on receiving and a signal for withdrawal. The warning the signal to withdraw the assault element signal should be a silent signal. Examples moves along a previously reconnoitered of silent signals are hand and arm signals path to the rally point. Situation permit- and vines or cords laid across the arms of ting, each member of the patrol selects a selected members of the patrol. When the route to the rally point and walks his routé enemy comes into sight the sentry pulls until he can follow it even in the dark. on the vine causing it to move across the The rally point should be far enough from arm of the patrol leader. He in turn alerts the ambush site so that there is no danger the other members of the patrol. The sig- of its being over-run if the enemy attacks

ISO TAGO SSI IA the ambush. At the rally point, the patrol to preclude jeopardy to the main column ; is checked for missing members and in the event it receives fire. Rear security ■ casualties, then moves on its return march. elements perform similarly to the point; it Mines can be pre-located on the side of can be used as a maneuver element in the the withdrawal route and when the patrol event of ambush. withdraws they can be armed to impede (3) Control. The use of communications the enemy’s pursuit. equipment and control measures are the g. Defense Against Ambush. In planning for de- next items the commander considers. All fense; the planner must initially consider the available means of communications are friendly forces available. The small unit com- used to assist in maintaining control. In mander responsible for moving a unit independently addition, detailed prior planning, briefings, through areas where ambush is likely must plan for and rehearsals for all personnel will assist the formation to be used, march security, com- if an ambush does occur. It must be re- munications and control, special equipment, the membered that in the jungle there is no âctions to be taken if ambushed, and the reorgani- substitute for personal contact effected by zation. the patrol leader with his subordinates to (1) Formation. A formation which provides insure maximum control of his force. all-around security is always desirable. (4) Special equipment. Additional items of However, any formation used should pro- equipment and weapons are sometimes vide security to the unit. In the jungle, needed by a unit, especially when it moves troops usually move in a column or file. through areas where guerrillas are likely This is necessary for control purposes due to be encountered. Additional automatic to the dense undergrowth. This growth weapons may be necessary; pioneer tools hinders but does not preclude the use of a and mine detectors are used to detect and point, flank guards, and rear guard. The reduce roadblocks or minefields. Demoli- interval between men should be about 5 tion equipment is used to destroy obstacles yards where visibility permits. The com- encountered en route. Additional communi- mander should be well forward in the cations equipment and identification de- column and the firepower of the unit vices such as panel sets, lights, or smoke should be evenly dispersed throughout the grenades may be required. column. Then, if ambushed, all of his fire- (5) Reaction to ambush. The most effective power, machineguns and other major means of combating an ambush is to pre- weapons are not knocked out in the initial vent this action from being launched burst. against the unit. This is accomplished by (2) Security. Regardless of the formation em- constant and correct employment of se- ployed, security to the front, rear, and curity. Once ambush is initiated against flanks is necessary when ambush is likely the column, all weapons must immediately and, in the jungle, ambush is always likely. return the fire. This requires discipline, A front security element should provide dynamic leadership, and rehearsed plans. its own flank security, be placed well for- Elements must then be made aware that ward, or as far forward as possible and an assault must take place despite the fact ■ ' still be in communication with the main that the unit may havé suffered heavy body. The front security element must be casualties. A retrograde movement in lieu strong enough to sustain itself until fol- of an assault may, in a well-prepared am- lowup units can be deployed to assist in re- bush, result in complete annihilation of ducing the ambush. Flank security ele- the friendly unit. Reorganization after an ments in the jungle usually must move ambush involves the use of rallying points, adjacent to the column along routes paral- plans for local security, reconstitution of leling the direction of march. The flank depleted patrol elements, evacuation of security elements must, however, be close casualties, and further movement based on enough for control and yet distant enough the unit mission.

TAGO 5511A 151 42. Counterambush (d) Ambush of motorized elements must be a. Dismounted Troops. Counterambush tech- expected at night. Enemy forces will be niques to be employed by dismounted troops when able to deploy greater fire power using ambushed are called “immediate action” drills. fewer troops because of the ease of con- They apply for use immediately before the unit cealment afforded by darkness. Some leader or commander has time to issue any detailed forms of night ambushes might be: orders. The sudden enemy action in an ambush 1. Fairly heavy sniping fire from different demands immediate, preplanned reaction (para 36). locations within the ambush position at the vehicles in a column. b. Mounted Troops. Roads are extremely scarce 2. Deliberate ambush of a convoy based in jungle areas. In some locations, however, the on exact information obtained through jungle edge is adjacent to roads, making ambush intelligence. of vehicular columns extremely easy; units must 3. Deliberate ambush of a particular ve- consider the danger of ambush ever present in such hicle or vehicles. areas regardless of the tactical or administrative (2) Countering road ambushes. There are two situation. Although ambush of vehicular columns is a primary tactic of guerrillas, it must be expected ways to prevent or minimize the incidence that conventional enemy forces will employ this of ambush on roads. These are: technique whenever possible. When considering a (a) Precautionary measures to reduce plan for training of troops in countering enemy chances of being ambushed and to insure actions, if attacked while moving in vehicles, two instant readiness for action. things should be borne in mind. First, the oppor- (b) Actions on contact, or immediate action tunity must be taken to inflict maximum casualties drills, designed to gain the initiative by upon the enemy by attack and the resulting action offensive action. should not be looked upon as a retaliatory measure (3) Precautionary measures. All roads should only. Second, the purpose of guerrillas staging an be classified into categories with the classi- ambush of a vehicular column is primarily to gain fication being based primarily on esti- arms, ammunition, and food; consequently, every mated enemy action in the areas con- effort must be expended to prevent these vital sup- cerned. Traffic on all roads in combat plies from falling into their hands, to include areas must be rigidly controlled and kept deliberate boobytrapping. to a minimum. All vehicles must have at least one armed rider as air guard, travel (1) Typical ambush pattern against motorized at night must be heavily restricted, use of elements. armored vehicles must be increased with (a) Obviously military vehicles will be the convoys, and information relating to con- primary targets of road ambushes. How- voy or vehicle movements must be care- ever, civilian vehicles may be fired upon fully guarded. Every unit should form- for propaganda purposes or to create ulate comprehensive standing operating obstacles. procedures covering movement by roads. (b) Most roads in jungle areas run through This SOP should state clearly who is au- country offering covered lines of ap- thorized to put a convoy on the road and proach and withdrawal and affording should also provide, in detail, information covered positions from which to fire on vehicles. Enemy forces, therefore, can concerning the appointment and duties of be expected to select that part of a road convoy and vehicle commanders, the where it would be easy to place a road- organization of convoys, weapons and block or where vehicles would have to basic loads to be carried, instructions remove slowly, such as a climb into a cut, garding windshields, tailgates and tar- a sharp bend, or a climbing turn. paulins of vehicles, stipulated immediate (c) Enemy forces can be expected to accept action drills, and instructions to describe a risk of remaining concentrated at a security policies. This SOP must be re- certain locale for extended periods in hearsed in training until all troops respond order to ambush a lucrative target. effectively.

152 TAGO <511A (4) Actions on contact. An ambush will position. All available crew-served always be an unexpected encounter. The weapons should bring supporting fires only solution to this event is correct and to bear on the ambush. timely reaction of troops. A road ambush 2. When all troops are clear ahead of the will be carefully chosen and converted into danger zone. An attack under this con- a position from which fire from above and dition is liable to be delayed as troops at point-blank range can be delivered on might be moving away from the place a convoy. The principle behind immediate of the ambush. Nevertheless, an en- action drills is that it is incorrect to halt in circling attack must be organized and the killing zone unless forced to do so. launched as soon as troops can concen- Drills, then, should teach troops to drive trate. Who commands and which ele- on when fired upon, to halt only when ments will take the initiative in these through the ambush killing zone or before circumstances must be spelled out in running into it and to counterattack im- the unit SOP or other instructions. mediately from flank and rear. 3. When some troops are clear ahead of (a) Immediate action techniques. Every the killing zone and others are halted effort should be made to get vehicles short of it. With two troop elements clear of the killing zone when fire is re- on both sides of an ambush, separated ceived. Thus, when vehicles are fired by a killing zone, confusion may arise upon: as to which group should attack and, 1. Drivers should not stop but should as a consequence, valuable time may attempt to drive on until out of the be wasted. If both elements attack apparent killing zone. at the same time without prior coordi- 2. Lookout men (three or four to each nation, an interunit clash may result. troop-carrying vehicle) will fire imme- 4. When armor is available. Usually the diately upon the ambush. best way in which an armored vehicle 3. If vehicles are clear of the killing zone could assist in counterambush would they will be stopped to allow occupants be to drive directly into the killing zone to detruck to carry out offensive and engage the ambush at point-blank actions. range. This would give good covering 4. Vehicles approaching the killing zone fire to the flanking attack made by should not attempt to run through the foot troops and afford some protection ambush; rather, they should halt clear to friendly troops caught in the killing of the area and discharge occupants for zone. deployment. 5. When the convoy commander becomes 5. Drivers will be key men and should be a casualty. Since it is possible that the selected accordingly. convoy commander might be killed, (b) Counterattack. Ambush positions are wounded, or pinned down in the killing vulnerable at their rear and flanks. zone, it is essential that all vehicle Offensive actions normally can be commanders know their responsibilities carried out only by troops who are clear for conducting a counterattack. This of the killing zone. If there are no such should be clearly given in unit convoy troops, then a frontal attack under con- orders, SOP, or briefings before a concealment of smoke will be necessary. voy moves on a road. Some conditions under which counter- (5) Bailing out drill. Usually when an enemy attacks will be made are: force springs a road ambush all effort will 1. Whenbe made no troops to stop have as manyentered vehicles the kill- as pos- ing zone. The convoy commander or, sible in the killing zone by the use of mines in his absence the senior vehicle com- or obstacles or by firing at the tires and mander present, should launch an im- driver of a vehicle. Therefore, it is essen- mediate flanking attack on the ambush tial that troops know how to detruck in-

TAGO 5511A 153 stantly. This must be taught and practiced Wounded soldiers must be dealt with as drill during training. The elements of after the action has terminated. this drill are: 6. The above, and many other possible (a) Vehicle loading. All packs and equip- variations, should be made into SOP’s ment should be placed in the center of and practiced until a high degree of the truck. Excessive quantities of equip- proficiency is attained. ment or other items should not be loaded into vehicles which are carrying troops. 43. Guerrilla and Counterguerrilla Oper- Trucks used for carrying troops should ations have the tarpaulins and rib bows re- Jungle terrain favors the conduct of guerrilla moved. Sixteen to eighteen men should warfare. It should be considered essential by com- be the maximum number carried in the manders that maximum training in guerrilla and back of a 2% ton truck. If more than counterguerrilla warfare be given to troops who are this number are carried, they may be receiving jungle training. Integration of guerrilla unable to use their weapons effectively, and counterguerrilla training should be effected for get in each other’s way, and be difficult all other training, as appropriate. Training should for the vehicle commander to control. progress from an analysis of the guerrilla as an Similarly, the number of troops carried individual to the causes, requirements, and methods in other types of vehicles must be re- of operation which are common to resistance move- stricted to insure freedom of movement. ments. Stress should then be placed on the oper- (b) Alertness. Lookouts should be posted on ational phase of this warfare with particular em- all four corners of the vehicles or, as a phasis on counterguerrilla actions by small units. minimum, one in front and one in rear. For further information concerning training on this They should be continuously alert. subject, see FM 21-50, FM 21-75, FM 31-16, FM Other troops should be ready, but need not maintain alert. It will be necessary 31-21 and FM 31-22. on long trips to rotate the lookouts. 44. Jungle Base Operations Spare magazines should be in pouches, Because of the nature of jungle terrain, oper- not in boxes; vehicle lookouts should ations by small units are usual. This will often have grenades available for immediate require deep penetration of hostile territory and throwing. the conduct of protracted, unsupported operations. (c) Bailing out procedures. When the Jungle base exercises afford an excellent means of vehicle is forced to stop, these proce- training troops in clandestine base operations and dures should be followed: furnish a vehicle for the carrying out of an effec- 1. The vehicle commander shouts “de- tive, and practical, training program. For a discus- truck right” or “detruck left” to indi- sion of operations conducted from a forward jungle cate the direction in which troops will base see Chapter 5 of this manual. go to organize. 2. Vehicle lookouts should throw grenades 45. Small Boat Handling and open fire immediately on the am- a. General. One of the easiest ways to travel in bush position. the jungle is by water. It is essential that units 3. Troops should detruck over both sides become proficient in the correct manipulation of and not from the rear of vehicles and standard small watercraft which are suited to run in the direction indicated by the jungle operations. This will enable small units or vehicle commander. groups to employ not only standard small boats as 4. As soon as troops clear the vehicle, available but will increase the efficiency of troops lookouts should join those who evacu- when utilizing available native watercrafts, be- ated the truck. cause the principles and procedures are the same. 5. At this stage the immediate task is to Common sense will indicate the variations in proce- collect the fit men for counteraction. dures necessary for differ¡ent type boats.

154 TAQO till A b. General Description of Standard Small Boats. sion. Care must be exercised when operat- (1) Three-man reconnaissance boat. This ing the boat with the outboard motor as craft is designed for transporting three sudden surges of power can damage the men and their equipment on general recon- fabric securing the transom. naissance missions. The boat is supported c. Boat Teams. by four inflatable sections, any one of ( 1 ) The coxswain. The size of a boat team de- which will support three men in the event pends on the size and type of boat. Re- of an emergency. When inflated, this boat gardless of size, each boat should have a is 9 feet in length and 4 feet in width. It is coxswain. The most experienced and best portable, weighing 31 pounds including the qualified man in the boat is normally the carrying case, hand pump, repair kit, and coxswain. The coxswain is responsible for three paddles (fig. 126). It is propelled the order to embark and disembark, the by paddles only. In common with all other order to beach and launch the boat, the boats it has a standard nomenclature disttibution of equipment in the boat, the (fig 127). maintenance of the course and speed and (2) Five-man reconnaissance boat. This boat preventive maintenance and care of the is used primarily for reconnaissance and boat while under his control. Patrol lead- combat patrols. It weighs 120 pounds, has ers should not act as coxswain of a boat as a maximum cargo capacity of 2000 pounds they will be occupied with the primary and is propelled by paddles only. duty of patrol orientation and navigation. (3) Plastic assault boat. The assault boat, The coxswain helps steer the boat by put- plastic, 16-foot, can carry 12 combat ting his paddle in the water behind the equipped troops plus a 3-man engineer stern, using it as a rudder. crew or a maximum payload of 3,375 (2) Crew organization. A group of soldiers pounds. It has a shallow draft, extremely assigned to a boat must first line up and rugged construction, and weighs 291 “Count Off”. This crew, having counted pounds. Eight men, using the handles on off, positions itself on both sides of the the side of the boat, can carry it. This boat, odd-numbered men on the right and boat will sink if capsized or filled with even-numbered men on the left. Figure water. The plastic assault boat can be 128 shows the proper positioning of crew- propelled by a 25 horsepower outboard men in a five-man boat. motor or by the use of paddles. If silence (o) The number 1 man is the stroke. He is desired when using paddles, sandbags sets the rate of paddling in accordance should be wrapped around the paddle with the coxswain's orders. This man handles to minimize the noise resulting should be physically strong in order to when the handle inadvertently strikes the maintain a powerful and constant side of the boat. stroke. Both numbers 1 and 2 are re- (4) Fifteen-man assault boat. The boat, land- sponsible for holding the boat off rocks ing, inflatable, assault craft, nylon cloth, and deadfall. All crew members must be 15-man, is designed to transport men and on the alert for sweepers. Sweepers are equipment across streams or other water trees that have been pulled into the obstacles during assault operations. It river or streams from collapsing banks. weighs approximately 260 pounds includ- Usually the tops of these trees bob up ing paddles, repair kit, carrying case and and down on the surface. These sweepers pumps. Eight men, using the handles on are extremely dangerous; running into the sides, can carry the boat. The maxi- one can overturn or tear a boat. mum cargo capacity is 3,300 pounds. This (b) Passengers take positions in the boat as boat can be inflated in 20 minutes by a directed by the coxswain, normally after trained crew. A 25 horsepower outboard most of the crew is in position. There motor or paddles may be used for propul- should be at least two men stabilizing

TACO S511A 155 r

PAINTER (ROPE)

BOW (FORWARD)

PORT (LEFT) STARBOARD (RIGHT)

KEEL (ON UNDERSIDE)

I STERN (REAR)

THE UPPER PORTION OF BOTH SIDES IS THE GUNWALE OR GUNNEL

Figure 127. Nomenclature oj a standard small boat.

156 TAGO S511A BOW

PAINTER

PORT STARBOARD

STERN

Figure 1£8. Positions of crewmen in a 5-man boat.

TAGO Mil A 157 Á A ? A

V i-

INSULATORS ATTACH TO INNER FITTINGS OF AUX REC 88"

’«If

ATTACH TO OUTER FITTING OF AUX REC RADIO W-li ■ ÀÜX REC

Figure 129. RC-292 field expedient antenna.

the boat as passengers enter. The pay- assault boat. For long movements, it is load capacity of the boat should not be recommended that crew members kneel exceeded. on sandbags in order to alleviate dis- (c) As all of the small boats discussed here comfort. In the inflatable boats, the may be propelled by paddling and, as crew sits on the gunwales. A rate of 30 this will usually be the only means for strokes a minute is generally satisfac- propulsion, the method should be con- tory. sidered in detail. The paddle is grasped (3) Commands. The commands which the cox- with the inboard (toward center of boat) swain uses can be divided into two classes: hand over the top of the paddle and out- formal commands and informal commands. board (toward side of boat) hand on The formal commands are used to move the handle near the blade. The outboard hand acts as a pivot point (fulcrum) as the boat on land and in the water. The the inboard hand moves forward. The informal commands are used to launch, kneeling position is used in the plastic load and beach the boat.

TAGO 6511A 158 NOTES: 1. MAY BE CONSTRUCTED WITH ANY TYPE FIELD WIRE. 2. MUST BE AIMED AT THE RECEIVING STATION WITH DIRECTION OF TRANSMISSION THE RADIO END AT THE BASE. TO RECEIVING STATION 3. CAN BE USED WITH FM RADIOS BETWEEN 20-60 Me.

< C-

O S3

INSULATOR

gSfg! COUNTERPOISE COUNTERPOISE WIRE IS FASTENED . > -’-.-P' RADIO TO METAL CASE OF RADIO AND SERVES AS A GROUND

Figure 130. Halj-rhombic field expedient antenna.

(a) Formal commands. and grasp the boat carrying handles, 1. BOAT STATIONS, MOVE. Prior to even numbered members with their left giving this command, the coxswain hands, odd numbered men with their must assign each member of the boat right. The other hand is put under the team by name to a position, i.e., “Smith boat or positioned ready to be put under is #1 man, Jones is #2 man, Doe is the boat. On the command, MOVE, #3 man, and Johnson is #4 man”. team members lift while rising up and When command, BOAT STATIONS, facing about toward the center of the MOVE, is given, team members move boat. The boat should then be resting to their positions around the boat. on the men’s shoulders. When the boat 2. LOW CARRY, MOVE. On the pre- is at the LOW CARRY, on the prepara- paratory command, LOW CARRY, tory command HIGH CARRY, team team members reach down and grasp members grasp the carrying handles the boat carrying handles, even num- with .the opposite hand. On the com- bered men grasping with their right mand, MOVE, all men crouch slightly; hands, odd numbered men with their simultaneously, odd numbered men lift left. On command, MOVE, men raise the boat by the carrying handles with the boat to knee height. their right hands, even numbered men 3. HIGH CARRY, MOVE. When the doing so with their , left. All men rise boat is on the ground, team members from the slight crouch and lift the bot- face to the rear of the boat, crouch, tom of the boat with the hand not

TAGO 5511A 159 GROUND STAKE 160

600 OHM CARBON RESISTOR (I WATT) 4. LOWERTHEBOAT,MOVE.Onthe 5. GIVEWAYTOGETHER.Allmen 6. GIVEWAYRIGHT.Oddnumbered 8. HOLDWATER.Allmenkeeppad- 9. HOLDWATER,RIGHT. Oddnum- 7. GIVEWAYLEFT.Evennumbered should thenberestingonthecarriers’ grasping thecarryinghandle.Theboat shoulders. the boatslowlyandevenly. command MOVE,teammemberslower paddle keepinginstrokewiththenum- men paddle,inunison. ber oneman. dles inwater,butdonotmovethem. men paddle,inunison. bered menkeeppaddles in water,but numbered menarepaddling forward. do notmovethem.Thiswill causethe boat toturntheright, iftheeven Figure 131.Long-wireexpedientantenna(wave]orfrequenciesbetween30-80MC). O DIRECTION OFTRANSMISSION DIRECTION OFRECEPTION 100 FTFIELDWIRE 10. HOLDWATER,LEFT.Evennum- 11. BACKWATER.Allmenpaddlefrom 13. BACKWATERLEFT.Evennum- 12. BACKWATERRIGHT.Oddnum- 14. PULLWATERRIGHT.Oddnum- 15. PULLWATERLEFT. Evennum- bered menkeeppaddlesinwater,but do notmovethem.Thiswillcausethe to moverearward. rear tofront.Thiswillcausetheboat bered menarepaddlingforward. boat toturntheleft,ifoddnum- will causetheboattoturnright. bered menrowfromreartofront.This will causeboattoturnleft. bered menrowfromreartofront.This toward boat.Thismoves the boatata paddle, putpaddleinwater andpull bered menreachouttothesidewith right angletothekeeland totheright. bered menreachoutto the sidewith GROUND STAKE RADIO TAGO 5511A INSULATOR INSULATOR

ANTENNA WIRE

IN' W n i * m

I ,.'i RADIO Vf t 1 .■ Wk.. JH,. GROUND STAKE RADIO n M 1 I'W 'I

•«Mw \.. bhlU iyji rill * > -I flilll.“ va» GROUND STAKE

Figure 132. Vertical voire expedient antennas.

paddle, put paddle in water and pull bers 1 and 2 take their positions in the toward boat. This moves the boat at a boat. When all crewmen have entered right angle to the keel and to the left. the boat the coxswain is the last to board. 16. REST PADDLES. All men holding When the ground does not slope gradu- paddles on horizontal plane across ally, the boat can be loaded from side gunwale. or stern. (b) Informal commands. At loading sites 1. The coxswain first commands, “Launch where the ground or beach slopes gradu- the boat”, and the team members put ally, the coxswain guides the boat to the boat into the water, getting as little the water’s edge and then moves to the water into the boat as possible. The rear of the boat. The boat team uses the coxswain then orders the team into the low carry and moves into the water until boat two at a time. the numbers 1 and 2 men are, at least, 2. When beaching the boat, the team de- knee deep. The coxswain then commands barks on order from the coxswain, “One “One and two men, into the boat”. Num- and two men, out of the boat ; three and

TAQO 5511A 161 four men, out of the boat”. When all ward into the water, pulling the boat over on top persons are out of the boat, the cox- of them. It may be necessary to attach sling ropes swain gives the command, LOW to rings on the gunwale in order to have a sufficient CARRY, MOVE, and leads the team piece of rope to grasp. (For detailed information to a predesignated area. If the water is on river navigation, see paragraph 60, FM 21-50.) more than waist deep at the shoreline, e. Water Safety. All members of a boat team are the troops will step from ship to shore responsible to insure that safety procedures are fol- and pull the boat from the water as lowed. The coxswain is especially charged with commanded by the coxswain. observing and enforcing safety rules during opera- (c) Special commands. tions involving his boat. The coxswain must be a 1. Certain commands may be combined competent individual and his orders must be obeyed. to execute rapid maneuvers. For ex- It is his job to see that personnel and equipment are ample, if the coxswain desires a sharp balanced in the boat. Other safety hints are: turn to the left he can order BACK (1) All equipment placed in the boat should WATER, LEFT; GIVE WAY, be secured to the boat to prevent shifting RIGHT, and at the same time, manipu- or loss in the event of a capsized craft. If late the blade of his paddle to the left. such items as machine guns are carried 2. There is one command used in boat drill they should be tied to the boat. This can that can be classified neither as formal nor informal. It is a practice command be done by tying one end of a short rope to the machine gun and the other end to the only. This command is FALL OUT, safety line of the rubber boats or the carry- ONE. During practical work every ing handles of the plastic boats. soldier should have a chance to be cox- (2) Rifles should be slung across the body with swain. FALL OUT, ONE is the com- the muzzle pointing outboard to minimize mand to exchange coxswains. After a the chance of passengers or crewmen being coxswain has given commands for 5 to hit by the rifle barrels. The sling should 10 minutes, he will order, FALL OUT, be tied to the upper sling swivel by means ONE. At this command the number 1 of a half hitch to prevent accidental loss man crouches low and moves to the rear of the weapon. of the boat to assume the coxswain’s (3) Life preservers should be worn when en- former position. All other men on the gaged in over-water operations. Life jack- right side move up one position and the ets and inflatable life preservers should be former coxswain fills the last space on put on prior to launching the boat. the right side. All of these movements (4) The maximum payload of a small boat are made simultaneously. When all should not be exceeded. men on the right side have been coxswain, the command changes to FALL 46. Communications and Communications OUT, TWO. Expedients d. Righting Capsized Boats. All troops should be a. General. Jungle terrain limits normal use of conditioned to react rapidly to the situations in communications. The greatest limitations are caused which boats are overturned. The procedures out- by vegetation and irregular terrain. Correct instal- lined here should be required practice in training. lation, utilization, and operation of communications Upon the capsizing of a boat the coxswain secures equipment must be emphasized. Special attention all of the paddles and directs one-half of the crew in training must be given to employment of expedi- to stay in the water and prepare to push upward ent antennas to boost radio transmission and upon the gunwale of that side of the boat which is reception. to be raised. The other half of the crew climbs atop b. Types of Communications. The five types of the capsized boat, grasps the safety rope on the side communications are Visual, Sound, Messenger, to be raised, and holding onto the rope, falls back- Wire, and Radio. Each plays an important role in

