$UFKLWHFWXUDO Botti, G 2017 for Another : Mapping the International of from Colombia (1930–1970). Architectural , 5(1): 7, pp. 1–35, +LVWRULHV DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/ah.230

RESEARCH ARTICLE Geographies for Another History: Mapping the International Education of Architects from Colombia (1930–1970) Giaime Botti

The history of Colombian is poorly understood. This article maps the educational geographies of over 200 Colombian architects between the late 1920s and 1970, examining the historical, geopolitical, and disciplinary shifts that contributed to the international advancement of Colombian architecture. In the 1940s mobility was reoriented from Europe to the USA, while in the 1950s Brazil supplanted these destinations, becoming the main Latin American pole for Colombian student architects, and the Brazilian modernist repertoire was subsequently diffused in Colombia. This article revises long-held ideas about the architectural historiography of Colombia, expanding the geographical scope of the country’s leading architects to reveal the significance of the in their education.

Introduction increasingly trained abroad in the next decades. However, In the 1950s, the historians Jorge Arango and Carlos the educational background of Colombian architects has Martínez acknowledged the diverse, international been largely neglected.2 Only recently has the subject of background of 20th-century Colombian architects Colombian architectural education been addressed, in as an essential feature of the country’s architectural the work of Maarten Goossens (2013) regarding ties of environment: Colombian architects with the USA. This article maps the educational geographies of As there were no architectural faculties in Colombia Colombia’s architects3 from the late 1920s to the end until 1936, the majority of the professionals who of the 1960s.4 The architects’ educational backgrounds, made up the country’s contemporary movement, along with the source of that information, are presented and who founded the country’s first architectural in the three tables at the end of the article. The maps programs, were trained in other countries. The (in Figs. 1, 3 and 6) were generated from these tables schools of Perret and arrived from (which are a work in progress). The numbers in the , accompanied by the reaction against them. maps refer to degrees in architecture, , and Architects trained in Italy and England, in Belgium urban/regional , and to shorter specialisation and , in Germany and also arrived courses. Specialisation includes courses often offered in Colombia. Others came from North American by non-academic institutions (e.g. the Bouwcentrum in schools influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright, Gropius, Rotterdam, or the many municipal or ministerial centres or Mies van der Rohe, and some came from Beaux- in France and the UK), or by universities, if the programme Arts affiliated schools or technical institutes, where did not lead to such degrees as a bachelor of architecture remained the primary focus. Not a or a master’s of architecture (e.g. restoration studies at few also came from Chile, whose schools date back Rome’s Scuola di Perfezionamento). Complete academic to the past century and where the profession has urbanism/planning programmes (e.g. those offered by the been subject to a continuous process of integration. Institut d’urbanisme in , or those in the US leading to (Arango and Martínez 1951: 30)1 master’s degrees) are counted as degrees, whereas shorter courses are counted as specialisations.5 Of the 24 Bogotan architects and engineers responsible This mapping and its proposed interpretation highlight for the first significant contemporary architecture in the complex patterns of transfer, circulation, and Colombia, 16 were foreign-trained (Arango and Martínez reception that contributed to the modernist movement 1951: 130–32). Although many architectural faculties in Colombia, in which ideas were both drawn from were established in Colombia in the 1940s, students international models and generated within the continent. As for the longstanding debate on internationalism and regionalism in Latin American architecture, this study Politecnico di Torino, IT suggests that international ideas complemented regional [email protected] and local developments.6 It is crucial to recognise Art. 7, page 2 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History

Colombia as a fluid territory of artistic and technical the USA, pursuing a trend already common in other exchange. To quote Del Real and Gyger (2013: 3), this professions. Since the mid-19th century, Colombian elites means moving ‘our understanding of history beyond the had travelled to France, the UK, and Germany to study limitation of the national into more ambiguous territories, medicine, engineering, and applied sciences (Martínez illuminating moments of intra-regional dialogue around 2001: 212–18).11 It may be argued that the presence of specific challenges and solutions’. a few recognised foreign architects in Colombia in the As this discussion demonstrates, an internationally well- 1930s, and the economic and urban growth the country connected, foreign-trained group of architects transferred then experienced, justified the investment of earning an theories, models, formal repertoires, and techniques to architectural degree abroad.12 Colombia. The investigation, using the histoire croisée Three quarters of Colombian architectural students approach (see Werner and Zimmermann 2006), also who travelled abroad went to Europe, about equally to reveals the different though intertwined dimensions of France and Belgium, where the main destinations were architectural transfer, such as the mobility of architects the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris and Brussels, the Saint- and the contents of their architectural magazines.7 Lucas of the Université catholique de Louvain We can then move beyond the characteristic limits of in Ghent and Brussels, and the Institut d’urbanisme in transfer and comparative studies to better understand Paris (Table 1 and Fig. 1). transactions among different aspects of the architectural The Antonio Mesa of Medellín divided his profession. The present study thus diachronically explores study between Belgium and France, while Ignacio Vieira geographies of artistic exchange influenced as much by studied at Brussels’ Academie royale des beaux-arts. The historical and geopolitical reasons as by cultural and Institut d’urbanisme also hosted many Colombians, even disciplinary motives, and delineates mid-20th-century after World War II. Notable Institut graduates include architectural education. Carlos Martínez, a leading figure within the Colombian This research derives from a wide range of archival architectural world who studied under the supervision and bibliographic sources, verified through extensive of Marcel Poëte and in 1946 founded the architectural cross-referencing. The records came from university magazine Proa. The Institut appealed to Colombian archives that often contain resumés or student enrolment students, who sought to learn urbanism in one of papers, university yearbooks, and digital databases the few centres in the world providing such a degree. by Colombian professional institutions. In addition, Its teaching theories and methods were far from the books and periodicals on architects were consulted for functionalist proposals of CIAM architects in that period, biographical information. The accuracy of sources appears as evidenced by its graduates’ final projects. For instance, to decline over time, making older publications more the Colombian student Severo Reyes Gamboa submitted a reliable than more recent texts based on second-hand thesis in which he designed a scheme for an industrial tales and lacking references. A few original oral sources on the outskirts of Cali similar to the Argentinian ideal were also consulted. This data facilitated identifying city of La Plata, but which aligned public along over 200 architectural professionals, whose educational a ring as in Vienna (Fig. 2). profiles are organised chronologically and geographically Other Colombian architecture students moved to in the appended tables. An overview of architectural Germany, Italy, and the US. Julio Bonilla, for instance, education by institution was also created according to was the son of diplomats living in Europe. Bonilla bibliographic sources and previously recorded oral reports graduated from the Technische Universität München in of Colombian students.8 Beyond this, the examination of 1933. Upon his return to Colombia, Bonilla advanced a a limited number of theses, reproduced in magazines and German language of architectural modernism, designing a conserved in one archive, enriches our understanding of dormitory in Bogotá for the Universidad Nacional the teaching environment of architectural programmes in a clearly Bauhaus fashion. At this time, the Universidad in the mid-20th century. The magazine Proa serves as an Nacional de Colombia (UNC) in Bogotá hosted many essential source, as it published projects from Colombian other notable architects with degrees from abroad. Jorge students abroad and documented their training, thus Camacho Fajardo, who graduated from the Politecnico tracing the international foundation of important di Milano in 1934, was among the first professors of Colombian architects and projects.9 architecture at UNC. Upon his return to Colombia, he submitted the design for a penitentiary showing many Until 1936: A European Tradition formal features typical of Italian Fascist architecture During the first two decades of the 20th century, (Camacho 1936). Other Colombian students travelled architecture in Colombia was practised mostly by to the US, although in fewer numbers. John Sierra and engineers or foreign architects,10 although technical Nel Rodríguez from Medellín graduated from Columbia training programmes akin to architectural schools already University, the latter studying either architecture or existed (see González 2013). Few Colombians had received engineering. Some of the most relevant architects in a foreign degree: in Bogotá, Mariano Santamaría, who Bogotá also studied in the US. The Carrizosa brothers, studied in Weimar (Arango 1984: 11); in Medellín, Juan Guillermo and Hernando, graduated from the University and Dioniso Lalinde, educated in the UK and New York, of Michigan and Purdue University respectively, and Jorge respectively (Molina 2001). By the late 1920s, aspiring Luzardo studied at the University of Kansas. Far fewer architects began to study in Europe and, to a lesser extent, students remained in Latin America. Pablo de la Cruz, who Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 3 of 35

Figure 1: Educational geographies until 1936.

