SUB Hamburg

A/544639

A Prehistory of North America

SVlark Q. Suttoo

Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo CONTENTS

List of Maps xv Preface xvi Acknowledgments xviii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 The Study of the Past 3 North America Defined 6 The Climate of North America 9 Broad Periods in North American Prehistory 11 A Very Brief History of Archaeology in North America 12 Speculation 12 Discovery and Description 12 Chronologies and Culture Histories 13 Toward Explanation 14 New Approaches and Methods 15 Some Current Issues 15

Chapter 2 How and When: Peopling the New World 18 Pleistocene Geography and Environment 20 Some Important Pleistocene Animals 22 Issues in Dating 22 The Origins of Native Americans 23 Where Did the Paleoindians Come From? 24 Linguistic Evidence 24 Biological Evidence: Morphology 24 Biological Evidence: DNA 24 Archaeological Evidence 25 How Did the Paleoindians Get into the New World? 25 A Land Route? 26 AN ICE-FREE CORRIDOR? 27 A Coastal Route? 27 How Many Migrations Were There? 29 Linguistic and Genetic Clues 29 Skeletal Data 30 Archaeological Evidence 33 Contents

When Did People Arrive in the New World? 33 The Clovis First Model 33 A VERY RAPID COLONIZATION 33 A CLOVIS OVERKILL? 34 The Pre-Clovis Model 35 A VERY EARLY ENTRY 35 A LATER PRE-CLOVIS ENTRY 35 Evaluating the Evidence 36 GENETIC CLUES 36 THE EVIDENCE FROM NORTHEAST ASIA 37 Environmental Conditions 37 The Archaeological Evidence 37 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FROM ALASKA 38 The Nenana Complex 39 The Denali Complex 39 The Mesa Complex 39 Discussion 39 THE NORTH AMERICAN EVIDENCE 40 Meadowcroft Rockshelter 41 Pre-Clovis Mammoth Hunting? 42 Cactus Hill 43 Topper 44 • Highlight 2.1 Pre-Clovis Poop? 44 Few Other Sites 44 The Iberian Connection 45 THE SOUTH AMERICAN EVIDENCE 46 Monte Verde 46 Pedra Furada Rockshelter 47 Discussion 48 Where Are We Now? 48

Chapter 3 A Paleoindian Continent 51 The Clovis Complex 51 Environment During Clovis Times 53 Clovis Technology 54 Clovis Adaptations 55 • Highlight 3.1 Comet! A Clovis Killer? 57 Later Paleoindian Cultures 58 A Paleocoastal Tradition? 58 Paleoindians in Western North America 58 Paleoindians on the Plains 60 THE FOLSOM COMPLEX 60 THE MIDLAND COMPLEX 62 Contents

THE PLANO COMPLEX 62 THE CODY COMPLEX 63 Paleoindians in Eastern North America 64 The Transition to the Archaic 66 New Migrations 66

Chapter 4 Whales and Sleds: The Arctic 68 Geography and Environment 68 A Brief History of Research 70 Major Themes in Arctic Prehistory 70 Prehistory of the Western Arctic 71 The Paleoindian Period 71 The Paleoarctic Tradition 71 The Ocean Bay Tradition 73 The Aleutian Tradition 73 The Kodiak Tradition 74 The Arctic Small Tool Tradition 75 The Norton Tradition 75 • Highlight 4.1 Cape Krusenstern and the Old Whaling Culture 76 TheThule 77 Prehistory of the Eastern Arctic 79 The Pre-Dorset 79 Saqqaq 80 Independence I 81 Independence II 82 The Dorset 82 • Highlight 4.2 Dorset Art 84 The Thule Expansion into the Eastern Arctic 85 • Highlight 4.3 The Inuit and the Norse 86 Native Arctic Cultures at Contact 88 Further Reading 89

Chapter 5 Salmon and Potlatches: The Northwest Coast 90 Geography and Environment 90 A Brief History of Research 92 • Highlight 5.1 Glacial Discoveries 92 Major Themes in Northwest Coast Prehistory 93 • Highlight 5.2 The Potlatch 93 Contents

The Paleoindian Period 94 The Early Holocene 96 Northwest Coast Microblade Tradition 96 The Old Cordilleran Culture 97 The Middle Holocene 98 The Developed Northwest Coast Pattern 99 The DNWCP on the North Coast 101 The DNWCP on the Central Coast 104 THE LOCARNO BEACH PHASE 104 THE MARPOLE PHASE 105 THE GULF OF GEORGIA PHASE 107 • Highlight 5.3 Ozette: The Pompeii of the Northwest Coast 107 The DNWCP on the South Coast 109 Native Northwest Coast Cultures at Contact 109 Further Reading 110