162 TAGO M11A the makeup of an effective system in wet tropical commander have visual contact with every terrain (FM 7-24). element or member of his unit and the re- (1) Messenger. Probably the greatest restric- peating of signals will provide for maxi- tion is placed on the messenger or messen- mum dissemination of instructions. The gers. In the jungle, messengers should be use of pyrotechnics or smoke as a signalling employed in pairs. Messengers in tropical device is limited to prescribed or prear- areas find the obstacles they face more ranged signals as each unit must be aware difficult to overcome than in any other area. of the meaning of each signal. In most Because of the almost complete lack of units these are listed in the signal instruc- trail or road networks they must make tions; however, in small unit actions their their way through thick vegetation. The use is left to the discretion of the unit irregular terrain presents many obstacles commander. In addition to requiring each such as cliffs, swamps, rivers, and the like individual to know the meaning of the dif- to their passage. This is a time consuming ferent smokes and pyrotechnics, a sentinel factor. Coupled with these difficulties is the or lookout must be posted to observe their problem of navigation. They must have a use. It is possible, due to the poor visi- thorough knowledge of map and compass bility, that a signal may be unobserved in reading plus the ability to put these skills spite of all measures taken to provide for to practical use. Therefore, the messenger observation. Pyrotechnics and smoke may must be competent, resourceful and well be used as signals between individuals, trained. Messengers are considered the units, and from ground to air, or air to most secure means to convey information; ground. They are visible over a greater however, in the jungle they will be very distance when employed against terrain of slow. Aerial messenger service using drop contrasting color. Green and white smoke and pick-up techniques may be employed are considered poor signalling devices in to augment ground messenger service wher- jungle terrain. Green, once dissipation ever conditions permit. Thus, obstacles begins, tends to blend with the green confronting ground messengers in tropical foliage and is difficult to distinguish from areas may be largely overcome. any but a short distance. White, once it (2) Visual and sound systems. These means of begins to rise, resembles ground fog or low communication will be grouped together hanging clouds or haze. Due to the strik- for the purpose of discussion. When elec- ing contrasts of color, red and yellow smoke trical means of communications are not are very effective signalling colors in the available or are considered inadequate for jungle. It must be remembered, however, that red is a common danger signal, espe- the existing situation, an effective visual cially when used in air operations, and this or sound system must be employed. Nor- should be considered when planning the mally visual and sound communication signal phase of an operation. Among the systems are employed within the smaller most commonly used pyrotechnics are rifle units, such as platoon, squad, and fire grenade smoke streamers and ground sig- team. The visual and sound systems con- nals. The aircraft signal and the sound sist of hand and arm signals, pyrotechnics, and flash are both fired from the pistol, mechanically produced sounds and oral pyrotechnic projector, hand, M8, com- sounds. Hand and arm signals are detailed monly called the “Very Pistol”. Outwardly in FM 21-60. Additional signals can be the signals are similar in appearance as used; however, as long as all personnel each resembles a large shot shell with an know their meaning. Due to' the dense aluminum case. Depending on weather vegetation and poor visibility, each man conditions, these signals may be visible at within the unit must be trained not only to a distance of 5 miles at night and 2 to 3 understand these signals but to repeat each miles during daylight. The aircraft signal signal that he receives. Seldom will the was originally designed for ground to air-

TAGO M11A 163 craft or aircraft to ground signalling. (3) Wire. The limitations imposed by the However, since the projectors are light and jungle on other means of communications compact, they proved suitable for use by cause a greater dependency upon wire. ground forces. The present aircraft signals Wire is highly vulnerable to guerrilla de- consist of one star, two stars, or a tracer struction or interception. When secure, and two stars. The sound and flash signal, wire is considered as the most reliable also fired by the “Very Pistol”, was origi- means of communications in wet tropical nally designed for use by umpires during terrain. Wire communication in jungle ter- training exercises to simulate artillery air rain imposes limitations similar to those bursts and to mark artillery fire. How- of heavily wooded areas in temperate cli- ever, it has been found that the sound flash mates, but the problems are more acute in also proves an effective signal for guiding the wet tropics. Frequent rain and con- aircraft in both day and night operations stant dampness reduce the effective range in the jungle. The hand-held ground para- of wire circuits. Wire lines should be in- chute illumination signals are far superior stalled in trees or from poles, if possible. to those already mentioned. The hand It also may be necessary to use amplifying flare can be obtained in two colors, white telephone devices. and red. White allows the most illumina- (a) Ground-laid wire. When discussing tion, burning at about 60,000 candle power. ground-laid wire it must be realized that Both will burn for approximately 35 sec- wire routes are limited and the few that onds and from a good vantage point can are available will be heavily traveled. be seen for many miles. In considering When laying wire along trails care should mechanically produced sound it must be be taken to insure that the wire line is noted that the heavy foliage of jungle cuts well off the trail. Communications per- the distance this sound will travel. There- sonnel must be well trained to observe fore when planning for the use of such a this precaution. One of the advantages signal, tests should be conducted to deter- of ground-laid wire is its ease of main- mine whether or not the signal is adequate. tenance provided that it is laid properly Such sounds as striking the butt of a rifle in the beginning. This is based on the with a rock, whistles, and even bugles are assumption that the wire can be main- examples of mechanically produced sounds tained anywhere it can be laid by hand. used quite extensively by small groups. Ground-laid wire is also 100 percent re- Limitations are imposed, in that again, coverable. Ground-laid wire also has its each individual must know the meaning of the signals and must be able to hear them disadvantages. It is limited in its cov- above the noise of battle. Insofar as the erage because it would be impracticable oral sounds are concerned, voice com- to lay wire to all units in a fast moving mands are the most common. It is suffi- situation. As previously stated, roads cient to say that they can be modified in and trails are limited and this requires any number of ways to suit a particular much of the wire to be laid cross coun- situation. The main thing to remember is try, over cliffs and in swamp areas. For that as long as both parties know what a these reasons, the installation of unit certain sound means it will be an effective lines is a time-consuming operation. signal. The advantage of sound signals are Further, maintenance and security of that they are hasty, require little or no ground-laid field wire circuits is compli- equipment, and are simple to code. The cated by frequent enemy infiltration. major disadvantage is that the vegetation Infiltrators have been known to cut wire and terrain have a tendency to muffle the lines and then ambush unsuspecting wire sound and shorten the range of the signal. repair crews. Sound signals are usually unreliable during (6) Air-laid wire. The laying of wire by an battle due to battle noises. aircraft is extremely fast and saves the

164 TAQO «511A expenditure of physical effort by com- 1. Use a headset in place of a handset or munications personnel. The distance loudspeaker to receive a weak signal. wire can be laid by aircraft is limited This will reduce the effects of noise. only by the carrying capacity of the 2. Speak directly into the handset or plane. The helicopter is the best aerial microphone slowly and clearly. Make wire laying vehicle. Observation heli- sure the handset or microphone is in copters can lay 5 miles of wire; utility good condition. helicopters can carry and lay at least 20 3. Make certain that the radio batteries miles. Compromise of air-laid wire is are fresh and provide adequate voltage very difficult as the wire generally lies for operation. Jungle heat accelerates on top of the canopy of the trees. A the battery chemical action and will limitation of air-laid wire is that a posi- shorten battery life, necessitating more tive signalling method must be utilized frequent replacement. between the aircraft and the units on 4. Select, where possible, a location for the. ground. The pilot must not only best transmission and reception. Mov- know the exact spot to start laying wire ing even a short distance may improve but exactly where it is to be terminated. operation. A weight and a smoke grenade should 5. Use CW (continuous wave) instead of be tied to the dispenser as it is dropped, voice operation where weak signals are marking the wire as it lands in the encountered (applies particularly to jungle. Maintenance of air-laid wire is AM radio sets). extremely difficult because the wire lays 6. When tuned to the lower frequencies on the tree canopy and in most cases it in the FM range or when using an AM is easier to lay a new line than repair set, by tilting the antenna it may be one no longer operational. Air-laid wire possible to reflect the signal from the is also hard to recover. It has been found ionosphere if ground obstructions block that approximately 50 percent is ground wave signals. recoverable. 7. Increase antenna length and retune the (4) Radio. The radio offers a relatively exten- set or use a proper expedient antenna sive communications coverage in the jungle to improve range. (See figures 129 when compared to the means already dis- through 133 and chapter 7, FM 24-18 cussed. FM (frequency modulated) infan- for examples.) (b) Expedient antennas. Standard field radio try battalion radios have matching or over- antennas are whip or rod type from lapping operational characteristics which which ground and direct waves radiate permit intercommunication between any or horizontally. Due to the nature of the all of these sets in a single network. Their terrain and vegetation in the jungle the compact construction also facilitates trans- ground wave is quickly absorbed or port in jungle operations. However, the screened, or both. It is therefore neces- dense jungle vegetation and broken terrain sary to radiate a sky wave which is re- coupled with the line of sight transmission flected to a distant station from the limitation of FM radios results in a reduc- ionosphere. For efficient sky wave radi- tion in range. ation a wire antenna cut to a length pro- (a) Operation of radios in the jungle. The portional to frequency is required. capabilities and efficiency of radió com- Expedient antennas are discussed be- munications in the jungle is impaired low. Additional information is avail- considerably below the normal. Obsta- able in FM 24-18. cles to radio communications in the 1. General requirements for efficient jungle can be minimized significantly by antenna expedients. employing the following techniques. (a) Wire that is used must be in good (See also chapter 5, FM 24-18.) condition.

TAGO 5511A 165 y y

INSULATORS

1/4 1/4 WAVE LENGTH M WAVE LENGTH

FIELD WIRE TRANSMISSION LINE

H >

RADIO

Figure 133. Halj-wave (center jed) expedient antenna.

(b) Wire must be held clear of vegeta- jungle-rated range of a set and is non- tion and all other materials by in- directional in nature. The top or verti- sulators. cal wire is 66 inches in length and the (c) Vegetation should, whenever pos- three bottom wires are 88 inches in sible, be cleared from above and length. The wires are at an angle of below the antenna (the earth acts 120° from the top wire. All terminate as a reflector). with insulators. The lead wire for the (d) Directional properties are critical ground plain goes to the radio and is and the best reception of a signal grounded to the side of the radio case. will be realized if the length of the The antenna lead wire goes to the inner antenna is at right angles to the recess of the auxiliary receptacle. When direction of the required station. using radios other than the AN/PRC- (e) All receiving and transmitting sets 10, the vertical wire should be the should be located on high ground same length as the standard antenna of and in line of sight to obtain the the set (TM 11-666). The antenna maximum efficiency of the sets and head should be at a height of at least the antennas. 30 feet. 2. RC-292 field expedient (fig 129). This 3. Half-rhombic expedient (fig 130). This expedient is an antenna which will expedient is a directional antenna afford an increase up to S1/^ times the which will give up to 2V2 times the

166 TAGO Mil A s

Figure 134. Example oj free drop load to be dropped over water. Cans are half filled to prevent them from bursting on impact. Unopened “C” ration cases can be dropped on land or water. On water they will float, on land they will sustain a certain amount of breakage depending on height and speed of aircraft.

TAGO 5511A 167 jungle-rated range of a radio. It con- For best results, the wire should be cut sists of 100 feet of telephone field wire to the same electrical length as the strung from the ground over a pole 30 antenna supplied with the set. The feet high and back to the ground. The vertical wire expedient is omnidirec- wire is terminated in an insulator and tional and, if properly constructed, will tied to stakes, both 40 feet from the provide the same quality of service as pole. The ground, or “counterpoise” the antenna for which it substitutes. wire is 80 feet long and can be on the 6. Half-wave expedient (fig 133). The ground or on stakes. Located on the half-wave expedient antenna is usually end opposite the radio is a 500 to 600 horizontal and is bi-directional with OHM resistor in a terminal box. This the direction of transmission broadside resistor gives the antenna its directional to the antenna. It may be constructed capability. The antenna transmits off from ordinary telephone field wire and the end that is terminated in the resis- oriented at any angle from horizontal tor, or the end opposite from the radio. to vertical to obtain best performance. The antenna wire is terminated in the In most instances, a properly oriented auxiliary receptacle on the radio, while and constructed half-wave antenna will the counterpoise wire is grounded on produce better results than the rod or the side of the case or on a ground whip provided with the radio. A double- stake. The receiving station must be wire feeder (transmission line) con- on the azimuth as the antenna. nects the radio to the antenna at the 4. Long wire expedient (fig 131). The center insulator, and the other wire to long wire antenna can increase the the other side. The length of the an- jungle-rated range of a radio by as tenna wire should be cut closely to the much as two times. The long wire an- correct length according to formula tenna consists of 100 feet of telephone (Length = 468/Frequency in Mega- field wire strung 12 to 15 feet above cycles). Also, the length of the trans- the ground. It has a 600-ohm resistor mission line should be adjusted to on the wire at the end opposite from obtain the maximum signal strength which the radio is to be operated. The from the antenna. far end of the wire below the resistor is grounded or attached to a suitable 47. Supply and Evacuation Techniques counterpoise where good ground is not a. General. Of all the characteristics of jungle possible. The antenna wire is termi- areas there is one peculiar aspect which will com- nated in the inner connection of the pound the problems of operations of deep penetra- auxiliary receptacle on the radio. The tion more than any other single quality. This is radio is also grounded or a suitable the scarcity or, in some cases, the complete absence counterpoise substituted. This antenna, of road, trail, or rail networks. The effects that this like the half-rhombic, is directional in scarcity or lack of surface communication routes nature. have on logistics is not hard to imagine. The depth 5. Vertical wire expedient (fig 132). In to which an attack can be carried, especially in the case the rod or whip antenna provided jungle, is dependent largely upon the ability of the as part of the radio is damaged beyond attacker to supply and resupply its elements. In repair a suitable vertical wire expedient view of this, training for jungle operations requires may be constructed. It consists of a more emphasis on techniques of supply and evacu- length of telephone field wire attached ation. to the auxiliary receptacle on the radio with the opposite end terminating in b. Modes of Transportation in the Jungle. the insulator. The antenna wire must (1) Hand portage. The basic means of trans- not touch any part of the tree branch portation is hand portage by troops or or it will lose much of its efficiency: indigenous personnel. Carrying parties,

168 TAGO 6511A fatitgue jackets is useful in the event of PONCHO HOOD emergencies. (b) Physical condition of troops. Movement of troops who must pack their own HOOD DRAWSTRING LOOP equipment and supplies is very slow and distances covered each day will be greatly reduced. This must be taken into consideration when planning crosscountry movement. (2) Pack animals. The United States Army no longer has pack animal units. There are native animal handlers and pack animals in most tropical areas which can carry relatively large loads over difficult terrain. SUSPENSION LINE The load is dependent upon the distance to be traveled, the terrain and the rate of march. Use of native handlers' and pack animals is extremely advantageous because it preserves the combat efficiency of the troop units. Clothing, footgear, rations, supervision, and security should be provided by the unit employing the handlers and animals. If pack animals are procured from native sources, provision must be made for carrying animal feed because there is little feed, but plenty of forage, for animals in the jungle. This will, of course, lessen the pay load of rations, ammunition, and equipment that the animals could carry. (3) Wheeled and tracked vehicles. Use of Figure 135. The “M” fold for the poncho expedient para- wheeled and tracked vehicles is generally chute. impracticable, except on roads and on wide trails during the dry season. Engi- neer and pioneer troops may not be able to whether military or indigenous, must be improve trails to permit movement of % provided with all around security to pro- ton trucks and trailers in areas close to the tect supplies from ambush. combat echelon. To the rifle company (a) Equipment for carrying parties. commander this means loss of vehicular 1. Pack board. The issue pack board is a mounted radios and recoilless rifles. The serviceable carryall. A substitute is an need for the recoilless rifle is offset by the improvised pack board made of wood, difficulty of movement for hostile armor. canvas, and rope. To achieve maximum efficiency in the use 2. Stokes litter. For evacuation of casual- of vehicles it may be necessary to establish ties the best litter available is the transfer points for loads; that is, large Stokes metal litter which weighs Sl1/^ vehicles might move supplies as far for- pounds. This litter is of rigid construc- ward as possible and then supplies are tion and will not collapse should one of transloaded to smaller, lighter vehicles, the bearers fall. Additionally, it can which in turn could move supplies as far be rappelled down cliffs. An expedient forward as practicable. Pack animal litter made from two poles and two carrying parties then could move the sup-

f AGO 5511A 169 Figure 186. Large village located on a valley floor in jungle.

plies to their destination as required. will prove to be operationally advantage- Armored personnel carriers have a definite ous. A river that is normally ankle deep potential in this scheme as they are useful during the dry season may be several feet for transporting supplies and evacuating deep during the rainy season. Supply men in areas dominated by flooded culti- points should be high enough above the vations or in delta country where the only level of the waterway to prevent damage arteries of travel are canals. to supplies in the event of a flash flood. (4) Travel by water. Waterborne transporta- (a) Native crafts. Often the movement of tion is often the surest and most economi- military boats to forward units may be cal means of supply in the jungle. Water slow due to transportation difficulties. transportation should be used to the maxi- Therefore commanders should be alert mum extent practicable and distribution to explore the possibilities of using points should be established on waterways native water craft. Native boats are to save transportation by men, animals tailor-made for the type of waterways and vehicles. Tropical rivers are subject encountered in the specific area where to rapid changes in depth and speed of the boats are used. flow due to rainfall variations. If water (b) Rafts. Another expedient is the use of transportation is the principle means of rafts. Rafts are difficult to control, even supply and evacuation, the wet season in calm waters, and this difficulty is in-

TAQO 5511A «sf ■CV

Figure 137. Small village located on ridge line in secondary jungle.

creased many times in rapidly moving (a) Landing areas. Large swamps and areas stréams or rivers. Great care should be covered by dense vegetation limit the exercised in building rafts from jungle number of landing areas. Airfields re- hardwoods as many of these woods will quire considerable time and, usually, sink in water. If a wood chip from a tree heavy equipment to prepare. Frequent does not float in the water then a raft rains necessitate surfacing with pierced made of that wood would not float either. steel or aluminum planking, crushed (5) Aircraft. Jungle operations place a high rock or coral. Rivers or lakes sometimes premium on the use of aircraft for supply, eliminate the need for airfields as Army evacuation, and movement of troops be- aircraft can be equipped with floats or cause of its speed, flexibility, and range. amphibious gear. Construction of rotary wing landing areas can ordinarily be Army aviation is normally employed by performed with hand tools and explo- attachment, support, or operational con- sives. Such construction can be simpli- trol. It is recommended that nondivisional fied by using a portion of the felled aviation be employed under operational trees to build a platform rather than control below, division level, with control completely clearing the ground. It is becoming effective at the beginning of the undesirable to require a helicopter to execution phase of the operation. make a vertical ascent when it is heavily

TACO 5511A 171 Figure 138. Typical large jungle village. Note diversified types of huts.

loaded since a large amount of power is supplies, the requirement for specially required to climb vertically after take- trained personnel and special equipment, off and, as a result, the allowable pay- the lower supply payload of the aircraft load is decreased. Density of the air in due to the weight of parachutes, and the extremely hot humid weather reduces high percentage of hang-ups in the aircraft performance and larger landing jungle canopy with consequent loss of areas may be required (para 134). cargoes. Another method which can be (b) Air movement of supplies. If permitted used to drop equipment is the free drop. by the terrain and availability of land- There are a few types of equipment ing areas, resupply by rotary wing air- which can be dropped in this manner craft is more efficient than drops from a without damage, e.g., cartons of combat fixed wing aircraft. Air drops by para- rations. Normally the special packaging chute, however, from fixed or rotary required greatly limits this method of wing aircraft is advantageous in that it delivery ; however, it does insure a mini- is a rapid means of delivery, requires mum number of hang-ups in the canopy. minimum terminal facilities and makes Free drops are most effective when the deliveries to isolated units possible drop can be made into a river, stream, without further transmovement. The or other body of water and the ground disadvantages lie in the dispersion of the party can take immediate action to re-

TAGO W11A cover the supplies. One method of de- 4. To fold the canopy, lay the poncho out livering combat rations and water by flat and, starting on both sides, make 6 free drop is to lash two cartons of rations to 8 inch S folds toward the center. securely together. Two five-gallon water Now, fold the narrow folded poncho cans, half filled with fresh water, can into an M fold as shown below: then be tied to the ration cartons (fig 5. The static line has a loop in the end 134). This bundle can then be dropped which attaches to the canopy. Using from a low altitude into a stream, lake 25-pound test string, make one and a or river. Other disadvantages may be half loops connecting the loop on the alleviated by the use of expedient para- static line and the string on the hold chutes. There are two types which can of the poncho. Tie with a square knot. be made from standard, easily obtain- 6. Attach the load to the parachute S, able materials; these are the poncho folding the suspension lines on top of expedient parachute and the shelter half the load and then place the M-folded expedient parachute. With little train- “parachute” on top of the load. Affix ing, a unit can fabricate these impro- with the 25-pound test string in the vised parachutes whenever necessary. same manner as tying a package. In- The poncho chute may be used to drop sure that the top of this tie goes up to 65 pounds of equipment and the through the loop in the static line. This shelter half expedient parachute can will deploy the suspension lines prior handle a maximum of 125 pounds. If the to breaking loose from the aircraft. maximum payload is applied to either type of chute, breakage of sensitive 48. Construction of Trails, Bridges and equipment may occur due to the rapid Roads rate of descent. Every jungle soldier The lack of roads and bridging in jungle areas should be equipped with a poncho and, necessitates training in construction of expedient because of its effectiveness, construction roads and bridges. Training should include classifi- of the poncho parachute expedient will cation of roads and bridging, the purpose and char- be described in detail below: acteristics of each, and methods of construction. 1. First, tie the hole in the center of the While not a usual infantry mission, circumstances poncho so as to allow no air to escape. may well dictate building of roads and bridges. 2. Next, fold the poncho in half with the Units moving deeply in the jungle will require this snaps down. Now affix the suspension lines, all of which are 6 feet in length, capability. The principles of construction are to each of the grommets on the poncho standard and are those used in any area. While with a bowline knot. training should not be designed to produce engineer 3. Then, tie an overhand knot with the experts, it should teach the basic principles of road suspension lines over a snap link after and bridge construction for infantry units, includ- insuring that all the suspension line ing organic vehicles. For detailed information see ends are even. FM 5-250.

TAGO 5511A 173 CHAPTER 4

JUNGLE OPERATIONS

Section I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

49. Principal Effects of Jungle on Operations (4) Frontages must be shortened and intervals a. General. Standard and current combat prin- must be lessened in movement. ciples must be applied to a jungle environment with (5) Numerous limited objectives must be as- emphasis placed on the modifications to these prin- signed in an attack. ciples that are necessitated by the wet tropical (6) Maintaining direction of movement is conditions. difficult. b. Operational Limitations. In jungle warfare (7) Silence and security measures increase in forces may have to move rapidly from primary importance. jungle through secondary growth to cultivations. c. Tactical Use oj the Ground. High ground in This requires great flexibility in thought, planning, jungle operations is of tactical importance under organization, equipment and tactics; it may require the same conditions as in other types of warfare; decentralization of command and control, for at namely, when it controls likely avenues of approach, times a unit may be located where control is easy or when it affords observation over a particular —on other occasions, junior leaders may find them- area. Undue emphasis should not be placed on high selves operating on their own initiative for long ground. Careful consideration must be given to periods. The possibility of sudden enemy air or high ground, however, in the following areas: ground attack at any time must not be overlooked. The unit fighting in jungle has to operate within its (1) The junctions of primary jungle and sec- own resources more often than in any other type of ondary growth. terrain. The jungle unit must be so balanced that (2) The junction of primary jungle and grass- it is capable of developing at any time an effective lands or cultivations. degree of mobility and firepower without support from higher echelons. This ability will largely be 50. Preparation for Combat dependent upon the factors of communications, For jungle operations, a detailed standing operat- maintenance and discipline. The final effects, then, ing procedure should be prepared by all units down of the restrictions imposed by jungle on operations to and including fire teams. The standing operating can be summarized as follows: procedure should cover the organization of combat (1) Forces must move on widely separated teams for reinforced rifle platoons to the combined axes. arms task force of battalion size. This SOP may (2) The amount of heavy equipment and sup- include supply procedures, bivouac and shelter porting weapons that can be used is se- preparation, march rate, and formations. As sea- verely limited. sonal weather changes will affect operations, such (3) Control is difficult and must be decentral- deletions, substitutions and modifications of equip- ized. ment and organization are made as required.

