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Home , Aldo Rossi, Peter Calthorpe, Urbanism

INTEGRATING URBANISMS 269

Integrating Urbanisms: Growing Places Between and Post-Urbanism CARL GIOMETI Miami University

"Thinking has its strategies and tactics too, between New Urbanism and Post-Urbanism much as other forms of action have. Merely to may or may not lead to any new solutions, think about and get somewhere, one of but it may raise better questions as to how we the main things to know is what kind of can form a more integrated urban theory. problem cities pose, for all problems cannot be thought about in the same way. Which New Urbanism avenues of thinking are apt to be useful and to help yield the truth depends not on how we The most popular of the recent urban might prefer to think about a subject, but movements is New Urbanism. Its theoretical rather on the inherent nature of the subject foundation relies upon on creating lively itself."' neighborhoods that possess diverse of styles of living. Constructed upon 's idea - Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great of "organized complexity" a , American Cities neighborhood, or is a complex organism consisting of interconnected parts.3 The New The city is the culmination of the human Urbanist theories concerning "community," as condition, a manifestation of utopian ideas both an idea and a physical object, have been and practical policy. The ideas guiding the city mainstreamed into practice. down different "avenues of thinking," are as diverse as the people who reside in them. The The practitioners of New Urbanism have city has the power to absorb and reflect expanded beyond theory and many explicit whatever theory is being thrust upon it. In the design "manuals" exist on how to execute the end, the city will evolve, sometimes for the ideals of the New Urbanist. These manuals better, sometimes not; but it will emerge have shaped a multitude of plans throughout fresh, ready for the next idea. New Urbanism the country. Unfortunately, New Urbanist and Post-Urbanism describe current ideas of developments are typically enormous, over- the existence of a city. This paper will outline planned communities with little variance in a possible "next idea"; keeping some of the architectural or economic style. Even Peter thoughts of each, while discarding those that Calthorpe, a well-known proponent of New no longer apply. The two schools of thought Urbanism, questions whether New Urbanism is often appear at odds with each other; a style rather than a set of open-ended however, when treated as ingredients they principle^.^ Reasons for this may arise from actually make up a more complete idea of the difficulty to execute a project of true urbanism. The recent Michigan Debates on spontaneous diversity. Diversity is only Urbanism created dialog among many achievable by differentiations in several urban seemingly disparate ideas of urbanisms. What qualities, particularly time. Certain roles, such always emerged, despite whatever lower income housing, and retail are difficult disagreements the participants may have had, to fulfill in new constr~ction.~It has proved was recognition that there is no right answer problematic to create truly mixed-use, mixed- to designing a city; we can only hope to ask income developments. These sorts of the right question^.^ Negotiating a place purposes will be brought upon by the 270 GElTING REAL: DESIGN ETHOS NOW

