Equility in Spanish Universities: a Reflection on the Impact of Equality Actions in Spanish Universities

Equility in Spanish Universities: A Reflection on the Impact of Equality Actions in Spanish Universities

Inma Pastor Gosálbez ([email protected])

Paloma Pontón Merino ([email protected])

Social and Organisational Analysis Research Group

Sociology Unit, Department of Business Management

Rovira i Virgili University (URV), Tarragona, Spain http://www.analisisocial.org, http://www.urv.cat

Abstract:

In the first decade of 21st century, society has grown increasingly aware of the need for equal treatment and opportunities between women and men. The European Union, a leading driver of awareness of these issues, has prioritised gender equality and approved and implemented policies aimed at promoting women’s advancement. Actions of this sort have achieved indisputable results. Spain’s constitutional framework contains specific principles of equality and, likewise, the Catalan Statute of Autonomy establishes the value of gender equality. Although the equality principle is a fundamental pillar of democratic communities such as universities, there remains some discrimination in these institutions. Mechanisms to correct this discrimination and achieve true equality of opportunities between men and women are still necessary. One key mechanism is to introduce contributions from women’s studies, feminism and gender studies in education programmes. Mechanisms of this sort should help to correct existing structural imbalances while recognising and respecting differences. In this paper, we describe current laws on gender equality and universities and how they are implemented at various Spanish universities (equality plans, equity units, equality observatories, etc.). We also present an overview of the situation of women in Spanish universities. We reflect on the usefulness, appropriateness and results of university equality policies, as well as the obstacles to their full implementation; these reflections are informed by our experience at Rovira i Virgili University (Tarragona, Spain). Finally, we consider the impact of university equality plans and identify future challenges.

Keywords:

Universities, research, equality plans, gender gap.

Summary:

1. Current Legislation on Equality and Universities

2. Women in the Spanish University System

3. Equality Plans at Spanish Universities

4. Impact of Equality Plans at Spanish Universities; Future Challenges

5. Bibliography

1. Current Legislation on Equality and Universities

This section describes current gender-equality regulations that, to some extent, affect universities.

In the first decade of the 21st century, society has grown increasingly aware of the need for equal treatment and opportunities between women and men. Spurred by this growing awareness, the European Union (EU) has taken political action. The EU has placed high priority on the issue of gender equality, approving provisions and implementing policies for women’s access and advancement; these measures have achieved indisputable results. Directive 2002/73/EC European Parliament and of the Council (amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions) and Council Directive 2004/113/EC (implementing the principle of equal treatment between men and women in the access to and supply of goods and services) are two such measures. On 20 December 2006, the European Commission created the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE),1 which has become an instrument for disseminating information, exchanging best practices and developing methodological tools to promote gender mainstreaming. The general objectives of the EIGE are “to contribute to and strengthen the promotion of gender equality, including gender mainstreaming in all Community policies and the resulting national policies, and the fight against discrimination based on sex, and to raise EU citizens’ awareness of gender equality by providing technical assistance to the Community institutions and the authorities of the Member States”.2

Spain’s constitutional framework clearly expresses specific equality principles: Article 14 of the Spanish Constitution establishes that all Spaniards are equal and

1 Regulation (EC) no. 1922/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, of 20 December 2006, on establishing a European Institute for Gender Equality. Official Journal of the European Union, L 403, 30/12/2012. 2 Regulation (EC) no. 1922/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, of 20 December 2006, on establishing a European Institute for Gender Equality. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32006R1922:ES:NOT. Accessed 21/05/2012.

may not be discriminated against on account of sex; Article 9.2 requires the public authorities to promote conditions ensuring the equality of individuals; and Article 35 guarantees all Spaniards the right to advancement through work and forbids employment discrimination on account of sex. The Catalan Statute of Autonomy establishes the value of gender equality in Article 4.3, the right to live free from discrimination in Article 15.2, and the right to participate in the private and public spheres in Article 19.2. Moreover, Article 41 of the Statute requires the public authorities to guarantee the principle of equal opportunities for women and men, as well as the integration of the gender perspective into all public policies. Article 44 requires the public authorities to guarantee the quality of the education system by promoting social values such as equality.