174 TACO 8?11A Section II. MOVEMENTS AND MARCHES 51. General 54. March Discipline Movement in the jungle is calculated in terms of a. March discipline is made difficult by the prob- time rather than distance. In the early stages of a lems of control. Dense vegetation, which greatly jungle campaign, road nets may be limited or non- restricts mobility and observation, presents a seri- existent and cross country movement is slow and ous obstacle to effective control of any type of difficult. movement through jungle. 52. Support d. Difficulties of control due to lack of direct observation of the major portion of the march The difficulty of movement and the weight of column must be offset by reduced distances and equipment, weapons, and supplies decrease the intervals between individuals and units, and added speed and effectiveness of the supporting arms and responsibility on the part of junior leaders. Definite services. This forces the foot troops to reduce their march objectives must be assigned and each unit speed accordingly. Tanks may be used against leader must be acquainted with the complete march definitely located targets, where the.terrain permits. plan. Although control is more difficult when mov- Small tank units may be attached to infantry units ing a unit by two parallel, yet separated columns, for the reduction of enemy strong points. speed and execution of march is facilitated. This 53. Factors Affecting March Rate formation keeps the unit more compact and better deployed for action than a single, strung-out col- a. For the general principles of foot marches, see umn. FM 21-18. c. To minimize the control problem, all men b. The rate of march will depend on the type of should observe the following rules of conduct: jungle to be traversed, the availability of trails, and the formation and security elements to be em- (1) Prescribed distances and intervals must be ployed. When calculating the rate of march, the rigidly maintained to prevent loss of con- march distance, number of obstacles to traverse and tact and to prevent the column from the physical condition of troops must also be bunching up. assessed. (2) At halts, the men relax physically but they can never afford to completely relax men- c. Commanders must be constantly on the alert tally. The men must be kept alert by the to keep the rate of march and the length and num- constant checking by all leaders. Security ber of rest periods in line with physical endurance posts will be maintained at all halts. of the men. Extreme temperatures make frequent halts almost mandatory. The heat and humidity d. The company commander should march well are factors which will affect every march to an forward in the column where he can control the unpredictable extent. For detailed discussion on movement and any tactical employment required. effects of heat see FM 21-11. 55. Selection of Routes d. Animals accompanying a column of foot troops a. The selection of usable routes is a difficult job. can be expected to slow the rate of march. Pack Select a route that presents the least amount of animals should not be kept loaded for more than 8 obstacles and plan the route in a series of legs from hours a day. They must be allowed sufficient time one march objective to the next. Security of the for care and feeding. On sustained marches, over route must also be considered. If there are no favor- a period of days, long noon breaks must be taken to allow time for unloading, rest and reloading of able terrain features, such as ridge lines, etc., a animals. straight line route is the best, deviating only for any major obstacles. e. Providing for adequate security in dense jungle can also have a slowing effect on the rate of b. Maps of jungle terrain are often inaccurate march. Allowance must be made for this as well and cannot be depended on for anything but infor- as for time required to secure aircraft landing or mation on the most outstanding terrain features drop areas along the route. (para 32b).

TAGO 5511A 175 c. Aerial photographs will seldom show trails in detailed planning. See paragraph 38 for a discussion the dense growth, but aerial reconnaissance and of control measures to employ during night move- photographs will often show outstanding features of ments. terrain which can aid in evaluation and orientation. Helicopter scouting parties can be used to advan- 58. March Security tage in route reconnaissance. For a detailed dis- a. Security measures employed in normal opera- cussion of aerial reconnaissance, see FM 1-100. tions remain essentially the same in jungle opera- d. Normally, trails will exist between native vil- tions except that distances between contact elements lages, even though none appear on available maps. are reduced, and the measures are more intensified, When enemy contact is not imminent and speed of due to reduced visibility. If a unit is operating inde- movement is important these existing trails as well pendently, all-around security is mandatory. as stream beds should be used. Streams may be b. Flank security in the jungle must be continu- used as trails if not too deep or swift, and a deep ous. In dense growth, security elements must cut stream is one of the fastest and most dependable their own trails, and often cannot maintain a uni- means of jungle travel when rafts or small boats form rate of speed. When this is the case, they must are available. be rotated frequently to avoid fatigue which may cause a letdown in the mental alertness of the men. 56. Selection of March Objectives The speed of a column is greatly reduced by the a. March objectives should be terrain features frequent changing of security elements. If flank recognizable on the map as well as on the ground. security elements cannot be used, due to the terrain b. March objectives should be carefully selected ör dense vegetation, individuals must be given spe- from the map prior to starting the march, and they cific directions of surveillance to cover those areas should be planned so the unit can move from one not otherwise covered. When crossing obstacles or objective to the next in a prescribed period of time. danger areas, flank security patrols must be used This aids navigation and control by establishing a to cover the crossing. The patrols will then rejoin series of check points. These objectives may also be the last march unit after completion of the crossing. used as rallying points. A march objective selected c. During halts, the units move off the trail. for a halt must lend itself to the defense: An area Security elements are sent out in all directions not considered for an overnight hält must be chosen only to observe but to listen for enemy activity as with particular care and it should lend itself to an well. At least fifty percent of the unit must be kept all-around (perimeter) defense. alert even during breaks. Due to the possibility of an enemy attack from any direction, halts should 57. Night Marches be ordered only when a large portion of the column Since night movement in the jungle is affected by is on terrain that lends itself to an all-around de- the dense vegetation and the complete darkness, fense. Halts for overnight bivouacs should be made individuals must be trained to operate off the trail with sufficient daylight remaining to adequately as well as on the trail. Night movement is charac- secure the bivouac with a perimeter defense forma- terized by slow and deliberate progress and requires tion before darkness.

Section III. COMBAT INTELLIGENCE

59. General be taken to insure that the most current map avail- a. The operational techniques used in the produc- able is used. tion of combat intelligence in jungle warfare are consistent with established procedures. In the col- 60. Weather lection effort, extensive patrolling action will be a. Weather forecasts will be reliable in jungle necessary due to limitation of other sources nor- areas due to the more apparent division between the mally available to the intelligence officer. two predominant seasons—dry and rainy, except in b. Map coverage of jungle areas is limited. Due areas of equatorial jungle where there are no dry to the inaccuracies in the available maps, care must seasons. During rainy seasons, rainfall can be pre-

176 TAGO MIX A dieted with reasonable accuracy. The volume of a reasonable distance at ground level. This condi- rainfall is the most important factor. Two hundred tion exists where the branches of tall trees interlace inches of rain are not uncommon in a year. During to form a canopy through which few sunrays pene- dry seasons, it is not unusual for two or more trate, thereby prohibiting the growth of grass, months to pass with no precipitation whatsoever. bushes, or other foliage. Where old forests have b. Visibility may be greatly restricted during burned or have been destroyed, the resulting tangle rainy seasons, due not only to the rainfall itself, but or undergrowth seriously limits both observation also to heavy ground fogs which may linger for and fields of fire. In open areas, observation and several hours after sunrise. Light data which could fields of fire may be limited by the height of the be used in drier climates is of less value under such jungle grass, which sometimes grows several feet circumstances. over a man’s head. c. Absence of wind in areas of dense forest or c. Cover and Concealment. Undergrowth, forest undergrowth will have a marked effect on the em- area, and high grass areas afford excellent conceal- ployment of smoke. High winds may not be felt in ment from observation and also limit the distance heavily vegetated areas since they tend to pass sound travels. It must be remembered that these above the dense forest. advantages work for the enemy as well as for our forces. Artificial concealment and camouflage is d. Temperature changes in mountainous jungle very easy to make. Soft ground in certain areas and areas will sometimes range 40° to 50° over a period the prevalence of revetting and covering material of 12 hours. In other jungle areas the deviation from make artificial cover easy to dig and conceal. day to night will be constant and have very little change. d. Obstacles. Many natural obstacles exist within the various types of jungle area. In the older forests e. Trafficability varies with the location of the there is generally no obstacle to foot movement jungle area. Near large bodies of water, low ground other than incidental swampy areas and occasional may be constantly soft, even in the dry season, and fallen trees and vines. However, the trees them- may, therefore, be passable without improvement selves, depending on their spacing, and the moist only to foot troops. Conversely, at higher elevations, ground, may act as obstacles to vehicular move- trafficability may remain excellent throughout most ment. Man made obstacles are often more effective of the year, becoming poor only during the worst in jungle areas than in normal terrain, due to the part of the rainy season. At times, even when limited communication routes. A log barrier across trafficability has been excellent, the volume of rain- a trail or a protected mine field across a road may fall within an hour or less may completely halt cause a marked increase in the delay to the oppos- vehicular movement and severely restrict foot ing force and may require a greater amount of effort movement. for its removal or the preparation of a bypass. 61. Terrain Considerations e. Avenues of Approach. Suitable routes, con- а. Key Terrain. Key terrain in jungle areas in- sidering the aspects of good observation, field of cludes trails, roads, bridges, and communication fire, use of key terrain, cover and avoiding obstacles, centers. High ground is still selected as key but for may be virtually impossible to find. A compromise varying reasons. A hill may be the only feature in must be made because of the limited existing routes. Cutting of new trails and repair of those already the area which affords an area for defense. A river through an otherwise impenetrable forest may be a in existence are constant tasks. In selection of avenues of approach available to the enemy, the S2 key terrain feature. should consider no portion of the jungle area as б. Observation and Fields of Fire. In dense impassable, no matter how difficult or thick. jungle, observation and fields of fire are limited by the undergrowth. In the other rain forests, however, 62. Consideration of the Enemy Capabilities although good observation into the forest from the The intelligence officer must be cautious not to outside or above may be nonexistent, it is possible conclude that the enemy cannot attack through to have fair observation and good fields of fire for supposedly impenetrable areas or that he cannot » TACO 55UA 177 reinforce in time to affect our mission. Movement too far away to be used logically for that purpose. from friendly positions to an objective may take Due to poor observation from both ground and air, longer than estimated, and the enemy may take the location of enemy forces is often quite difficult advantage of this to reinforce with a unit considered to determine.

Section IV. OFFENSIVE COMBAT

63. General b. Missions of Advancing Forces. Troop move- a. Jungle operations lack the unity characteristic ments will primarily be either— of offensive operations in more navigable terrain. ( 1 ) Movement to contact an enemy force in a The operations become a series of decentralized planned attack, or, small unit engagements. Subordinate unit com- (2) The pursuit of a defeated enemy. To ex- manders must exercise initiative and be allowed ploit such a success in jungle combat com- freedom of action in executing a mission. manders may be expected to run many b. Forms of offensive maneuvers in the jungle are more risks than would ordinarily be normally restricted to envelopments and frontal tolerated. attacks. Envelopments are executed where pos- c. Principles Governing Troop Advances. sible, often in conjunction with frontal attacks, to (1) Movement to contact. The movement to minimize enemy attention to enveloping forces. Air- contact is often restricted to a file, even for mobile attacking forces (especially those using large sized units, unless trails are cut. helicopters) are useful in executing envelopments Flank protection for moving columns is in the form of surprise attacks and flanking maneu- difficult and security forces work at greatly vers. Infiltration tactics and techniques take on reduced distances. The rate of inarch is increased emphasis for opposing forces because of governed by the nature of the terrain and the visibility restrictions imposed by jungle vegeta- vegetation. In the jungle, time factors will tion. For further tactical considerations in ground be increased and space factors decreased. and airborne maneuvers, see FM 7-11, FM 7—40, The commander places his supporting and FM 100-5. weapons well forward. When the position 64. Movement To Contact of the enemy has been determined and contact is imminent, the final stage of the a. General. In jungle the great variety of terrain movement is made. The advance is by will enable the enemy to establish, maintain and bounds, from one terrain feature to an- withdraw from delaying positions sited in depth other. Skirmish lines are rarely used by along the axis of advance of friendly forces without leading elements until contact is made. observation. These positions can impose serious and (2) Pursuit. The success of the pursuit in costly delays all out of proportion to their size jungle is dependent on maintaining con- unless advancing troops cut them off and destroy tact, either physically or by short distances. them. Leading infantry elements must maintain The pursuit must observe more than nor- the momentum of the advance. This can best be mal precautions to avoid moving into an done by fixing the enemy at the point of contact ambush. This tends to slow pursuit down. while maneuver elements seek limits of the flanks and the depth of the hostile position. This action (3) Influencing factors. The following factors is usually assisted only by the fire power immedi- influence advance or pursuit movements in ately available and applies the principles previously jungle. described as “contact drills” or “immediate action” (а) The mission must be clear, understood, drills. Such small unit actions, carried out with and kept in view by all members of a determination, will usually disrupt the enemy’s unit. delaying tactics, retain the initiative and allow the (б) The pursuing force must be well bal- main body to close with the enemy. anced.

178 TAGO 5511A (c) The plan must be simple. It is useless ations in the vegetation patterns which to formulate a complicated plan which give fields of fire to the enemy and trail in the heat of action is liable to be for- junctions should be noted and avoided. gotten. (4) Any marked variation in terrain or vege- id) Accurate and immediate information tation likely to require a change in for- about the terrain is required at all levels. mation, such as the transition from jungle Maps and aerial photographs must be to village areas, swamps, grasslands and studied carefully before the operation cultivations should be noted and plans begins. Frequently these will be the formulated accordingly. only sources of information from which e. Formations. The close country of primary to plan. Some topographical information jungle or secondary growth rarely allows an ad- may be obtained from local inhabitants, vance in any formation other than a column. Such but this should not be accepted without a platoon or company formation is more difficult to reservation. control under these circumstances, and they may (e) Constant pressure must be applied and require greater time than normal to deploy. In maintained against the enemy to pre- order to speed up deployment from column in close vent him from reorganizing. jungle country units should develop SOP or im- (/) Leading troop elements must be pre- mediate action responses. If a squad is used as the pared to outflank and bypass enemy point during the advance distances between men positions. This demands a high degree may average five to seven paces but troops must of initiative, rapid and accurate esti- retain eye contact. If á platoon is used this same mates of the situation, cleatybrief orders spacing should be continued throughout the platoon and resolute execution. so that the overall length of the point platoon ap- (g) Commanders should position themselves proximates 250 meters in length. The main body well forward and, while not interfering may use one or both sides of the path made by the with their subordinates, should be pre- point and the interval between men should be re- pared to use all their means to maintain the momentum of the advance. duced to three paces. If the main body is the re- (h) Fire power should be placed well for- mainder of a company its over-all length would be approximately 400 to 500 meters. Such a forward and readily available. mation is suitable for movement through primary (i) Accurate and rapid dissemination of information and instructions; this, of jungle, along trails, through swamp forests and grasslands. In plantation with regular rows of trees course, is dependent upon an efficient it would be vulnerable to machinegun fire. On pass- communications system. ing into paddy fields, villages and open swamps (;) Speed, boldness and a willingness of platoon leaders and commanders to take the formation should be opened up as enemy observation is increased. The commander of the point calculated risks. should receive instructions as to the method of d. Planning. Detailed planning should con- dealing with any unexpected changes of topog- sider— raphy; i.e., whether to outflank and then search (1) The general shape of the ground. back, or whether to alter the formation and pass (2) Likely ambush sites. Long and especially through. steep, straight stretches of trail networks, bends in trails particularly on crests, small /. Security. The generally extensive fields of view open areas, creek and river crossings, tim- and fire in open areas diminish to 5 to 10 meters ber edges, trails cut or worn into hillsides in secondary growth and about 100 to 200 meters and grassland growths should be carefully in plantations. This should not be taken to mean marked on the map and considered as dan- that ambush is unlikely in open areas, since guer- ger areas. rillas have shown that quite large forces can be am- (3) Likely enemy outpost or observation posi- bushed in open plains; rather it must be assumed tions. Knolls, the ends of ridge lines along that although the danger from ambush is increased which the axis of advance passes, vari- in close country danger still will exist in open areas.

TAGO 5511A 179 Troops must be prepared during the advance to restricted in their scope of maneuver but deal with contact on the flanks just as effectively this disadvantage is compensated for by as contact from the front. In addition, no column the additional weight of fire support af- should be so disposed that the whole of it can be forded by air support, armor, artillery and, ambushed at one time. On the other hand it must in some cases, naval gunfire. The coordi- never be allowed to become too long or troops al- nated attack is rarely planned below bat- lowed to straggle. For brief halts local security is talion level. obtained by having troops face outwards from the c. Basic Requirements. The criteria for a suc- path of movement and by taking up firing posi- cessful attack in jungle does not materially differ tions just away from it. For longer halts, as at from that as described in FM 7-40 and FM 100-5 meal times, squads and platoons should form an and as applied to attacks in more open terrain. all-around defense. Security measures should be However, due to the difficulty of planning for and standard drill and executed without orders during launching of an attack in jungle it is well to review halts. the basic requirements for successful attack. They 65. The Attack are: a. General. Attacks in the jungle are usually (1) The attack must be organized in depth. launched during daylight. Night attacks are sel- (2) The line of departure must be secure. dom launched unless there has been time for ade- (3) The attack must be supported by all quate thorough reconnaissance and detailed simple available fires. planning, there are adequate easily recognizable (4) Assaulting infantry and tanks (if present) control measures available, secrecy can be main- must keep close to supporting fires. tained, and the condition and training of the troops (5) The momentum of the attack must be favors such a course of action. However, the jungle maintained. daylight attack resembles a night attack because of (6) Reorganization after the attack must be reduced visibility, control, and effectiveness of rapid and complete. aimed small arms fire. (7) Supporting weapons must displace for- b. F arms of the Attack. Attacks in jungle ter- ward quickly to assist reorganization. rain may take form in two ways—a piecemeal at- (8) Areas immediately adjacent to the objec- tack and a coordinated attack. tive must be dominated after the attack. (1) Piecemeal attack. These engagements oc- (9) Air defense measures should be estab- cur when forces first approach one an- lished. other or after a breakthrough when one d. Planning. The plan of attack includes the force has disengaged. The usual objective scheme of maneuver and plan for fire support. In of a piecemeal attack is to break through the jungle, attack plans may include as required enemy advance forces and to seize tacti- the seizure of a communication complex, a resup- cal terrain features. These actions will ply base, critical port facilities, navigable routes normally be limited to squad, platoon and through an otherwise impenetrable jungle, an in- company level ; therefore, reliance must be land navigable waterway, commanding terrain, and placed on experience and combat profi- enemy forces. For detailed planning in offensive ciency of troops rather than on detailed combat, see FM 7-11 and FM 7-40. planning and analysis of every possible (1) Troop leading procedure. When he re- contingency. ^ ceives his orders to attack, a commander (2) Coordinated attack. Coordinated attacks commences his troop leading procedure, are launched against strongly prepared en- each of the troop leading steps is accom- emy positions to break through the enemy plished but the time spent on each de- defenses in order to allow commanders an pends on the time available and the time opportunity to exploit the initial success until H-hour. On occasions planning for and thus to achieve a final or at least a an attack in jungle may occupy days; on significant victory. Assaulting troops are others, the commander may have only a

180 TAQO 5511A few hours to plan and launch his attack. means to pass information on to all concerned. The Unit SOP must provide for all main con- commander increases his control of the situation tingencies. by positioning himself so he can observe the action (2) Reconnaissance. Information on the loca- if terrain permits. Communications are the key tion and strength of the enemy and the to command control in the jungle attack. Good ground can best be obtained by reconnais- communications can be facilitated by establishing sance and patrolling. It is usually not pos- a headquarters on a reduced scale well forward be- sible for a commander to get a good pic- fore the attack starts. This headquarters should ture of the area over which he must attack be sited in a position favoring radio equipment, in by personal reconnaissance in dense jun- an inconspicuous position and in a position which gle. Patrols will be the primary means of affords a suitable command post close at hand. The obtaining this information. Platoon lead- commander should leave this CP only during the ers, squad leaders, and, in some instances, active phase of the battle when he considers that company commanders must be prepared his presence,will directly influence the outcome of to assault without first seeing the ground the attack. In close jungle, he is better located or the objective. A high standard of aerial centrally than where he may be out of contact. photograph and map reading is therefore /. Conduct of the Attack. Based on information essential. Natural obstacles which the en- obtained by reconnaissance, the commander de- emy has deemed secure and on which he cides on the direction of attack. The attack is con- has relied for protection can often be ducted with a formation similar to that used in a crossed by determined troops after thor- night attack in open country. Distance and inter- ough reconnaissance by patrols. Such vals are reduced and the column formation is ground is often lightly held or even com- maintained as far forward as possible. Fire sup- pletely undefended. In addition, there is port is as essential in the jungle as in open terrain. a tendency for defenses to be concentrated Unsupported infantry ordinarily cannot breach a on the more likely avenues of approach defensive position without incurring heavy casual- from the front and flanks. Consequently, ties. The area to be breached must be pinpointed. when considering small defensive posi- Artillery and mortar forward observers may have tions advantage can sometimes be taken to approach within extremely short range of their of a surprise attack in the rear of a posi- own fires. The fire support coordination (FSCC) tion where it may be least suspected and can control the priority of units to register with where there may be a lack of prepared- smoke shells or sound sensing. During the assault, ness. If time is available the reconnais- supporting fires should continue until they are sance for an attack must be planned care- lifted or shifted by the assaulting commander. fully. Emphasis should be placed on the They are then shifted to cover the specific targets following information : that will most assist the progress of the assaulting (а) Location of the enemy, particularly his force. Because of terrain and visibility restriction, flanks. an assault line, as such, is not normally formed. (б) The depth of the position and the loca- Rather, aggressive fire and movement by assault- tion of sentries and listening posts. ing fire teams are conducted to overcome enemy (c) Location of automatic weapons and resistance. Due to the difficulty in locating enemy their sectors of fire. emplacements by visual means alone, the fire and (d) Suitable assembly areas, attack posi- movement phase of the assault may force the en- tions, lines of departure and “dead” emy to disclose his positions. As the enemy em- ground to enemy observation and fires. placements are located, the assaulting force gen- (e) Routes to assembly area. erally move on a single axis with the fire con- (/) Approaches to the objective. centrated on a selected and limited area of the e. Control 0/ the Battle. Control of an attack in enemy defensive perimeter. Smoke may be used to jungle depends upon the commander and his sub- screen off the flanks of the area selected for pene- ordinate leaders having current information about tration. The objective of the initial assault is to the progress of the attack and having efficient achieve a local penetration into the main battle

TAGO 5511A 181 position of the enemy. Once the penetration is if the terrain and situation permit. After the ob- made it is exploited until the objective is taken. jective is overrun it must be secured immediately Fire support and maneuver may be replaced by as- with a hasty perimeter, security measures set up sault fire after the penetration when friendly forces and preparations made to repel an enemy counter- are fanning out within the enemy battle position, attack.

Section V. RELATED OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE ACTION

66. Coordinated Attack Against a Fortified it is necessary to have overlapping fields of vision Position and hearing. Individual soldiers in front line posi- a. When attacking a fortified position, manmade tions must be trained to observe, listen, and report obstacles such as heavy bunkers, protective and accurately on enemy activity. tactical wire, and mines will be encountered. The 68. Patrolling enemy will have to be burned or blasted out of his positions. This will require a great amount of fire- a. For the principles of patrolling and the de- power and frontages must be narrowed to insure tailed instructions concerning the operations of pa- the concentration of these fires. Limited objectives trols, see FM 21-75, FM 21-50 and paragraph 40 must also be established to facilitate control. of this manual. b. The preparatory phase of such attacks will b. The size of a patrol varies with each mission involve the construction and improvement of roads assigned and should include only the number of and trails behind friendly lines to permit the move- men necessary to complete the mission successfully. ment of supplies, ammunition, and the weapons The larger patrols are used primarily to establish that are to be used to support the attack. patrol bases from which smaller patrols operate (para 82). c. If naval gunfire can be used to advantage, it should be requested and a schedule of the fires 69. Relief in Place planned in advance. A naval gunfire liaison team a. The execution of reliefs in forward areas is may assist in directing the gunfire by direct ship- one of the most common operations of warfare in to-shore communications. any type of terrain. Although jungle operations d. Arrangements should be made for maximum will usually be conducted by small units acting in- artillery preparation and continuing artillery sup- dependently the possibility of combat on a vast port. The artillery may require several days for scale over protracted periods cannot be ignored. displacement to new and better positions and regis- Most certainly in such cases reliefs will be neces- tration. sary. Reliefs are carried out in open country at e. Forward air controllers make ground recon- night when observation of the enemy is of prime naissance, employing all possible means to locate concern. In jungle, reliefs should take place by day, accurately the targets for preparatory bombing and where natural security from observation is pro- strafing attack. vided and control of troops is possible. Regardless of where or when reliefs take place, in order to /. The procurement of combat intelligence avoid confusion it is essential to have a simple means of air-photo reconnaissance, interrogation of procedure which is known to all. The unit opera- prisoners and reconnaissance patrolling is essential. tional SOP must include procedures and instruc- g. Combat patrolling must be continuous and tions for relief operations. aggressive keeping the enemy on the defensive and limiting his ability to patrol. b. Planning. The battalion commander should issue a warning order 48 hours before a company 67. Observation Posts is required to effect a relief. On receipt of a warn- The terrain and the resulting poor visibility ing order the company commander should pass on limit the value of observation posts. In jungle the all available information to his unit leaders and observation-listening post is the most frequently detail an advance party. The advance party should used. When observation-listening posts are used consist of the commander or executive officer, a

182 TACO 6511A unit supply member, platoon leaders or platoon Ö. Procédures. Control of movement in and out •sergeants and a messenger from each platoon; the of two units is the responsibility of the outgoing commander or his representative and two runners. or relieved unit. The following will be arranged: (1) Duties of(1) the Selection advance andparty. marking Rifle ofcom- routes. pany commanders and platoon leaders (2) Designation of guides to meet and lead in- must be furnished information on: coming troops to checkpoints. (a) Terrain, including details of dead (3) Establishment of • necessary checkpoints ground. to effect both in and out movement. (b) The enemy (habits, snipers, patrols, location of automatic positions, mine- --'d. Security During Relief. The outgoing unit'is fields, wire, shelling, etc.). responsible for maintaining an illusion of normal (c) The air situation, if not already obvi- activity during the relief. Normal patrol activity ous. should be maintained prior to and after the relief. (d) Disposition of adjacent units. Patrols should be dispatched to insure that the (e) Mission of company or platoon to be area is well covered during the actual time taken relieved. for the new company to move in and the old com- (/) Complete overlay of company or pla- pany to move out. These patrols may include toon position to include number of men representatives from the advance party of the in- in each listening post, observation post, coming unit. Patrols are only withdrawn after the and special warning devices. relief, and the relieving units must know where to (g) Counterattack plans. direct them on their withdrawal. (h) Fire plans. (i) Methods of calling for fire support. e. Speed and Secrecy in Relief. (;) Other operations in the area. (1) Speed. It is essential that, the relief be (fc) Alternate and supplementary positions. speedily effected and troops quickly set- (Z) Patrol routes and minefield or obstacle tled into their new routine. Adequate lanes. planning and training is necessary to min- (m) Alert signals. imize confusion in a relief. (n) Supply points. (2) Secrecy. The relief must be carried out by (o) Feeding and sanitary arrangements. silent movement sometimes in complete (p) Details of any dead and equipment lying forward of the position. darkness. Noise will make the enemy sus- (g) Location of higher headquarters CP. picious and may lead to an attack during (r) Routes for runners. relief; at any rate, it will certainly draw (s) Passwords, challenges, and other codes. fire. On the other hand complete silence (t) Light signals. and no apparent activity may make the (u) When responsibility for the area is to enemy equally suspicious; hence the need change between the two commanders. for maintaining normal activities.