Figure 2: Projet de Cité Industrielle à Cali Colombie, Severo Reyes Gamboa, thesis director, Auguste Bruggeman, 1930. Courtesy of the Bibliothèque historique Poëte et Sellier. Art. 7, page 4 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History graduated from the Universidad de Chile in the 1930s, was of the Colombian Society of Architects such as Álvaro one, while Jorge Arango moved to Santiago to study in the Hermida Guzmán or José Gnecco Fallón, both educated late 1930s, upon the suggestion the Austrian urbanist Karl at the University of California, an epicentre of the neo- Brunner made to his father (Arango 2003: 52–53). colonial tradition. In Cali, major architects working in a The number of Colombian architects educated abroad neo-colonial manner were all trained in the US: Alfonso in the 1930s was smaller than in the following decade, but Garrido, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, not inconsequential. The faculty of architecture at the UNC, and the Calero Tejada brothers, Álvaro and Hermann, established in 1936, benefited not only from Colombians respectively from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute16 educated abroad but also from particular international and California, where their Mexican brother-in- Félix and national circumstances. A skilled group of Spanish, Mier y Terán was also educated (Ramírez, Gutiérrez and German, and Italian architects immigrated to Colombia, Uribe 2000: 77–105). away from the Spanish Civil War and rising totalitarianisms A great number of Colombians studied at the University in Europe and encouraged by the immigration policies of of Michigan at Ann Arbor, one of the first American the liberal governments of Alfonso López and Eduardo universities with an architectural curriculum.17 The Santos (Palacio 1995: 161). By 1941, almost 50 percent of programme was formalised in 1906 by Emil Lorch who, in UNC’s professors held a foreign degree.13 The impact of introducing the Pure Design method, favoured Beaux-Arts UNC’s international faculty has been widely recognised by principles over abstract exercises. In 1923 Lorch invited historians: in particular the role played by Leopold Rother Eliel Saarinen to teach at the College of Architecture and and Bruno Violi (Arango 1989), and Carlos Martínez, a Design, and later, the Danish architect Knud Lönberg- major Corbusian propagandist. In the time they spent Holm also joined the faculty (Alofsin 2012: 98; Bartlett abroad, Colombian architects also had the opportunity 1995). After World War II, the College of Architecture and to make personal connections with important European Design distinguished itself for the research it conducted architects. For example, Antonio Mesa met Le Corbusier in prefabrication, and for its merge of architecture and during his stay in Paris14 and later contributed to an early city planning according to Gropius’s idea of teamwork reception of the Swiss architect’s work in the faculty of (Ockman and Sachs: 2012). However, by the late 1940s, architecture of the Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana the environment at the University of Michigan was still (established in 1942) in Medellín. Mesa’s relationship with not entirely open to modernism. The Colombian student Le Corbusier ensured that in advancing the architect’s Francisco Pizano told Juan Luis Rodríguez in an interview: ideas, he needed no further intermediation from the professional, academic, and editorial world of the capital. There [at U. of Michigan], to our surprise, did not exist. […] As opposed to what The 1940s: The Great Shift towards the US was going on at the [Universidad] Nacional, where In the 1940s, new faculties appeared in both Medellín and nothing prior to 1925 inspired us, in Ann Arbor Cali (the one at Universidad del Valle was established 1947) nothing subsequent to 1925 had space. […] In and in the capital (where the architecture faculty of the Michigan, what was absent was modernism. […] Universidad de los Andes was founded in 1948). However, Roberto [Rodríguez] and I, with our studies at the despite these developments and the success of Bogotá Nacional, belonged to the vanguard, which the architecture school, more Colombians headed abroad. school did not fight and preferred to let free. Even Moreover, educational changed substantially. outside the school the situation was so uncertain The Second World War spurred massive emigration of that a firm from Detroit contacted me to work in a architects and artists from Europe to the US (Kentgens- project for a country club only because one of the Craig 1999), and the landscape of modern architecture firm members said that I used to make architecture changed radically. As European masters took over in many like that seen at MoMA. (Rodríguez 2008: 24–25) North American universities, US schools (particularly the Catholic University of America in Washington DC, the In the Midwest, the Illinois Institute of Technology, then University of Michigan, Cornell University, and Harvard) directed by Mies van der Rohe, pioneered progressive became the favoured destination of Colombian students modern architecture. Its influence and Ann Arbor’s (Table 2 and Fig. 3). proximity to the East Coast certainly favoured the spread It is important to understand that neither the academic of modernism and direct contact with many important environment of American architectural programmes nor figures. For example, Enrique Triana met Josep Lluís Sert, their teaching methodologies were always progressive Buckminster Fuller, Eliel Saarinen, and Minoru Yamasaki or cutting edge. Although many programmes welcomed while at the University of Michigan (Samper 2000: foreign students and professors, the ideas and curricula 132). Similarly, in the 1950s the University of Illinois of North American programmes often remained deeply environment was permeated by Miesian modernism traditional. In certain aspects, the Bogotá UNC faculty was (Universidad de los Andes 2006). A few Colombians more progressive than many North American ones.15 Jorge graduated from there, and a whole generation of civil Arango recalls that in the early 1940s, many Colombian engineers from the Universidad de los Andes ended their architects trained in the USA were doing ‘traditional’ studies there (see Illio). design, meaning Spanish or Georgian (Arango 2003: 169). Many Colombians, including the cousins José María Arango may have been referring to prominent figures and Rafael Obregón, Pablo Valenzuela, and Jaime Nieto Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 5 of 35

Figure 3: Educational geographies, 1937–1950.

Cano, attended the Catholic University of America in Under his [Meeks’] guidance, New Haven’s genteel Washington, DC, whose architecture faculty in the 1940s art academy had developed into one of the foremost was directed by Frederick V. Murphy according to Beaux- professional training grounds in the country. Now, Arts principles. There were many reasons for this choice: without relinquishing his own Beaux Arts ideal, preference for a Catholic institution, proximity to the he gradually changed the college philosophy to diplomatic environment, and personal recommendation keep up with the changing times. From a strictly (Goossens 2013). Other Colombians chose more elite eclectic curriculum, he switched over a period of schools, such as Syracuse, Cornell, and the Pennsylvania. years to advanced studies of prefabrication and city The latter remained a Beaux-Arts stronghold until the end planning. He brought in such radical lecturers as of the 1950s (Alofsin 2012: 115). Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Wright, Eliel Saarinen, Also notable are the few students who took postgraduate Buckminster Fuller, , Férnand Leger courses at Yale and Harvard in the 1940s. Jorge Gaitán and Amédée Ozenfant to amaze the inmates of his and Jaime Nieto studied at Yale, while at Harvard, Álvaro Gothic catacombs. Once again, dean Meeks had Ortega and Gabriel Solano studied with kept the rein in his hands. […] Unlike the recent and tightened their personal relationship with Marcel design revolution at Harvard under Walter Gropius, Breuer. Eduardo Mejía, among others, also attended Yale’s switch to contemporary thinking was a Harvard.18 The two schools shared little more than a great gradual evolution, gaining impetus a decade ago reputation. Harvard, together with the IIT, represented and changing over the years to its present strictly the bastion of European modernism transplanted to the modern curriculum. (The Architectural Forum US. Major European masters — Gropius, , 1947: 75–154) Martin Wagner, and Sigfried Giedion — came to Harvard following Joseph Hudnut’s reform of 1935, which unified After a long journey from Barranquilla, Gaitán arrived in the schools of architecture and New Haven in April 1943. There, he met his future office with city planning under the umbrella of the new partner Jaime Nieto, as well as several other prominent Graduate School of Design (Alofsin 2002). At Yale, the Colombians, such as former president Eduardo Santos. School of Fine Arts embraced modernism more gradually In a few letters to his family, Gaitán told of his first under dean Everett Victor Meeks. The Architectural Forum weeks in the country, relating with some astonishment reported: the high living costs and expressing his relief at having Art. 7, page 6 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History received a scholarship for the first two months of study work on a hotel project, which later became his thesis (JGCPA-1). But Gaitán embraced his time at Yale as an and was published in Ingeniería y Arquitectura (JGCPA-2; opportunity to expand his horizons. In New York, he Gaitán 1944). The project was designed in a modernist encountered modern abstract art at the opening of fashion with certain Cariocan reminiscences, such as Alexander Calder’s Mobiles exhibition, where he also the brise-soleil and organic shapes within regular blocks met Sert.19 By May of his first year, Gaitán had started (Fig. 4).

Figure 4: The thesis project by Jorge Gaitán Cortés at Yale University. Published in Ingeniería y Arquitectura, 58 (1944): 12. Courtesy of Gaitán’s family. Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 7 of 35

Although the outbreak of World War II undoubtedly Harvard (see Alofsin 2002). In a report about the study represented the main impetus behind architects’ plan, Mejía wrote, ‘in the part concerning urbanism, abandonment of Europe in favour of North American works on actual Colombian problems are undertaken, universities, other factors contributed to the post-war with all possible closeness to reality’.23 Furthermore, the continuity of this trend. The European shift to America integration of workshops with different subjects recalled should be read within the geopolitical framework of Gropius’s ideal of teamwork. However, the curriculum Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy, as well still promoted a broad training of architects — in building as by specific economic and cultural strategies adopted design, , and engineering — contrary to during the War — the promotion of Brazilian modernism the principles of specialisation promoted by US schools, being the emblematic case (see Cavalcanti 2004; Del Real and indeed, the very structure of architectural studies in 2012).20 these programmes. During the 1940s, ties with the US became visible in The tie between leading Colombian architects and the the academic field. Already in 1939, Gabriel Serrano US also paved the way for the international reception visited the New York World’s Fair and various faculties of of Colombian modernism. Francis Violich observed architecture along the East Coast. The same year, Jorge that ‘more functional design is to be found in Bogotá, Triana (1940), dean of the Bogotá faculty of mathematics Colombia, where a group of younger men, several of and engineering, undertook a similar journey. Serrano’s whom have been trained in North American architectural tour included four renowned institutions: Columbia, schools, have had an opportunity to build office buildings, Harvard, MIT, and Yale. At Columbia, as Serrano noted, , and residences (Violich 1944: 128). The direct students produced complete projects in full detail within ties of Ortega, Solano and Gaitán with integrated workshops while under Gropius’s guidance: favoured the diffusion of their architecture; in particular, the 11 de Noviembre baseball stadium in Cartagena The Harvard school completely broke with the and the bus workshop and station in Bogotá. These traditionalist school; their problems are real, and works circulated within major international magazines their solutions fit the most modern technical like The Architectural Forum, Architectural Record, and advancements; with plenty of reason, much L’Architecture d’aujourd’hui, defining the first international importance is given in projects to issues of reception of Colombian modernism. In a special issue construction, so its tendency is to make a functional of the French journal dedicated to Gropius’s influence, architecture. (Serrano 1939: 24) such as his teaching at Harvard, the baseball stadium in Cartagena became the first Colombian building to receive In 1940, Roberto Ancízar, dean of the faculty of international press coverage (AA 1950: 93).24 Later on, architecture, participated in a similar trip throughout Ortega, Solano and Gaitán, together with Gabriel Serrano many US universities (Ingeniería y Arquitectura 1940). and his firm Cusego, gained even more visibility in Henry- In Chile, Lincoln Kirstein, a member of MoMA’s Advisory Russell Hitchcock’s book Latin American Architecture Since Committee, approached Arango and the Department 1945, where Colombia was the third most represented of State invited him to the US (Arango 2003: 111–112), country. while at the end of the 1940s Hernán Vieco, according to For Hitchcock, the real North American influence L’Architecture d’aujourd’hui (AA 1958a), visited different on Latin architects came not from the work, scattered architectural schools in the US during a trip funded by the throughout the continent, of US firms but from the Rockefeller Foundation. Later, in the 1960s, the Rockefeller simple fact that many Colombian architects had trained Foundation sponsored exchanges between Cornell and in the US: the Universidad del Valle for students and professors of architecture. But more than bringing Colombians to A very considerable proportion of the best Latin the US, this programme increased the number of Latin American architects, therefore, particularly those American professors in the Americas.21 under forty, owe at least the final stages of their During the 1940s every UNC staff member or student professional education to the architectural returning from the United States was asked to submit schools of the United States. It is not alone the a report about architectural pedagogy in the schools more famous and old established schools or they visited.22 In the Bogotá faculty, reference to North those that have been headed by world famous American programmes was also a constant theme in architects like Gropius and Mies, not just Harvard, discussing the school’s own architectural curriculum. A Illinois Institute of Technology, Yale, Cornell, and real effect became visible only in 1948, when Eduardo Columbia, but less internationally known schools Mejía became dean after returning from Harvard, and such as the University of Michigan, Georgia a new curriculum was introduced. This reform has Institute of Technology and the Universities been labelled as ‘Bauhausian’, as it diminished the role of Oregon and Florida […]. Nowhere [than in of subjects such as architectural history (Niño 1987: Colombia] are there more architects whose 52–53). But the principles underlying the programme’s training is in North America and many of the reform did not entirely derive from the Bauhaus characteristic problems they have faced are more model. The school adopted the precepts of realism familiar in North America then elsewhere in South that characterised Hudnut’s reforms at Columbia and America. (Hitchcock 1955: 20–37) Art. 7, page 8 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History

