2

MATERIALS AND CONTEXTS FOR A CULTURE HISTORY OF THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU

WILLIAM ANDREFSKY jR.

his chapter is an overview of the prehistoric this coarse-grained culture historical overview will be occupation of the southern part of the presented as a data set of prior knowledge about select Plateau cultural area (hereafter called the Columbia aspects and areas of the Columbia Plateau. Prior knowl­ Plateau). It is important to remember that the Plateau edge he! ps guide researchers toward relevant questions in general and the Columbia Plateau in particular were and issues directly related to the data at hand. The topics defined as culture areas by anthropologists observing and to be discussed are quite broad, for without prior knowl­ working with relatively recent Native American inhabi­ edge, our questions may or may not be relevant. This tants of the region (Driver and Massey I 9 57; Kroeber culture historical overview lends context to the issues, IColumbia River ~111d its tribu­ people inhabited. Although the prehistoric picture of taries. Some of the more significant drainages of the occupation in the Columbia Plateau is incomplete, it is Columbia River included within the Columbia Plateau apparent that artifacts, mode of habitation, subsistent geographic zone include the Snake, Clearwater, Salmon, practices, and human use of the land were dynamic and Deschutes, John Day, Yakima, Grande Ronde, and Tucan­ changed through time. It is also apparent that the envi­ non rivers. This is a relatively large area with a diverse ronmental conditions of the regions shifted with regard environmental mosaic. As the prehistoric record of the to effective moisture, biotic communities, and even land­ Columbia Plateau is presented below, I refer sometimes to forms (Daubenmire 1969; Wigand 1987). This necessar­ the entire region and at other times to specific drainages. ily means that the boundaries of the Columbia Plateau I draw on information from specific drainages and partic­ culture area may also have shifted over time as humans ular sites to make interpretations about the entire Col­ adapted to different social and environmental conditions. umbia Plateau. However, the specificity for which such In fact, the Columbia Plateau culture area (defined by cul­ interpretations can be made will vary from location to tural traits) may have been drastically different r ,ooo or location based on the extent to which we can rely on the g,ooo years ago than when it was originally defined by accuracy of our prior knowledge. Before reviewing the those anthropologists first working in the area. For this prehistoric occupation of the Columbia Plateau, it is reason, the Columbia Plateau is defined for the purposes necessary to discuss the contemporary and prehistoric of this overview as primarily a geographic area, and the en vi ron ment. archaeological overview explores the human occupation of this geographic area even if such habitation does not ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING conform to the Columbia Plateau culture area traits as originally defined by contemporary anthropologists. The Columbia Plateau covers an area of about 500 km However, the coarse-grained scope of this overview east to west, bounded on the east by the Bitterroot Range in both time and space provides a platform from which and on the west hy the Cascade Range, and about 700 km more questions are generated than answered. As such, north to south, hounded on the north by the Okanogan