Section VI. THE DEFENSE

70. General The extent to which a defensive position is developed requires an understanding of jungle charac- a. Defensive combat in jungle terrain does not teristics. There are no impenetrable jungles, im- differ greatly from combat in other types of terrain. passable swamps, unfordable rivers, or unscalable The basic principles and fundamentals of defense cliffs and the commander must not assume that-his remain valid. However, the tactics and techniques command is protected by such barriers. Because used to apply them varies depending on the nature of the heavy vegetation and dense undergrowth, of the terrain. See FM 7-15, FM 7-20, FM 7-30, observation and fields of fire are restricted. Com- FM 61-100 and FM 100-5 for principles, funda- manders at all levels must make a thorough terrain mentals and doctrine governing defensive combat. analysis of any area they are to defend. The de-

TAGO 5511A 183 gree to which a defensive position is prepared de- (3) Troops are kept healthy. Fungus infec- pends on the mission, enemy, terrain, and troops tions, insect bites, skin rash and immer- available; on the availability of logistical support; sion foot can deteriorate troop health rap- and on the requirements of time and space. Thor- idly unless treated promptly and properly. ough and continuous ground reconnaissance is (4) All available comfort items (candy, to- necessary because of the limited effectiveness of bacco, newspapers, etc.) should be equi- security elements. The concealment from air ob- tably issued and recreation should be pro- servation afforded by the jungle helps to permit vided as available or possible. extensive ground reconnaissance. Dense jungle im- c. Climate. When planning or conducting the poses severe limitations on the defensive use of defense the following factors should be considered: weapons because observation is often limited to a few .yards. These factors along with restriction (1) There are about twelve hours of daylight on maneuver and control, place the greatest em- in jungle followed by extreme darkness phasis on planning, coordination, and small unit under the canopy. Digging in darkness leadership. will be difficult to conceal because of noise created by cutting through roots and other b. Of the many problems peculiar to defense in forms of vegetation. jungle terrain, the most critical is communication. Whenever possible, alternate means using wire, (2) Climate, primarily humidity, will ad- flares, and other signal devices must be employed. versely affect physical effort. The perimeter type defense will most frequently (3) Tropical downpours will quickly flood be employed, however, it is highly desirable to positions unless they are adequately organize in depth and retain a mobile reserve when- drained. This should be considered when ever possible. The use of helicopters will enable siting positions. a commander to conduct mobile defense operations (4) Reserve ammunition and other supplies in an area otherwise unsuitable. must be protected from rain. All supplies should be placed on dunnage to keep them 71. Basic Considerations out of the mud. a. Enemy Tactics. The purpose of any enemy d. Requirements for Defensive Positions in attack will be to launch sufficient strength in man- Jungle. power, equipment and firepower against a selected (1) Depth. The defensive plan must include weak point in a defensive position; the immediate depth in order to— aim is to penetrate the defense and to achieve the (a) Deny the enemy ground and air obser- isolation of defensive positions for subsequent en- vation and reconnaissance of the entire velopment when they are no longer mutually sup- area. porting. (b) Break up the enemy attack by attrition. b. Morale. Rumors and fear of the jungle must (c) Afford time for the commander to ana- be suppressed and, within security requirements, lyze the situation, determine the enemy’s troops kept informed. Forceful leadership, strict intention and take action accordingly. discipline, prompt evacuation of casualties, and (2) Concealment. The employment of unde- prior planning will minimize the morale problems tected reserves and concealment of all inherent in a jungle operation. positions are the main opportunities which the defense has of achieving surprise and (1) The unit completely dominates the local gaining the initiative. Jungle provides position and the enemy by well-prepared good natural concealment from ground and and executed patrols and small attacks. aerial observation. Troops should pre- This will maintain the offensive spirit. serve the natural look of the jungle by (2) Troops are rested as required. Normal carefully disposing of refuse and spoil, by routine under jungle conditions such as good trail discipline, by restricting cut- patrols, sentry duty, digging, etc., can be ting of timber near positions and mini- physically exhausting and mentally de- mum movement to minimize the effective- pressing. ness of enemy reconnaissance. It must be

184 TAGO 5511A expected that the enemy will use every (6) Counterattack. There must be a counter- ruse to gain information about positions. attack plan and troops designated for Enemy forces will be able to approach this purpose for all units. These troops very close in these attempts particularly should be familiar with the plans. Re- at night. Troops must be fully aware of hearsals are extremely important. these conditions. In open terrain such as (7) Obstacles. Obstacles should be covered by grasslands and cultivation it may be pos- fire. The enemy should be denied observa- sible to occupy reserve slopes. Require- tion of them. They should not be located ments for such positions are adequate within grenade throwing range of the de- fields of fire for automatic weapons and fensive positions. This must be balanced observation from the flanks into the enemy against the thickness of the vegetation side of the positions. and the possibility of the vegetation be- (3) Mutual support. In primary and sec- ing destroyed. For instance, a wire ob- ondary jungle the short range of observa- stacle located ten yards outside the position, short fields of fire and the restricted tion may be sufficient to prevent grenades range of automatic fire coverage will re- being thrown in if the growth is dense, quire that defensive positions are closely but it would probably not suffice after the sited for mutual support. However, care growth has been shot away. must be exercised in this close siting of (8) Communications. Ground lines are sus- positions so that adjoining positions are ceptible to enemy compromise or interfer- not placed so close together that they are ence in jungle. While it is likely that wire vulnerable to high angle fire after the will be the primary method of communica- foliage and scrub have been shot away. tion in the defense there should be an (4) All-around defense. Penetration between alternate means. Signals should provide defensive locations may occur due to the for a means to call for final protective extreme difficulty of covering ground with fires and counterattacks. men and fire in jungle terrain. Thus, the 72. Organization of the Ground principle of all around defense should always be applied. A defensive position The principle of perimeter defense is usually should not, however, depend solely on an- used. The limited fields of observation allow the other position for protection of its flanks enemy to approach the position without being de- and rear. tected. Infiltration is easier and there is greater (5) Controlled fire power. In dense vegeta- danger of attack from any direction. The proper tion, elements of a unit are less able to use of listening posts and warning devices can re- rely on effective mutual support fire from duce this hazard to a minimum. The battalion and smaller units often operate as independent units. adjacent positions. It is thus most important that adequate fire support under The extent of all-around defense signals depends on the type of operation, the unit involved, the terrain centralized control be made available to any unit or element on position to assist and the vegetation. When possible, one or both in breaking up mass assaults directed at flanks should rest on a natural obstacle such as a river, lagoon, swamp, steep cliff, or the sea. While one point. Good fire discipline, effective such features constitute obstacles to the attacker, control by junior leaders and correct re- they are never considered as insurmountable bar- action by troops will be vital in fighting riers and provisions must be made to meet with off a sudden assault from close range. fire the enemy who attacks over or through them. The maximum fire power must be applied The first step in organizing the ground is to place at the critical moment and at the shortest the automatic weapons and prepare the fields (tun- possible range to be effective- against a nels) of fire. Primary and alternate positions are massed assault. Targets should not be constructed. Camouflage is continuous and strict ordinarily engaged unless the enemy is camouflage discipline is observed. Vegetation is definitely identified. This is most impor- not cut unnecessarily and the cutting is carefully tant in the defense at night. planned and controlled by leaders.

TAGO SM1A 185 73. Security and Surveillance Measures able times for the enemy to attack this Security is planned to gain early information of provides a good opportunity for the pla- the enemy's approach. Patrols, sentinels, observa- toon leader to consider the value of his tion posts, listening posts, and combat outguards fire plans under varying light and weath- are used. These outguards form the nucleus of the er conditions. combat outpost system along critical jungle ap- (2) Meals. Due to risk of enemy interference proaches. They give early warning of the enemy mealtimes should be staggered so that only and, within their capability, delay, disorganize, and one-third of the unit eats at one time. deceive the enemy as to the true location of the Cooking should be done at battalion or main positions. Trip wires connected to rattlers, company level and distributed to the pla- anti-personnel mines, or illuminating flares may toons. be installed around the position at night to warn (3) Working periods. Rotation of tasks by of the enemy’s approach. Other means may be platoons and squads. used to illuminate the battle fields at night; cans (4) Washing. Periods staggered. filled with jellied gasoline with a remote system of (5) Rest. Periods staggered as for meals. ignition may be placed in strategic areas and ig- (6) Reports. To company commander from nited when the enemy approaches. Such devices platoons according to schedule. These re- should be located far enough beyond the position ports should be accurate and in detail and so that the light will not blind the defenders or should include strength, changes in posi- disclose their positions, yet close enough not to be tions, platoon activities, enemy activities obscured by the vegetation. The effect of all illumi- observed, etc. nation is limited by the heavy foliage and the tree top canopy of the jungle. Additional means to pro- (7) Medical precautions. This should include vide surveillance include radar and infrared de- personal hygiene, antimalaria, antimite vices. Detailed planning and coordination must medication, water discipline, latrine proce- be effected by all commanders sending out night dures and refuse disposal. patrols. Plans include the mission, time of depar- (8) Weapons maintenance.^A specific time for ture, time of return, routes to be used, sign and inspections should be set (and staggered countersign, and emergency signals. Patrols’ plans by squads). In any one squad all automatic weapons should not be cleaned at are sent to the next higher headquarters and to the the same time. Magazines should be direct support artillery headquarters for coordi- stripped and, together with ammunition, nation with adjacent units and security elements wiped daily. Normally, field cleaning will forward of the main battle positions, and with sup- be necessary on a daily basis to prevent porting artillery fires. rust damage from humidity. 74. Conduct of the Defense b. Procedures. The defense is conducted according to the principles of standard doctrine. Long- a. Routine. Morale, health and efficiency are range fires are planned and executed as in any other best maintained in a company defensive position if type of terrain, conforming to the desires of the a daily routine is planned and followed carefully. commander and the availability of ammunition. This routine will require daily visits by the com- Close defensive fires to include artillery, mortars mander to platoon positions to check on regular and automatic weapons are planned to destroy the maintenance of weapons, equipment and protection integrity of an enemy’s forces before he launches of ammunition. (See chapter 7 for a discussion of his assault. Units whose defense areas are not maintenance procedures.) In turn, the platoon under attack or whose weapons are not required to leader should check in detail at least one squad fire in support of areas which are under attack, dis- daily to practice the routine. The routine should cipline their fire to prevent disclosure of their posi- cover— tions. The decreased frontage, shorter distance, and (1) Alerts. Unless positionscloser intervalsare visited between during units in jungle operations alerts the battle readiness of the squads call for extensive and detailed planning for fires. will deteriorate. Apart from being favor- Listening posts should use two-man foxholes be-

186 TAGO Mil A cause they allow the occupants to take turns at are made and movements are rehearsed for counter- observing and listening and provide a two-man attacks to restore positions which might be pene- fighting unit. Individuals must be disciplined not trated by the enemy. If the counterattack force to talk or smoke. Warning devices in the form of must pass through another friendly unit close co- antipersonnel mines, booby traps, trip flares, vines, ordination must be effected and movement must be ration cans, and grenades should be installed. Plans rehearsed.

Section VII. RETROGRADE MOVEMENTS 75. General defense of one or more delaying positions. The As the tactical situation changes, a unit may re- flanks of such delaying positions must be protected ceive orders to conduct a withdrawal from action against envelopment by the enemy. Small, well- to initiate offensive or defensive action elsewhere or trained units can delay forces many times their size. be required to establish a delaying position in order This type of combat is especially strenuous; there- to delay the enemy forward of a specific area for a fore, if the situation permits, units should be divided specified period. In any type of retrograde move- into groups which may alternate in occuping delay- ment it is absolutely necessary that commanders ing positions and thus obtain rest, while the enemy and leaders at all levels fully explain the reasons is kept constantly engaged. Forward observers for such operations to troops and keep them fully remain with the delaying force. In addition to their informed of the situation. This is the only way to normal equipment, delaying groups should carry avoid rumors, maintain morale and to avoid loss of axes, mines, and explosives. In order to cause the efficiency and the offensive spirit which might result maximum delay, particularly of vehicles, bridges during such operations. should be destroyed and trees and other obstacles placed across all trails and roads as far forward 76. Withdrawal from the delaying positions as time and the situ- a. A withdrawal operation in jungle terrain when ation permit. Mines and booby traps should be not under pressure, may be carried out in the same placed in the jungle on both sides of the obstacles, way as a night withdrawal in open country. With- and in the obstacles themselves to make their re- drawal by day in jungle in this manner is possible moval hazardous. At points where the jungle is thin because of the concealment that is offered. It must and does not offer an obstacle to the movement of be emphasized that the mechanics of such an oper- foot troops, mines and boobytraps may be employed ation may vary from those considered as doctrine. to deny these avenues of approach to the enemy. Daylight withdrawal techniques may have to be Mines and boobytraps placed along trails and paths used in certain conditions. will cause the enemy to move with caution and delay his progress. Obstacles should be placed along b. Cover and concealment provided by the jungle the front of delaying positions in such a manner facilitate withdrawal by units in contact with the that the enemy movement will be canalized into enemy. Small groups familiar with the route over areas where the delaying force can place the most which they are to move can deny these trails to the fire power. Because of the difficulties of supply and enemy and force him to attack on a narrow front or make him cut trails around the delaying group. coordination, small forces are better suited for This delays the enemy long enough to allow the executing delaying action in jungle. Reserves main body to withdraw. Withdrawal by daylight should be available behind leading elements along in jungle areas has many advantages of a night each trail for support and to patrol trails to prevent withdrawal in more open terrain, and it permits a the delaying force from being cut off. greater degree of control. Maximum use of ambushes should be made. 78. Employment of Chemicals in Retrograde Movements 77. Delaying Defense a. Persistent Effect Agents. Chemical mines can In defense in jungle areas delaying action is ex- assist in the withdrawal or delay by supplementing ecuted principally on and near trails. In open areas, other barriers, obstacles, and demolitions. Specific the action frequently requires the occupation and areas recommended for the use of chemical mines

TACO 5511A 187 are demolition sites of bridges, approaches, and c. Increased Communications Difficulties jor fordable crossing sites. The chemical mining of Enemy Forces. Communication and control in the key trails, junction sites, or possible ambush areas jungle will be difficult. By forcing the enemy to will increase the number of enemy casualties. The mask because of the presence of toxic chemical commander can also use persistent effect toxic agents, commanders can increase this difficulty, in- chemical agents to canalize the enemy into pre- crease the physical discomfort and decrease the selected areas or routes where other weapons can enemy’s ability to maintain contact with the be used more effectively to cover the retrograde friendly retrograde operations. movement. d. Troop Safety, No Restriction. Troop safety b. Nonpersistent Effect Agents.on the part of employing commanders will not be (1) Vapor concentrations. Nonpersistent effect a major concern in the use of their persistent effect toxic chemical agents can be used to dis- or nonpersistent effect toxic chemical agents in sup- rupt the enemy’s attack formations by port of retrograde operations. Friendly forces will causing quick casualties and forcing him be moving away from the contamination. This plus to slow down or break contact with the the existence of reduced wind speeds (drag effect) friendly retrograde maneuver. and heavy foliage in jungle areas, add to the effec- (2) Liquid concentrations. The agents can be tiveness of toxic chemical agents in jungle retro- used for their liquid effect to create casual- grade movements. Detailed discussions of agent ties by absorption through the clothing characteristics and employment are found in FM’s and skin. 3-5 and 20-32 and TM’s 3-200 and 3-300.

18« TAQO £511A CHAPTER 5

SPECIAL COMBAT TECHNIQUES

79. General eral area of the objective. This will enable the raid- a. Military operations in jungle require many ing patrol to reach their objective faster and in types of special operations. Patrolling actions, better physical condition to accomplish their mis- operations from forward bases, ambush and other sion. The limiting factors in the use of Army air- forms of close combat are common. Thorough train- craft are landing areas, load capacity, and the pos- ing in these relatively specialized operations is ab- sible loss of the element of surprise due to the noise solutely essential for the unit which must fight in of the aircraft. jungle. b. For a discussion of the general principles gov- b. The jungle offers concealment and limits visi- erning conduct of raid operations see FM 21-50 and bility to the extent that surprise in both the attack FM 21-75. and the defense may be exploited to an unusual 81. Ambush and Counterambush degree. Formations are compact and similiar to those used in night operations in open or lightly For detailed discussion of these combat tech- wooded terrain. The development of initiative, bold- niques see FM 21-50, FM 21-75, FM 31-16, FM ness, and determination in the small unit com- 31-21, FM 31-22, and paragraphs 39 through 48 of mander and the development of self-reliance and this manual. reliability on the part of the individual soldier are 82. Tactical Base Operations required. a. Necessity. Owing to the difficulties of support- 80. Raids ing forces operating in jungle and because of the a. Jungle terrain lends itself to raid operations. limited time that units can operate independently in The limited visibility and excellent concealment this terrain it may be necessary to establish tactical enable skilled raiding patrols to penetrate deep into bases to enable deep penetration of hostile territory. territory controlled by the enemy. A platoon or b. Tactical Bases. smaller unit is best suited to raid type operations (1) Combat base. A combat base is the focal in jungle. Supporting fires may be used, if avail- point for all operations conducted in the able, but the problem of fire control, the timing of area, sector, or subsector of operations. operations and difficulties of communications, make Generally, it is a semipermanent instal- the employment of fire support very difficult. The lation containing essential command, con- execution of a raid that will require a deep pene- trol, and combat service support elements tration into the jungle will be affected by the physi- of the unit and those attachments neces- cal endurance required of the men to traverse the sary to the performance of the mission. jungle terrain, the lack of detailed information of The combat base should provide an en- the enemy position, resupply, and evacuation. This vironment in which planning, coordination, can be minimized by establishing a patrol base near the general area of the final objective. From there, and administration can be conducted in reconnaissance patrols can be dispatched to scout relative security. The combat base should the enemy positions. Meanwhile, other members of satisfy the requirements for troop morale, the raiding force can be allowed to rest and prepare rest, and rehabilitation with the provision for the forthcoming action. Whenever possible and of recreational facilities, baths, hot meals, practicable, Army aircraft should be used to trans- and other such needs. Forces located in a port raiding patrol members into or near the gen- combat base provide the reserves to be

TAGO 5511A 189 employed to support forces operating from narrowly specialized visual tracker to bases. achieve an advantage over the enemy in (2) Patrol base. Patrol basesthis are field.temporary bases established by units engaged in oper- c. Aids to Tracking. Some of the smaller signs ations away from the combat base. From which will disclose the presence or passage of the these, search, raid, and offensive operations enemy are as follows: are conducted. The base is not protected (1) Footprints or portions of footprints. It by elaborate defenses and must retain a should be known what type of footwear high degree of mobility. The size of a unit the enemy is likely to be wearing so there to operate from a patrol base is dependent will not be confusion with tracks made by upon the size of enemy units operating in friendly troops. an area. For further discussion of tactical base operations see FM 21-50, and FM (2) Direction of grass, leaves or sticks kicked 31-16. up by feet. These will indicate the direc- . tion of movement by the enemy. 83. Tracking (3) Unnatural formations of vines, dead grass, a. General. In jungle operations forces may have broken twigs, etc. will indicate that they to hunt down small groups of guerrillas who are have been pushed aside thus disturbing the native to a particular area and know the terrain natural appearance of the vegetation. intimately. There is a requirement that troops be (4) Sap, latex or fluid exuding from cuts or able to interpret signs left by the enemy and be able bruises on roots and trees. Some bark is to track them. Particularly when patrolling, troops easily broken when stepped on and sap may encounter tracks which will disclose the pres- may appear. ence of an enemy in the area and considerable information may be gained if the men, especially junior (5) Disturbed dry leaf surfaces on the ground. leaders, are able to “read” the signs correctly. It is (6) Change in color of vegetation. This occurs most difficult to move in jungle without leaving when foliage has been disturbed and the some evidence on the ground. Even in the case of lighter underside of the leaves is turned up. very small groups some signs are always present and This color will contrast sharply against the noticeable to the trained eye. normal shiny surface. On the ground the b. Tracking Resources. To a unit operating in color pattern of the leaves will be distin- jungle there are three sources of trackers that are guished by the dark shadows cast by usually available. These are: tumed-up leaves and by the dark under- sides contrasting with the brown color of ( 1 ) Native trackers. The availability of track- the other dry leaves. ers from this source is subject to many variables. Attitude toward friendly forces, (7) Dirt smudges on rocks, logs and leaves. the language problem, reliability, ability Footgear will usually be wet and dirt will adhere to it, smudging and dropping off in and trustworthiness all enter into consid- fragments. eration when natives are to be used. Often natives will break and run at the first (8) Water on certain areas whereas the reaction and will constitute a threat to the mainder is dry. Water will usually collect in depressions made by footprints. If the security of a unit. Further, some of them general size and physical characteristics of may be bribed or coerced by guerrillas. the enemy are known the depth of such a (2) Scout dogs. Well trained scout dogs are print may give a good indication of the useful in jungle operations. They may be weight the man was carrying; the fact that used in patrolling, ambushing, sentry and dirt or mud tends to pile up around the guard duty. outside of the print usually means that a (3) Troops. All individuals can develop track- man was running when he made the print. ing ability. All men must realize that it is (9) Disturbances of insect life. Some insects, not necessary to become a highly trained, especially ants, follow a definite path in

190 TAQO £611A movement and wear a most distinctive im- (2) Search both banks of a stream at least 500 print through vegetation on the ground. meters up and down from the point of If something violates this path (for in- entry. stance, a footprint) ants will go around the (3) If it is apparent that the enemy has split interruption. Deviation from àn estab- up the point of separation should be lished route by ants is a good indication marked. A decision based on study of that something has passed over that area. available signs must be made as to which d. Tracking Conditions in Jungle. group will be followed. (1) Conditions favoring tracking procedures (4) Examine any logs, stones, roots, etc. in the are : immediate vicinity. (a) Air and ground temperatures approxi- (5) Examine the area on either side of path mately equal. made by the enemy soldiers for signs of (b) A mild day with heavy moisture in the disturbance in the leaves. air with slow evaporation. g. Scout Dogs. Inasmuch as any visual tracker (c) Damp ground and vegetation. relies on sight he is unable to track at night and (d) Ground overshadowed by trees. his efficiency is reduced by some types of vegetation (e) Low wind speed. or ground conditions. In these instances the scout (2) Factors which adversely affect tracking dog becomes extreinely valuable for tracking in are: jungle. The employment of infa,ntry scout dogs is (а) Direct sunlight. ' described in detail by FM 20-20. The intent here is (б) Strong winds. to discuss only those aspects of jungle that can be (c) Heavy rains. expected to affect the dogs’ tracking efficiency in id) Running water. the wet tropics. e. Enemy Deception. Well-trained enemy jungle (1) Water. As scent is soluble in water a dog’s troops may use any of the following methods to confuse trackers or to deceive patrols: performance will be poor in heavy rain. Although a scent is constantly being pro- (1) Walking backwards. duced its life is very short and the dog’s (2) Walking in a stream. range of air scent detection may be reduced (3) Jumping off to one side of a route fre- to as little as five yards. Ground scent may quently. be completely negated by rain. (4) Splitting up into small groups of twos or (2) Sunlight. Direct sun light quickly destroys threes. scent and this will severely limit the dog’s (5) Walking along logs or on stones. efficiency under breaks in the canopy. (6) Moving through country, such as rocky However, as scent is constantly produced, terrain, over which it is difficult to track. and as air scent is not so affected, the dog (7) Covering footprints with leaves or brushing will still have a reasonable range. over tracks. (3) Vegetation. Heavy undergrowth will re- /. Counterdeception. The methods described strict the spread of the air scent and will above will delay the tracking process. No enemy tend to blend with ground scent. Primary is so skilled at woodcraft that he can completely jungle and open ground or trails are ideal cover his sign. A careful search of an area will for dogs. show what method of deception has been used. Some (4) Wind. Depending on the direction of the measures to counter deceptive efforts are: wind the scent may be considerably dis- (1) Analyze the directionplaced of grass,from thetwigs, target. ferns, The dog’s average etc. as these will always point in the direc- range of air scent of 200 meters in jungle tion of movement regardless of. the fact may be doubled if down-wind of the enemy that footprints, appear tç be going the or considerably decreased if up-wind of the other way. _ , enemy.