Nonetheless, despite the predominant shift towards of architects to the to study urbanism.28 North America in the 1950s, Europe’s influence had not This interest in British planning appears to have developed entirely faded. But within Europe, architectural culture in many Latin American countries at the same time, as had evolved. The Beaux-Arts schools were no longer a a panoramic reading of major architectural magazines valued destination; interest was restricted mostly to British proves. Not only Proa and Ingeniería y Arquitectura, universities and some French specialist programmes. but also the Cuban and Uruguayan Arquitectura, the Many Colombians headed for Europe, mostly for Mexican Arquitectura México, the Argentinian Nuestra specialisation courses in topics such as urban planning Arquitectura and Revista de Arquitectura, and to a lesser and prefabrication. Often, these students were already extent the Chilean Arquitectura y Construcción, all reveal recognised architects and academics, such as Hernando a common attention towards Great Britain. All over the Pinzón Isaza, a professor at the UNC in Bogotá,25 who continent, articles on the reconstruction of British attended some courses on urban planning, construction, and the development of prefabricated housing and school and mathematics at Durham University between 1947 and buildings were circulating, thanks to both the magazines’ 1949. While at Durham, Pinzón wrote to the UNC dean: networks and British propaganda efforts. In Colombia, Ingeniería y Arquitectura and Proa devoted a significant Professor Allen, dean of the department of number of articles to the same themes. In Bogotá, the first urbanism of Durham University, my director and exhibition on international architecture was dedicated to supervisor, is preparing for me a series of visits in British production,29 while the Spanish architect Santiago other universities and different sectors of England de la Mora, a professor of urbanism at the UNC since 1946, and Scotland, where I will be able to see in practice promoted Patrick Abercrombie’s theories, whose book not only the ongoing reconstruction in the cities Planeamiento de la ciudad y del campo he had translated destroyed by the War, but also the planning and into Spanish in 1936. construction of new satellite cities and the solution Although the decade of the 1940s seems to have been of the housing problem by means of prefabricated dominated by the relationship between Colombia and .26 the US, given the large number of architects who trained abroad, historians of Colombian architecture have been In his final report submitted to the UNC faculty, Pinzón reluctant to acknowledge these circumstances. Instead, explained his intention of modifying his courses in their attention has focussed on the contribution of geometry, trigonometry, and construction once in European immigrants in Colombia and Le Corbusier’s Colombia, and adding a section on prefabrication. He arrival in the country in 1947. In that year, however, 32 had visited a factory where houses were produced with of the 72 (44%) professionals registered at the Sociedad concrete and a minimum use of steel, making this Colombiana de Arquitectos (SCA 1947) had spent at least technology potentially suitable for Colombia, a country a period of study abroad. Moreover, 18 of the 72 (25%) that lacked this material. In England, Pinzón also attended had gained experience in the United States. Therefore, courses, organised by other institutions, on urban and Maarten Goossens’s claim regarding the necessity rural planning and on theory of construction. He also of refocusing on the Colombo-US relationships, and visited various cities, discussing new eventually redefining the ‘generation Proa’ (Arango 1989: programmes with those in charge, as well as factories of 211) as the ‘generation USA’ (Goossens 2013), seems prefabricated houses and built with this convincing. The many consequences of this rich dialogue technology. He noted that reconstruction problems of the have still not been sufficiently explored. Numerous 1950s were the same as 50 years earlier, but were now projects completed in Colombia show a direct link with tackled according to CIAM’s four functions: the works studied by Colombians during their stay in the USA. The hospitals with flat roofs and white surfaces, Nowadays, the plans are not to achieve an designed by Serrano’s students in 1939, reveal a clear appealing drawing on a paper sheet, following Gropius influence (Goossens 2013), while Felipe Rolnik’s axial symmetry or shaping circles and semicircles, project for a church in Quiroga, Bogotá, is a clear homage or tracing radial avenues around a monument or a to Eduardo Catalano, his professor at North Carolina State cathedral; [reconstruction has] been designed for University (Proa 1955a; Fig. 5). The entire residential people who live and work in the city, with a logical production of firms such as Obregón & Valenzuela or relation between home and workplace; it has been Pizano, Pradilla & Caro also shows a great affinity with the designed to provide a happy and hygienic life to houses of Mies, Breuer, and above all, Richard Neutra. a population adjusted within certain limits, with However, the training received by many Colombian an adequate coefficient of density and in an area architects in US schools affected Colombian architecture where the main factors are not limited to air, light, in more than just formal terms; it also defined its very beauty, space, and vegetation; but also pedestrian mode of production. More than quickly consumed safety, free vehicular movement and ’ formal repertoires, these experiences proved to be efficacy and rapidity.27 rooted in the way architecture was conceived and built. Architects began to work according to precise models Pinzón’s report ended with some suggestions, such as and technologies adapted to local material conditions. funding a faculty of urban planning, and sending a group Concrete construction developed in response to the lack Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 9 of 35

Figure 5: A project in Bogotá by Felipe Rolnik, former student at North Carolina State University. Published in Proa, 87 (1955): 13. Courtesy of Proa. of structural steel (Téllez 1979: 395; Vargas 2009), while US installations and construction products, and, by the typical North American elements such as the curtain wall late 1930s, the development of many integrated firms were successfully adopted (as Hitchcock’s chapter ‘Urban of design, engineering, and construction akin to North Façade’ proved; 1955: 191–97) and were visible in the work American models. In the meantime, Harvard-trained of many firms, from Cusego to Sudarsky & Menéndez.30 Ortega and Solano became pioneers of prefabricated Goossens (2013) highlights the diffusion in Colombia of thin concrete barrel vaults with the Vacuum Concrete Art. 7, page 10 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History patent (Proa 1955b; Ortega 1989) following Gropius’s and Movement to Brazil also began by the end of the decade, Breuer’s ideals, and realised three projects in Philadelphia although this trend became evident only in the 1950s. (The Architectural Forum 1955). They were also among From then on, Colombians started to move to other South those interested in modern furniture — American countries almost as much as they did to the US. they attempted to produce some of Breuer’s chairs — as In this changed context, the most important phenomenon well as prefabricated modular kitchens and bathrooms was the rise of Brazil as the main continental destination (MBDA-1 and 2). (Table 3 and Fig. 6). Furniture design, in fact, represents another field The relationships between Colombia and Brazil, strongly affected by Colombo-US relations, as most of the including the reception of Brazilian modernism in Colombian designers and architects involved in furniture Colombia, have not yet been studied in depth. What production were trained in North America. Jorge Arango, history presents is a limited vision of the relationship who was well acquainted with US furniture design,31 set between the two countries, focusing on shared ‘formal up the modern manufacturing firm Artecto in partnership influences’ (Arango 1989: 219) and ‘fashions’ (Téllez with Ernesto Vivas Puyana (Gómez 2008). Artecto was 1998: 92–93). However, the presence of many Colombian the initiator of modern style furniture in Colombia, and students in Brazil produced a widespread diffusion quickly ‘became synonymous with functional furniture’ of Cariocan modernism in Colombia. The amount of (Proa 1952d: 18). Many cases follow similar paths. space Proa dedicated to Brazilian architects during the The US-trained industrial engineer Guillermo Durana early 1950s, starting with the monographic issue 47 pioneered serial manufacturing of classic furniture (Flórez and Riaño 1951), was largely due to these direct for Camacho Roldán (Gómez 2008: 196), which later connections. In particular, Humberto Flórez Álvarez and shifted towards ‘modern and functional’ design under Luis José Riaño, who graduated in Rio de Janeiro and São the direction of Juan Manuel García, who was educated Paulo, respectively, continued sending graphic material at the Chicago Art Institute (Proa 1952d). Álvaro Sáenz to the magazine after editing this special issue. Jacobo Camacho, who worked for both Camacho Roldán and Kuperman, who studied in Rio de Janeiro, also acted as Artecto, trained at Cornell (Aragón and Espinosa 1965). correspondent from Brazil (Proa 1953c; Fig. 7). Thanks Later, another US-educated designer, Roberto Bermúdez to these sources, not only was the work of the renowned Santamaría, introduced modern design in Fabrex (Gómez masters acknowledged in Proa, but also that of less 2008: 195). Last but not least, Enrique Triana and Santiago well-known architects;33 for the first time, schools like Vargas Rocha, respectively from the University of Michigan Carioca and the Paulista found an international audience and Stanford, played a fundamental role in the field during (Proa 1952c). the 1950s (Fríes and Saldarriaga 2001). In relation to Brazilian education, two things must be The contribution of US-educated architects to the emphasised. Firstly, movements towards Brazil started transfer of modern ideas of planning also appears at the end of the 1940s, when architects in Colombia crucial, as Goossens (2014) implicitly suggests in regard began to look to the country after Serrano’s trip there, to the introduction to Colombia of elements such as the report of which was partially released (Serrano 1948). units and separated networks of pedestrian The diffusion of Goodwin’s Brazil Builds (1943) was also circulation. The very masterplan for Bogotá was marked significant. This mobility gained momentum in the early by a long competition between the team of Le Corbusier, 1950s, after the international reception of Brazilian Paul Lester Wiener and Sert, supported by Carlos Martínez modernism had reached its apogee, and continued up to and others, and Breuer, promoted by Solano and Ortega.32 the 1960s despite growing critiques addressed to Cariocan The very diffusion of North American architecture in architects (see Bill 1953). Secondly, with few exceptions, Colombian magazines seems to be due to these study Colombians who went to Brazil attended the Universidade experiences and the subsequent personal and professional Federal do Rio de Janeiro, where figures like Sérgio connections. One of the clearest cases is that of Marcel Bernardes, Affonso Eduardo Reidy, and Ernâni Mendes de Breuer. In Proa, the Hungarian was probably the most Vasconcelos had teaching positions. This meant there was followed architect active in the USA, more so than Gropius, a clear choice of schools. Rio was the city of Niemeyer, and Mies, Neutra, or Wright. His work began to be featured in the faculty, notwithstanding his absence, was devoted to 1949, when his in Connecticut was published (Proa his achievements.34 Most Colombian students in Rio came 1949), and continued throughout the early 1950s with from Bogotá and Cali. About 25 have been identified so four projects (Proa 1951b, 1953a, b, 1954). far, but the number may have been much higher, as an article in Proa (1952a) suggests. How these experiences The 1950s: The Fragmentation of Routes and contributed to spreading the Brazilian-Cariocan formal the Rise of Latin American Schools repertoire is exemplified in the work of the firm Noguera The 1950s marked a new shift in the international y Santander, whose collaborator, Álvaro Larreamendy, geographies of Colombian architects. By the 1940s, the had graduated in Rio de Janeiro. Projects such as the number of Colombians travelling to other Latin American Sefair House, which includes multiple Cariocan elements, countries had increased dramatically for the first time. including two ramps, an organic-shaped garden, and a In that decade, Chile became the major continental curved roof inscribed within a thin regular structure, as pole, with students divided between the Universidad de well as many others, prove this tendency (examples can be Chile and the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. found in Suramericana Editores 1960: 78–87). Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 11 of 35