evolution of an area, not cataclysmic creation. If New Urbanism is looking to a city's past for In order to fund new construction for the low- guidance, Post-Urbanism is looking beyond and middle- classes, where profit margins are the present for its direction. "Post-Urbanism" small, it must be executed on an enormous is a term coined by Douglas Kelbaugh to scale (this business model is often referred to represent those who believe that urbanism is as the Wal-Mart model). As an idea of the past or will soon become of the demonstrated, large projects, past.' Unlike the term "New Urbanism" which are inappropriate and in contrast to the ideas represents specific, agreed upon ideals, Post- of neighborhood and economic growth. Urbanism refers to a group of people Therefore, New Urbanism copes with projects practicing design around a shared that are just as architecturally sterile and philosophical foundation. He aligns the economically unsustainable as its Modernist writings of , among others, to predecessors were. These projects attract this classification. Adjectives shared among labels of being "nostalgic" or "old-fashioned" these philosophies are disconnectedness, and disappoint those, like Peter Calthorpe and placelessness, and the notion that there is no other founders of the Congress for New context. Cities are no longer centers but a Urbanism, who see their ideas gone awry. A "gray" area lacking of edges or boundaries. city is not nostalgic. It may contain elements Those who fit the classification of "Post- that represent a previous period but longing Urbanist," beside Koolhaas, include names for the past produces stagnation, devolution. such as , Peter Eisenman, and Daniel Libeskind; although most seek to From a theoretical perspective, New Urbanists refrain from any association as such. They seem "too ready to return to the old city." earned the moniker of being "post-" or "anti-" Critics point to those such as Leon Krier for an urban by designing buildings that act to extreme case of the historical approach to differentiate, a sculptural reaction against the urbanism. Although Krier is a fringe element, urban fabric. Armed with the philosophies of his positions are worth noting. While they may thinkers such as Jacques Derrida, their seem absurd under most circumstances, his exploits the loaded adjectives schemes must serve as a warning to whole- used repeatedly in postmodern discussion. A heartedly accepting historical models of building is not bound by its function or its urbanism. This point is the most relevant . There is no such thing as context criticism for New Urbanism. Historical models nor is there anything to refer. This ideology is are useful as lessons for the future, not the zeitgeist mentality, the current spirit of determinations of it. Moreover, no lesson has the age. Buildings respond to technological been more valuable than understanding the achievements that allow people to become sensitivity needed when making changes to more connected, while removing the necessity the urban fabric, as each building serves is for physical proximity. At first, it may seem own particular, and often unrecognizable difficult to discern how a design philosophy purpose and that regardless of whichever that preaches the destruction of contexts is period of urbanism one aligns with, a good necessary in an urban philosophy. neighborhood is a terrible thing to destroy. Post-Urbanism is necessary for the creation of Post- Urbanism the unique, the departure from communal context. If New Urbanists developments "If there is to be a 'new urbanism' it will not resemble the "Wal-Mart model" of be based on the twin fantasies of order and architecture, Post-Urbanists are the Gucci of omnipotence; it will be the staging of architecture. Post-Urbanists are the uncertainty ... Since it is out of control, the trendsetters, the icons, and signature urban is about to become a major vector of practitioners. Their rejection of context has the imaginati~n."~ given its incredible proficiency at creating places. Put another way, in their Rem Koolhaas rejection the ideological "centers" of architecture, they end up creating even "The center is not the center."' stronger ones. Across the world, cities display the place making effects of having a Post- Urbanist building. Bilbao, Chicago, and Los - Jacques Derrida Angeles all have a Gehry building. An INTEGRATING URBANISMS 271

abstract, entirely unique piece of architecture defines these two elements better than a that is used for its iconic value. These textual definition. There is a collection of buildings are the points of reference that buildings and block layouts, which are all Kevin Lynch ~hampioned.~The "post-urban" slightly similar to each other, generally object, as it is described here, can be traced describable as "ordinary." throughout time, it possesses permanence. It is a representation of an urban condition at a particular point in time.'' However, like its counterpart, Post-Urbanism is not without its shortcomings as well.

Columbus, Indiana has long been visited for its unique array of architecture. It boasts buildings by Eero Saarinen, Harry Weese, I.M. Pei and , among many others. Each building stands out as an extraordinary architectural achievement. However, despite the quantity and quality of the numerous designs, the town remains architecturally stagnant, but in a rather odd way. By constructing individual pieces that each demand its own attention, the city becomes a virtual gallery of architecture, something Departures from this understood pattern are meant only to be experienced in a certain present; signified with architecture of a environment, a Disneyland of architecture. different scale, quality, or aesthetic. While, it Void is any architectural contrast in quality, may seem problematic to rely on a where Saarinen's church might emerge and structuralist dialect to describe the chaotic stand gracefully among a real urban fabric forces apparent in a city, Rossi's system has and truly create a place. Instead, it is some distinct advantages. Rossi articulated engaged in a battle with every other building this condition: for dominance over the area. This conflict is akin to placing two Eiffel Towers right next to "In order to study the irrational it is necessary each other. In this case, it is more like placing to take up a position as a rational observer. fifty together. The over abundance of defining Otherwise, observation and eventually elements diminishes their effectiveness to a participation give way to disorder."12 null value. To use 's language "...the exception has become the rule." The One of the strengths of Rossi's idiom is while context of Columbus is to have no context, dissecting different parts of a city into its the Post- components, the actual application of his typologies is an open-ended system. That is, Urbanist dream. The absence of an urban the idea of dwellings and primary elements is fabric prevents the city from developing more ephemeral than it is explicit. The community and architecture from gaining an syntactical structure, like a city itself, can identity. evolve through time while still maintaining is pertinence and applicability. An Urban Typology Dwellings are the present representation of a To begin the formulation of a theoretical city, an item that is not unique but responds intermediary between these two, a language to the entirety of a superior structure. The is useful to guide the dialog of the city and dwelling builds what is to be the urban fabric. define roles within the urban whole. Aldo Lars Lerup employed a French word, meme to Rossi undertook the task of analytically describe the way dwellings are constructed. dissecting a city and defining the role of each Meme is reproduction through imitation. He of its parts. He argued that the city is a states, "Memes help affect our values. They collection of two principal types of do not exactly determine our values, but architecture: dwellings and primary direct and constrain them." l3 It is this elements." The satellite picture of Paris 272 GElTING REAL: DESIGN ETHOS NOW