TAGO 5511A 191 (5) Heat exhaustion. This condition is com- the village; if it is occupied the enemy mon in unfit dogs. The stricken dog be- will realize that they are trapped and comes lethargic, refuses to work and at- will fight all the harder from the huts. tempts to keep in the shade. His tempera- (c) Assaulting element. The support part of ture will rise rapidly up to 110° F. or more the assaulting force covers the main vil- and he will appear extremely distressed. lage trails and huts with fire; clearing The dog should immediately be placed in must not start until support is in posi- the shade and cooled with water. It should tion. If the village is occupied the pla- be allow'ed to recover slowly. toon may have to fight to get this element into position. If necessary the 84. Village Clearing assault element may have to advance by a. General. Most jungle villages are of two types fire and movement to cover the clearing (figs 136, 137, and 138). The most common is the parties as they move through the village. small village, which usually consists of a collection (d) The clearing parties should be rifle of huts or houses covering a very small area and a squads. trail running through the center. The other is set- (2) Hut clearing. A suggested method: tlement, or large village, generally consisting of (a) Two riflemen covered by their squad several scattered groups of huts or crude houses. enter the first hut from a side window, There is usually a main trail or “street” running if this is not possible they should enter through the area and a number of subsidiary trails by the rear door observing closely for linking up the groups of huts. The methods and booby traps. They clear the first room procedures used to fight in these villages will gen- and shout or signal “clear!” erally follow the principles set forth in FM 31-50. (b) On this signal, if necessary, the remain- However, jungle village fighting has its own peculi- der of the squad enters the hut and clears arities and demands some modification to the stand- all remaining rooms. ard techniques of combat in built-up areas. (c) As each hut is cleared, the squad leader b. Assignment and Organization. A platoon fre- places cover on a second hut and repeats quently will be given the task of clearing a small the procedure. village or a section of a large village. (3) Considerations. (1) Organization. A platoon(а) orA a clearing unit may party be must not move to next organized as a combat patrol. Within this house until the first has been definitely organization, provisions should be made cleared. for a headquarters or control element, a (б) Each hut must be consolidated in turn. blocking element to seal off the village, an (c) Armed civilians should be treated as uni- assault element and clearing parties. formed enemy. (а) Control element. The patrol leader (d) Beware of women and children used as should be located in the area of the decoys. assault element; he should position him- (e) Grenades can cause casualties among self where he can observe the clearing friendly troops when thrown into a hut action and not fix himself permanently constructed of bamboo, palm fronds or with one element. thatched grass. (б) The blocking or cutoff party. This element should be under the leadership of 85. Counterinsurgency and Counterguerrilla the assistant patrol leader, whose task it Operations should be to go well to the rear of the a. Jungle Terrain and Preconditions for Success- village and take up positions on the most ful Guerrilla Operations. Guerrilla forces are most likely escape route. This element must successful in areas where conventional forces are be in position before the remainder of hampered in movement by the nature of the terrain the platoon starts to clear the village. and/or undeveloped communications systems. Ter- This element must not be seen by the rain must allow guerrillas to move in secrecy and it enemy and should remain well clear of must be so difficult to traverse that pursuit is pre-

192 TAGO (511A vented or at least impeded. Guerrilla forces are cuting civic action projects. The individual soldier forced to operate from bases which must be pro- must understand his role in all civic actions. Atti- tected from aerial or ground observation. The tudes toward the civilian populace as well as occu- political, economic and sociological conditions or pation or administrative policies must be based on attitudes of peoples of a given area must be of such clear national policy and known to all before units a nature as to prompt civilian support of guerrilla enter an area to fight guerrillas. forces, a factor which is absolutely essential to suc- c. Counterguerrilla Operations. When confronted cessful guerrilla operations. In light of description with guerrilla forces, commanders should employ already presented, it can be seen that jungle terrain troops trained in jungle operations against them. is ideally suited for guerrilla operations. Development of an absolute and complete intelli- b. Counterinsurgency. Units operating in jungle gence system must guide all offensive actions. Units to combat guerrillas must realize the importance of should -strive to employ encirclement, ambush and civic action in isolating the civilian populace from raid tactics during the course of operations and the guerrilla. A clear understanding of the psycho- commander's must insure that all areas are combed logical, ethnological, ideological and economic char- for guerrillas during each action. For detailed dis- acteristics of peoples supporting resistance move- cussion of counterinsurgency and countergucrrilla ments and constituting a potential guerrilla threat operations see FM 21-50, FM 31-15, FM 31-16, is important and must be used in planning and exe- FM 31-21, and FM 31-22.

TAGO 5511A 193 CHAPTER 6

EMPLOYMENT OF COMBAT SUPPORT AND OTHER SUPPORTING SERVICES

Section I. INFANTRY

86. General munition presents great danger of accidents a. To obtain the full value of concentrated fire- due to premature explosion from rounds power from supporting weapons, commanders must striking trunks, branches, or twigs of trees. determine how and to what extent they can over- (2) Mortars are effective if they are carried in come the limitations of the jungle on the mobility, vehicles as antimotor transport ambush visibility, and control of the infantry’s organic sup- weapons as they can be employed either porting weapons. Good firing positions for direct in vehicles or from the ground after dis- fire and indirect fire weapons are comparatively mounting. Fire can be brought on ambush hard to find in dense jungle terrain. positions, then lifted on assault and shifted to block escape of ambush elements. b. In jungle fighting, every sound or movement to the front is not made by the enemy. It could be a b. Employment of Mortars at Battalion Level. small friendly unit that has strayed from its as- (1) Generally 81mm mortar elements from signed zone to the adjacent unit’s line of fire. All rifle companies should be placed under the units must include in their standing operating pro- control of the battalion commander. cedure the circumstances under which individual (2) Commanders must anticipate displace- and crew-served weapons will fire on targets that ments well in advance and plan to prepare are not definitely identified. The SOP should estab- positions as far in advance as possible. The lish methods of maintaining lateral contact and time factor for the preparation of emplace- must prescribe specific procedures for obtaining the ment, entry roads and mask clearance is current location of adjacent units. greatly increased, sometimes requiring up c. The enemy will send out small probing units to 24 hours. to invite fire, in an effort to locate weapon positions. (3) The selection of good firing positions is Therefore, the commander must insure fire disci- difficult. Positions will be small because pline at night, within the perimeter, and prescribe they must be cut out of the jungle. Ad- the conditions under which each type weapon will vance parties must be increased in size and open fire. These conditions must be understood and supplied with additional axes, machetes adhered to by weapon crews and the leaders of and engineer tools. supported units. (4) In preparing mortar emplacements as outlined in FM 23-92, the following modifica- 87. Mortars tions must be made. a. Independent Operations by Small Units. (a) Dirt must be placed between the layers (1) These weapons are impracticableof logs forto decreaseem- bouncing. ployment as organic to units of rifle com- (b) Base plates must be pegged at the rear pany level and below in deep penetrations to prevent sliding. in jungle. The weight of the piece and (5) Cutting of mask clearance must be kept ammunition place an extreme burden on to a minimum. Small trees should be bent assigned personnel, and the nature of am- and anchored to preclude the permanent

194 TAGO 5511A loss of overhead canopy. Branches of can be used to advantage along trails, roads, ridge fallen trees must be used as camouflage to lines, streams, and in conjunction with other de- replace the cut canopy, and fresh cut fensive measures. Recording and reporting is ex- stumps must be blackened. tremely important and is accomplished as outlined (6) The thick undergrowth forces the survey in appropriate publications (FM 5-31). team to tape short legs with resulting loss in accuracy. 91. Small Arms (7) 81mm mortar personnel must be physically a. U.S. Rifle, 7.62mm. This is a precision weapon conditioned to displace without vehicular which should be fired from the shoulder to deliver transportation. Unit SOP’s must charge steady, well aimed shots to realize its maximum subordinate elements with the responsi- efficiency in jungle fighting. The 7.62mm cartridge bility of hand carrying ammunition for the gives excellent penetration and accuracy ; the bullet mortars to predesignated points. sometimes sheds its jacket when passing through thick trees or large roots and the lead core continues (8) The limitation imposed on observation and on to deliver good destructive effect. This charac- visibility requires an increased number of teristic lessens the effectiveness of cover made avail- observers and all leaders must have a able to the enemy by the vegetation. Care must be working knowledge of observed fire pro- exercised to prevent dropping magazines on the cedures and means of communicating fire jungle floor where they may be easily lost. requests and adjustments. (9) Observers must receive extensive training b. U.S. Rifle, 5.56mm. This extremely light and in adjusting fire by using the creeping compact weapon is ideally suited to jungle combat. method of adjustment. Observed fire on the Its short length and the light weight of the ammuni- ground will be extremely difficult due to the tion it fires makes the weapon easy to employ vegetation which limits observation and rapidly. The cartridge is a high intensity, high visibility to short distances. The observers velocity round with good ballistic characteristics; must operate well forward to be able to penetration is outstanding and the bullet tends to observe adequately. tumble when deflected giving good wound effect. The short length makes it easy to use by men of 88. 106mm Recoilless Rifle small stature. Precautions with magazines apply Employment of the 106mm recoilless rifle will as with the 7.62mm rifle. usually be restricted to roads and under battalion c. Machinegun, 7.62mm. This weapon is an ideal control. When employed, it is assigned its primary automatic arm for jungle combat. Its compact de- mission of antitank protection with a secondary mission of providing fire support. sign, light weight and excellent sights enable it to be fired from the standing, sitting or squatting posi- 89. 90mm Recoilless Rifle tion. Effective hip fire can be delivered if a sling The accuracy, mobility, and striking power of the support is used. A high proportion of tracer am- 90mm recoilless rifle organic to infantry units makes munition (1 tracer to three ball) should be used them invaluable as supporting weapons in jungle and the gun fired in bursts of 5 to 6 rounds; fire can operation. They are especially useful in reducing then be observed in subdued light along the line of pillboxes and bunkers frequently encountered in tracer fire. The bipod should be folded except when jungle operations. Care must be taken to select posi- the opportunity to fire from the prone position tions that afford safety from, and prevent disclosure exists. by the backblast. d. 40mm Grenade Launcher. This weapon, although shoulder fired, is a large bore weapon and is 90. Mines and Booby Traps extremely effective for jungle fighting. It is com- The jungle lends itself to the use of mines and pact, light and can be fired using the same positions booby traps. The characteristics of the jungle cause as the service rifle. It can be used for reduction of their emplacement to be comparatively easy and point targets, against groups of enemy soldiers and detection extremely difficult. Mines and booby traps for fire into the killing zones of ambushes. Great r TAGO 5511A 195 care must be taken to prevent its fires from being affixed to the rifle only on order of the squad or masked by tree limbs. Although the individual platoon leader. round is light, careful selection of targets is neces- y. Shotgun. The desirable characteristics of this sary, to reduce resupply problems. Dense vegeta- weapon for jungle fighting have already been mention will reduce its normal effective bursting radius. tioned. It is effective for use in ambushes and by e. Grenades. Grenades must be used carefully in forward elements of a patrol. jungle. The limitation on the distance they can be h. Obsolete Military Arms. Due to the avail- thrown and the difficulty of observation may result ability of military arms on the open markets, espe- in casualties to using troops. They are most effec- cially of bolt action rifles, it will be found that tive when used against hastily prepared positions guerrilla forces will be armed largely with these and groups of enemy personnel. They are also use- weapons. Every jungle soldier should be prepared ful in prepared defensive positions and against to use these weapons if they are captured from the dug-in positions in the offense. enemy. Knowledge of all types of enemy weapons /. Bayonet. This weapon is often cumbersome lor is important. Friendly troops should use enemy use in jungle. It is effective in open areas and is weapons only in emergencies, the characteristic ideal for hand to hand fighting during counter- sounds of both friendly and enemy weapons are attacks from a defensive position in which the vege- often a valuable intelligence source used to identify tation has been shot or burned away. It should be the firing units.

Section II. ARTILLERY

92. General of inaccurate maps and scarcity of current a. Artillery Principles. The principles of artillery meteorological data. employment in jungle operations conform to the (3) Limitations on observation necessitate in- tactical and technical principles set forth by FM creased safety factors and distances when 6-20-1 and FM 6-20-2. delivering fire close to friendly troops. b. Flexibility of Artillery Favoring Employment in Jungle. 93. Types of Artillery Support Available in (1) Use of artillery fire is not restricted by Jungle Operations bad weather. a. General. Enemy troops in thick jungle can be (2) Artillery can fire effectively day or night. driven out of their areas by artillery fire and forced (3) Artillery can achieve surprise as fire can into friendly ambush and blocking positions. be brought down upon a target without b. Harassing Fire. Artillery can be used to keep warning. guerrillas on the move if their general location is (4) Artillery is capable of sustained effort. known or to harass them by methodically searching (5) Helicopters greatly increase artillery mo- an area. This fire must be carefully planned and bility and ammunition resupply. controlled to avoid waste and excessive expendi- c. Limitations Imposed by Jungle on Employ- ture of ammunition. ment of Artillery. c. Destruction Fire. This is especially useful in (1) Observation from the ground is very re- attacking known enemy strongpoints. However, use stricted, and augmentation by air obser- of this type fire against guerrillas is limited by the vation is necessary. Both methods will be requirement for registration and the resultant prob- severely hampered by dense vegetation and ability of loss of surprise, as well as normal lack of tree canopy. information on exact locations. (2) Due to the problems of observation, it is difficult to compare results of predicted d. Interdiction of Escape Routes. Canalization fire with observed fire. Even predicted fire~ of escaping enemy forces into ground of the may be less accurate than normal because attackers’ choosing is possible with artillery fire. 196 TAGO 5511A 1 e. Deception. Artillery fire in an area away from (3) In making adjustments, forward observers that in which friendly troops are operating may should be proficient in adjusting by sound deceive the enemy; certainly, if such fire can cover since observation and visibility may be noise of movement of friendly forces they may be limited to a few yards. able to approach within assaulting position of the b. Air observation is restricted over jungle ter- enemy without being detected. rain, but may be used to good advantage to— /. Searchlights. Searchlights can be used to pro- (1) Observe for enemy activities such as move- vide datum points for aircraft and as rallying points ment over water or cleared areas on land. for assembly of personnel. (2) Give the general location of enemy instal- 94. Coordination With the Infantry lations. Smoke from fires may be seen. (3) Locate enemy artillery positions. See FM 6-20-1 and FM 6-20-2. (4) Observe and adjust artillery fires. 95. Positions 97. Offense and Defense a. Battery positions and clearings usually have See FM 6-20-1 for the principles of the employ- to be cut out of the jungle and are therefore small ment of artillery in the offense and defense. (Dis- and compact. Logs from clearing should be saved placement may be very difficult, due to lack of roads to construct gun emplacements and personnel and suitable position areas.) shelters.' The swampy condition of the terrain may often make it impossible to dig adequate gun em- 98. Targets placements. Targets are hard to locate. After locating sus- b. Since the jungle affords excellent concealment pected targets, it may be necessary to blast away for enemy offensive operations, all artillery posi- jungle undergrowth by means of air bursts and tree tions must provide ample security against enemy bursts before maximum effect on the target can be infiltration. To insure protection for the positions, obtained. This will often require expenditure of large quantities of ammunition. security measures include warning devices, all around security, and patrols to maintain liaison 99. Ammunition with other installations. To facilitate security, fire а. Special care must be taken to protect ammuni- support and logistical installations may be grouped tion from dampness and deterioration in tropical in general proximity to each other. Because of their jungle climate. size artillery positions should always take adequate air defense measures. б. The selection of types of ammunition and fuzes for jungle targets is the same as for similar c. In coastal areas, suitable positions may often targets in normal locations except that: be found on the beaches, around plantations, or on . (1) Time fuze adjustment is difficult, even in nearby islands. open areas, because of the high vegetation. 96. Observation (2) The burst from a proximity (VT) fuze is difficult to sense when the trees form an a. Forward observer teams are handicapped by overhead canopy. The performance of this restricted visibility and the unavailability of suit- fuze is apt to be erratic, due to the exces- able observation posts. sive moisture in the air and on the ground. (1) Forward observers must constantly remain (3) The delay fuze is valuable for obtaining with the supported unit. bursts near ground level when foliage is (2) Forward observers should, where the high and thick. jungle terrain permits,, coordinate with the (4) Smoke or WP is valuable for use in ad- aerial observer to verify the location of justment, especially for aerial observation. friendly troops, and to obtain positive (5) Base ejection smoke may be used for close sensing of rounds. air support marking.

TAGO 5511A 197 100. Communications b. The range of radios is shortened by jungle a. Wire is the most mechanicallygrowth, reliable but this means problem may be partly solved by of communications for controlling artillery in jungle using radio relay stations, both air and ground. operations. However, it is difficult to install and maintain. Light wire can be laid on top of foliage 101. Fire Control by army aircraft. Security of an extensive wire Fire control is centralized whenever possible; net is difficult and may preclude its use for other however, decentralization of control will be neces- than very routine communications. sary as the density of the jungle increases.

Section III. INFANTRY TANK COOPERATION

102. General 105. Combined Arms Training for Jungle The value of tank support in jungle warfare lies Operations in the accuracy and weight of firepower that can be a. In tropical countries the large areas of primary produced even at single tank level. Lack of roads jungle and secondary growth with resulting poor and the general nature of the terrain in jungle does visibility, poor communications and difficult going not favor tank employment on a large scale. How- require a high standard of joint training if oper- ever, in amphibious operations against the coast- ations by infantry and tanks are to be effective. lines of jungle areas tanks may play an important role. Precision shooting by tanks at pin point tar- b. Actions will be fought at close range. Speed, gets such as bunkers or buildings is frequently the is therefore essential. Tanks and infantry will most valuable fire support available to infantry in suffer needless casualties without precision in team- this type of fighting. Tanks may be used to control work. Infantry must appreciate the accuracy of the limited road networks in jungle areas and their tank gun in order to work close to the tank gun value in such a situation would be limited only by fire on the target. This requires practice and re- existing bridges and available bridging equipment. hearsals with tanks that will support a particular 103. Tasks of Tanks attack. Tanks provide not only material but moral sup- 106. Closet Escort for Tanks in Jungle port. When operating with infantry their tasks are: a. Due to extremely poor observation of the crew a. Immediate destruction of weapons, troops or when operating in jungle country, the unprotected positions which would impede the advance or hold up the assault of infantry. tank is extremely vulnerable to close range antitank weapons. The front of the tank is least vul- b. Accompany infantry to the objective. If this nerable in this respect, having better armored is not allowed by the ground, tanks must support protection and visibility in that direction. The in- infantry by fire if possible. fantry must insure that close range tank killer c. Dominate the objective and destroy enemy teams do not engage the tanks. This applies in par- armor, when applicable. ticular to the sides and rear of the tank. d. In defense, destroy enemy forces penetrating the defensive position. b. The provision of tank escorts is the responsibility of the commander of the infantry/tank 104. Tasks of Infantry group. The degree and nature of protection neces- a. Seize and hold the objective. sary for tanks must be separately determined for b. Destroy enemy short range antitank weapons. each changing situation. Often the protection for tanks will be afforded by the proximity of the in- c. Destroy enemy automatic weapons which the fantry within whose formations or dispositions the assaulting tanks may have only temporarily tanks will be moving or operating. The size of the silenced. escort and the tactics adopted are decided between d. Protect tanks from attacks by enemy infantry. the infantry and armor commanders.

198 TAGO 5011A 107. Formation of Infantry Tank Team in b. The infantry must not spread out in a manner Movement Along Road or Trail that would restrict the fires of the tanks, rather a. Formations will varythey withshould terrain take and up theformations tac- that will enable tical situation. A suggested formation for an in- them to protect the tanks, fight as a unit, and still fantry/tank team when moving along jungle trails allow the tanks freedom to fire. In sparse under- or roads is to position infantry squads in front growth or plantations, it may be necessary to use flanks and rear of tanks. The lead (or front) squad two squads forward to insure that there are no should have a small mine detection group, if avail- enemy positions near the road. able. If the sides of the road are fairly open the close tank escort need not move with each tank, c. For a detailed discussion of infantry/tank but as a squad covering the last tank. Tanks must tactics, techniques and formations, see FM 7-15 cover each other and visual contact must be main- and FM 17-33. tained throughout the tank element.

Section IV. AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY AND NAVAL GUNFIRE

108. Employment of ADA employed. Roads may not be present and a. General. The basic tacticssites and maytechniques require in- extensive preparation at volved in the employment of Air Defense Artillery the time positive areas are selected. Local (ADA) will not change greatly in jungle operations security must be provided but is not a (FM 44-1 and FM 100-5). Extensive detailed primary factor in this type of defense. planning is required in advance of an operation to b. Low, Medium and High Altitude ADA. Nor- determine the amount, type, and most effective mally there will be a requirement for low, medium employment of ADA. Air defense must be pro- and high altitude ADA at ports, beachheads, and vided for ports, beachheads, and advanced bases other areas used as the forward base for jungle which are the starting points for offensive jungle operations. Since these ADA systems are dependent operations. As the operation progresses, air defense on radar for fire control, their siting is much more must be planned and provided according to priority, critical than Forward Area Weapons (FAW). The for installations, troop concentrations, airfields, and size and weight of equipment present serious prob- other activities in open areas subject to aerial ob- lems in' movement through jungle. Until such time servation and attack. ADA defenses fall into two as low, medium and high altitude ADA defenses general categories: can be installed, tactical aircraft must be depended (1) Installations subject to ground attack. In on to defend forward installations from high level the early phases of an operation, ADA aerial attack. Sites should be selected to facilitate deployment is limited by a défendable fire control system coverages for air defense. In perimeter. ADA must remain within the the defense of shore installations, FAW can fre- main perimeter or be provided with a quently be sited to fire on waterborne targets in strong local defense. ADA should be em- addition to their air defense role. Construction placed to fire on surface targets as well as equipment must be available, not only to prepare aerial targets. roads and sites prior to occupation, but to maintain, (2) Installations relatively secure from ground improve, and expand the defense. Requirements for attack. These conditions are encountered construction equipment and personnel are much in defending existing installations in greater in jungle than other type operations. friendly territory or the expansion of defenses in captured territory well behind c. Forward Area Weapons. FAW are more mo- the combat zone. The preparation and bile and have fewer technical limitations than low, occupation of such defensive positions is medium and high altitude ADA. There will be relatively deliberate. Position areas should fewer areas requiring FAW protection. Concentra- be selected to maximize the capabilities tions of material and personnel are greatly re- and minimize the limitations of equipment stricted in jungle areas. Jungle areas provide better

TAGO M11A 199 means of passive defense. The overall requirement of good positions. This may prevent the attainment for FAW will depend on the individual operation. of the optimum level of defense desired, by limiting Although the number of defended areas will nor- the number of weapons that may be employed in a mally decrease in jungle operations, those subject to defense area. Further, terrain considerations may attack will become increasingly vital and may require decentralization of control. justify a higher level of defense than similar installations in another type operation. 109. Employment of Naval Gunfire d. Critical Aspects. The most critical aspects of The principles of employment of naval gunfire employment of ADA are the need for reconnaissance are the same as for normal operations, with the ex- in considerable detail, the requirements for exten- ception that observation will be limited. At times, sive clearing of fields of fire, and the inaccessibility observation may be possible only from the air.