Figure 6: Educational geographies, 1951–1970.

The 1950s seemed to be characterised by an increased dean in 1952 (Mondragón 2006: 38). Like many American circulation of architects within Latin American countries, schools, the Chilean case shows that Colombian architects’ not just Brazil. Surprisingly, not many went to Argentina, study abroad did not necessary imply an encounter with a Uruguay, México, or even — a growing more progressive architectural environment. neighbouring country linked to Colombia by a developed In Europe, geographies changed again. France remained system of academic and professional relations. A significant a major destination, but Italy emerged with both Milan number of Colombian students graduated in Ecuador, and Rome as the main continental pole. This was likely although perhaps most were Ecuadorians who later due to both the interest in preservation studies35 and to emigrated to Colombia, rather than Colombian natives. At the appeal of Bruno Zevi’s ideas, which were then well the same time, students continued to immigrate to Chile known all over South America (Rueda 2012: 89–90). In (Fig. 8). the 1940s and ’50s, the Bouwcentrum in Rotterdam also But it is worth emphasising that the Pontificia Universidad received a significant number of Colombian students, Católica and the Universidad de Chile in Santiago were far who came to take specialised courses.36 In the US, on from being modernist strongholds in the 1940s. In the the other hand, the most remarkable change was in its latter, a major reform took place only in 1946, following internal geography, with the rise of some schools located pressure from both students and professors (Mondragón in the southern part of the country, such as Tulane 2006: 32). In Católica, leadership of the programme was University and the Georgia Institute of Technology, and the object of competition between Alberto Risopatrón the universities of Florida, Miami, and Texas. and Alfredo Johnson, who supported continuity according to Beaux-Arts principles, and Sergio Larraín and Emilio Conclusions: Geographies for Another History Duhart, who pushed for the introduction of a Bauhaus Studying the educational geographies of Colombian pedagogy. In the 1940s, the faculty at Católica reached a architects represents a first and partial attempt to compromise. The curriculum was divided, with the first build a different cultural geography of architecture two years given to classic teaching, and the remaining in Colombia and to expand its existing history. As the three guided by modernist architects. Only in 1949, after historian Carlos Niño (1991: 110) points out, there is various resignations and a student strike, was new reform still much work to do on the broader context of the at Católica undertaken, resulting in Larraín’s election as architectural profession in mid-20th-century Colombia. Art. 7, page 12 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History

Figure 7: A competition project in Brazil by Jacobo Kupermann, a Colombian student at the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Published in Proa, 73 (1953): 22. Courtesy of Proa. Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 13 of 35

Figure 8: A professional project by Rubén Flórez Espinosa, presented by the Colombian student as thesis at the Universidad de Chile. Published in Proa, 46 (1951a): 21. Courtesy of Proa. Art. 7, page 14 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History

Figure 9: José Luis Giraldo Jaramillo’s diploma from the Scuola di Specializzazione per lo Studio ed il Restauro dei Monumenti (Roma) with exams record.

The mainstream narrative cites many ‘influences’,37 exploring their reception paths. In addition, Colombian such as Gropius, Mies, Le Corbusier, Aalto, Wright, historiography has emphasised the contribution of some and Niemeyer (Saldarriaga 1983; Téllez 1979) without European immigrants, particularly Violi and Rother, and Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 15 of 35

Figure 10: Trends in a timeline (only degrees in architecture and specialisation courses), 1900–1970. of Le Corbusier and his collaborators Rogelio Salmona As for the circulation of people and ideas within and Germán Samper. This Eurocentric outlook has Latin America, Carranza and Lara’s (2014) provocative helped to establish a narrative in which a few heroes, final chapter, ‘Islands No More?’ warrants discussion. increasingly identified as representatives of a truly The Colombian case proves that in the 20th century Colombian modernism, stand out. Yet Salmona’s or architectural students regularly studied in Chile, and also Fernando Martínez Sanabria’s architecture shares very new educational hubs evolved, such as Brazil. Moreover, little with the modernism of Gropius, Mies, or Breuer, figures show that by the 1960s, the number of architects and it also differs from that of other Colombians, heading for the US almost equalled those moving to such as Gaitán, Ortega, Solano, Obregón & Valenzuela, other Latin American countries (Fig. 10), and circulation all of whom trained in the US. This also produced a along certain Latin routes became increasingly congested. very interesting shift in the international reception To maintain Carranza and Lara’s metaphor, as in any of Colombian architecture, which, in less than two archipelago, certain islands are better connected than decades, moved from being identified as influenced by others, despite geographical proximity. North American practitioners (Violich 1944; Hitchcock This agrees with recent studies that demonstrate the 1955) to becoming entirely associated with Salmona’s fluidity of ideas circulating within Latin America in the brickwork poetics (see Liernur 2015: 76).38 1920s through broad cultural networks (see Pini and As a new generation of Latin American historians Ramírez 2012; Bernal 2015). Extending this review to the emerged in the 1970s who used history as a tool to architectural profession would provide complementary affirm regional values (Segre 1999: 21), Colombian tools for a more ‘connected’ architectural history of the architecture began to be identified with this tendency, continent.39 Furthermore, framing these movements and historiographic problems increasingly acquired geopolitically may add another layer to the existing history. a regionalist perspective (see Mondragón and Lanuza Scholarship on actors and knowledge circulation has 2008). The same happened with Brazil-inspired developed in the field of architecture, focussing on global architecture, whose buildings scarcely fit this dominant empires (on the British, see Bremner 2016 and Willis 2016; narrative. The history of Colombian architecture, on the Portuguese, with an actor-network theory approach, therefore, has neglected a large group of architects, see Faria 2016). Similarly, the race of Colombian architects ignoring their international experiences and the multiple towards the US seems a clear expression of cultural transfer routes contributing to the modernisation of the dependency (see Carnoy 1974) within an informal empire. profession in that country. More importantly, extending However, the rise of some Latin American architectural the study of educational geographies to the whole schools as educational destinations may be read in two continent may help overcome another well-established ways: as a further consequence of imperial patronage — not topos: the lack of dialogue among Latin American only in the sponsorship of Latin American modernisms, countries. In the 1920s, this idea was already widespread but also in inter-American cooperation that fostered among intellectuals and architects, and it has permeated internal mobility — and also as an emancipatory response Latin American historiography until recently (see, for to this patronage. Finally, the scrutiny of architects’ example, Niño 1991: 234), despite some early concerns. mobility and their networks in the Colombian case Hitchcock, for instance, recognised, though without suggests how the role of magazines should be specifically questioning the phenomenon, the increasing circulation read. Periodicals functioned as complementary tools in the of architects across the continent: ‘Building materials diffusion of international models (Torrent 2011 and 2012), rarely travel by air, but most architects do and their ideas which reflected current trends and became spaces for the as well’ (1955: 11–12). representation of wider cultural dialogues. Art. 7, page 16 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History Angulo 1987 Nacional 1941 Universidad and Salazar 2002 Torres Nacional 1941 Universidad Arango 1996 CPNAA; República de Colombia 1934 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Nacional 1941 Universidad República de Colombia 1934 1929 Revista de la Facultad 1935 Transit Angulo 1987 Escovar 2005 Arango 1996 Alberto Manrique 1968 BPS-EUP Téllez 1991; Grillo 1938 Arango 1996 Grillo 1938 BPS-EUP Arango 1989 Arango 1996 BPS-EUP Téllez 1991; Crosnier and Timbert 2015 Source Postgraduate or specialisation Postgraduate [?] Washington École des Beaux-Arts de Fontainebleau starts) (Arch.) Bruxelles [?] (1912 de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.) Publics + École Spéciale des Travaux (1930) de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.) (Arch.) Ghent [?] de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.)