process by which the urban fabric is created Re-engaging the two presiding theories now and sustained. The values of the city are creates a more complete picture of what is established by the vernacular and the urban. New Urbanism describes the life of a dwellings arise out of the need to "summarize dwelling, the common everyday the city's image." The dwelling embodies the interconnected-ness that allows a city to values of the culture that it houses. For function. The approach to understanding this example, the suburban dwelling exploits condition is similar to that of Bernard mobility and privacy, creating "American Rudofsky's Architecture without Architects but distance" between people.14 The dwelling is brought to a contemporary context. Dwelling reliant on the whole, constructed image, to fill spaces are not artistic expressions, they the spaces along the street. It is a created respond to other universal ideas. The Dogon perception of what is normal to a city. New village Rudofsky studied is the result of social, York has its brownstones, Chicago its economic, environmental, and a slew of other bungalow, its cascading row forces. The interpretation is the responsibility houses. of the whole population. Perhaps this is a reason for New Urbanism's widespread Rossi titles the second of the two principal city acceptance outside of the planning and typologies as the primary element. The architectural professions. It is responding to primary element is the artifact of a city, an the commonly held ideals that shape the "element(s) capable of accelerating the universal nature of our environment. process of in a city." It is a complete entity unto itself, it does not require Post-Urbanism is then sufficient to explain the an immediate aesthetic relation to its primary element, the particular, artistic surroundings, in fact, primary elements are interpretation. It produces artifacts that will most often considered such because of their either question or celebrate the execution of disassociation with previously established th2 universal. This is the 's realm. patterns. The ability of a city to provide opportunities for the particular to emerge is incredibility The idea of the primary element gaining its important, especially when discussing the distinction by emerging from the dwelling growth of a city. demands a brief mention of the relational architecture. Often architecture is judged The Growth of a City's Architecture solely on its artistic achievement, its ability to dissent from the ordinary. After all, how often The joint resolution between New Urbanism will a building achieve notoriety for its ability and Post-Urbanism is more than a theoretical to "fit in?" This criterion limits the title of compromise. The interplay between the two "good architecture" to that of primary can test a city's architectural life. The elements, those buildings that depart from the appearance of context-creating and context- context. However, the ability of a piece of departing buildings tracks the rise and fall of architecture to satisfy its role within the urban an . form should be given equal, if not greater merit. Jane Jacobs first described the value of For an area to grow into a city it must have the "plain, old brick building" in terms of its some original structure, it other words, it socio-economic function. It provides cheap must have a collection of people. Upon the rent encouraging small businesses and the incorporation of a town or village, the existing eventual development of an interconnected structures become its dwelling. At this point neighborhood. Old buildings are small the goal of the city must be to grow worthy of business incubators and can be more valuable a primary element. While it exists in this than any signature piece of architecture." The "seedling" form, it draws architectural dwelling establishes the field from which the resources from outside areas. It does not primary element will depart. A place cannot possess the maturity to develop its own be unique without the ordinary. These plain architecture. When the United States was a buildings will never appear on the cover of young country, much of its culture and thus architecture magazines, but a theory of architecture was only slightly different from urbanism that does not value the vernacular that of England. When a city begins to of an area is simply incomplete. diversify its fabric, it earns a primary element. That is, when an aspect of their culture grows INTEGRATING URBANISMS 273