Section V. ENGINEERS 110. Road Construction 111. River Crossing a. The speed with which jungle operations are a. In large scale jungle operations, when time conducted is affected more by engineer effort than and equipment are available, the standard river in normal operations. In temperate zones, the crossing procedures, bridging, and stream crossing progress of the infantry usually depends upon how expedients described in FM 31-60 are applicable. fast their units can overcome enemy resistance, and In small scale operations, or as field expedients, the the ability of the engineers to keep up with the most rope suspension bridges and the suspension cable rapid advance. In nearly all jungle areas, roads are methods, as described in FM 31-72 and TM 5-279, relatively undeveloped or nonexistent. They are may be useful. usually narrow and winding, incapable of support- b. The jungle provides excellent concealment for ing sustained military traffic. Air support becomes river crossing operations in most instances. Troops more important. Therefore, the bulk of engineer and hand-carried material can be brought up to effort centers around the construction and mainte- almost any desired site without additional road con- nance of roads and trails and construction of air struction. However, when selecting the site, the fields and supporting facilities. climatic conditions of the area pertaining to the [ annual rainfall and flooding conditions must be b. There are numerous factors that complicate carefully analyzed. Flash floods are characteristic road construction in the jungle. The heavy rainfall of most jungle areas, even in the dry season. If in these areas imposes a drainage problem of major heavy equipment is to be used, the road construc- concern. Whenever possible, low ground should be tion required and soil trafficability must be con- avoided in laying out a road. When it is impossible sidered. to bypass low, swampy ground, it will be necessary to construct long sections of corduroy road. It is 112. Water Supply Water sources are usually abundant, but special advisable to cut the right of way much wider than treatment is required for purification. See para- normal so the sun can dry out the road bed. The graph 144 for health hazards and methods of engi- enlarged right of way also provides room for the neer and individual water treatment. construction of ditches necessary to keep the sub- grade drained. 113. Mine Warfare Since the jungle itself is an effective obstacle c. The engineers need heavy construction equip- against vehicles, antitank mines and other anti- ment, and additional bulldozers and other construc- vehicle obstacles are normally confined to roads, tion equipment must be procured for supporting trails, and occasional patches of cleared ground. engineer units or installations. If the road net will Antipersonnel mines may be incorporated into de- permit, an alternate route plan is set up so the main fensive plans to delay and divert the enemy and to roads or sections of them may be closed when they serve as warning devices, however, the logistical need major repairs. support, in any quantity, is very difficult.

200 TAQO 6511A 114. Mapping e. Location of water sources for drinking, laun- Because of the inaccessibility of jungle areas, dering, and bathing. adequate maps are scarce and those that are avail- 115. Planning able are frequently inaccurate except for the location of coastlines and principal rivers. The numer- In planning for a jungle operation, the usual de- ous minor swamps, streams, inlets and lagoons are mand for heavy construction equipment must be seldom indicated and contours, if shown, are seldom considered. The engineers determine what equip- accurate. The trail nets shown can seldom be de- ment is available and how it may be procured. The pended on, because trails change rapidly in the jungle provides an abundant supply of timber and jungle. Native towns and villages frequently bear it is often desirable to establish a sawmill to provide native names entirely different from those on the lumber. Provisions should also be made for treat- maps and locations change often. Any information ment of piling and other bridge material to retard that can be used to correct existing maps should be decay and withstand the ravages of termites. Sand forwarded to the appropriate headquarters for bags disintegrate rapidly in the jungle and resupply prompt dissemination. Engineer reconnaissance to must be available. supplement the data is of prime importance. The 116. Nuclear Weapons engineers should obtain information on the following topics: The obstacles resulting from effects of nuclear weapons in jungle terrain may be easier to bypass a. Location and condition of roads and trails. than to overcome. In a tactical situation, the time b. Locations for possible road construction and and engineer effort required to cross nuclear blow- building materials. down areas may be excessive. Alternate route of movement must be planned for and prepared as c. High water level of streams. soon as possible to provide means for continuing d. Condition of banks at river crossing sites. movement despite nuclear attack.

Section VI. CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND RADIOLOGICAL (CBR) OPERATIONS

117. General who are not wearing complete protective clothing The doctrine for the employment of chemical and and equipment. High temperature and low winds biological weapons in jungle terrain is generally the help to maintain high vapor concentrations of agent same as in other terrain (FM 3-10). However, the HD. Droplets of HD on foliage and on the ground techniques for the employment of CB weapons in present a relatively persistent hazard to troops in jungle terrain differ from those in other types of the area. Refer to the classified supplement of FM terrain because of the peculiarities of weather, heavy 3-10 for information on agent VX. foliage, and the difficulties of observation and sup- b. Chemical agent GB is effective against troops porting fires. The doctrine for defense against in jungle when used in a surprise dosage attack. enemy use of chemical and biological weapons and GB aerosol can penetrate jungle foliage and field against radiological contamination is contained in fortifications peculiar to jungle, such as bunkers, FM 21-40; however, climatic conditions have a caves, and strong points. profound influence in jungle operations. Special guidance for the employment of chemical weapons c. XV-filled and HD-filled land mines can be in jungle operations will be found in chapter 5, used effectively to mine and boobytrap trails used FM 3-5. by the enemy or leading into friendly defensive positions. The mines need to be protected from rust 118. Toxic Chemical Agents and fuzes and detonators must be protected from a. Chemical agentsmoisture HD and and VX mildew. are used Care to con- must be taken that trip taminate troops, terrain, and materiel and are ex- wires are not fouled by rapid growth of jungle tremely effective in jungle when used against troops foliage.

TAGO 5511A 201 d. Artillery projectiles and aerial bombs with Enemy individual bunkers and isolated strong delay fuzes are the most effective means of deliver- points can have their vision obscured by the use of ing toxic chemical agents in the jungle. Artillery HC and White Phosphorous (WP) grenades prior projectiles bursting more than 40 feet in the air to assault. HC and WP may have an incendiary result in loss of the agent; the average loss of chemi- effect plus a casualty and demoralizing effect which cal agent when delay fuzes are not used is about may be desirable. 25 percent. Aerial spray of chemical agents XV c. Flame weapons are used effectively in the jun- and HD is not very effective due to the jungle gle to cause casualties and to destroy the natural canopy. concealment and camouflage afforded by the vegeta- e. When toxic chemical agents are employed in tion. Flame throwers, artillery, mortars, rockets, jungle, friendly troop safety is an important con- and fire bombs delivered by tactical air are all sideration not only against contaminated terrain effective methods of employing flame weapons, in- but against downwind vapor hazards. (Chemical cluding incendiaries, in this type of terrain. Flame munition requirements will be found in FM 3-10.) landmines, prepared locally from empty fuel drums /. Doctrinal guidance for the employment of in- or other containers filled with thickened fuel, can capacitating agents and riot control agents will be be used defensively against infiltrating or attacking found in FM 3-10. enemy forces for warning effects, casualty effect, and for battlefield illumination. (1) Incapacitating agent BZ can be employed against enemy troops when it is militarily 120. Biological Agents or politically imprudent to employ toxic General. Biological agents are living organisms chemical agents. that are effective against men, animals and plants; (2) Riot control agents may be used in anti- certain chemical agents are also effective against guerrilla operations, in controlling rebel- plants. Biological agents can be used effectively in lious prisoners of war, and in subduing the jungle against troops to produce casualties and rioting civilians. against crops to destroy them, without the massive 119. Smoke and Flame Weapons destructive effects of nuclear or high explosive (FM 3-50 and FM 20-33) weapons. Refer to FM 3-10 for doctrinal guidance on the employment of antipersonnel biological a. Smoke may be used for signaling, for marking agents. Refer to TM 3-216 for technical data of targets and for providing smokescreens, curtains, biological agents. and obscuring smoke on enemy installations. Col- ored smoke grenades, shells and smoke streamer a. Antipersonnel agents. Natural jungle condi- rifle grenades are useful for signaling or marking tions such as high humidity and the protection from the sunlight afforded by the jungle are conducive purposes. Limitations on visibility in the jungle to the effective employment of biological agents. will govern their use. For example, smoke streamer Biological agents disseminated by aerial spray rifle grenades projected above the jungle canopy cover large areas. Area coverage of biological agents may not be visible to ground troops, but they can disseminated by bomblets is reduced because of low be useful signals to air observers and to specially wind speeds below the jungle canopy. Biological located ground observers. agents produce delayed casualties and detailed plan- b. Smokescreens and curtains produced by me- ning is required to employ them so that their effects chanical generators, smoke pots, shells, rockets, or are coordinated with tactical operations. aerial bombs may be used to limit air and ground b. Antiplant Agents. There are a number of bio- observation when the vegetation and tree top canopy are not dense enough to give concealment. Smoke logical agents which may be effective in the jungle sprayed from airplane smoke tanks will generally against plants, shrubs, and trees and against the be ineffective in jungle operations because of turbu- food and industrial crops produced by them. Bio- lent air currents above the jungle canopy which logical operation for destroying food supplies in an rapidly disperse the smoke. Smoke curtains pro- area may require concurrent planning for sub- duced by artillery and mortar shells can be em- sistence aid for the protection of friendly troop ployed effectively by ground troops in the attack. supplies.

202 TAGO Nil A 121. Chemical Antiplant Agents dry brush and flammable supplies by the thermal Certain chemicals possess an offensive potential effects. Jungle terrain will not significantly alter for destroying of seriously limiting the production the initial nuclear effects. The intensity of radiation of crops and for defoliating vegetation. The chemi- from radiological agents and radioactive fallout cal compounds used are plant growth regulators may be reduced by extremely heavy vegetation as that modify the normal growth pattern of plants some of the particles will be retained by the jungle or defoliants that kill or damage the plants. De- canopy. Subsequent rains may wash these particles foliants can be used to expose ground operations, to the ground, and concentrate them in water cçl- installations, materiel, and personnel to observa- lection areas. Actions required of individuals and tion; to mark targets, positions, and guidelines; and units in radiologically contaminated areas are con- to clear and keep open fields of fire around defensive tained in FM 3-12, FM 21-40 and FM 21-4L positions. Destruction of natural vegetation may 123. Defense Against CBR Attack also be of assistance in revealing camouflaged activities. Present defoliant agents disseminated by Refer to FM 21-40 for guidance in small unit aircraft spray require 3 to 4 weeks or even longer procedures to be used against CBR attack and to to be effective against tropical vegetation. Tactical FM 21-41 for individual actions against CBR haz- operational planning must allow for this delay fac- ards. It should be noted that the protective mask tor. Refer to TM 3-215 for technical data on and permeable protective clothing are barely toler- chemical agents. able in jungle terrain and climate. Limitations on vision imposed by the mask combined with personal 122. Nuclear Weapons Effects discomfort as a result of wearing the protective equipment may decrease individual efficiency and The effects of nuclear explosions will not be sig- even present a morale problem. Proper training is nificantly affected by the dense vegetation of jun- necessary in order to overcome or allow for these gles. The blast effect may be distorted by the dense problems. In addition, special precautions must be vegetation, but will create considerable missiles and taken to maintain unit defensive equipment in obstacles. Trees blown down may reduce fields of usable condition because of mildew, rot and rust fire. During the dry season, fires may be started in threats existing in jungle areas.

Section VII. CLOSE AIR SUPPORT

124. Doctrine c. Close support. This consists of offensive air Doctrine for employment of air support in open action in direct support of ground troops. areas is equally applicable in jungle. d. Crop destruction. 125. Types of Air Support 127. Missions of Offensive Air Support The following types of air support, are effective in a. Kill the enemy. support of ground forces in jungle combat: b. Disrupt enemy communications and organiza- a. Offensive air support. tion. b. Transport support. c. Lower enemy morale by inducing sense of in- security and to induce surrender. c. Photographic and visual reconnaissance. d. In case of operations against guerrillas, to 126. Offensive Air Support induce the enemy to keep on the move thus increas- Following are types of offensive air support: ing chance of contact and kills by ground forces and isolating them from their bases. a. Air strikes. These consist of bombing, rocket and/or gun strafing attacks against known enemy e. In counterguerrilla operations assist in food positions or locations. denial attempts by crop destruction. b. Harassing attacks. These are bombing, rocket 128. Air Strikes and/or gun stafing attacks against areas of enemy a. In open country air strikes are attacks against activity. pin-pointed targets. However, in jungle, targets are

TAGO 6411A 203 rarely visible and the lack of positive aiming points flights for establishing relay stations and for psycho- favors the type of attack in which bombers drop a logical warfare broadcasts. pattern of bombs designed to envelop the target b. Preparation of Drop Zones. Because of the area. nature of jungle terrain certain considerations are b. Requirements for air strikesimportant include positivefor constructing drop zones. To insure information regarding presence of enemy forces in an accurate drop, the pilot of an aircraft should be target areas. Accurate definition of the target is able to concentrate solely on adjusting height, speed essential. Immediate followup by ground forces and alignment before dropping. Any hills near the should be made to exploit the destructive effect of approach to the DZ or obstructing the route after the air strikes. dropping will adversely affect his concentration on the DZ and the drop will be consequently less accu- 129. Harassing Attacks rate. A second factor affecting accuracy is identifi- These attacks maintain pressure on enemy by cation of the DZ location. The further away the interdicting certain areas to prevent or discourage pilot can recognize the DZ the more time he will use by the enemy and to deny or limit the enemy’s have to make the adjustments necessary to insure freedom of movement. In operations against guer- an accurate drop. To insure this accuracy the pilot rillas this type of air action keeps them moving and should be able to sight the DZ position at least thus increases chance of engagement with ground 400 yards from the release point. This means that forces. an observer on the ground should be able to see the 130. Selection of Targets aircraft at least one quarter of a mile away on its run. To give a reasonable guarantee that all packs The following factors should be weighed prior to will fall into the DZ it should be cleared to a mini- requesting air action in jungle: mum of 40 yards in diameter. All drop zones must a. The desired effect on the target to be produced be marked with panels, smoke or balloons, if by air action. available. b. Type and size of target. 132. Photographic and Visual c. Accuracy with which the target can be fixed. Reconnaissance d. Timing and duration of the attack. Benefits to be derived from this support are mini- e. Position of our troops in relation to target. mized in primary jungle due to cover of the canopy. However, in secondary jungles, swamp areas, culti- 131. Air Transport Support vated areas, villages and other well defined loca- a. Forms of Support. This support primarily tions, visual reconnaissance may help the com- consists of air delivery of personnel and equipment mander. In most instances photographic coverage by air-dropped and air-transported methods. It of an objective area and march routes should be includes paratroop operations, air transported move- requested. Detailed study of film may reveal perti- ment of operational units and equipment and casu- nent information of the enemy, his activities, and alty evacuation. It also includes communication outstanding characteristics of the ground.

204 TAGO SSllA Section VIII. EMPLOYMENT OF ARMY AVIATION

133. Roles and Priorities charge stores in a comparatively small The types of tasks performed by Army aviation area and they can hover and free-drop in support of jungle operations are not unlike those from low levels where landing is not pos- performed elsewhere (FM 1-100). sible. The one big disadvantage of using the helicopter in this role is the payload 134. Special Considerations in Employment limitations arid its limited range. of Helicopters (4) Reconnaissance. An advantage of the heli- a. Tasks. copter is that it can fly close to the ground (1) Troop lifting. Swift transportation of in- at low speeds. A disadvantage is that it is . fantry by helicopters gives great flexibility extremely vulnerable to ground fire which to ground forces. The hovering character- cannot easily be detected. Helicopters istic of the helicopter enables units to move should be equipped with machine guns and into areas with no prepared landing areas; rockets to suppress ground fire. this is done, first by rappelling clearing b. Minimum Characteristics of Helicopter Land- parties and then by dropping clearing tools ing Areas. and explosives for landing area construc- (1) Clearing 50 yards in diameter cut down tion. to 2 feet in height. (2) Casualty evacuation. The helicopter con- (2) Central area of firm soil 30 yards in stitutes a swift, flexible means for casualty diameter cleared down to ground level and evacuation. The knowledge that such swept of all loose sticks, stones, etc. means exist helps the morale of the troops (3) . Fly-in 30 yards long the width of the land- operating in otherwise inaccessible areas. ing zone, the slope not more than 30° up Where landing areas exist the journey from to 3000 feet elevation, 20° up to 4000 feet forward to rear areas can be achieved in elevation and 10° up to 5000 feet eleva- one move; where landing facilities do not tion. If the landing area is above 5000 feet exist a radio request for casualty evacua- elevation the approach to it must be com- tion can bring a fixed wing aircraft to pletely flat. locate landing areas and guide parties to them prior to the arrival of the helicopter. c. Platforms. Landing platforms should be con- This method will economize helicopter fly- structed when the nature of the ground does not ing time. present a flat central area for landing. The plat- (3) Resupply. Use of the helicopter for re- form must be a minimum of 25 feet square and must supply in jungle operations has many ad- be able to support 4 tons. The maximum permis- vantages. Helicopters can land and dis- sible slope is 7°.

TACO 5511A 205 CHAPTER 7

LOGISTICS

Section I. GENERAL

135. Special Considerations c. Air transportation is an important factor in a. The availability of trails, roads, and water- supply for jungle operations. Supplies can be air- ways; the density of natural growth; the season; lifted to units when all other transportation fails. and general terrain conditions will have a direct Army aircraft can be employed with success in sup- influence on logistical operations. Supply require- plying isolated patrols and small units. When the ments must be anticipated well in advance of actual aircraft cannot land, supplies may be delivered by needs. Careful planning is necessary to conserve parachute or free drop. Float aircraft may be used transportation facilities, and the control of all when suitable water areas are available. When classes of supply must be closely supervised in order aerial resupply is being employed, the following to exclude surplus and nonessential items. factors should be considered: b. Logistical personnel must be proficient in ad- (1) Communication with delivery aircraft. vance planning and in forecasting needs. Replenish- ments must be requisitioned well in advance; recon- (2) Clearing and marking of drop or landing naissance of supply routes and water points must be zones. continuous; and alternate routes and distributing (3) Times of delivery. points must be located and developed. (4) Organization of recovery crews. c. The jungle affords concealment from air ob- (5) Preparation of type loads. servation and, since it is easier to protect convoys from ambush in the daytime, commanders should d. Waterborne transportation is the most eco- move supplies during daylight hours. nomical and often the surest means of supply. Streams, lagoons, and other waterways should be 136. Transportation used to. the maximum extent possible. Supplies a. Because of the lack of routes of communica- transported over waterways are less susceptible to tions and the difficulties involved in constructing loss or damage, fragile containers are safer, and roads and trails, transportation presents a series of the destruction caused by insects is largely avoided. problems in jungle operations.. Utilization of all Boats, canoes, and rafts are the most practicable modes of transportation should be considered for types of water craft to use. Distribution points maximum efficiency. should be established along waterways to save b. The basic means of jungle transport is hand- transportation by men, animals, and vehicles. carry by indigenous help or troops, though pack e. Tropical rivers are subject to rapid changes in animals are frequently employed. Jungle vegetation depth and speed of flow due to rainfall variations. is not satisfactory forage for domesticated animals Flooding conditions are often an aid to river trans- unless supplemented, so a large part of their load port, because the possibility of using motors is must necessarily include feed for them. Native greatly increased. If water transport is a principal pack animals and handlers may be used to furnish means of resupply and evacuation, the wet season transportation and to preserve the combat efficiency will prove to be operationally advantageous. A of troops, but food, pay, and the dependability of river may be less than ankle deep in dry season, yet the natives must be carefully considered. flow at a depth of several feet during wetter periods.

106 TAGO Mil A Also, sudden flood crests are a danger to cargo- danger and difficulty of movement at night and the laden craft. These are particularly dangerous dur- possibility of enemy ambush or night attacks. ing loading and unloading. 6. In a tropical environment rapid deterioration /. Wheeled vehicle transportation is generally is a primary consideration in class II supply; issue impracticable except on roads (and in the dry sea- clothing, particularly combat boots and socks, last sons on wide trails) and in areas where the jungle a very short time. For items of this nature, requirements should be estimated well in advance and growth is light. Engineer and pioneer troops can special provisions should be made for adequate re- improve trails to permit movement of ^4-ton trucks supply. At small unit and battalion levéis, limited and trailers in areas close to the combat echelon. emergency supplies of assorted combat boots, socks, Track laying vehicles are generally reliable in and similar items of short wear periods should be jungle operations and furnish a means of logistic stocked. support; however, their use increases maintenance c. The supply of class III items does not initially problems. To achieve maximum efficiency in the present a great problem, as relatively few vehicles use of vehicles it may be necessary to establish will be in operation. However, the battalion will transfer points for loads; that is, larger vehicles establish a class III distributing point for vehicles transport supplies as far forward as they can be that are operating. Resupply of gasoline to vehicles moved and supplies transloadèd to smaller, lighter will be made directly from gasoline tank trucks. vehicles which, in turn, will be used to move sup- In addition, empty 5-gallon cans will be exchanged plies as far forward as practicable. Pack animals for full cans to augment the gasoline resupply sys- or carrying parties then move the supplies to their tem as required. destination as required. d. The supply of class IV items will, for the most 137. Classes of Supply part, concern special items of individual and unit a. The Standard B Ration is the field ration equipment. In many cases, the equipment normally primarily used during jungle operations under con- authorized a unit will be augmented by additional ditions where kitchen facilities, with the exception allowance, and special items of clothing and equip- of refrigeration, are normally available. The ration ment that are needed but not authorized may be consists of nonperishable items, mainly canned and obtained. The use of large amounts of special dehydrated. The Meal, Combat, Individual (re- equipment for defensive positions is the exception places the C ration) or Ration, Small Detachment, rather than the rule due to difficulties in bringing 5 persons, will normally be issued to units actively up such materials. engaged in combat. Road and trail limitation will e. Because of the weight and bulk involved, the require that the unit trains be located back in the supply of ammunition and explosives often presents rear and carrying parties be used to distribute the the most difficult resupply problem. The best solu- rations. The number of rations carried by the indi- tion is close control exercised by all leaders over vidual soldier should be determined by such factors ammunition expenditures within their units and the as how and in what quantities food can be brought employment of the appropriate weapon for the fire forward, when resupply will be effected, and the mission. Careful consideration should always be estimated duration of the operation. Hot meals given the criticality of transport for movement of should always be served whenever possible. Feed- resupply tonnages, particularly where class V sup- ing is usually done during daylight because of the plies are concerned.

TAOO 5511A 207 Section il. MEDICAL SERVICE

138. Employment quired to support each platoon in the rifle company. a. The manner in which medical units support A minimum of one medical aidman is required to their tactical organization depends on the employ- operate a company aid post. ment of the supported unit. Wide variations may 140. Medical Platoon Headquarters be expected at division level and below, but above division medical support is normal. The greatest Perhaps the greatest problem of the medical variances will be found in the support of the in- platoon headquarters is that of resupply. The medi- fantry battalion by the medical platoon, and with cal system of property exchange must be closely the support of the infantry division by its medical supervised to prevent the stock of medical items battalion. from falling to a dangerously low level. b. The medical platoon requires considerable 141. Division Medical Battalion augmentation when undertaking jungle operations. The organization of the medical battalion is such This is due to the disease-causing humidity and that it will support the infantry battalion and other heat, location of tactical units supported, difficulty divisional elements on an area basis. The am- of crossing terrain with casualty loads, and a re- bulances of the medical battalion may be replaced quirement to increase medical personnel attached by other more maneuverable vehicles. Air evacu- to the tactical companies being supported and ation from forward installations may be used to operating relatively independently. This augmen- relieve surface transportation of part of its load tation may best be accomplished by the command and, at times, waterways afford a good route of requesting additional medical personnel, through evacuation. Evacuation by helicopter, if possible, channels, from field army unit designed for this pur- is an excellent means of evacuation in the jungle. pose. Plans to use native litter bearers, when avail- Mobile army surgical hospitals perform immediate able, should also be established prior to entry into surgery in the division area. combat. Equipment may require modification to permit maximum efficiency in combat. This may 142. Personal Hygiene and Sanitation include establishment of pack equipment for all a. The problem of personal hygiene is a serious medical installations, and the replacement of and continuous one in the jungle. A determined and wheeled ambulances with other evacuation means continuing effort by commanders at all levels must appropriate for use in jungle terrain. be made to provide sanitary facilities for their troops. The mere fact that troops are isolated in 139. Battalion Medical Platoon jungle areas for long periods of time does not jus- a. Evacuation Section. Vehicles used ¿s front line tify letting the hair and beard grow, allowing cloth- ambulances may not prove practical on jungle ing to become exceptionally dirty, and neglecting trails, in swamps, and on unimproved muddy roads. body cleanliness. Food handlers in particular must Evacuation of casualties by litter is a slow and ex- continue the high standards of hygiene which they hausting task and usually will require the use of normally maintain in garrison. many nonmedical personnel. Tracked vehicles, pack animals, rafts, boats, barges, litter bearers, or com- b. Careful and constant practice of military sani- bination thereof, will be required in the evacuation tation is imperative. Kitchen and human waste of casualties to augment organic evacuation means. must be disposed of by acceptable methods, or dis- Natives properly supervised by trained medical eases will quickly neutralize the fighting potential personnel may be used as litter bearers. of an entire command (FM 21-10). b. Aid Station and Aidman Stations. Difficult 143. Insect- and Animal-Borne Diseases terrain and wide dispersal of combat elements may dictate the need for further splitting of the aid Insect- and animal-borne diseases are those which stations and create a requirement for additional are transmitted from man-to-man or from animal aid station personnel. Additional aidman support to man by a bloodsucking Insect or animal. The may be required by the front line combat units as germ may be introduced into the human blood- in many instances two or more aidmen will be re- stream or tissues during the bite of the infected