Bogotá Undergraduate catholique de Louvain, de Barcelona + U. U. Sint-Lucas Ghent München (1933) U. Technische (1892) di Torino (Eng.) Politecnico di Milano (1933) Politecnico King’s College London (1929) de Chile [before 1934] de Antioquia (Eng.) + U. U. Architectural Association (1934) Bruxelles [?] (Eng.) City and Guilds of London Institute of Michigan U. Institute (1935) Rensselaer Polytechnic of Michigan U. Purdue U. of Kansas U. Bogotá (1912) (Eng.) U.N. Instituto Técnico Bogotá (Eng.) Ghent [?] London [?] (Eng.) Brussels [?] [?] [?] (1880) Weimar (Eng.) Brussels [?] Belgium [?] (1937) École des beaux-arts de Paris Colombian student destinations until 1936. Name R. Ancízar Sordo J. Bonilla Plata (1908–?) A. Borda Tanco J. Camacho Fajardo H. Child Dávila (1906–?) de la Cruz (1894–1954) P. (1908–?) C. Cuéllar Tamayo G. García C. García Álvarez C. García Prada 1988) 1808–Bogotá, (Popayán, H. González Varona G. Herrera Carrizosa H. Herrera Carrizosa J. Luzardo (1904–?) A. Manrique Martín (1898–1968) C. Martínez Jiménez (1906–91) [?] Puerta Rocha (1914–52) P. [?] Sánchez E. de Santamaría (1875–?) M. Santamaría (1857–1915) (1905–?) S. Trujillo H. Velasco (1911–83) M. de Vengoechea Table 1: Table Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 17 of 35 González 2014 Molina 2001 Molina 2001 Arango et al. 1982 Bolivariana Pontificia Universidad 1998 Molina 2001 Botero 1996; Vélez 2003 Bernal, Gallego, and Jaramillo Samper 2000 Arango et al. 1982 Samper 2000 Arango et al. 1982 Ramírez and Gutiérrez 2000 BPS-EUP Bell 2016 Crosnier and Timbert 2015 González 2013 BPS-EUP Jambalaya 1937 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Accademia di Architettura + Belle Arti Firenze (Arch.) UK [?] [?] École des beaux-arts de Paris [?] (1951) Paris (Urb.) de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.) (1930) de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.) (1931) Cali Medellín Manizales Barranquilla Unknown city Unknown (Eng.) Escuela de Minas (1922) [?] [before 1920] (Arch. Eng.) New York UK [?] [before 1900] (Eng.) Brussels [?] catholique de Louvain, Campus Sint-Lucas + U. Académie royale des beaux-arts de Bruxelles + École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs de Paris (Eng.) Escuela de Minas [1930] Georgia State U. (1928) (?) Columbia U. (1923) (Eng.?) Columbia U. Columbia U. of Liverpool (1935) U. Académie royale des beaux-arts de Bruxelles (1933) (Eng.) [?] [?] catholique de Louvain, Campus Sint-Lucas U. Bruxelles (1935) École des beaux-arts de Paris Académie royale des beaux-arts de Bruxelles (1900) (Arch.) [?] (1937) U. (Eng.) Tulane Degree is in architecture unless otherwise stated: Arch. Eng. = Architectural Engineer; unless otherwise = Urbanism/Planning; Eng. = Civil Engineer; stated); Urb. Des. = Design (interior, Spec. = Specialisation; int. interrupted studies. P.N. Gómez (1899–1984) P.N. D. Lalinde J. Lalinde J. Mejía A. Mesa Jaramillo (1911–1971) E. Olarte J. Restrepo Restrepo J.F. N. Rodríguez (1903–?) J. Sierra Vásquez F. I. Vieira Jaramillo A. Garrido T. S. Reyes Gamboa (1905–?) O. Giraldo Maury (1910–?) A. Carvajal (1907–?) J. Corredor Latorre M.M. Sánchez (1906–?) L.C. Villamizar Note: Art. 7, page 18 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History Source Arango and Martínez 1951 CPNAA Samper 2000 CPNAA ACHUNC-1949 SCA 1949 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 1941 Blue and Gold Yearbook Arango and Martínez 1951 ACHUNC-1945 Proa 1952d SCA 1946 Devine 1999 Oregana 1946 Arango and Martínez 1951 CPNAA Samper 2000 (9) The Catholic 1943 ACHUNC-1947 Arango and Martínez 1951 Hitchcock 1955 Postgraduate or specialisation Postgraduate (internship) Harvard U. (Spec. school architecture) London and + (Spec. prefabrication) [?] (1946–48) Paris France (1961) (1944) U. Yale + (Spec.) of California Berkeley (1941) U. Instituto de Bellas Artes San Miguel Allende — México + Harvard of Pennsylvania U. (Spec.) U. (1947) Cranbrook Academy of Art

Bogotá Undergraduate Católica de Chile (1942) U. Pontificia École polytechnique de Bruxelles [before 1940] int.) + U.N. Católica de Chile (1942–43, U. Pontificia Bogotá (1948) [before 1948] Syracuse U. Católica de Valparaíso U. Architectural Association Bogotá (1945) U.N. of California Berkeley (1941) U. Bogotá (1942) U.N. + USA [?] Bogotá (int. 1945) U.N. (des.) Chicago Art Institue of California (1937) U. of Notre Dame (1938) U. of Oregon of Michigan (int.) + U. U. Bogotá (1940) de Chile (int.) + (Eng.) U.N. (Eng.) U. de Chile [before 1943] U. of California Berkeley (1940) U. of America (1942) Bogotá (int.) + The Catholic U. U.N. of Colorado + U. Bogotá (int. 1947) U.N. Bogotá (1943) U.N. Bogotá (1947) U.N. Colombian student destinations, 1937–1950. Name J. Arango Sanín (1916–2007) A. Arboleda (1924–95) G. Bermúdez Umaña Á. Cárdenas Moreno H. Carvajal E. G. Delgado Padilla C. Dupuy Casabianca Escobar F. J. Gaitán Cortés (1920–68) C. Garcés J.M. García (1909–?) J.I. Gnecco Fallón J. Gómez Hoyos (Manizales) H. González G. González Zuleta J.A. Guerrero Á. Hermida Guzmán A. Herrera L. Knobel E. Mejía Tapia J. Moya Cadena Table 2: Table Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 19 of 35 (contd.) The Catholic 1943 (9); Arango and Martínez The Catholic 1943 1951 Suramericana Editores 1960 Arango and Martínez 1951 Arango and Martínez 1951 2009–10 and Vargas Vargas Téllez 1988 ACHUNC-1948 Arango and Martínez 1951 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 ACHUNC-1944 Aragón and Espinosa Michiganesian 1939; 1965 ACHUNC-1953 Michiganesian 1948 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 ACHUNC-1954 Michiganesian 1942 Michiganesian 1939 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 SCA 1949 SCA 1946 Arango and Martínez 1951 (10) The Catholic 1946 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Yale U. (1943) U. Yale Harvard (1945) U. (Spec. mathematics, prefabrication and (1948) urbanism) Durham U. Architectural Association Dartmouth College Harvard U. (1943) Cornell U. (Spec. hospital architecture) [?] Washington (1949) + Harvard U. (1944) of Pennsylvania U. (1945) (1950) Illinois Institute of Technology U.N. Bogotá (int.) + The Catholic U. of America (1942) Bogotá (int.) + The Catholic U. U.N. catholique de Louvain, Campus Sint-Lucas Bruxelles U. of America (1944) The Catholic U. of America (1943) The Catholic U. (1944) [?] (int.) + McGill U. Paris USA [?] Bogotá (1941) U.N. of Michigan (1948) Bogotá (int.) + U. U.N. Bogotá (1948) U.N. Bogotá (1947) U.N. de Buenos Aires (1948) U. + USA [?] Bogotá (int. 1944) U.N. of Michigan (1939) U. Bogotá (1953) + U.N. of Manitoba (1949) U. of Michigan (1948) Bogotá (int.) + U. U.N. Massachusetts Institute of Technology at Austin (1949) of Texas U. of Michigan (1942) U. of Michigan (1939) U. (Eng.) Cornell U. Bogotá (1934+1949) (Eng. + Arch.) U.N. Bogotá Santiago de Chile [?] (int.) + U.N. Bogotá (1941) U.N. of America (1946) The Catholic U. Bogotá (1948) U.N. J. Nieto Cano A. Noguera J.M. Obregón R. Obregón Á. Ortega (1920–91) C.E. Pérez H. Pinzón Isaza Pizano de Brigard (1906–?) F. de León J. Ponce Á. Pradilla Keith G. Puyana García (1926–?) Á. Ramírez S.E. Ricaurte Samper A. Roa Hoyos R. Rodríguez Silva (1924–2012) Á. Sáenz Camacho D. Salcedo González G. Samper Samper M.F. A. Sanz de Santamaría G. Serrano Camargo (1909–82) M. Silva Cherau (Santiago de Chile) G. Solano Mesa (1916–?) D. Suárez Hoyos E. Sudarsky Art. 7, page 20 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History Source Jambalaya 1952 (10) The Catholic 1946 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 de Arquitectura 1953 Facultad (12) The Catholic 1948 Vélez 2010; de Arquitectura 1953 Facultad CPNAA (10) The Catholic 1946 de Arquitectura 1953 Facultad Michiganesian 1941 Bernal, Gallego, Aragón and Espinosa 1965; and Jaramillo Bernal, Gallego, and Jaramillo de Arquitectura 1953 Facultad Vélez 2010 Arango et al. 1982 Vélez 2010; CPNAA Ingeniería y Arquitectura 1944 Ramírez and Gutiérrez 2000 ACUV ACUV CPNAA CPNAA Conurbanas 1949 Blue and Gold Yearbook

Postgraduate or specialisation Postgraduate (1942) of Pennsylvania U. (Spec.) Institut d’art et d’archéologie — Sorbonne Paris of America (1948) The Catholic U. (1947) Cornell U. Cranbrook Academy of Art + CINVA (Urb.) (Bogotá) USA [?] (1947) Cornell U. of Notre Dame (summer course 1964) U. Cali Medellín Undergraduate (1952) U. Tulane of America (1944) The Catholic U. Bogotá (1941) U.N. Bogotá (1948) U.N. Bolivariana Medellín Pontificia U. (1948) Cornell U. Bolivariana Medellín Pontificia U. of America (1946) The Catholic U. (1947) Cornell U. of Michigan (1941) U. + U. (1938) (? hospital architecture) Columbia U. Bolivariana Medellín (1949) Pontificia (1938) (Arch. ind.) Columbia U. + Brazil [?] Oxford U. Bogotá (1947) U.N. Bolivariana Medellín Pontificia U. Bolivariana Pontificia de Minas + U. Facultad U.N. Medellín [before 1946] École des beaux-arts de Paris Institute (1944) Rensselaer Polytechnic California [?] Católica de Chile U. Pontificia (Eng.) Heald College (1939) de Chile [before 1940] U. Católica de Chile (1946) U. Pontificia (des.) Pratt Institute of California Berkeley U. Colombia [?] (int.) + (Urb.) Name López (Bogotá) R. Uribe Valenzuela P. Rubiano (1917–2008) H. Vargas R. Álvarez E. Caputi D. González J. Greiffenstein Ospina (Medellín, 1924–?) Jiménez (Medellín) P. Londoño F. (Bogotá) Á. Posada G. Restrepo Álvarez (1905–?) J. Sierra Rodríguez L. Uribe U. R. Uribe Isaza H. Wills E. Baca Kehrly Á. Calero Tejada H. Calero Tejada J. Errázuriz (Chile, ?) M.J. Lenis Montoya (1910–?) A. Michelsen H. Muñoz (1920–?) de Caycedo M. Turriago J. Zea Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 21 of 35 Samper 2000 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 CPNAA CPNAA BPS-EUP CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Seminole 1948 Tower CPNAA (10) The Catholic 1946