However, the material perspective on gender equality was enshrined not in Catalan law but by Organic Law 3/2007, of 22 March, on the effective equality between women and men (commonly known as the Equality Law), which, according to its preamble, is intended to be the widest-ranging of the laws and codes on the equality of women and men in Spain. The Equality Law serves the dual purpose of advancing the struggle against gender discrimination and, more importantly, prioritising the promotion of gender equality from a cross-disciplinary perspective in various spheres as well as in the relevant body of law.

Under the Equality Law, the public authorities must ensure the effectiveness of transformational measures aimed at guaranteeing equal treatment and opportunities, and the public administration must periodically evaluate its policy areas. The Equality Law calls for the drafting of equality plans as a measure to promote equality, and also requires that public studies and statistics cover gender- related factors with considerable detail. It also compels the administration to promote equality-related education and research by offering postgraduate degrees and supporting research in this area. Universities, as institutions of the public administration, are bound by these obligations.

Specifically, Articles 23 to 25 of the Equality Law contain provisions on gender equality in education. Article 25, a brief article that addresses the field of higher education specifically, calls for education and research on gender equality as well as the promotion of concrete measures: the inclusion of equality subjects in higher-

education curricula, the creation of specific equality-related postgraduate degree programmes, and the promotion of specialised research in the field of equality.

This regulation of higher education is insufficient. The Equality Law makes no reference to the principle of balanced representation in university bodies. This omission is noteworthy, considering that women are underrepresented in university decision-making bodies in Spain (Nieves Saldaña, 2008).

Organic Law 4/2007, on universities (also known as the LOU),3 exhibits, in all of its articles, a special sensitivity to gender equality that was lacking in Organic Law 6/2001,4 which it amends. The amended law makes a stronger commitment to gender equality and fills in the gaps left by the Equality Law. The preamble of this law highlights “the role of universities as key transmitters of values”, before adding: “The challenge facing today’s society—to become a tolerant, egalitarian society that respects fundamental rights and freedoms and the equality of men and women—should, without a doubt, extend to universities.” Organic Law 4/2007 calls for a variety of measures aimed at achieving parity in representative and governance bodies at universities, as well as greater participation by women in research groups and in the upper echelons of university faculty and research staff, “commensurate with the percentage of university graduates who are women”. The law also calls on universities to create gender equality units “to carry out functions related to the principle of equality between women and men” (Additional Provision 12). Over the past few years, Spanish universities have, in fact, been creating gender equality units and promoting cooperation between units at different universities.

This amendment makes clear that equal treatment of men and women and equality of opportunity are values that universities must incorporate into their structure and functioning as specific objectives, and which they should also promote in society at large. (The steps taken by the various Spanish universities to fulfil this duty are discussed below in a greater detail.)

3 Official State Gazette (BOE) no. 89, 13/04/2007. 4 Organic Law 6/2001, of 21 December, on Universities.

These same values are reflected in the charter of Rovira i Virgili University (URV) of Tarragona, Spain (Decree 202/2003 of 26 August). Specifically, Article 4 of the charter states: “The University is governed by the principles of autonomy, freedom, democracy, justice, equality and non-discrimination, independence and plurality. The university community and, in particular, its government bodies, must fully implement these principles.”

2. Women in the Spanish University System

Women started entering Spanish universities in the last third of the 19th century. Until then, access to university education was reserved exclusively for men because it was considered that woman should be confined to the domestic and family spheres. Throughout the 19th century, Spanish society began to consider the benefits of educating women—not for women’s personal and professional fulfilment, but so that they could apply received knowledge to their functions. In other words, women would be allowed to study only to the extent that their training would enable them to take better care of their families, organise their households more effectively, etc.

In 1872, María Elena Maseras, having obtained special permission to pursue higher education, enrolled at the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Barcelona, becoming the first woman to enter a Spanish university. After that, several Spanish universities began to admit women as students. It is worth noting, however, that the degrees these women earned did not qualify them for professional practice. The women remained relegated to the family sphere. Their job was to care for their husbands and raise and educate their children. Many female university graduates faced major obstacles in their efforts to practice the professions for which they had studied (Duch, 2011). In short, Spain’s first university-educated women had to overcome difficulties and inequalities that in some ways still persist today.