Chapter 6 Roots and Pithouses: The Plateau 111 Geography and Environment 111 A Brief History of Research 113 • Highlight 6.1 Foragers and Collectors 113 Major Themes in Plateau Prehistory 114 The Paleoindian Period 114 • Highlight 6.2 The Great Missoula Floods 116 The Archaic 117 Windust 117 Cascade 118 • Highlight 6.3 The Western Idaho Archaic Burial Complex 118 Nesikep Tradition 119 Plateau Pithouse Tradition 120 THE PLATEAU PITHOUSE TRADITION ON THE CANADIAN PLATEAU 122 • Highlight 6.4 Keatley Creek 123 THE PLATEAU PITHOUSE TRADITION ON THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU 125 Native Plateau Cultures at Contact 126 Further Reading 126

Chapter 7 Acorns and Diversity: California 127 • Highlight 7.1 Acorns: The Wheat of Ancient California 129 Geography and Environment 129 A Brief History of Research 130 Major Themes in California Prehistory 130 Contents ix

The Late Pleistocene 131 The Clovis Complex 131 A Paleocoastal Tradition? 133 The Pleistocene-Holocene Transition 133 The Early Holocene 136 • Highlight 7.2 The Millingstone Phenomenon 136 Northern California 137 The Central and Southern Coasts 137 The Sparsely Occupied Interior 139 The Middle Holocene 139 Acorns and Salmon in Northern California 140 Mortars and Shellmounds of the Central Coast 140 More Millingstones in Southern California 141 • Highlight 7.3 The Western Nexus 142 The Beginnings of Intensification: The Central Valley and Mountains 142 The Hot Colorado Desert 144 The Late Holocene 144 Increasing Complexity: Northern California and the Central Coast 145 Money and Chiefdoms: The Santa Barbara Region 146 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHIEFDOMS 146 Takic Expansion: Coastal Southern California 147 More Acorns in the Sierra Nevada 147 Growth and Elaboration in the Central Valley 149 "Lake" Times in the Colorado Desert 149 Baja California 150 The Early Occupation of Baja California 150 Southern Baja California 151 Central Baja California 152 Northern Baja California 152 Native Californian Cultures at Contact 153 Further Reading 153 Chapter 8 Marshes and Deserts: The Great Basin 154 Geography and Environment 154 A Brief History of Research 156 Major Themes in Great Basin Prehistory 158 The Paleoindian Period 159 The Paleoarchaic Period 162 Contents

The Archaic 163 The Early Archaic 163 The Middle Archaic 165 • Highlight 8.1 Gatecliff Shelter 166 a Highlight 8.2 Grasshoppers for Dinner Again? 169 The Late Archaic 170 • Highlight 8.3 Lovelock Cave 172 A NUMIC EXPANSION 173 The Formative: Agricultural Societies of the Great Basin 175 The Virgin Anasazi 175 The Fremont 175 FREMONT ORIGINS 177 FREMONT ECONOMY AND ORGANIZATION 177 WHAT HAPPENED TO THE FREMONT? 178 The Mojave Desert 179 Native Great Basin Cultures at Contact 181 Further Reading 182

Chapter 9 Pithouses and Pueblos: The Southwest 183 Geography and Environment 184 A Very Brief History of Research 185 Major Themes in Southwestern Prehistory 187 The Paleoindian Period 187 The Archaic 189 • Highlight 9.1 Mesoamerican Influences in the Southwest 190 The Western Archaic 190 • Highlight 9.2 Split-Twig Figurines 192 The Northern Archaic 193 The Southern Archaic 193 The Advent of Agriculture 194 The Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi) 195 The Basketmakers 197 BASKETMAKER II 197 BASKETMAKER III 199 The Puebloans 199 PUEBLO I 200 • Highlight 9.3 The Virgin Anasazi 200 PUEBLO II 201 The Chaco Phenomenon 201 Contents

• Highlight 9.4 Cannibalism! 204 • Highlight 9.5 The Sinagua 205 PUEBLO III 207 PUEBLO IV 209

- PUEBLO V 209 The Mogollon 210 The Pithouse Period 211 The Classic Period 212 The Postclassic Period 212 The Aggregation Period 212 The Late Period 214 • Highlight 9.6 Mimbres 214 • Highlight 9.7 Paquime and the Casas Grandes World 215 The Hohokam 217 The Early Agricultural Hohokam 219 The Pioneer Period 220 The Colonial Period 220 The Sedentary Period 220 The Classic Period 221 The Postclassic Period and Beyond 222 • Highlight 9.8 The Salado Enigma 222 The Patayan 223 Native Southwestern Cultures at Contact 224 Further Reading 225