École des beaux-arts de Paris + (Urb.) + (Urb.) École des beaux-arts de Paris de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. of Michigan U. de Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.) (1940) Paris Cartagena Barranquilla Unknown city Unknown U. Pontificia Bolivariana Medellín Pontificia U. Bogotá (Eng.) U.N. (Eng.) École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne de Guayaquil [before 1948] U. Catholique de Louvain, Campus Sint-Lucas Ghent U. [before 1939] [?] do Rio de Janeiro [before 1949] Federal U. [before 1939] de la República Uruguay U. degli Studi di Roma [before 1948] U. Escuela de Bellas Artes Quito [before 1940] de Chile [before 1948] U. de Chile [before 1947] U. of Florida [after 1948] U. de Chile [before 1947] U. of America (1946) The Catholic U. M. D’Andreis Lanao A. Lequerica M. (1926–?) A. Martínez Emiliani G. R. Alban L.E. Albornoz L.C. Álvarez Sihera Avendaño P.R. A. Bernal Gonella A. Bertolotto C.L. Cadena A. Maillard Ugarte A. Medina Peñuela J.J. Rodríguez (Bogotá) H. Saldarriaga López R. Vélez (Manizales) Art. 7, page 22 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History Source RAC-2c CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Cactus 1960 Illio 1959 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Gómez 2008 CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Samper 2000; Aragón and Espinosa 1965 ACHUNC-1954 CPNAA Aragón and Espinosa 1965 ACHUNC-1953 CPNAA Illio 1953 ACHUNC-HL Aragón and Espinosa 1965; Cactus 1966 Illio 1957 Illio 1959 Postgraduate or specialisation Postgraduate of Illinois (Eng.) U. (1955) Georgia Institute of Technology (Urb.) (Spec.) School of Planning and Regional Research, London + (Spec.) Ministry for Housing and Local + (Spec.) Ministère Government, London [1952–53] [1952–53] de l’urbanisme, Paris of Oregon + (Spec.) Bouwcentrum Rotterdam (1959) U. di Milano (Spec.) Politecnico of Illinois (Eng.) U. Harvard (1956) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. Bogotá Undergraduate (Arch. + painting) Cranbrook Academy of Art of Florida [before 1954] U. of Virginia in Charlottesville [before 1956] U. do Rio de Janeiro [before 1955] Federal U. (1960) of Texas (Arch. Eng.) U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. of Florida (1953) U. Bogotá (1943) U.N. (des.) USA [?] do Rio de Janeiro [before 1953] Federal U. do Rio de Janeiro [before 1957] Federal U. of Florida [before 1955] U. Bogotá (1948) U.N. de Buenos Aires Bogotá (interrupted) + U. U.N. of Florida (1952) U. Stanford U. Bogotá (1951) U.N. Central del Ecuador [before 1955] U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. Bogotá (1955) U.N. (1966) of Texas (des.) U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. [?] Colombian student destinations, 1951–1970. Name J. Acuña J.C. Acuña Cañas A. Acuña Gómez E. Aguilar Carrasquilla A.A. Amador M. Ancízar (Bogotá) G. Andrade Lleras C. Arbeláez Camacho (1916–69) R. Bermúdez Santamaría Bustillo Arrieta T. M.A. Caceres Porras J. Cala Gutiérrez D. Castro Duque (1922–?) J. Cepeda Ulloa Correa Páez P. D. Cortés Osorio (1933–?) R. Díaz G.E. Garcés Peña C. García Reyes (Bogotá) E. García-Reyes M. (Zaragoza, ES, 1930–?) E.M. Gill I. Gómez (Bogotá) R. Gómez (Bogotá) Table 3: Table Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 23 of 35 (contd.) Ripoll, conversation with Blue and Gold 1952 CPNAA de los Andes 2006 Universidad Suramericana Editores 1960 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Illio 1954 Illio 1960 Crosnier and Timbert 2015 CPNAA de los Andes 2006 Universidad Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Proa 1952b Ripoll, conversation with Proa 1955a Gómez 2008 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 CPNAA Illio 1954 de los Andes 2006 Universidad Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Illio 1960 (Spec.) Bouwcentrum Rotterdam (1967) of Illinois (1954) U. degli Studi di Roma + di Milano + U. Politecnico École des beaux-arts de Paris of Illinois (Eng.) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. [?] (1964) Paris (Urb.) (Spec. industrial architecture) USA and Mexico Nations’ scholarship for research on dwelling United in Canada, USA, and Puerto Rico of London degli Studi di Roma + U. U. (Spec.) Eidgenössische technische Hochschule Zürich + (Spec.) Bouwcentrum Rotterdam (1967) (1958) (ind. des.) Accademia di Architettura Milano + Scuola Statale d’Arte Firenze (1964) of Illinois U. + (Spec.) de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.) Service (1959–60) des Monuments Historiques, Paris of Illinois (Eng.) U. [?] of California Berkeley (1952) U. de Chile [before 1952] U. de los Andes (1949) U. do Rio de Janeiro Federal U. Bogotá (1954) U.N. de los Andes (Eng.) U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. École des beaux-arts de Paris de Chile [before 1952] U. Javeriana (1959) U. Bogotá (1956) U.N. Bogotá (1951) U.N. Bogotá (1954) U.N. [?] [before 1951] São Paulo de los Andes (1957) U. North Carolina State U. Bogotá [after 1954] U.N. of America (1957) The Catholic U. of America The Catholic U. [before 1960] Cornell U. Bogotá U.N. de los Andes (1955) U. of Michigan (1953) U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. G. Hoyos E. Isaza Palau I. Jacobsen Bache E. Jiménez Lozada (Girardot, 1931) Á. Larreamendy D. Llorente A. López (Bogotá) A. Maldonado Soto (Bogotá) C. Mazuera Gómez (1943) A. Mendoza Morales J. Mosseri Hané (Bogotá, 1936) Á. Osuna Sáenz Leyva E. Pombo A. Ramírez L.J. Riaño Ripoll Rodríguez U. Rolnik F. G. Sicard A. Sokoloff Moreno (1934–?) B. Sokoloff Moreno (1932–?) G. Suárez Betancourt G. Téllez G. Téllez Castañeda (Bogotá, 1933) (1929–?) E. Triana (Bogotá) Urdaneta V.I. Art. 7, page 24 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History Source SCA 1957 Fríes and Saldarriaga 2001 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Illio 1960 Vélez 2003 (62) UPB 1951 de Arquitectura 1953 Facultad Vélez 2003 Illio 1960 1957 Blueprint Yearbook CPNAA SCA-Valle conversation with Barney, Aragón and Espinosa 1965 ACUV ACUV ACUV Aragón and Espinosa 1965 SCA-Valle Illio 1959 Illio 1959 SCA-Valle SCA-Valle Ripoll, conversation with CPNAA Cali Postgraduate or specialisation Postgraduate (1954) de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.) of Illinois (Eng.) U. (Spec. in architectural pedagogy) Germany [?] (Spec.) Italy [?] (Spec. in air conditioning) USA [?] (Spec.) Germany [?] of Illinois (Eng.) U. + Research Cranbrook Academy of Art (1951) USA Fellowship [?] Chicago Illinois Feet (Urb.) (1961) of Pennsylvania (Landscape Arch.) U. Arts Students League, New York of Illinois (Eng.) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. (Spec.) Bouwcentrum Rotterdam (1967) Medellín Undergraduate do Rio de Janeiro [before 1957] Federal U. (1953) Stanford U. Bogotá (1948) U.N. de los Andes (Eng.) U. Bolivariana Medellín (1950) Pontificia U. Bolivariana Medellín (1950) Pontificia U. Medellín [before 1951] U.N. Bolivariana Medellín Pontificia U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. (1957) Georgia Institute of Technology of Florida (1953) U. (1961) Católica de Valparaíso U. [active in do Rio de Janeiro (1961) Federal U. Brazil] Bolivariana de Medellín (1950) Pontificia U. of America (1955) The Catholic U. [?] Bogotá (1953) U.N. Pratt U. degli Studi di Roma (1960) U. [?] Bogotá (Eng.) U.N. do Minas Gerais (1963) Federal U. of Florida (1957) U. [?] de Chile [before 1951] U. Name Ramírez J.J. Vargas Rocha S. Vargas H. Vieco Sánchez (1924–2012) (Bogotá) G. Yepes J. Jaramillo Mainero V. Salcedo T. M. Uribe (Medellín) Velásquez D.W. G. Ivan Zapata J. Aparicio Rodewalt Cass C.J.E. Avendaño C. Barney Caldas J. Bernal Arango A. Botero Gómez H. Botero O’Byrne (Cartagena, 1934–?) L. Caldas de Borrero (Bogotá, 1929–?) E. Cobo J.E. Coronel Arroyo H. della Cuesta (Medellín) I.R. della Cuesta (Medellín) C.S. Escarpetta (Belo Horizonte) M. de J. Escobar Arana [?] Fajardo R. Flórez Espinosa Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 25 of 35 (contd.) ACUV RAC-2a Aragón and Espinosa 1965 RAC-1 ACUV Samper 2000 CPNAA RAC-1 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 ACUV; SCA-Valle conversation with Barney, conversation with Barney, RAC-2b RAC-2b Devine 1999 Devine 1999 ACUV SCA-Valle RAC-1 RAC-1 RAC-1 ACUV (Spec.) Scuola di Perfezionamento per lo studio dei (Spec.) Scuola di Perfezionamento monumenti Roma (1965) Planning degli Studi di Roma + (Spec.) U. Institute London Illinois Institute of Technology degli Studi di Roma U. (Spec.) Regional Development Paris + (Spec. (1958) Georgia Institute of Technology summer course) Association NY per lo studio dei (Spec.) Scuola di Perfezionamento monumenti Roma (1969) per lo studio dei (Spec.) Scuola di Perfezionamento monumenti Roma (1969) U. + (Urb.) de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.) of Pennsylvania Berlin Universität Technische Hochschule München Technische (Eng.) U.N. Medellín (1950) + (Eng.) U. de + (Eng.) U. Medellín (1950) (Eng.) U.N. Montréal (1954) (1962) del Valle U. Bogotá (1954) U.N. [?] (1957) Idaho State U. (1955) Cornell U. Central del Ecuador (1966) U. (Arch.) [?] Bogotá (1956) U.N. Atelier Oscar Niemeyer do Rio de Janeiro (1953) Federal U. do Rio de Janeiro (1958) Federal U. (1961) del Valle U. del Valle U. of Notre Dame (1954) U. of Notre Dame (1954) U. di Milano [before 1959] Politecnico do Rio de Janeiro (1951) Federal U. Bogotá (1953) U.N. del Valle U. del Valle U. Illinois Institute of Technology A. Ghitis Blanco (1927–?) A. Ghitis Blanco (1927–?) J.S. Giraldo Jaramillo (1934) J. Guerrero (1932–?) Hoyos Jiménez F. E. Jordan Sarria M.C. Lago Franco (1932–?) A.E. Montoya Moya Morcillo P.P. O’Byrne Barberana (Bogotá, 1932–?) F. Tascón J.J. Padilla Barney E. Patiño Barney R. Patiño H.M. Pérez Rodríguez (1934) L. Pérez Rodríguez J.I. Sáenz J. Sáenz Caicedo (1932–?) Garcial (1929–?) Toscano F. Mafla E. Umaña A. Velasco J.H. Velosa D.C. Viáfara R. Villaquirán Sarasti Art. 7, page 26 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History Source ACUV CPNAA Bell Lemus 2000 Jambalaya 1944; Jayhawker 1951 Bell Lemus 2000 Bell Lemus 2000 Bell Lemus 2000 Bell Lemus 2000 Bell Lemus 2000 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Bell Lemus 2000 Aragón and Espinosa 1965 Bell Lemus 2000 1967 Cactus 1964–65, Proa 1953c Illio 1960 CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Postgraduate or specialisation Postgraduate (Spec.) prefabbricazione, Ministère des Affaires Etrangères-Ministère des Finances et Affaires and Centre Économiques Coopération Technique (1959–60) Paris du Bâtiment, Technique Scientifique et (Eng.) Georgia Institute of Technology Cornell U. (1965–67) of Texas U. (Urb.) of Illinois (Eng.) U. Cartagena Barranquilla Unknown city Unknown Undergraduate (1958) del Valle U. [before 1954] Syracuse U. + (Eng.) Massachusetts Institute of U. Tulane Technology of Kansas (Arch. Eng.) U. Institute [Rensselaer?] Polytechnic of Kentucky (Eng.) U. Institute of (Eng.) Oklahoma State U. Technology of Houston (Arch. Eng.) U. (Eng.) Harvard U. Institute (Eng.) Rensselaer Polytechnic Medellín Escuela de Minas + (Eng.) U.N. Harvard U. Institute (Eng.) Rensselaer Polytechnic (1953) Syracuse U. (1964) of Texas U. do Rio de Janeiro (1951) Federal U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. do Rio de Janeiro [before 1958] Federal U. [before 1965] do Paraná Federal U. [before 1962] de Pernambuco Federal U. [before 1960] Cornell U. [before 1964] Nacional de Ingeniería – Perú U. do Rio de Janeiro [before 1955] Federal U. Name de Chatin (Ghent, BE, 1934–?) L. Yusti R. Acosta Madiedo E. González Rubio R. Jiménez E. López Lux F. R. Manotas H. Martínez Baena J. Muvdi J. Pumarejo C. Restrepo W. B. Rosanía Salive I. Schwartz C.A. Vargas-Colina J. Kuperman Noero (Cartagena) V. Aguilar Rivero F. J.G. Amezquita Montaño H. Amezquita Rojas R. Anzola Betancourt A.G. Arango Bonilla G. Arango Londoño Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 27 of 35 (contd.) CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Jambalaya 1955; CPNAA CPNAA; Ibis 1954 BPS-EUP CPNAA Seminole 1962 Tower Ibis 1954 CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Illio 1959 CPNAA; ACHUNC-1953 Ibis 1955 CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Blueprint 1952 (Urb.) Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. de Paris (1968) de Paris Institut d’urbanisme de l’U. (Urb.) of Illinois (Eng.) U. Hochschule [?] [before 1960] Institute [before 1966] Polytechnic Worcester Heald College – San Francisco [before 1965] of Louisiana [before 1957] + U. (1955) U. Tulane do Rio de Janeiro [before 1962] Federal U. of Miami [before 1955] (Arch. Eng.) U. [?] of Louisville [before 1965] U. of Florida (1962) U. of Miami (1954) (Arch. Eng.) U. [before 1966] U. George Washington do Rio Grande Sul [before 1967] Federal U. Central del Ecuador [before 1962] U. of America [before 1957] The Catholic U. Central del Ecuador [before 1964] U. [before 1959] de la República Uruguay U. [before 1959] of Pennsylvania U. do Rio de Janeiro [before 1964] Federal U. do Rio de Janeiro [before 1960] Federal U. do Rio de Janeiro [before 1968] Federal U. [?] de Chile (5th year) Bogotá (int.) + U. U.N. [before 1958] of Miami (1955) (Arch. Eng.) U. [before 1967] Central de Venezuela U. Central del Ecuador [before 1957] U. Central del Ecuador [before 1966] U. (1952) (Eng.) Georgia Institute of Technology J.M. Arboleda Duque R. Arboleda Walaby Ardilla Plata F.R. L.E. Arocha Osorio J. Arrazola Madrid Bolívar (Sogamoso) D. Avella Á. Ávila-Bernal A. Ávila Ordoñez (Bogotá) L.C. Avlian (Bogotá) J. Ayarza J.A. Barreto S.R. Barrios Pacheco C.H. Bernal Ocampo G. Botero Jaramillo R. Bucheli Cadena R. Bucheli Córdovez C. Buenaver Villamizar H. Cabal Paredes G. Cabrera García H. Caliz Mercado A. Carrizosa (Bucaramanga) G. Cuervo Gutiérrez J.R. Devivero (Bolívar) C. Díaz Carretero J. Emiro Rivera E. Eraso Moreno L.C. Escobar (Cali) Art. 7, page 28 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History Source CPNAA CPNAA Flórez and Riaño 1951 Illio 1956 CPNAA Ibis 1960 CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Seminole 1963 CPNAA; Tower Illio 1956 Illio 1955 Illio 1954 Cactus 1954 Illio 1954 CPNAA Ibis 1964 CPNAA Ibis 1954 CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Illio 1960 CPNAA CPNAA CPNAA Postgraduate or specialisation Postgraduate of Illinois (Eng.) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. Undergraduate do Minas Gerais [before 1967] Federal U. do Rio Grande Sul [before 1963] Federal U. do Rio de Janeiro [before 1951] Federal U. of Michigan Bogotá + (Eng.) U. (Eng.) U.N. Central del Ecuador [before 1960] U. of Miami (1960) (Arch. Eng.) U. Central del Ecuador [before 1957] U. de Chile [before 1952] U. di Milano [before 1961] Politecnico of Florida [before 1964] U. Bogotá + del Atlántico + (Eng.) U.N. (Eng.) U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. (1954) of Texas (Arch. Eng.) U. Bogotá (Eng.) U.N. Central del Ecuador [before 1966] U. of Miami (1964) U. Central del Ecuador [before 1965] U. of Miami (1954) (Arch. Eng.) U. Central del Ecuador [before 1967] U. de Chile [before 1962] U. Autonoma del Estado de México [before U. 1967] de Chile [before 1959] U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. de Chile [before 1954] U. [before 1961] Central de Venezuela U. de Chile [before 1960] U. Name Moreno L.E. Fajardo Romero E. Fajardo H. Flórez Álvarez G. García (Pereira) J.E. Gómez López M. González Zapata (Cali) L.O. Guerrero Gómez A. Hurtado Alarcón Lanzani de Toscano A.P. E.A. Lebolo Castellanos (Barranquilla) D. Levy-Lombroso (Barranquilla) J.H. Llanos (Buga) Col.) E. López (Pacho, Z. Medina López (Tunja) C.J. Morelli (Cúcuta) Moreno Mesias J.F. C. Noguera (Bogotá) M.A. Ocampo Peña G. Olano (Cali) J.G. Ospina Salamanca Parra L.H. Pachón J.A. Pinilla Alcalá O. Piñeiro Ríos Prieto (Villavicencio) V. L. Quezada Pastene E. Richardson Saravia C.A. Rojas Cifuentes Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 29 of 35 Coloradan 1952 Illio 1955 CPNAA CPNAA; ACHUNC-1953 CPNAA Illio 1957 CPNAA CPNAA (Eng.) U. of Illinois (1955) (Eng.) U. of Illinois (Eng.) U. (Eng.) U. of Colorado (1952) (Eng.) U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. Central del Ecuador [before 1965] U. de Chile [before 1958] Bogotá (int.) + U. U.N. of America [before 1960] The Catholic U. de los Andes (Eng.) U. do Rio Grande Sul [before 1958] Federal U. [before 1968] de Pernambuco Federal U. L. Rojas C. J.M. Romero (Riohacha) A. Santander Nevarez Suárez Buitrago M.V. Suárez Williamson L.F. (San Andrés) R. Vargas C.E. Viviescas Pinzón de Vargas M.M. Wanderley Art. 7, page 30 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History