Obviously, from these early years until the present day, Spanish society has undergone profound changes. Over the past few decades, women’s enrolment in Spanish universities has increased sharply, exceeding that of men. The latest data, for the 2009-2010 academic year, show that women account for 51.7% of enrolments at Spanish public universities.5

Nevertheless, if we compare female-dominated and male-dominated fields of study, highly significant differences can be seen.

5 INEBASE data for the 2009-2010 academic year: new students by university, sex, type of degree and type of school

Table 1. Distribution of university specialisations by sex

PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES

Social Experimenta Health Technical sciences Humanities l sciences sciences fields and law

Women (%) 56.44 73.81 62.38 61.71 26.98

Men (%) 43.56 26.19 37.62 38.29 73.02

Source: Compiled by the author using INEBASE data for the 2009-2010 academic year: students enrolled in university education by university, sex, cycle and field of study.

The data show that men and women are segregated by specialisation, with women accounting for a majority of students in all areas except for the technical fields, in which they are clearly underrepresented, accounting for just 26.98% of students. The health sciences, in contrast, are dominated by women (73.81%).

In short, balanced participation of women and men has not been achieved in all university environments. In some fields, women are a very small minority in the classroom: in some technical engineering degree programmes, they account for less than 7% of students.6 Other examples can be found at the national level. According to higher education statistics published by Spain’s National Statistics Institute, during the 2009-2010 academic year women accounted for just 10.9% of students enrolled in computer systems engineering and 17.1% in industrial engineering. Many researchers have attempted to identify the reasons behind women’s underrepresentation in certain fields (López de la Cruz, 2001; Caprile et al., 2008; Clair, 1996; Grañeras et al., 2003).

6 URV data on students enrolled in the 2006-2007 academic year.

Studies that aim to reveal the reasons for women’s underrepresentation will continue to provide fodder for reflection, but the more pressing concern now is to reverse this situation and bring women into the academic fields where they are underrepresented. Conversely, men are a minority in certain fields of study: according to higher education statistics published by the National Statistics Institute, men accounted for just 17.6% of students in nursing and 9.4% in speech therapy. This trend has become consolidated in Spain in recent years and appears unlikely to reverse itself unaided.

Women’s growing presence in university classrooms is therefore not reflected in an equitable distribution of enrolments across different fields of study. Likewise, although some women are pursuing degrees in technical and engineering fields, they remain a minority.

In order to properly analyse women’s presence at universities, we must also consider their participation in teaching positions. As a baseline, it is important to remember that, until 1950, not a single woman was a full professor at any Spanish university, and women—working under the precarious label of “assistants”— accounted for no more than 4% of the degree holders who were employed at universities; moreover, these “assistants” worked almost exclusively in humanities departments (Weiler, 1977).

The Report from the ETAN Expert Working Group on Women and Science (European Commission, 2000) confirmed that women remain underrepresented in higher education and publicly funded research. In the EU, women hold just 26% of all faculty posts in higher education; the figure for Spain (32%) is slightly above the European average. Most female faculty members occupy the lower levels and pay scales of their organisation, and women’s presence decreases progressively at the higher hierarchical levels. As a result, very few women are full professors at Spanish universities: just 13.9% of professorships were held by women in 2007 (Unidad de Mujeres y Ciencia, 2010), despite the fact that women have accounted for more than 30% of associate professors for more than 20 years (Sánchez de Madariaga, 2012).

This pattern repeats itself at the URV. Across all fields, more men than women occupy the highest-ranking positions (university professor, university associate professor and college professor). At the bottom of the university hierarchy, however, the reverse is true: the staff is predominately female. Figure 1 shows the composition of the URV’s faculty and research staff by sex and job category: a classic “scissors diagram”. The URV hierarchy fits the “overtaking” model (Torres and Pau, 2011), in which women researchers start out with a numerical advantage yet are progressively overtaken by their numerically inferior male counterparts, who go on to dominate the top employment categories. The figure clearly illustrates the existence of the glass ceiling—the point at which the “scissor” lines diverge and women’s academic careers stall.

Figure 1. Composition of the Rovira i Virgili (URV) faculty and research staff by sex and job category (%)

PDI per sexe i categoria laboral

Home 2006 Dona 2006 Home 2010 Dona 2010

90 80,0 80 67,4 70 78,6

60 53,8 47,856,0 49,7 52,4 61,2 50 52,2 50,5 50,3 46,2 40 49,5 47,6 44,0 38,8

Percentatge 30 32,6

20 20,0 21,4

0 Personal Altres TEU TU+CEU+ CU Investigador en Agregats formació

Source: Compiled by the author using data from the URV Human Resources Service.