unique to that of a greater whole, a piece of culture's pervasiveness, the creation of architecture will be constructed to serve as an primary elements is also a good indicator as artifact, freezing that uniqueness in time.15 to the health of a city. The evolutionary process of creating dwellings to earn new unique elements is perhaps the Returning to Chicago, in the early part of the most explosive innovating force in the 1900'~~the Loop was the center of all architecture of a city. However, this process is economic activity in the American Midwest. not without precedent. The city grew at incredible rates, as evidenced by the rapid construction of primary elements. For some time, Economists have understood Architectural imports were absorbed and this model as "import rep~acement."'~For replaced quickly. The Tribune Building example, an area is developing an industry competition gathered ideas from throughout around the production of coasters. The local the architectural spectrum where they battled craft of making coasters is sought after each other for primacy on Chicago's turf. worldwide. While the town is the center of the German architect Meis Van der Rohe took his coaster-making world, they lack industries to ideas of Modernism to the city, and created create drinks to place on the coasters, so they some of the best artifacts that remain of this must import them. Eventually, a perceptive period. As in most cities, the growth businessman thinks that perhaps the people in eventually slowed, and Chicago ceased to this town would like to have their own glasses replace its architectural imports with new to place upon their world famous coasters. ones.lg Architects began to copy each other Therefore, he builds a shop making various and created memes. That is, instead of new glasses that work in conjunction with the artifacts being created, the process stalled. coasters. His business becomes popular and From this point, the city began to attempt to the town no longer needs to import glasses to build the vernacular support for new unique place on its coasters. It has absorbed an elements. import, diversified its economy, and is now searching for another import. The next import Often excluded from these histories, is the could be cup holders or perhaps paper towels role of the dwelling, the neighborhood. During to clean the unfortunate spill. If this process this same period, Chicago was increasing in continues and compounds, as it does in population faster than any city previously had. growing cities, the town will be developing The influx of people demanded the expansion new industry after new industry, perhaps even of the dwelling space. Immigrants of all over achieving its original businesses. This nations stitched themselves into the urban growth, however, did not occur until it fabric, popularly known as the American produced something other than its beloved "melting pot" effect. Ethnic neighborhoods coaster. The ability of a city to import new each began their own, more localized process types of architectural elements, into its own of city vernacular. The strength of a context model and then replace it with another import has a direction correlation to the amount of is a measurement of a city's vibrancy. Every meaningful opportunities to depart from it. populated area will possess its own dwellings, but its ability to depart from this context or Formulating Strategies "original industry," will determine its architectural achievement. Armed with the joint theories of New and Post-Urbanism, it is necessary to look how Every large city has experienced this type of they may shape the future, not simply explain architectural growth during some period of the past. Recently, few topics have received prosperity. Chicago during the late 1800's and as much attention as suburbia. Cities have early 1900's was departing from its bungalow struggled for years to cope with the transition context more rapidly that perhaps any other into becoming a region. At the time Rossi city at that time.'* , Paris, Rome and authored The Architecture of the City he set many others all had similar periods. All at one forth three scales with which to study a city. point, were smaller, less diverse thtt The levels were: grew because of they were able to create unique primary elements and then rapidly 1. The scale of the street, including the built build the strength to construct another one. areas and empty spaces that surround it; Because of their role as the symbol of a 274 GEmING REAL: DESIGN ETHOS NOW

2. The scale of the district, consisting of a to create suburban primary elements playing group of blocks with common the role of the Post-Urbanist. Reworking characteristics; Rossi's words, a primary element is that which will accelerate the of an area. 3. The scale of the entire city, considered as That is, an element that recognizes its own a group of districts2' local identity while paying homage to the greater whole. Through this acceptance, the In the present day, a fourth scale must be can reinforce the identity of the city added : and region.