Notes — this and other journals having already disappeared, 1 Translations by the author unless otherwise noted. and the authors are unreachable. Another fundamental 2 Silvia Arango mentions that within the limited source on the architectural production of the 1950–60s dimension of the architects’ professional group in is represented by a couple of anthologies published at the 1940s only a few studied abroad; however, she the time: Lo mejor del urbanismo y de la arquitectura en recognises the lack of information about the issue Colombia and Moderna Bogotá arquitectónica. (Arango 1984: 16). 10 To name a few: Julio Casanovas and Raúl Mannheim 3 The definition of these geographies on the basis of (Chilean), Victor Schmidt (Swiss), Herbert Raupricht, national categories may appear questionable, as the Erich Lange, and Ernst Blumenthal (German), Urbanist existence of typically transnational networks such Karl Brunner (Austrian) and Vicente Nasi (Italian) in as the Beaux-Arts academic system proves. However, Bogotá; Alberto Dotheé and Augustine Goovaerts here nations are used as a first and intuitive category, (Belgian) in Medellín; Manuel Carrerá (Cuban) in either referring to particular institutions related to Barranquilla. specific academic or professional milieus or to groups 11 Up to the 1940s most Colombian architects came of architects, which may share nationality or place from an inner circle, as Carlos Rueda (2012: 51) of activity, but never presuming the existence of any noted: Obregón, Pizano, Sáenz, Samper, and Urdaneta national architectural identity. were all typical surnames of traditional well-known 4 As studies in architecture may take up to five years, families. clearly it is tricky to fix chronological watersheds to 12 As Frédéric Martínez underlines, due to the high costs describe trends and gradual changes (for the tables, involved, disciplines studied abroad were commonly graduation date is used as the term of reference). As those providing good professional perspectives. for periodisation, 1936 is considered a turning point 13 Of the 26 professors, 11 graduated in Europe and one for both endogenous factors (the foundation of in the USA. Colombia’s first architecture faculty) and exogenous 14 Although his reputed internship at 35, Rue de Sèvres (the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War and a rapidly (referred to in many bibliographic sources) appears deteriorating European situation), while 1950 untrue. FLC, S1–3 Atelier Le Corbusier, Demandes approximates the closing of the transitional phase d’emplois ou de stages refusées, 1937. of Colombian modernism (1930–40s) leading to its 15 The same could also be said in comparison with ‘golden age’, according to most architectural historians other Latin American schools, with the exception (with different shades, see Arango 1989; Samper of Montevideo where, by the 1930s, the faculty of 2000). A closing date of 1970 serves to elucidate 1960s architecture and urban planning represented an trends. extremely advanced reality, as Violich (1944: 166–67) 5 Finally, civil engineers are displayed in the tables noted. But its avant-garde disappeared from but not counted in the maps. In general, most listed international historiography due to its distance engineers are either prominent in construction or from the International Style canons (Arango 2012: illustrate specific networks, as in the case of the 271–72). Universidad de los Andes and the University of Illinois. 16 A project by Álvaro Calero Tejada awarded at the 6 This article moves beyond certain historiographic Rensselaer was published in Ingeniería y Arquitectura patterns, distancing itself from the unifying tendency (1944). initiated by Hitchcock (1955) and later endorsed by 17 The first one had been the Massachusetts Institute Bullrich (1969). On the difference between the two of Technology in 1865, followed by the University interpretations see Torrent (2015). At the same time, of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1868, Cornell this text moves away from the regionalist rhetoric that University in 1871, and Syracuse in 1873. arose in Latin America according to the categories of 18 Before Harvard, Solano and Mejía completed graduate ‘appropriateness’ (Fernández 1987) and ‘otherness’ studies at the University of Pennsylvania. (Browne 1988) after Frampton’s introduction of 19 Sert started teaching at Yale in 1944, when Gaitán ‘’ in the architectural debate graduated. His and Wiener’s later appointment for (1983). the masterplan of the Colombian city of Tumaco (see 7 A type of source increasingly analysed in the last two Tarchópulos 2010) may have been a direct consequence decades (see Gutiérrez 1995; Gutiérrez et al. 2001; of their acquaintance during the year. Aguirre 2013; for Colombia see Mondragón 2008). 20 Colombia and the US became particularly close during 8 These accounts sometimes seem to contradict the Eduardo Santos’ government (1938–42), and when image recounted in most literature about the teaching López led the country into World War II on the Allies’ environment of certain schools. Nevertheless, they side in 1943 (see Randall 1992). Post-war, key events appear as useful complementary sources in the included the launch of the so-called Currie Mission of understanding of student experiences abroad. the World Bank and of the Organization of American 9 At least two school works designed by Colombian States — with Colombian Alberto Lleras Camargo as students abroad were also published in Ingeniería General Secretary — which in 1951 established the y Arquitectura. Regrettably, securing permission to Centro Interamericano de Vivienda y Planeamiento reproduce these works is extremely difficult nowadays in Bogotá (led by Harvard-trained architect Leonard J. Botti: Geographies for Another History Art. 7, page 31 of 35