23 8 lU'TlSK ()()UIMI! LA oregonmsis), chiselmouth (Acrocheilus alutaceus), moun­ tain whi tefish {Prosopium wi/liamsoni), and bridgelip (Catostomus columbianus). Anadromous species of eco­ nomic importance include Pacific lamprey (Entosphenus tndentcltus). chinook salmon {Oncorhynchus tscbawy­ tscha), sockeye salmon (0. nerka), and sreelhcad trotH (0. myk1ss). Schalk ( 1977) provides a detailed overview on ~.timon habitat and migrations into the region. Impor­ tant edible plants found in rhe Columbia Plateau include lnd1.tr1 ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), bitterroot {l.ew1sia redivit•a), common camas (Camassia quamash), and manr, many more root, seed, and berry species (~ee Daubenrnire 1970; H unn 1990; Lepofsky and Peacock, this volume; Statham 1975). Latitude, elevation, and coastal moisture are among the most important characteristics that define the cli mate I igurc 2. . 1. Gcncra li ~cd location of the; Colu mbia Plateau of Columbia Plateau today and in the past. Another of culture aren. th e~c characteristics is the high level of yea rl y and sea­ sonal variability in effective moisture a nd prevailing winds. llighlands and on the south by the intermountain basin As such, the local environment in different a reas of the and range physiographic zone {see Figure 2.1). The Blue­ Columbia Plateau is both dynamic and changing. Primary Ochoco .'vt ountain~, which rise tO 3,ooo m above sea level evidence used as a proxy for climatic change comes in are near the center of this 35o,ooo km1 area. Almost the form of plant and animal identification at ~pec:ific completely encm:ling the Blue-Ochoco Mountains arc the times (i.e., Gustafson 1972.: Lyman and Livingston 19S3; deeply incised river canyons of the Snake and Columbia, Schroedl J 97 3 ). These proxy data are gathered from with the elevation of ~ome areas of the Columbia Plateau archaeological sires, zoological sites such as pack rat mid­ at le;,~ rhan 1oom abo,·e sea level. Tributaries of the dens and shell middens, and geological contexts such a-. Columlua and Snake rivers drain the Bluc-Ochoco !\1oun­ bog and icc cores (,\lehringer et al. T977). Unforrun.Hel)', tains a~ well as the ~lope~ of the Cascade Range ro the thi-. e' idencc is ofren specific to isolated locations. It ;., we~t and the Bitterroot Range to the east. T he Columbia now apparent that hioric evidence taken from different Plateau abo contams an extensive basin (Columbia Basin) loc.nions but in relatively close proximiry ro one another as large a~ rhe Blue-Ochoco mountain range. Variability often ~uggests different climatic contexts (Biinman et al. in elevation combined with the orographic effect of the 1979; Foit et al. 1992). The variability in climatic proxy Pacific Ocean a ir masses and t he high Cascade mountain data may be caused in part by true climatic difference~ range prod uces a wide diversity of environmenwl condi over ~ma ll o r microenvironmema l arl"!aS. Other facro r~ tions in the Columbia Plateau. Kimberling and Jackson ~ u c h as the invasion of insects and natura l and human­ (r9R5) provide :tdditional derails o n the physiography o f induced fires may also be responsible fo r localized cha nges the re~io n . in the biotic communities. T hese factOrs make it difficul t The lowland areas of the Columbia Pla teau are pri­ to determine rcgionwide cl imatic regimes duri ng rhc course marily popui:Hed by shrub steppe and bunchgrass steppe of preh i~tory. Although localized and regio nal climatic habitat, while the higher elevations in the center of the recon~tructions for the Columbia Plateau have been pub region arc populated by xeric montane forests (Dauhen­ li<;hcd (Table 2..1; see also Chatters 1998) it is important mire 196<;; rranklyn and Dyrness T973). H owever, parts to note that each of these local reconstructiom is unique. of the Columbia Plateau, particularly in mountains sur­ rounding the region, contain mesic montane forests, sub­ CULl URI- HISTORY alpine forest~, alpine meadows, and woodland transition fore~ts. Thi'> divcrsirr of habitat supports a wide range lntroduct1011 of ungulate'>, including but not limited to elk (Cerl'us e/,1- phus), mule deer (Odocoiletts bemionus), and mountam The prehistoric culture history of the Columbia Plateau !.heep (Ovis ca11adens1s) (Dalquest r948; H all 1981 ). In can be divided into four broad periods: Paleoarchaic the recenr past bi.,on {Bison bison) were also found in the (pre-1 J ,ooo-Xooo B.P. ), Early Archaic (8ooo-5ooo B.P.), reg10n (Van Vuren 19S5). Resident fish of the Columbia :\Iiddle Archaic (sooo-2000 B.P.), and Late Archaic Plateau include northern pike minnow (Ptychocheilus (2ooo B.P.-A.D. 172.0). These dates are generali?ed for