At the URV, 58.3% of the faculty and research staff are men and 41.7% are women.7 This women’s percentage is higher than the average for Spanish public universities, which in 2007 had women occupying 38% of teaching and research positions (Unidad de Mujeres y Ciencia, 2010). Moreover, the URV ranks fourth among public universities in Catalonia in terms of the percentage of its teaching and research positions held by women,8 which is 2.8 points above the Catalan average.

It should be noted that these percentages cannot be extrapolated to all areas of knowledge. Women are concentrated in departments related to the health sciences (where 52% of positions are held by women), the humanities (48%) and the social sciences (36%); in contrast, women remain a minority (33%) in the experimental sciences and technological fields. In fact, technology and the experimental sciences are the most male-dominated fields: for every woman in a teaching or research position, there are 2.1 men. However, at the senior levels (i.e. full professorships), the percentage of women is not only lower but also varies from one area of knowledge to the next; at the URV, women hold 50% of top posts in the experimental sciences, 20% in the health sciences, 15% in the humanities, and just 5% in engineering and the social sciences (Pastor, 2010).

A study entitled “Mujeres y hombres a la URV. Un estudio de las desigualdades por razón de género” [Women and men at the URV: A study of gender inequality] was carried out at the URV in 2006. The study presented a detailed analysis of the URV faculty and research staff and found that men’s and women’s career paths differed in a number of ways. The following were the main findings of the study (Pastor, 2008):

1. The situation of men and women at the URV is unequal, with men being favoured in terms of both position and career path.

7 URV data are taken from Pastor, I. (coord.) (2007) Dones i homes a la URV. Un estudi de les desigualtats per raó de gènere. Tarragona: Publicacions URV, pp. 33-210. 8 Data provided by the Catalan Ministry of Universities, Research and the Information Society (DURSI) for the 2004-2005 academic year. Available online at: www.gencat.es/dursi.

2. There are differences between men and women on the URV faculty and research staff in terms of background variables (age, degree level and field of knowledge). 3. These background variables do not explain all of the inequality seen in the URV faculty and research community. It is important to take into account factors related to university dynamics, which imply unequal access to structural types of variables. 4. This inequality is seen most clearly in the higher spheres of the university hierarchy, to which men have greater access. Therefore, it can be said that men and women do not encounter the same opportunities over the course of their careers.

In short, the presence of women in Spanish universities has increased considerably since María Elena Maseras’s time; today, more than half of Spanish university students are women. Nevertheless, the data show that women have barely penetrated certain male-dominated fields of study. In university-level teaching and research, women’s position has changed very little. In the lower faculty ranks, the number of women is on par with that of men. In the upper echelons, however, the sexes are far from equal, with women as a minority. More than a century after their first foray into Spanish universities, it is clear that women still face difficulties and obstacles to achieving full professional equality.

3. Equality Plans at Spanish Universities

Equality and gender-mainstreaming policies have emerged as a means of addressing the situation described above. In recent years, growing emphasis has been placed on women’s position in Spanish universities. Publications such as the Report from the ETAN Expert Working Group on Women and Science, entitled Science Policies in the European Union: Promoting Excellence Through Mainstreaming Gender Equality (European Commission, 2000), and later reports such as She Figures (2003, 2006, 2009) marked an attempt to shape policies at all levels in order to improve women’s position in the sciences and to develop an EU- wide science policy for the short, medium and long term. Organic Law 4/2007 marked the beginning of such efforts in Spain.

An example of this spirit can be found in Additional Provision 12 of Organic Law 4/2007, which amends Organic Law 6/2001, on Universities, which requires all universities to maintain, as part of their structure, an equality unit with its own budget, technical staff specialised in gender issues, and administrative staff, taking into account the idiosyncrasies of each university. Similarly, the Equality Law requires all universities to maintain an equality unit and put in place an equality plan.

These texts require universities to create, as part of their structure, equality units responsible for carrying out functions related to the principle of gender equality. However, they stop short of defining the actual scope of these equality units.