208 TAOO 6511A insect or it may be deposited upon the skin by oriental sore, Delhi boil, and tropical sores defecation or during the process of biting. In the are sand-fly borne. latter two instances, scratching the insect bite in- (2) For individual protection, use insect re- fects the wound with the germs. The most common pellent, aerosols, protective clothing, and insect and animal disease carriers are listed below, mosquito bar. In semipermanent camps, together with suggestions for combating them. clear area of rubbish, debris, and ruins. Troops must follow the precautionary and preven- Apply residual insecticide spray to inside tive measures described in order to avoid infection. of walls and around tent entrances. a. Diseases Transmitted by Mosquitoes. d. Diseases Transmitted by Fleas. (1) Malaria, yellow fever, dengue (breakbone) (1) The rat flea is a carrier of Black Death fever, filariasis (elephantiasis), and some (bubonic plague) and murine typhus. The forms of encephalitis are mosquito-borne. fleas of other rodents may also transmit Commanding officers are responsible for these diseases. executing mosquito - control measures. (2) For individual protection, apply skin re- Their 'decisions are based on the military pellent to exposed parts of body and im- situation and the recommendation of the pregnate clothing with clothing repellent. medical service officers who make mos- In semipermanent camps, apply residual quito surveys. For a detailed discussion of insecticide spray or dust to floor and lower mosquitoes and mosquito control, see FM wall of tents, rodent burrows, and around 21-10 and AR 40-578. rodent traps. (2) For individual protective measures, use e. Diseases Transmitted by Body Lice. mosquito nets, protective clothing, insect repellent, and insecticide aerosols. At ( 1 ) The body louse and head louse may trans- semipermanent camps large tents should mit jail fever (epidemic typhus fever), and be screened and sprayed with a residual famine fever (relapsing fever). insecticide. If malaria is present, use (2) For individual protection against body suppressive drugs as prescribed by the unit lice, apply insecticide powder over inner medical officer. surface of underclothing and to seams on inside of outer clothing. For head lice b. Diseases Transmitted by Ticks. apply louse powder freely to the area of (1) Hard ticks transmit Rocky Mountain head covered by hair. spotted fever, other kinds of tickbite fevers (tick typhus), rabbit fever (Tul- /. Disease Transmitted by Mites. aremia), and tick paralysis. (1) Mites are widely distributed throughout (2) Soft ticks transmit famine fever (tick- the world. The variety known as chiggers borne relapsing fever). (red bugs) produce considerable skin irri- (3) For individual protection, wear clothing tation which may become secondarily in- impregnated with repellent, and apply fected from scratching. In the Far East, skin repellent to exposed areas. In a tick the six-legged larval stage of trombiculid infested area, personnel should examine mites transmit “scrub” typhus fever their bodies every 3 to 4 hours and remove (Japanese river fever or tsutsugamushi any attached ticks. This can be facilitated fever). by using the “buddy system”. At semi- (2) For individual protection, apply skin re- permanent camps, brush and vegetation pellent to exposed parts of the body and should be removed and appropriate insec- ticides should be applied as directed by impregnate outer clothing and socks with medical service officers. clothing repellent. c. Diseases Transmitted by Sand Flies (Phe- g. Diseases Transmitted by Bloodsucking Flies. botomus Flies). (1) Deer flies (chrysops) transmit rabbit (1) Sand-fly fever, 3-day fever (pappataci fever (tularemia) and the Alaria African fever), kalaazar (visceral leishmaniasis) eyeworm (loa-loa). In Central America

TAGO U11A 209 black flies and buffalo gnats transmit a limited in quantity, the most common filarial worm (Onchocerca volvulus) which source in the jungles will be surface sup- causes a troublesome filarial disease. The plies such as streams, ponds and lakes. tsetse fly of Central Africa transmits sleep- Care must be exercised in selecting the ing sickness (trypanosomiasis). water point to insure that bathing, laun- (2) Mosquito nets, protective deringclothing, and insect vehicle or animal washing is repellent, and insecticide aerosols should done downstream. be used as preventive measures. (2) Engineer water points. Whenever possible, h. Diseases Transmitted by Triatomidae (Cone- all drinking water should be procured from nose Bugs, Assassin or Kissing Bugs). Conenose engineer water points. Minimum treat- bugs may transmit American Trypanosomiasis ment should consist of the following steps: (Chagas disease). To avoid these insects, do not Sedimentation, filtration, and chlorination sleep in native huts, native shops, stables, barns and to assure that the finished water contains chicken houses. For individual protection, use mos- not less than two parts per million chlorine quito nets and protective clothing. At semiper- residual. manent camps or stations, buildings should be (3) Emergency and individual water disinfec- screened. tion. (a) Lyster bag disinfection. Only the clean- i. Diseases Transmitted by Vampire Bats. Vam- est water available should be used. Sus- pire bats and occasionally other types of bats, trans- pended matter may be strained out mit rabies (hydrophobia) to human beings and through cloth or an improvised sand fil- animals by their bite. The virus of rabies is carried ter. Two ampules of calcium hypochlo- in the saliva of the infected bat. Immediate first rite will be dissolved in the 36-gallon aid treatment consists of washing with soap and lyster bag to assure a minimum of two water, followed by an antiseptic and a sterile dress- ing. Antirabies treatment must be administered to parts per million of chlorine residual as measured by the orthotoluidine kit after persons bitten by any species of bat. 30 minutes of contact. 144. Waterborne Diseases (b) Canteen disinfection. Each man should (FM 21-10). be provided with an adequate supply of individual water purification tablets a. Disease. Typhoid fever, the paratyphoid (FSN 6850-250-2620) for use on ex- fevers, bacillary dysentery, ambiasis, cholera, and other diseases may be transmitted by infected water tended patrols or when otherwise isolated from his unit. Generally, adequate which is used for drinking and cooking purposes. Schistosomiasis (blood fluke) may readily be en- disinfection is obtained when one tablet countered in surface water while bathing or swim- is used for clear water and two tablets ming, and through drinking. When the fluke is for cloudy or turbid water. Other meth- known to be present, water must be avoided. It can ods, such as boiling and the squad enter the body system through any minute break method of chlorinating canteens, are dis- in the skin. Standard methods of purifying water cussed in detail in FM 21-10. serve to destroy the larvae of the fluke, but it must (4) Other water sources. Water may be ob- be emphasized that at least two parts per million of tained during heavy rainfall by catchment chlorine must be present after a 30-minute contact from roofs of tents and buildings. This period. water must then be disinfected before con- I b. Preventive Measures. sumption. Sea water can be distilled either (1) Sources. Water selected for human con- in standard engineer equipment or in small sumption should be the cleanest available. quantities with an improvised distillation Ground water from wells, springs, and in- unit. Such facilities are bulky, extremely filtration galleries is usually less contami- heavy, and require large amounts of fuel. nated, clearer, cooler, and generally more Their use is justified only when fresh water palatable. However, since ground water is is not available.

210 TAGO «511A to ships for evacuation by water. The metal basket endurance of litter squads. Well condi- litter can be rigged to evacuate casualties by pack tioned men, carrying a patient on a litter animal. Native litter bearers may prefer to use for 400 to 600 yards over jungle terrain, ordinary canvas sheets with loops for poles. The are unable to repeat the performance with- canvas sheeting is light, and poles may be cut when out an appreciable amount of rest. Sur- needed. All available means for. collecting and geons must keep their commanders in- transporting the sick and wounded must be used to formed of the adequacy and efficiency of do the job satisfactorily. Improvised litters can also the evacuation system, and commanders be made from ponchos, shelter halves, fatigue jack- must provide additional natives when prac- ets, parachutes, woven vines on poles, etc. For general methods of transporting the sick and ticable and, at times, rotate men from other wounded, see FM 8-35. units of the command. -, I : • b. Human Factors. (2) No man shoúld be evacuated who may be (1) It is easy to overestimate the strength and treated locally and returned to duty.

Section IV. MAINTENANCE

150. Equipment and Supplies e. Ammunition. Waterproof ammunition packaging should be opened only when absolutely neces- Although specific instructions on care and main- sary. Loose rounds of ammunition and magazines tenance of clothing, equipment and supplies can be should be inspected daily. Wipe off rounds if wet; found in pertinent field and technical manuals, the check magazines for dirt, mud, bent lips, dents or following items are singled out for specific comment: other defects that may cause malfunctions. Am- a. Clothes. Keep all clothing or cloth materials munition should be stored in dry places and on clean and dry. If dirty, wash in water and allow to dunnage if possible. Do not leave ammunition to air dry. Dirt tends to deteriorate fabric. Repair dry in the sun. Do not store it under the direct small tears or holes as soon as possible. rays of the sun for extended periods of time. Am- b. Compass. The compass should be kept clean munition exposed to abnormal heat for extended and dry at all times. Daily inspections should be periods of time could perform erratically. made to prevent corrosive formations, especially /. Communications Equipment. Normal weekly on the bezel ring and other metal parts. Moving maintenance as performed in temperate zones will parts should not be forced or bent. Prevent loss not suffice in tropical areas. Daily maintenance is when in use by means of a strong cord attached to required to maintain systems operational. Keep the thumb loop and tied to the pistol or cartridge communications equipment dry. Check for damp- belt. ness that affects performance and creates corrosion. c. Machete. Use heavy oil or grease to prevent Check daily for fungus on edges of insulators, keys rust. Use a grindstone, whetstone or smooth field and jacks. Fungus can cause short circuits and will stone (preferably sandstone) to sharpen. Do not lower performance. Check equipment for insects sharpen the blade overly thin; sharpen it to a and for small animals such as lizards and rodents. medium angle. Avoid overheating of blade to pro- Give special care and attention to batteries as com- tect temper. Avoid notching or wrapping of the munication equipment will be only as good as its handle as the roughness will cause blisters. Repair power source. (For detailed information on battery or replace all broken or cracked handles. care, see TM 11-415 and SB 11-6.) When proper d. Weapons. Keep all weapons well oiled. Check storage facilities for electrical and electronic equip- continuously for extraneous matter, such as mud ment do not exist, improvise. Drying chambers can and vegetation, inside the barrels or working parts. be improvised using packing crates with light bulbs Always apply raw linseed oil or other suitable stock as heating elements. (Do not create fire hazards.) preparations on wooden parts to protect them from g. Tentage. Clean and wash all tents and tar- warping. paulins if dirty or muddy. Allow air drying before

TAGO SM1A 213 ötoiage. Inspect carefully and repair all hole and immediately. Use only correct whipping to secure seam damage immediately. unravelled rope ends. When stored, rope should be h. Rope. Clean muddy ropes by washing in water. placed on grating or dunnage that will permit air Do not allow ropes to dry dirty. Dry them before circulation. Wet rope contracts; on wet fixed in- storage. Do not store in damp places. Avoid pulling stallations allow for contraction with slack. Failure ropes over sharp edges as this will reduce the work- to provide for contraction will result in broken ing strength of strands. Repair all broken strands strands which will render the rope unsafe.

214 TAGO 5511A APPENDIX I

REFERENCES

AR 320-5 Dictionary of United States Army Terms AR 320-50 Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity Codes AR 350-30 Code of Conduct FM 1-5 Army Aviation ; Organization and Employment FM 1-100 Army Aviation FM 3-5 Chemical, Biological and Radiological (CBR) Operations FM 3-10 Chemical and Biological Weapons Employment FM 5-1 Engineer Troop Organizations and Operations FM 5-20 Camouflage, Basic Principles and Field Camouflage FM 5-31 Use and Installation of Booby Traps FM 5-34 Engineer Field Data FM 5-35 Engineers’ Reference and Logistical Data FM 6-20-1 Field Artillery Tactics FM 6-20-2 Field Artillery Techniques FM 7-11 Rifle Company, Infantry, Airborne Infantry and Mechanized Infantry FM 7-15 Infantry, Airborne Infantry, and Mechanized Infantry, Rifle Platoons and Squads FM 7-20 Infantry, Airborne Infantry, and Mechanized Infantry Battalions FM 7-24 Communications in Infantry and Airborne Divisions FM 8-35 Transportation of the Sick and Wounded FM 17-33 Tank Units, Platoon, Company and Battalion FM 20-20 Military Dog Training and Employment FM 20-32 Land Mine Warfare FM 20-33 Combat Flame Operations FM 20-150 National Search and Rescue Manual FM 21-10 Military Sanitation FM 21-11 First Aid for Soldiers FM 21-18 Foot Marches FM 21-26 Map Reading FM 21-30 Military Symbols FM 21-31 Topographic Symbols FM 21-40 Small Unit Procedures in Chemical, Biological and Radiological (CBR) Oper- ations FM 21-41 Soldier’s Handbook for Chemical and Biological Operations and Nuclear Warfare FM 21-50 Ranger Training and Ranger Operations FM 21-60 Visual Signals FM 21-75 Combat Training of the Individual Soldier and Patrolling

TAQO 5511A 215 FM 21-76 Survival FM 21-77 Evasion and Escape FM 23-30 Grenades and Pyrotechnics FM 23-71 Rifle Marksmanship FM 23-92 4.2 Inch Mortar, M30 FM 24-18 Field Radio Techniques FM 24-20 Field Wire and Field Cable Techniques FM 30-5 Combat Intelligence FM 30-30 Aircraft Recognition Manual FM 31-15 Operations Against Irregular Forces FM 31-16 Counterguerrilla Operations FM 31-21 Special Forces Operations FM 31-22 U. S. Army Counterinsurgency Forces FM 31-50 Combat in Fortified Areas and Towns FM 31-60 River Crossing Operations FM 31-72 Mountain Operations FM 44-1 U. S. Army Air Defense Employment FM 57-35 Airmobile Operations FM 100-5 Field Service Regulations—Operations FM 110-115 Amphibious Reconnaissance; Joint Landing Force Manual TM 1-300 Meteorology for Army Aviation TM 3-200 Capabilities and Employment of Toxic Chemicals TM 3-220 Chemical, Biological and Radiological (CBR) Decontamination TM 5-270 Cableways, Tramways, and Suspension Bridges TM 5-330 Planning Site Selection, and Design of Roads, Airfields and Heliports in the Theater of Operations TM 5-725 Rigging TM 9-1900 Ammunition, General TM 9-2117 Winchester Riot Type Shotgun M12 and Stevens Riot Type Shotguns M520-30 and M620A. TM 9-2205 Fundamentals of Small Arms TM 9-6920-210-14 Operator, Organizational and Field Maintenance Manual : Targets, Target Mate- riel and Training Course Layouts TM 11-666 Antennas and Radio Propagation DA Pam 20-151 Lectures on the Geneva Conventions of 1949 DA Pam 21-71 The U. S. Fighting Man’s Code DA Pam 30-101 Communist Interrogation, Indoctrination and Exploitation of Prisoners of War DA Pam 310-3 Military Publications: Index of Doctrinal, Training and Organizational Publi- cations ASubjScd 44-2 Visual Aircraft Recognition

216 TAGO Mil A APPENDIX II

RECOMMENDED TRAINING PROGRAM

1. Purpose and Scope exercises that are being conducted concurrently in a. This program of instruction is designed to the same general area, a maximum amount of train- assist commanders in preparing their units for ing can be presented in the minimum amount of combat in jungle areas. The training is specialized, time. specific in scope and progresses from individual to company level. 3. Emphasis b. To receive maximum benefit, all units and in- a. During all training, special emphasis must be dividuals must have completed combat training as placed on the following factors of training and prescribed by appropriate Army Training Programs operations : prior to initiation of the jungle training program. Detailed planning for all actions c. The principles and tactical doctrines outlined Efficiency of junior leaders in Department of the Army publications are appli- Physical fitness , cable to jungle operations. However, the difficulties Personal hygiene and sanitation caused by the rugged and complex terrain, dense Ambush and counterambush vegetation, water barriers and oppressive climatic conditions of jungle areas necessitate special train- Navigation ing. Training must be designed to illustrate to indi- March security viduals and unit leaders the effect that jungle ter- Fire discipline and control rain has on application of accepted combat tech- Reconnaissance niques, the adjustments that are necessary and the Silent movement fact that all individuals require acclimation to the Communications peculiar environment of the wet tropics before maximum efficiency can be attained. Supply and evacuation Patrolling d. Application of this training program under actual tropical conditions or over actual jungle ter- b. An appreciation and working knowledge of rain is, of course, the optimum training situation. the above training factors and their application in However, it is mandatory for all commanders to jungle terrain are necessary before individuals and realize that training for jungle combat can be con- units can be considered ready for jungle operations. ducted in other types of terrain. Dense woods, Therefore, it is suggested that these factors be indi- marshes, swamps and other types of terrain can be cated as points of emphasis and/or as training ob- utilized. Thé important thing to keep in mind is jectives in the appropriate training memoranda the quality of training that is offered to troops; published by units concerned. they must be properly motivated and all instruction must be pertinent to and correlated with as- 4. Subjects To Be Presented pects of the jungle. The following subjects should be included in a jungle training program. Training must be rugged 2. Concurrent Training and realistic. The training is predicated on the The suggested method of implementing simul- premise that all individuals are trained for normal taneous training activities is by the division of operations but have no particular experience in students into groups. By rotation of groups between jungle operations. Subject designations are:

TAGO M11A 217 Recommended hour* and type Subject title of instruction Scope Ambush and 7—Conference (C), Conference on purpose, characteristics and application of am- Counterambush Practical Exercise (PE) bush and coiinterambush techniques. Emphasis on suit- Tactics ability of jungle terrain for ambush. Practical exercise requiring students in squad-size units to apply ambush and counterambush techniques. Observers with each squad conduct critiques. Boat Drill 4—C, Demonstration Integrated conference, demonstration and practical exercise in (D), PE the use of military and native small boats in jungle operations. Includes basic commands, loading and unloading procedures, handling techniques and water safety. Communications 1—C, D An integrated conference and demonstration covering the employment of various communications systems in jungle terrain. The limitations imposed by the weather, vegetation and terrain of jungle areas on all means of communications are discussed. Use of expedients to overcome reduced efficiency is stressed. IMMEDIATE ACTION 4—C, PE Instruction on principles and techniques of three basic contact Drills drills: ambush, immediate action (counterambush) and meeting engagement. Practical exercise requiring conduct of squad size combat patrols and application of basic techniques of reaction to contact. Detailed critique is given to each squad by officer lane observer. Physiological Effects of 1—C Description of effects of heat on human body ; symptoms, cure, Heat and prevention of heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and heat stroke; explanation of the acclimatization process, to include method of aiding the process; general rules to prevent heat disorders. Escape and Evasion 37—C, PE One hour conference reviews Code of Conduct and escape and evasion techniques. Emphasis is placed on the advantage provided the escapee or the evader by the jungle. Thirty- six hour practical exercise requiring infiltration through 8,000 meters of “enemy-dominated” area to friendly territory. Reaction Test Phase III, 4—C, PE Emphasis is on need for well directed, concentrated fire in Fire Destruction and actions conducted during close combat; explanation that Effects fire, properly planned and employed, will inflict maximum casualties and damage on targets which cannot be seen; review of basic visual (silent) signals; practical exercise requiring rifle squad to engage covered and concealed targets with live ammunition; targets are scored to show effectiveness of fire by squads. Guerrilla Operations and 3—C Introduction to the nature, characteristics, requirements and Suppression of techniques of guerrilla warfare; capabilities and limitations Guerrilla Forces of guerrilla forces; organization of a typical irregular force; operations against guerrilla elements; effects of jungle terrain on guerrilla and antiguerrilla operations. Jungle Living 30—C, D, PE Description and demonstration of issue clothing and equipment best suited for jungle operations; demonstration on proper employment of the machete; tropical diseases, their causes and methods of prevention; procurement, sources, and purification of drinking water; care of the body; field sanitation procedures; survival in jungle to include description of jungle shelters, techniques of construction and use of jungle materials; traps and snares; demonstrations and tour of exhibit areas to illustrate types of jungle shelters. Demonstration of snares and traps. Thirty hour practical exercise requiring students to construct semi-permanent shelters using only jungle materials; preparation and consumption of special rations. Students should live in shelters for at least one week.

218 TAQO A611A Recommended hourt and type Subject title of inetruction Scope Jungle, Navigation (Day) 11—C, PE A brief review of the use of the compass and basic map reading techniques; methods and techniques of nàvigation.in jungle. Conference followed by a practical exercise requiring students to complete compass and navigation course, about 5,000 meters in length.

TAQO UUA 219 APPENDIX III

A RECOMMENDED STANDING OPERATING PROCEDURE MANLOADS AND EQUIPMENT LISTS FOR OFFENSIVE COMBAT IN JUNGLE

I. GENERAL A. PURPOSE. This SOP is intended to serve as a guide to commanders and staff officers when planning manloads and equipment lists for use by rifle companies during training for jungle combat or during actual operations in jungle environment. B. SCOPE. The clothing, equipment, weapons and ammunition to be carried by the individual soldier and platoon loads are described by this SOP. The contents of this SOP are predicated upon the premise that a dismounted rifle company can operate independently and unsupported with resupply for three days. C. APPLICATION. The contents of this SOP apply to the dismounted rifle company when conducting, preparing for, or training to conduct independent offensive operations against lightly armed guerrillas in jungle terrain. It should be modified as required for other organizations and equipment. II. ORGANIZATION, MANLOADS AND PLATOON LOADS. A. ORGANIZATION OF COMPANY PERSONNEL. 1. Company headquarters—no change. 2. Rifle platoons—no change. 3. Weapons platoons—no change. 4. Rear echelon—Supply Sergeant, Company Clerk, and Supply Truck Driver. B. INDIVIDUAL MANLOAD. Item No. Unit Deecription Weight 1 1 Bar, Insect, Field 1 lb 16 oz 2 1 Poncho 2 lbs 3 SET Trousers and Jacket, Utility 2 lbs 6 oz 4 1 Cap, Utility 3 oz 5 1 Field Pack, Combat 12 oz 6 2 Canteen, w/Caps and Carriers 7 lbs (FULL) at 3 lbs 8 oz 7 SET Underwear and socks 9 oz 8 1 Pair Extra Socks 2 oz 9 & 10 1 Belt, w/First Aid Packet 1 lb 11 2 Magazines 1 lb 12 2 Ammunition Pouches (Attached to Pack) 1 lb 8 oz 13 1 Suspenders, Field Pack, Combat 12 oz 14 Pr. Boots, Jungle 4 lbs 15 SET Toilet Articles 16 oz 16 SET Insect Repellent, Foot Powder, Fuel, Ration, 8 oz Heating, Purification Tablets 17 6 Meals, Combat 10 lbs 2 oz 18 1 Machete w/Scabbard 1 lb 14 oz TOTAL WEIGHT 3fi lb 10 oz

220 TAOO 651 LA. C. UNIT EQUIPMENT, DISTRIBUTION, AND WEIGHTS. 1. Company Headquarters Load.

Item No. Unit Description Weight 1 1 Metascope, Transistorized w/o batteries 2 lbs 8 oz 2 2 Bottles, Salt, Tab 5 oz 10 oz 3 1 Pre-cut antenna 13 oz 4 1 150 feet nylon rope 1 lb 8 oz 6 2 Compass w/case—6 oz 12 oz 6 2 Files (for machete) 1 lb 8 oz 7 1 Switchboard 993/GT 2 lbs 4 oz 8 6 Flashlights w/battery—12 oz 3 lbs 12 oz 9 1 Set Panel Marker 1 lb 13 oz 10 1 TA-1 3 lbs 11 4 Toolkit TE 33-1 1 lb 4 lbs 12 1 PRC-10, less battery and battery case 9 lbs 9 oz 13 1 Intrenching tool w/cover 3 lbs 14 1 Adhesive tape, 2 inches 2 lbs 15 1 DR-8 w/% mile wire & RL 39 14 lbs 6 oz 16 2 Rifle Cleaning Kits 1 lb 8 oz 17 1 Oil, lubricating (1 qt) 2 lbs 2 oz 18 1 Grenade Launcher 7 oz 19 1 Binoculars w/case 2 lbs 12 oz 20 1 Set Climbers LC-5 4 lbs 8 oz 21 4 Grenades, Rifle, Smoke, Streamer 1 lb 8 oz 22 4 Signal, Ground, Star Cluster 1 lb 5 oz 23 2 PRC-10 w/battery—21 lbs 8 oz 43 lbs 24 1 Packboard 5 lbs 25 4 PRC-10 batteries 16 lbs 2 oz TOTAL WEIGHT 138 lbs 11 oz 2. Rifle Platoon Load.

Item No. Unit Description Weight 1 1 Packboard 5 lbs 2 1 Metascope, Transistorized w/o batteries 2 lbs 8 oz 3 4 Bottles Salt Tab—5 oz 1 lb 4 oz 4 1 Pre-cut antenna 13 oz 5 1 150 feet nylon rope 1 lb 8 oz 6 4 Compass, Mag, Lensatic w/Case—6 oz 1 lb 8 oz 7 4 Files (for machete) 12 oz 3 lbs 8 1 Oil, Lubricating, 1 qt 2 lbs 2 oz 9 10 Flashlights—12 oz 7 lbs 8 oz 10 1 TA-1 3 lbs 11 1 PRC—10 w/battery 21 lbs 8 oz 12 1 Tool Kit TE-33 1 lb 13 2 PRC-10 battery 13 lbs 14 1 DR-8 w/% mile wire & RL 39 14 lbs 6 oz 15 8 Rifle Cleaning Kits 6 lbs 16 5 Grenade Launcher—7 oz 2 lbs 3 oz 17 1 Binoculars 6x30 w/case 2 lbs 12 oz 18 4 Intrenching tool w/cover—3 lbs 12 lbs 19 4 Grenades, Rifle, Smoke, Streamer 1 lb 8 oz 20 4 Signal, Ground, Star Cluster 1 lb 5 oz 21 1600 Róunds, 7.62mm, MLB, w/ammo cans 104 lbs 22 7 Rounds, 3.5 inch r/1, Heat—9 lbs 63 lbs TOTAL WEIGHT 273 lbs 6 oz 3. Weapons Platoon Load.