Chapter 10 Following Bison: The Great Plains 226 Geography and Environment 226 A Brief History of Research 228 Major Themes in Plains Prehistory 228 The Paleoindian Period 229 The Archaic 230 The Northern High Plains 232 EARLY ARCHAIC 232 • Highlight 10.1 Head-Smashed-ln Bison Jump Site 233 THE MIDDLE ARCHAIC 234 THE LATE ARCHAIC 236 THE LATE PREHISTORIC 236 The Central and Southern High Plains 237 EARLY MOBILE FORAGING 237 LATE MOBILE FORAGING 237 Contents

MIDDLE PREHISTORIC 237 LATE PREHISTORIC 238 The Protohistoric Period on the High Plains 238 • Highlight 10.2 Horses! 239 The Formative 239 Plains Woodland 240 Plains Village 241 EARLY PLAINS VILLAGE 242 LATE PLAINS VILLAGE 244 B Highlight 10.3 The Crow Creek Massacre 245 Plains Historic 246 Native Plains Cultures at Contact 246 Further Reading 248

Chapter 11 Corn and Villages: The Northeast 249 Geography and Environment 249 A Brief History of Research 251 Major Themes in Northeast Prehistory 252 The Paleoindian Period 252 The Early Paleoindian Period 252 The Middle Paleoindian Period 253 The Late Paleoindian Period 254 The Archaic 255 The Early Archaic 255 The Middle Archaic 255 The Late Archaic 257 THE LAKE FOREST ARCHAIC 258 a Highlight 11.1 The Old Copper Complex 258 THE NARROW POINT ARCHAIC 259 • Highlight 11.2 The Red Ochre Burials 260 THE LATE MARITIME ARCHAIC 261 B Highlight 11.3 The Development of Indigenous Agriculture in Eastern North America 261 The Woodland Tradition 262 The Early Woodland 263 THE ADENA COMPLEX 263 OTHER EARLY WOODLAND DEVELOPMENTS 265 The Middle Woodland 265 THE HOPEWELL 266 Contents

The Late Woodland 270 FORT ANCIENT 270 THE IROQUOIAN LATE WOODLAND 271 E3 Highlight 11.4 The Moatfield Ossuary 272 - OTHER LATE WOODLAND GROUPS 272 a Highlight 11.5 The Oneota Tradition 273 Native Northeast Cultures at Contact 274 Further Reading 274

Chapter 12 Mounds and Towns: The Southeast 275 Geography and Environment 275 A Brief History of Research 277 Major Themes in Southeastern Prehistory 278 The Paleoindian Period 278 The Archaic 280 The Early Archaic 280 The Middle Archaic 282 m Highlight 12.1 The Shell Mound Archaic 282 The Late Archaic 283 POVERTY POINT 284 The Woodland Tradition 287 The Early Woodland 288 The Middle Woodland 288 THE HOPEWELL IN THE SOUTHEAST 289 OTHER MIDDLE WOODLAND CULTURES 289 The Late Woodland 290 The Mississippian Tradition 290 The Structure of Mississippian Societies 291 MISSISSIPPIAN SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION 291 ® Highlight 12.2 The State of the State 292 THE MISSISSIPPIAN ECONOMY 292 MISSISSIPPIAN IDEOLOGY 293 The Rise of Mississippian Polities 294 EMERGENT MISSISSIPPIAN 294 MIDDLE MISSISSIPPIAN 295 LATE MISSISSIPPIAN 295 Q Highlight 12.3 The Southeastern Ceremonial Complex 296 SOME MISSISSIPPIAN POLITIES 296 Cahokia 296 The Caddo 299 Moundville 300 Etowah 303 iv Contents

Native Southeastern Cultures at Contact 306 Further Reading 307

Chapter 13 Moose and Fish: The Subarctic 308 Geography and Environment 308 A Brief History of Research 309 Major Themes in Subarctic Prehistory 310 The Paleoindian Period 311 The Paleoarctic 312 The Arctic Small Tool Tradition 312 Pre-Dorset 312 The Northern Archaic 312 The Shield Archaic 314 The Taltheilei Tradition 314 The Shield Woodland 315 Native Subarctic Cultures at Contact 315 Further Reading 317

Chapter 14 Epilogue: After Prehistory 318 Outside Contacts with Native Americans 319 The Impact of European Contact 320 The Spanish Mission System 321 European Diseases and Population Decline 321 A Few Examples of Contact Studies 322 Gender and the Dakota 322 Cultures in Contact: Colony Ross, California 323

Glossary 324 References 332 Credits 403 Index 404