Such measures reflect the fact that equality is not considered to have reached universities; as described above, the data show a gap between the number of female university graduates, on the one hand, and the number of female university lecturers, associate professors and full professors, on the other, as well as a dearth of women in certain technical disciplines, etc. These measures are also intended to directly address—and to change—an obvious fact at Spanish universities: that

women are underrepresented in university management and decision-making bodies.9 These are two areas in which effective action is clearly needed.

Equality units have become the key instruments with which Spain’s universities pursue objectives related to equality between women and men. Until the university equality units were created, research groups on women, feminism and equality were the primary contributors of studies on the discrimination against women in universities. Equality plans are, at present, the main instrument for transforming the discriminatory, unequal reality of Spanish universities.

In line with the recommendations of the Network of Gender Equality Units for University Excellence (RUIGEU), equality plans have established a series of general objectives that Spanish universities are now pursuing10):

1. Eliminating vertical and horizontal segregation. 2. Changing the gender roles and stereotypes that influence the concentration of men and women in particular fields of study, areas of expertise and services. 3. Increasing women’s visibility in the language and content of degree programmes. 4. Incorporating a gender perspective in all research, as required by the new Law on Science, Technology and Innovation.11 5. Recovering women’s historical memory. 6. Recognising and publicising achievements and scientific output in gender studies.

9 See data from Ministerio de Educación, Unidad de Mujeres y Ciencia, Académicas en cifras 2007. 10 RUIGEU is a network that brings together all of the units, offices, observatories, committees and secretariats dedicated to equal opportunities between women and men at Spanish universities. All equality plans put in place at Spanish universities are available on the RUIGEU website: http://www.redunidadesdeigualdad.udl.cat/inicio/. 11 Law 14/2011, of 1 June, on Science, Technology and Innovation., Available at: http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/l14-2011.html Accessed 21/05/2012.

7. Achieving a balanced representation of men and women in government, research and management bodies. 8. Involving university management and governance bodies in equality initiatives. 9. Gender mainstreaming. 10. Implementing a zero-tolerance policy towards gender violence at universities and designing instruments to prevent and eradicate it. 11. Taking steps to promote work/family compatibility and joint responsibility. 12. Ensuring the principle of equal treatment and opportunities between women and men in all university activities.

Of Spain’s 52 public universities, 20 (38.5%) have an equality plan (Figure 2). Clearly, sensitivity to gender equality is still a long way from becoming an accepted goal at all Spanish universities.

Figure 2. Spanish public universities with equality plans

Universidades públicas españolas

38%

62%

con Plan de Igualdad sin Plan de Igualdad

Source: Compiled by the author using data from the University of Alicante Equality Unit.

We conducted an analysis of the equality plans in place at 14 Spanish universities (70% of the universities that have such a plan): University of Girona, University of Lleida, University of Santiago de Compostela, Technical University of Catalonia, Rovira i Virgili University, Pompeu Fabra University, Autonomous University of Barcelona, University of Salamanca, University of Valladolid, Complutense University of Madrid, Public University of Navarre, University of Seville, Universidad de Extremadura and University of Valencia.

Despite a lack of formal and conceptual homogeneity, the strategies and lines of action set out in these 14 plans can be divided into in seven categories that illustrate the main lines of work undertaken by Spanish universities in the area of gender equality:

1. Guaranteeing the principle of equal opportunity and treatment. 2. Promoting work/family compatibility and joint responsibility. 3. Ensuring balanced participation and representation. 4. Raising awareness and increasing visibility. 5. Incorporating a gender perspective in teaching and research. 6. Gender mainstreaming. 7. Promoting occupational health and safety.

Worthy of note is the fact that the unequal distribution of male and female students by field of study is not perceived as a problem requiring correction. Of the 14 equality plans analysed, only two include a line of action to address this issue:

“General objective 4. To seek to balance the ratio of female to male students in the university’s degree programmes. [...] General objective 14. To promote specific programmes to attract women to technical fields of study” (UPC, 2008).

“Fifth area: Gender and science at the URV. It is important to encourage young women to develop careers in science. [...] To do this, we need to take steps to remove barriers” (Pastor, 2010).

The URV’s First Equality Plan was consistent with many of the recommendations and obligations of legislation currently in force. Its objectives were categorised under six areas of action:

1. Diagnosing and exposing sexism; raising awareness and creating a state of opinion. 2. Ensuring equal access to employment and career advancement. 3. Making a commitment to gender equality. 4. Promoting a gender perspective in research and teaching. 5. Gender and science at the URV. 6. Balancing the representation of men and women in the URV’s various decision-making bodies and levels.