24 AND REFS KY TABLE 2 .1. COLUMBIA PLATEAU ENVI RONMENTAL GENERALIZATI ONS.

Dare B.P. Environmental Generalization Source

approximately The last glacial maximum, bringing continental ice sheers into the northern border Kurzbach er al. 1993 18,000 of contemporary Washington State approximately Noticeable increase in solar radiation resulting in glacial retreats and warming Kurzbach er al. 1993 15,000 oceans 11,700 Mount Saint Helens U) in western Washington erupted and spread tephra over Foir er al. 1992 much of the Columbia Plateau 11,200 Glacier Peak in northwestern Washington erupted and spread tephra over much of Foir er al. 1992 the Columbia Plateau II ,000-1 0,000 A pulse of colder weather caused an advance in ice sheers. This event has come to Marhewes 1993 be known as the Younger Dryas 9000-6000 The period (Airithermal) produced the greatest amount of summer insulation in the Thompson 1984 past 20,000 years, causing extreme seasonal climatic differences approximately Mount Mazama (Crater Lake) in western Oregon erupted and spread tephra over Mehringer er al. 1977 6700 much of the Columbia Plateau and Great Basin approximately There is evidence for widespread cooling and increased moisture. Alpine glaciers Ryder and Thompson 6000 begin to advance in the Cascades and northern Rocky Mountains 1986 approximately T he Colu mbia Plateau became abruptly cooler and continued to get more moisture Charters 1998 4500 than wday. Alpine glaciers advanced in all higher mountain ranges 2800-2500 Temperatures warmed, and vegetation communities approached modern Charters 1998 distributions approximately Temperatures became much cooler, summers became shorter and werter, sea icc Grove 1988 700-600 spread southward, and alpine glaciers advanced. The "Little Ice Age" caused famine and haired northern latitude human colonization

the enrirc Columbia Plateau, of course, and may differ erry's and Butler's ideas into a new sequence of seven slighrly for any specific local area. They do, however, periods. The Browman and Munsell synthesis added rhe rend ro follow culture historical trends across the enrire notion of outside influences into rhe Columbia Plateau Columbia Plateau. Table 2.2 cross-lists these four periods at different rimes in the prehistoric past, from both the wirh various culture historical sequences from specific Grear Basin and the Canadian Plateau. locations on rhc Columbia Plateau. Since the r96os there have been a number of new syn­ Ea rl y cultural chronologies on the Columbia Plateau theses for specific regions of the Columbia Plateau. Sev­ were synthesized by Browman and Munsell (1969), But­ eral culture historical sequences have been suggested for ler ( t 96 I, r 96 5 ), C ressman et al. ( r 960), Daugherty the Lower Snake River (Ames er al. 1998; Leonhardy and (r 962), and Swanson ( 1962). Daugherty felt that the Ri ce 1970; Reid t991; Warren 1968). There have been Columbia Plateau was part of a larger " Intermontane numerous culture hisrorical sequences for the lower sec­ Western Tradition" that covered an area from British tion of the M iddle Columbia River (A ndrefsky et a l. Columbia to Mexico and from rhe Cascades to the Rocky 1996; Calm et al. 198 1; Greengo r982; Nelson 1969; Mountains. He proposed that the a rea encompassed Swanson 1962) and the upper section of the Middle by the Columbia Plateau consisted of five periods that Columbia {Campbell 1985; Chatters 1984, 1986; Gough roughly correspond to environmental shifts proposed by 1990). Cultural overviews for the Lower Columbia River Antevs ( I 955). Burler ( I961) viewed the Columbia Plateau and irs tributaries (Deschutes and john Day rivers) can culture area as consisting of four traditions within whar be found in Butler 1959, Cressman er al. 1960, Minor er he called rhe "Old Cordilleran Culture," which emerged al. 1987, and Toepel er al. 1980. Archaeological over­ in differenr areas and had a distinctive idenriry through­ views of the northern Grear Basin and Columbia Plateau our mosr of prehistory. These four traditions eventually boundary areas are available in Aikens 1993, Aikens and overlapped in various regions of the Columbia Plateau. jenkins 1994, and Connolly 1999. The culture history of Swanson's synrhesis is similar ro Buder's Old Cordilleran the Blue Mountains, Hell's Canyon, and major tributaries Culrure of hunting and gathering bur more refined and above Hell's Canyon can also be found (see Andrefsky and specific for the Middle Columbia River. Browman and auman 2003; Andrefsky er al. 1999; Burchard 1998; Munsell's culture history attempts ro combine Daugh- McPherson et al. 198r; Plew 2000; Schmeller 1999).