Item No. Unit Description Weight 1 1 Metascope, Transistorized w/o batteries 2 lbs 8 oz 2 4 Bottles, Salt Tabs—5 oz 1 lb 4 oz 3 1 Pre-cut antenna 13 oz 4 1 150 feet Nylon Rope 1 lb 8 oz

TAGO M11A 221 Item No. Unit Description Weight 5 4 Compass, Magnetic, Lensatic w/case 1 lb 8 os 6 4 Files (for machete)—12 os 3 lbs 7 1 Oil, lubricating, 1 qt 2 lbs 2 oz 8 10 Flashlights w/batteries—12 os 7 lbs 8 oz 9 1 TA-1 3 lbs 10 1 PRC-10 w/batteiy 21 lbs 8 oz 11 1 Tool Kit, TE 33 1 lb 12 2 PRC-10 Battery 13 lbs 1 oz 13 1 DR-8 w/% mile wire & RL 39 14 lbs 6 oz 14 8 Rifle, Cleaning Kits 6 lbs 15 4 Grenade Launcher—7 oz 1 lb 12 oz 16 1 Binoculars 6x30 w/case 2 lbs 12 oz 17 4 Intrenching Tool w/cover—3 lbs 12 oz 18 4 Grenades, Rifle, Smoke, Streamer 1 lb 8 oz 19 4 Signal, Ground, Star Cluster 1 lb 5 oz TOTAL WEIGHT 86 lb 6 oz 4. Medical Section Load.

Item No. Unit Description Weight 1 1 Oral Thermometer w/case 2 18 Band Aids (1 box) 3 1 Antropine (5 syrettes) 4 1 Aspirin Tablets (1 bottle) 5 1 Tablet, EMT 6 1 Medical Bag 7 12 Safety Pins (2 cards) 8 1 Snake Bite Kit 9 1 Hemo Set (Tourniquet, scissors & forceps) 10 1 Anti-venom kit 11 2 Bandage Muslin 12 1 Morphine (5 syrettes) 13 16 First Aid Dressings, Field 14 1 Minor Surgery Kit w/suture 15 1 Scissors, Bandage 16 3 Benzalkonium Chloride Tincture (10 cc) 17 1 ' Adhesive Tape (3" x 2 yards) 18 1 Guedel Airway 19 1 Wire Fabric (5% x 36 inches) 20 6 Tetracaine Ophthalmic Ointment (1 box) TOTAL WEIGHT 7 lb 13 oz III. WEAPONS AND AMMUNITION. A. WEAPONS AND AMMUNITION FOR RIFLEMEN. 1 rifle, M-14 9 lb 2 oz 1 Bayonet, w/Scabbard 1 lb 12 oz 120 Ctg, 7.62mm 7 lb 4 oz 2 Grenades, Hand, Fragmentation—1 lb 8 oz 3 lbs TOTAL WEIGHT 21 lbs 2 oz B. WEAPON AND AMMUNITION FOR SHOTGUN CARRIERS. 1 shotgun, 12 Gauge 10 lbs 8 oz 50 Rds, 00 buck, metallic case 12 lbs 2 Grenades, Hand, Fragmentation—1 lb 8 oz 3 lbs 1 Bayonet, w/Scabbard 1 lb 12 oz TOTAL WEIGHT 27 lbs 4 oz C. WEAPON AND AMMUNITION FOR PISTOLEERS. 1 Pistol, Cal .45 w/Holster 2 lbs 15 oz 35 Ctg, Cal .45 1 lb 11 oz 1 Magazine 2 oz 2 Grenade, Hand, Fragmentation—1 lb 8 oz 3 lbs 1 Bayonet, w/Scabbard 1 lb 12 oz TOTAL WEIGHT 9 lbs 8 oz

222 TAGO 6511A D. WEAPON FOR 3A ROCKET LAUNCHER GUNNER. 1 3.5 Inch Rocket Launcher 15 lbs Equipment for Pistoleers See “C” above 9 lbs 8 oz E. WEAPON AND AMMUNITION FOR MACHINE GUN (M-60) GUNNER. 1 Machine gun, M-60 w/bipods 23 Iba 2 oz lOO Ctg, Cal 7.62mm 6 Iba 3 oz TOTAL WEIGHT 29 lbs 5 oz Equipment for Pistoleers See “C” above 9 lbs 8 oz F. WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT FOR GRENADIER. 1 Grenade launcher, M79 6 lbs 18 Rds Ammunition 40m/m fixed—8 oz ea 9 lbs TOTAL WEIGHT 15 lbs

IV. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS. A. ADDITIONAL OR MODIFIED EQUIPMENT. 1. One set, pole climbers, LC-5 will prove useful for rigging expedient antennas. This equipment is not organic to the rifle company, but is available within the parent battalion. 2. Shotguns are available through the appropriate Tables of Allowances. Recommended issue is two per rifle squad, two per Company Headquarters, and four per weapons platoon (in lieu of the M-14 rifle where appropriate). 3. The 3.5 inch rocket launcher should be used by each rifle platoon in lieu of the 9Qmm recoilless rifle, M67. The rocket launcher is more portable and furnishes sufficient high explosive capability for the type of mission assigned. B. PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT NOT NORMALLY NEEDED. 1. The Company Supply Sergeant, Company Clerk and Supply Driver, will normally be more useful in performing administrative duties and preparations for resupply of the company at the trains area. 2. Tripods for the M60 machine gun are not often needed during offensive combat in jungle. The use of the tripod is not practical due to the limited observation, short fields of fire and the tendency to hang up on vegetation even when folded. 3. 81mm mortars, 106mm and 90mm recoilless rifles are impractical because of their weight, the weight of the ammunition and the limitations imposed on their use by the terrain and foliage. C. COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT. 1. Pre-fabricated half-rhombic antennas are often more effective in jungle than the standard equipment. 2. AN/PRC-6 radios should not be carried if distances between stations are expected to exceed 50 meters. 3. The telephone TA—1 will normally suffice in offensive actions and are much lighter than the telephone TA-312.

TAGO Mil A 223 V

r' INDEX

Paragraphs Page Paragraphs Page Acclimation 26 33 Employment 97 197 Aerial photographs 32b (2) 110 Fire control 101 198 Aircraft 47b(6) 171 Observation 96 197 Landing areas 47b(5)(a) 171 Positions 95 197 Movement of supplies.. 47b(5)(b),fig 134 172,167 Targets 98 197 Parachute expedient ... 47b(5)(b),fig 135 172,169 Types of fires 93 196 Air Defense Artillery 108 199 Avenues of approach 22,61e 32,177 Akee 290(1),figs78,79 65,85,86 Avocado 29g(2),fig80 69,87 Ambush 41 146 Azimuth 32c(2) 112 Counter (See Counterambush.) Bamboo 9t, 10b(4), 29g(4) 16,18,69 Animals 15,30 22,76 Bases, tactical 82 189 Amphibian 301 93 Birds 30p 96 Anteater 30t 91 Boat handling (See Small boat handling.) Buffalo 30n(2) 95 Booby traps 90 195 Canine 300 91 Boots 28b(l)(c) 37 Capybara 30/(2) 87 Breadfruit 29/(2), fig 71 61,78 Coati-mundi 30e(l)(c), fig85 87,92 Bridges 11 18 Cougar (See Puma.) Deer 30c 85 Cassava 29/(5), fig 77 64,84 Dog (See Canine.) CBR 117 201 Elephant 30m 94 Antiplant 120b, 121 202,203 Jaguar 15,30b(3) 22,83 Biological 120 202 Jaguarundi 30b 77 Flame 119c 202 Kinkajou 30e 86 Nuclear 122 203 Leopard 30b(2) 82 Smoke 119a, 119b ' 202 Monkey (See Primate.) Toxic 118 201 Ocelot 30b(5),fig83 84,90 Climate 5d,7a 4,5 Paca 30/(3) 91 Close air support : Panther (See Leopard.) Doctrine 124 203 Peccary 15,30d,fig84 22,85,91 Missions 127 203 Pig 30d 85 ■ Targets 130 204 Primate 30b 91 Types 125 203 Puma 30b(4) 84 Clothing 28b(l)(a) 35 Raccoon 30c 86 Communications 46 162 Rodent 30/ 87 Messenger 46b(l) 163 Sloth 30/c, figs 87,88 93.94,95 Radio 46b (4) 165 Tapir 30/, fig 86 92,93 Sound 46b (2) 163 Tiger 15,30b(l) 22,77 Visual 46b(2) 163 Antennas, expedient .. 46b(4)(b),figs 129-133 165,158 Wire 46b (3) 164 Armor 102 198 Compass 32b (3) 110 Combined arms training 105 198 Concealment 19 31 Infantry tasks 104 198 Cover 19 31 Infantry tank teams 107 199 Crossing obstacles 33c 118 Task escort 106 198 Steep hills and cliffs 33c(2),figs97,98 118,106,107 Tank tasks 103 198 Vegetation and swamps .... 33c(l),fig96 118,105 Army aviation : Wide rivers and streams 33c(3) 118 Helicopters 134 205 Fording 33c(3)(a) 118 Tasks 133 205 Rope bridges .. 33c(3)(b),figs99,100 119,108,109 Artillery 92 196 Surface 33c(3)(d) 120 Ammunition 99 197 Suspension traverse 33c(3)(c), 119, Communications 100 198 figs 101-104 110 Coordination 94 197 Counterambush 42 152

TAGO U11A 225 Paragraphs Page Paragraphs Page Counterguerrüla 85c 193 Papaya 29d(5),fig55 51,62 Counterinsurgency 856 193 Pineapple 29d(14),fig59 56,66 Cultivation 90, fig 10 14,24 Plantain 29d(2),figs49,50 49,56,57 Cultural features 5c(5),76(5) 4,5 Rose apple 29d(13) 56 Curare (See Strychnos) Sapote 29d(16) 57 Sop, sour 29d(7),fig57 52,64 Dasheen 29/(3) (a), figs 72,73 62,79,80 Sop, sweet 29d(8) 53 Defense 70 183 Sops, other 29d(9) 53 Conduct 74 186 Star apple 29d(15) 67 Organization 72 185 Fungus 147 211 Definitions 5 4 Dehydration 276 34 Heart of Palm (See Palm Heart.) Diseases 12 19 Heat 266 33 Animal borne 143 208 Heat cramps VJd 35 Insect borne . 143 208 Heat disorders 27 34 Intestinal ... 145 211 Heat exhaustion 27c 34 Tropical 146 211 Heat stroke 27e 35 Waterborne . 144 210 Huevo de Gato 296(1) 71 Hydrography 5c(2),76(2) 4,5 Edible plants 29t 74 Hygiene 286(2), 142 41,208 Elephant ear 296(3), fig82 73,89 Enemy capabilities 62 177 Inedible plants 29» 74 Engineer : Intelligence 59 176 Construction 48 173 Insects 30o 95 Mapping 114 201 Insect Bar 286(1) (d) 37 Mine warfare 113 200 Planning 115 201 Jungle 5a, 8,9,20 4,5,31 River crossing Ill 200 Jungle living 28 35 Road construction 110 200 Knots 34,34g, figs 113-122 124,128,124 Water supply 112 200 Equipment list AppIII 220 Logistics : Evacuation 476(l)(o)i, 148 169,212 Classes of supply 137 207 Equipment 149 212 Special considerations 135 206 Transportation 136 206 Fields of fire 186 31 Fire distribution 37a,37a(3),37o(4) 136,137,138 Machete 286(1)(0),figs37,38 38,46,47 Fire tunnels (See Fields of fire.) Maps 326(1) 108 Firing exercises 35,37 133,136 Maintenance 150 213 Flotation expedients (See also Mangrove : Rafts.) 33c(3)(p) 123 Black 9c(2),fig 10 10,16 Canteen safety belt 33c(3)(g)l, 123, Red 9c(l),fig9 10,14 figs 107,108 115,116 White 9c(3), figs 11,12 10,16,17 Poncho life belt.. 33c(3)(pli,figs 109-111 123,118 Manloads App III 220 Water wings 33c(3)(p)5, fig 112 123,122 Medical Service, employment 138 208 Foods 29 45 Mines 90 195 Forests, deciduous 9/, fig 18 13,23 Misconceptions 4 4 Forests, swamp 9d, 106(3) 12,18 Mortars 87 194 Catival 9d(l),figl5 12,20 Mosquito bar (See Insect bar.) Mangrove 9c, fig 8 9,13 Movement 10,17,51 16,31,175 Palm 9d(l),figs 13,14 12,18,19 March discipline 54 175 Thicket 9d(3), figs 16,17 12,21,22 March objectives 56 176 Fruits 29d 48 March rate 53 175 Banana 29d( 1), figs 48,60-53 48,55,67 March route 55 176 Citrus 29c, figs 43-47 48,52 Guava 29d(6),fig66 52,63 Natives 16 23 Hogplum 29d(19),fig62 58,69 Naval gunfire 109 200 Ice Cream Bean 29d(ll) 54 Navigation 32 108 Jackfruit 29d(17),fig60 58,67 Aids 326 108 Malay apple 29d(12),fig58 56,65 Night 32c(3)(/) 115 Mamey 29d(3) 50 Teams 32c(3) 112 Mango 29d(4),fig54 50,61 Technique 32c 110 Níspero 29(1(10) 54 Night fighting 38 140

226 TAQO M11A Paragraphs Page Paragraphs Page Nuts 29e 58 Grenade launcher, 40mm 91d 195 Almond 296(3), fig 65 60,72 Machinegun 91c 105 Black Palm 29e(4),figs66,67 60,73,74 Rifles 91a, 5 195 Canna Brava 29e(5),fig68 60.75 Small boat handling 45 , 154 Cashew 29e (2), fig 64 60,71 Boat teams 45c 155 Coconut 29e(l),fig63 58,70 Nomenclature Fig 127 166 Corozo 29e(6),fig69 61.76 Positions Fig 128 157 Safety 45e 162 Observation .. 18a, fig 65 31,30 Snakes : 31a 96 Obstacles 20,33 31,117 Black 31e(l) 104 Bypassing 32c(6),figs95(1), 117,102, Boa Constrictor 315(7), figs 93,94 101,100,101 95(2),95(3) 103,104 Bushmaster 315(1), fig90 96,97 Methods of crossing (See Crossing obstacles.) Cobra 31c(l) 102 Types 335 118 Coral 315(5) 100 Offense 63 178 Death adder 31e(3) 105 Attack 65 180 Fer-de-lance 315(2), figs91,92 97,98,99 Attack against fortified positions 66 182 Krait 31c(2) 102 Movement to contact 64 178 Mamba 31d(l) 103 Observation posts 67 182 Puff Adder 31d(2) 103 Relief in place .. 69 182 Python 31c(4) 103 Operations 49 174 Sea 315(6) 100 Oto 29/(3)(6),figs74,75 63,81,82 Tiger 31e(2) 105 Viper 315(3),315(4),31c(3),31d(4) 99,102, Í04 Pace 32c (3) (e) 115 Snake bite 31p 106 61,69,77 Palm heart 29e(6),29p(3),fig70 Snake venom 31/ 105 Patrolling 40 142 Snares (See Traps.) 22,45 Plants 14,29 Strychnos 295(4) 71 36,114 Poncho 285(1) (6), figs 27-36,106 Sugar cane 29d(18), fig 61 58,68 Poisonous plants 295 71 Sun 325(4) 110 Potato' substitutes 29/ 61 Sunstroke (See Heatstroke.) 168 Rafts: Supply 47 4.5 Australian poncho raft .. 33c(3) (/),fig 106 122,114 Surface materials 5c(4),75(4) 38 Poncho briish raft 3§c(3)(e), fig 36 120,45 Suspenders 285(1) (/) Raids 80 189 Tapioca 29/(5), fig 77 64,84 Rainforests : Target detection 37a(2) 137 . Cloud 9a(2), fig 5 5.10 Taro 29/(3) 61 Highland 9a(2),fig6 5.11 Terrain 55,61 4,177 Lowland 9a ( 1 ), fig 4 5,9 Terrain features 5c, 21, fig 26 4,31,134 Primary evergreen 9a, 105(1) 5,17 Time-distance factor 105 5 . Secondary evergreen 95,105(2), fig 7 9,17,12 Topography 6c(l),76(l) 4.5 Reaction exercises 36 135 Ambush drill, deliberate 36a 135 Tracking - 83 190 Contact drill 365 135 Scout dogs ’ 830 191 Recoilless rifle 88,89 195 Trails 10b(5), 11 18 References App I 215 Training 24 33 Retrograde 75 187 Objectives 25 33 Delaying defense 77 187 Program App II 217

( i Employment of chemicals 78 187 Transportation 11,475 18,168 Withdrawal 76 187 Traps 285(4)(/),fig42 45,51 Rice 9p(2),29;,fig20 15.74.25 Tropical zone 6 4 Rope 34 124 Uniforms (See Clothing) Sand box Tree 295(2), fig 81 71,88 Sanitation 285(2) 41 Vegetables 29p 65 Savanna 95,105(5),fig21 15.18.26 Vegetable substitutes ...¿. 29p 65 Shelters 285(4),figs39-41 42,48 Vegetation 65(3),75(3) 4,5 Shotgun 37c 138 Village clearing 84, figs 136-138 192,170 Small arms 91 195 Visibility 13 21 Bayonet 91/ 196 Limits 13a, figs 22-24 21,27 Grenade 91e 196 Problems 135 22

TAGO 5511A 227 Paragraphs Page Paragraphs Page Water 28b (3) 41 Wild tomato (See Huevo de Gato.) 3 S ' Weather3 5e, 60 4,176 Yams 29f(4),fig76 Wild food 29k 76 Yuca 29/(5),fig77

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

HAROLD K. JOHNSON, General, United States Army, Official: Chief of Staff. J. C. LAMBERT, Major General, United States Army, The Adjutant General.

Distribution : Active Army: DCSPER (2) Div (5) DCSLOG (2) CC (2) DCSOPS (2) Bde (2) ACSI (2) Regt/Gp (2) ACSFOR (2) Bn (2) CORC (2) Co/Btry (2) CC-E (2) USA AGS (1) Dir of Trans (2) USAADS (3) CofEngrs (2) USAARMS (50) TSG (2) USAAVNS (50) CNGB (2) USACHS (50) USACDCCBRA (2) USACMLCS (35) USCONARC (5) USACAS (10) USACDC (5) USAES (2) USAMC (5) USAFS (2) ARADCOM (2) USAINTS (2) ARADCOM Rgn (1) USAMPS (2) OS Maj Comd (5) except USAOC&S (10) USARSO (50) USAQMS (5) LOGCOMD (2) USASCS (16) MDW (3) USATSCH (12) Armies (5) USACBRWOC (1) Corps (5) NG: State AG (3); units—same, as Active Army except allowance is one copy to each unit. USAR: Units—same as Active Army. For explanation of abbreviations used, see AR 320-50.

U. 8. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1968—200*SS8

228 TAQOKUA/ 145. Intestinal Infections 147. Fungus Diseases of Skin and Hair a. Diseases. The principal diseases in this group a. Diseases. Ringworm (tinea) ; athlete’s foot which occur in the tropics are amoebic dysentery, (Epidermophytosis of the feet) ; and trichophytosis, bacillary (bacterial) dysentery, cholera, food infec- a fungus disease of the hair, are the principal fungus tion, food contamination, worms (helminthic infec- diseases. The seriousness of these diseases, espe- tions), paratyphoid fever, protozoal dysenteries, cially those of the ears and feet, is seldom realized typhoid fever, and undulant fever (Malta fever). except by men with long jungle experience. These These diseases are usually transmitted by eating diseases are especially serious in the jungle be- contaminated food or drinking untreated water. cause— Contamination of food is common. The contamina- (1) The climate favors the growth of the micro- tion may be caused in vegetable products by contact scopic plants called fungi which produce with infected material during growth, súch as human these diseases. excreta used as a fertilizer. Contamination of any (2) Sweat-soaked skin invites attack by food may be caused by dirty utensils or by food fungus. handlers who have, or are carriers of, intestinal (3) More individual effort is required to keep diseases. Native fruits and vegetables which can- the body and clothes clean. not be peeled or cooked should not be eaten. (4) The extreme fatigue resulting from jungle b. Preventive Measures. marching is apt to cause soldiers to neglect (1) , All perishables,to bothwash meats their and clothes vegetables, and bodies even . which cannot be stored in a refrigerator though they have been told their health below 44° F., should be cooked immedi- depends on cleanliness. ately . upon receipt except that frozen (5) Some men lacking jungle experience falsely meats should be cooked immediately after believe they are tough enough to stay heal- thawing. All nonperishable food should be thy in the tropics and need not take the stored in verminfree boxes or chests. All precautions prescribed. food should be kept as free of dust as possible, and every effort must be made to b. Preventive Measures. It is much easier to pre- prevent contamination during transit. vent fungus diseases of the skin and hair than to cure them. The following preventive measures are (2) All foods should be served (immediately important: after preparation. No leftovers should be served. Hard bread, canned meat, and (1) Keep as clean as possible and wash as other canned foods should be issued to often as is practicable. Use plenty of soap troops in position unless hot food can be and water when available, both for bath- brought up in original containers. Sand- ing and washing clothes. Socks should be wiches and other food for lunches should washed with soap at least once a day. If not be prepared and issued for later con- a stream cannot be reached after making sumption. camp, use a part of the water in the canteen and a little soap to wash at least the 146. Special Tropical Diseases armpits, groin and feet. Tropical bubo (lymphogranuloma inguinale), and (2) Do not go barefooted in the jungle. granuloma inguinale are diseases which may be (3) As far as possible, avoid soiling clothes. transmitted through sexual intercourse. Tropical Avoid mud. Use the machete to provide a bubo is a virus disease. The initial lesion is so small clean place to rest during halts. Unneces- that it usually passes unnoticed. Later the lymph sary dirtiness is a sign of stupidity, not glands in the groin become enlarged, break down, toughness. and ulcerate. Granuloma inguinale is usually lim- (4) Keep the skin dry, well ventilated, and ited to the genitalia and inguinal region, but may free from tight clothing. Wear only enough spread to other parts of the body. The lesions con- clothing to afford protection from insects sist of large ulcerating aréas which spread, gradu- and thorns. Do not wear underclothes un- ally destroying the tissue as they advance. less the other clothing chafes you. Wear

TAQO S511A 211 3000017455

clothing and boots that will allow air to water help to cure, as well as prevent reach the skin. infections. (5) Sleep with as little clothing as the tempera- (2) After washing, and just before retiring, ture permits. Never sleep in wet, dirty treat infected skin areas with antifungus clothing. medicine. Do not scratch insect bites. Foot (6) When the tactical situation permits, sleep powder helps both foot and body rashes of off the ground, preferably in a hammock the milder types. or on a platform. (3) In general, avoid bandages and greasy (7) Clean under and around the nails of the medicines. Dry up fungus infections with hands and feet. drying medicines in conjunction with air (8) Take sunbaths for short periods whenever and sunlight. practicable, but do not let the skin burn. (4) Clean off dead, infected skin. Do not (9) Stay away from native houses. Live and scratch. camp in clean, uninhabited jungle. (5) Boil clothing, especially socks, when you (10) Dust socks and the inside of boots with have the opportunity. Do not wear one foot powder. sock first on an infected foot and then on a (11) Wash and sun articles, such as pack- healthy foot. Dry, stretch, and soften boards, packs, harnesses and belts, espe- socks before replacing in field kit. cially those used by more than one man. (6) Avoid overtreating. Follow instructions. (12) Officers and NCO’s must hold frequent Do not use too much medicine or apply it foot inspections. too often. (7) Consider all skin diseases as serious. Treat Individual Jungle Treatment of Fungus Skin c. them regularly, intelligently, and patiently. Infections. d. Remedial Action. Fungus diseases, if neg- (1) During prolonged jungle operations, each soldier must take care of his skin and make lected, will incapacitate many men, regardless of personal cleanliness and the use of foot powder. At every possible effort to keep infected skin the first symptoms of a fungus infection, use the areas clean, dry, well ventilated, and pro- prescribed medicine carried in the individual or tected. As punctures of the skin can rap- group first aid kits. When inflammation or itching idly become infected, treat all wounds im- is excessive, consult a medical officer as soon as mediately with an antiseptic. Soap and possible.

Section III. EVACUATION

148. General for operation under jungle conditions. For this The evacuation of wounded in jungle warfare reason all types of transportation, whether by water, presents a difficult problem. The task of carrying land, or air may be used to transport casualties to a casualty to the medical installation may require the rear. This principle applies not only to vehicles the traversing of rough terrain. There is a higher assigned primarily for this purpose, but also to proportion of litter wounded cases than ordinarily empty supply vehicles returning from forward posi- encountered since even a slightly wounded indi- tions. Evacuation in the jungle would normally be vidual may find it impossible to struggle over rough along supply routes which are adequately protected terrain. As a result, the casualty ordinarily classi- against enemy action. fied as “walking wounded” may become a litter case. a. Litters. The standard folding litter has some disadvantages when evacuation involves the crossing 149. Equipment of streams, gullies, and steep slopes. Metal basket The usual equipment and property prescribed by litters (mountain type) are more practicable under the table of organization and equipment for units these conditions and can also be used to advantage concerned with evacuation are not always suitable when casualties are being moved from jungle areas

212 TAQO Mil A \ 1

Sin sin ¡h- lo os =o o= SO io =co FM 31-30 JUNGLE TRAINING AND OPERATIONS-1965