Currie) as part of its technical programmes. In 1961, 34 For a more comprehensive outlook on the faculty J. F. Kennedy launched the Alliance for Progress that environment in terms of staff and design culture, see financed the construction of the so-called Ciudad the Anuario da Faculdade Nacional de Arquitetura da Kennedy in Bogotá, one of the largest Universidade do Brasil, published between 1958 and 1964. interventions in the city. 35 The process of knowledge transfer in the restoration 21 Information on the Rockefeller Foundation field in Colombia is still unexplored. Certain contribution to the faculty of architecture of the experiences seem crucial for the introduction of a Universidad del Valle can be found in RAC-1. modern restoration praxis, such as those of José Luis 22 All this information is inferred from the faculty Giraldo Jaramillo, who under a Rockefeller Foundation correspondence that is kept at the ACHUNC. grant moved from the Universidad del Valle in 23 E. Mejía, Report on new study plan, 1948 Cali to Rome for a two-year course at the Scuola (ACHUNC-1948: ff. 379–80). di Specializzazione per lo Studio ed il Restauro dei 24 A few years later, the broadest panoramic on Colombian Monumenti (Fig. 9). The Rockefeller Foundation itself architecture so far recorded was published on the (in an internal memo) recognised the Universidad del same magazine just when Hernán Vieco, who had Valle’s leading role in preserving the colonial urban studied in Paris and worked there for Bernard Zehrfuss fabric in Colombia, mostly due to Giraldo’s activity on the UNESCO building, was returning to Colombia (information from Rac-2a and a conversation with and becoming a correspondent for the journal (see AA JL Giraldo. For general information on restoration in 1958b). Colombia, see Niglio 2016). 25 Pinzón succeeded to Eduardo Mejía as dean of the 36 According to Urbano Ripoll Rodríguez, at least four faculty in 1952. Colombians studied with him in Rotterdam in 1967. 26 Letter, H. Pinzón Isaza to UNC dean L. López de Mesa, (Only those whose names have been identified are June 10, 1948 (ACHUNC-1948: ff. 392–96). included in tables.) He also mentions the existence of 27 Report, H. Pinzón Isaza, 1949 (ACHUNC-1949: ff. a local office of the Bouwcentrum in Bogotá during 520–31). these years (Ripoll, conversation with). 28 Report, H. Pinzón Isaza, 1949 (ACHUNC-1949: ff. 37 The generic concept of ‘influence’ has been commonly 520–31). used in Colombian historiography without deepening 29 Arquitectura Inglesa was the title of the photographic its meaning. Here, one of the key points has been exhibition according to the items list (ACHUNC-1946: addressing through which paths, and to what extent, ff. 412–17). theories, imaginaries, and experimentations related 30 Enrique Sudarsky, an Argentinian educated at the to the work of these masters entered the architectural UNC in Bogotá and then at the IIT, designed, with discourse, enriched formal repertoires, and produced his partner, several and office buildings innovations in Colombia. wrapped by a curtain wall with black and white panels 38 Liernur’s critique appears addressed to the mainstream in a clear Miesian fashion (see Suramericana Editores regionalist construction primarily fostered by 1960: 166–68). Colombian historians Silvia Arango and Germán Téllez 31 During his first stay in the US, Arango not only met during the 1990s and generally endorsed by Latin Breuer, marrying his sister-in-law, but also many American scholars. architects with a strong interest in furniture design, 39 The word ‘connected’ purposely recalls Sanjay such as Eero Saarinen and the Eames (Arango Subrahmanyam’s approach to historical research (2005). 2003). 32 Breuer spent four weeks in Bogotá in October 1947 Competing Interests after an invitation by Solano and Ortega to work as The author has no competing interests to declare. consultant for the Ministry of Public Works, advising on various projects, including the central market. From References then on, Breuer remained in touch with his Colombian Unpublished Sources friends, hoping to get the masterplan commission. ACHUNC (Bogotá, Archivo Central e Histórico de la Nonetheless, as Ortega wrote to the Hungarian, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Fondo Facultad ‘Corbusier, Wiener and Sert, their friends and admirers de Arquitectura y Bellas Artes. Secretaría, years 1946, finally got for them the so-talked about, masterplan 1948, 1949, 1951, 1953, 1954). of Bogota. After a year and a half of intrigue, or shall ACUV (Cali, Archivo Central de la Universidad Valle, Fondo we say diplomacy, they, at least, have reached their Historia Laboral, personal files). goal. I wonder how this peculiar team is going to work’ Arango Villegas, G J et al. 1982 Archivos de Arquitectura. (MBDA-1). Anexo 2: Datos biográficos de algunos arquitectos 33 By issue 47, many architects’ projects are featured, antioqueños. Unpublished thesis (BArch), Universidad some well known (Niemeyer and the Roberto Pontificia Bolivariana. brothers), others less so (Mauro Esteves and Hilda Bell Lemus, C A 2016 Barranquilla procesos de mod- Maia, Paulo Antunes Ribeiro, Almir Gadelha and ernización y movimiento moderno en arquitectura. Acácio Gil Borsoi, Alcides da Rocha Miranda and José Unpublished thesis (PhD), Universidad Nacional de de Souza Reis). Colombia-Bogotá. Art. 7, page 32 of 35 Botti: Geographies for Another History

BPS-EUP (Paris, Bibliothèque historique Poëte et Sellier Arango, S 1989 Historia de la arquitectura en Colombia. – Institut d’urbanisme de Paris, Fonds de l’ancien Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Institut d’urbanisme de l’Université de Paris). Arango, S (ed) 1996 Arquitectura de la primera modernidad CPNAA (Bogotá, Consejo Profesional Nacional de en Bogotá. Bogotá: Fondo de Promoción de la Cultura. Arquitectura y sus Profesiones Auxiliares, Base de Arango, S 2012 Ciudad y arquitectura. Seis generaciones datos 1939–1965, unpublished digital document). que construyeron la América Latina moderna. México Del Real, P 2012 Building a Continent: The Idea of DF: Fondo de Cultura Económica. Latin American Architecture in the Early Postwar. Bartlett, N 1995 More Than a Handsome Box: Education Unpublished thesis (PhD), Columbia University. in Architecture at the University of Michigan, FLC (Paris, Fondation Le Corbusier, S1–3 Atelier Le 1876–1986. 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How to cite this article: Botti, G 2017 Geographies for Another History: Mapping the International Education of Architects from Colombia (1930–1970). Architectural Histories, 5(1): 7, pp. 1–35, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/ah.230

Published: 09 June 2017

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