4. The scale of the region, an area made up The city and its relatives are constant of a city and its subordinate areas. interplays between the particular and the universal. It is a field the theoretical terms to By adding this new level, Rossi's hierarchical do battle at any scale, whether it is to that of system of describing an area still pertains. a park or to that of a region. As Douglas Certain are dwelling areas, the Kelbaugh noted while he was moderating the bedroom communities, each imitating the Michigan Debates, the series gave birth to other with slight variation, the meme. Others, new types of "urbanism." He attributed this to due to some unique circumstance, become the complexity that is inherent when centers. Whether it is a center of retail or discussing a subject such as the city. Cities entertainment or whatever functions it are guided by urbanisms with all varieties of specializes in, is irrelevant. The center-suburb suffixes and prefixes; each one bringing a is the primary element for the suburban different understanding to the organized region. complexity that is a city. The most valuable "next" idea will be the one that continues to The individual suburb can be analyzed using meld different thoughts and observations into the same criteria. In addition to the various a more integrated urban theory. social and environmental arguments, suburban development has been criticized for "I am an architect, a constructor of worlds, a its lack of place. It is an endless, undulating sensualist who worships the flesh, the melody, row of strip developments and detached a silhouette against the darkening sky, I single-family houses. Only recently, and cannot know your name. Nor can you know mostly thanks to New Urbanism, have areas mine. such as the suburban central business district (CBD) or transit-oriented development (TOD) Tomorrow, we begin together the construction come to exist. These developments enclose of a areas of density and diversity in a suburban setting, a "pedestrian pocket."21 They begin to Lebbeus Woods develop street life and other urban characteristics. These developments could References perhaps represent the maturity of the suburb. The suburb creates an artifact by growing a lane Jacobs, The Death And Life Of Great portion of city life. Suburbs have always been American Cities (New York: Random House, 1969). characterized as a sort of thief to the city. Businesses relocate to suburban locations Robert Fishman, Post Urbanism Vs. Re-Urbanism: while people move outward in search of open Peter Eisenman Vs. Barbara Littenberg And Steven space. Rather than labeling the suburb as a Peterson, Michigan Debates On Urbanism, Vol. I11 detrimentally to a city, it is more appropriate to view it as something that is benevolent to (Ann Arbor, MI: The Regents Of The University Of the urban area. Therefore, it is the ultimate Michigan, 2005). achievement for a suburb to create its own center, sub-city life in a suburban setting.22 lane Jacobs, The Death And Life Of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1969). This idea changes the role of the architect in Robert Fishman, New Urbanism: Peter Calthorpe suburbia. Rather than attempting to change the patterns of life set forth by universal Vs. Lars Lerup, Michigan Debates On Urbanism, Vol. values, the architect should seek opportunities INTEGRATING URBANISMS 275

11 (Ann Arbor, MI: The Regents Of The University Of li Jane Jacobs, The Death And Life Of Great Michigan, 2005). American Cities (New York: Random House, 1969). 'lane Jacobs, The Economy Of Cities (New York: l6 Aldo Rossi. The Architecture Of The City Random House, 1969). (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982). Rem Koolhaas, "What Ever Happened To l7 Jane Jacobs, The Economy Of Cities (New York: Urbanism?," in Theories And Manifestos Of Random House, 1969). Contemporary Architecture, ed. Charles Jenks & la Carl Condit, Chicago, l9lO-l929;Building, Karl Kropf (Chichester, West Sussex: Academy Planning, And Urban Technology(Chicago: The Editions, 1997). University of Chicago Press, 1973). 'Jacques Derrida, 'The Decentering Event In Social lg Ibid. Thought," in Social Theory: The Multicultural And Classic Readings, ed. Charles Lemert (Westview 20 ~ldoRossi, The Architecture Of The City Press, 1999). (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982).

Douglas Kelbaugh, Repairing The American 21 Douglas Kelbaug Ed., The Pedestrian Pocket Book: (Seattle, WA: A New Suburban Design Strategy (New York: Press, 2002). Princeton Architectural Press, 1989).

Kevin Lynch, The Image Of The City (Cambridge, 22 Lars Lerup, After The City (Cambridge, MA: The MA: The MIT Press, 1960). MIT Press, 2000). lo Aldo Rossi, The Architecture Of The City 23 Lebbeus Woods "Manifesto," in Theories And (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982). Manifestos Of Contemporary Architecture, ed. Charles Jenks & Karl Kropf (Chichester, West Ibid. Sussex: Academy Editions, 1997). l2 Ibid. Images l3 Lars Lerup, After The City (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2000). Satellite image of Paris obtained using "GoogleEarth" a free program available online at l4 Ibid. www.earth.google.com