In 2011, the URV adopted a Second Equality Plan that maintained the same lines of action and slightly increased the number of measures to be implemented (from 49 to 56).

4. Impact of Equality Plans at Spanish Universities; Future Challenges

Equal opportunity between women and men is not only achieved through knowledge and the application of laws. The ongoing persistence of discriminatory attitudes, norms, and deeply rooted social and cultural habits prevents the basic principle of equality from being put into practice successfully. Because of this, equality-promotion measures are still needed to raise the profile of women’s contributions to defending their rights and to creating knowledge about persistent inequalities and discrimination. Sexism violates the principles of liberty, democracy, justice, equality and solidarity that underpin our university. The recognition that the students, faculty and researchers that make up our community are part of the problem compels us to take responsibility for finding solutions. The URV therefore adopted one of the lines set out in the 2008-2011 Action and Development Plan for Women’s Policies, developed by the Catalan Institute for Women, an agency of the Catalan government. This plan is intended to boost recognition of women’s experiences in all disciplines and to instigate a cultural shift that brings about a new way of understanding the social contract between women and men. It is for this reason that we chose to describe in this paper the awareness-raising, training, research and knowledge-creation measures contained in the URV’s First Equality Plan, which questioned, challenged and re-examined the university’s educational, cultural and value-transmission agents. The URV Equality Observatory is an entity committed to increasing the visibility of women’s contributions to science and knowledge creation and to defining current public policies and constitutional rights. The Observatory also works to raise awareness about the ongoing struggle against inequality and about the contributions to gender equality made by members of the URV community.

The law clearly remains a vital factor in efforts to achieve and guarantee equality between women and men at universities, yet in a very different way from a century ago, when Royal Order of 8 March 1910 was handed down. The goal is no longer to guarantee women access to universities under equal conditions, but to develop strategies aimed at achieving true equality and counteracting the remaining obstacles to women’s career advancement, work/family compatibility, participation in representative and decision-making bodies, access to certain degree programmes, etc. A further goal is to teach students about equality-related issues,

to promote teaching and research in these areas, and to incorporate a gender perspective in all areas of study.

These reflections bring us to two final conclusions. First, current Spanish legislation is not sufficient to achieve true equality between women and men. The current laws describe required measures, but this is no guarantee that such measures will ultimately be put into practice and achieve the expected results. Second, taking into account the remaining limitations in Spanish universities’ relationship to inequality, it is reasonable to assume that legal intervention on this issue will continue to be required in the immediate future.

Policies of this sort, aimed at promoting women’s advancement in the halls of power, are not always well received by the sectors of academic feminism that seek not women’s ability “be present” in particular spheres but rather their capacity to “transform” knowledge. It must be remembered, however, that women will only be able to transform knowledge if they are well positioned in the places where the worth of knowledge is defined. Increasing the number of women in these places guarantees nothing but certainly increases the likelihood of progress.

The laws passed in recent years constitute a considerable achievement for women and will provide academic feminists with strong support to create a legal framework that fosters their work. Nevertheless, the impact made by certain levels of female presence is taken by some to mean that equality is a fact, thus obscuring the invisibility and absence of women in the development of theory, research methodology and, of course, institutional practices. As a result, discrimination strategies become more subtle and, as authors such as Pilar Ballarín have pointed out, these strategies are once again picking up steam.

Such is the way of the world that if no action is taken in the political, social or legal spheres to address these constant, consolidated facts, then more value will be placed on what is done by men. Gender equality policies are therefore both necessary and meaningful. The evidence contradicts the argument that inequalities in universities will naturally disappear over time: if the world were truly meritocratic, there would be nearly as many women as men holding full professorships. The truth, of course, is that women hold just 13% of these

positions. We cannot trust that time will fix this situation; time, on its own, will only reproduce the current situation, in which many women’s work goes unrecognised. We therefore believe that mechanisms designed to make universities more meritocratic can be wielded in the service of equality policies. To ensure the success of this process, however, consensus-based indicators must be established to illustrate the progress of equality policies. We believe that this is the most important challenge currently facing equality units and plans in Spain.

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