MATERIALS AND CONTEXTS FOR A CULTURE HISTORY OF THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU 25 TABLE 2.2. SELECT COLUMBIA PLATEAU CuLTURE H ISTORICAL SEQUENCES.

Period Phase Names in Various Regions

Late Archaic Piqunin and Harder phases from the Lower Snake River; Big Bar I 2000 B.P.-A.D. 1720 and Big Bar II phases from Hell's Canyon; Cayuse phase on the lower M iddle Columbia River; Coyote Creek phase on the upper Middle Columbia River; Wildcat phase on Columbia River near Wildcat Canyon; Ahsahka Phase on the Clearwater River Middle Archaic Tucannon phase on the Lower Snake River; Squaw Creek n and 5000- 2000 B.P. part of Squaw Creek I phases in Hell's Canyon; Frenchman Springs phase on the lower Middle Columbia River; Hudnut and pa rt of Karrar phases on the upper Middle Columbia River; Harwai phase on the Clearwater River Ea rl y Archaic Cascade phase on the Lower Snake River; Hell's Canyon Creek 8000-5000 B.P. and part of Squaw Creek I phases in Hell's Canyon; Vantage phase on the lower Middle Columbia River; part of Kartar phase on the upper Middle Columbia River; Canyon phase on the Columbia River near Wildcat Canyon; part of Cascade phase on the Clearwater River

Paleoarchaic Windust phase on the Lower Snake River; Windust phase on the pre-11,000- 8000 B.P. lower Middle Columbia River; Phil ippi phase on the Columbia River near Wildcat Canyon; Windust phase and part of Cascade phase on the Clearwater River

Paleoarchaic {pre- rr,ooo-8ooo B.P.) Cave in Idaho produced a dare of 11,580:!: 250 B.P. (Butler 1986}. Connley Cave from Oregon produced a The Paleoarchaic is a period of time that represents the dare of n,2oo :!: 200 B.P., and Cougar Mountain, also earliest undisputed occupation of the Columbia Plateau. from Oregon, produced a date of n,950 ::!:: 350 B.P. There are rwo recognized artifact "traditions" for this (Bedwell and Cressman 1971). In each of these cases, how­ period of rime, the fluted-point tradition and the western ever, there is no clear undisputable evidence that the dates stemmed-point t radition. T he fluted-point tradition is were associated with fluted points. The East Wenachee defined by la nceolare bifaces with collateral flak ing and Clovis site in Washington contained fluted points and usuall y w ith an end flake or flute taken from the base. other artifacts found resting on top of Glacier Peak ash. T hese points have often been called Clovis or Folsom and T his suggests ro some (Mehringer and Foit 1990) that have been found as isolates and with associated assem­ the fluted-point assemblage dates to just after the fall of blages in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho (Aikens 1978; Glacier Peak ash at approximately 11,200 years ago. Bu tler 1986; Carlson 198p; Fagan 1988; Wi ll ig 1988). Unfortunately, when bone from the same assemblage at T he stemmed-point tradition includes lanceolare, stemmed, East Wenatchee was dated, it produced an age of 5,215 :!: and shouldered bifaces. These bifaces are often fou nd 90 B.P. (Gramly 1996). Other important fluted-point tra­ associated with crescents. Stemmed-point specimens have dition sites in the region include the Dietz site from Ore­ been call ed Haskett, W indust, Lind Coulee, Cascade, and gon (Fagan 1988; Willig 1988) and the Simon Cache Cougar Mountain, among others (Aikens 1993; Bryan from southern Idaho (Butler 1963; Butler and Fitzwater 1 980; Daugherty 19 56; Davis 2001; Galm and Gough r965). Neither of these two sites had its fluted-point 2000; Leonhardy 1970; Rice 1965; Sanders 1982). Figure assemblage radiocarbon dated. 2.2 ill ustrates examples of these artifact forms. The Dietz site is notable because in addition to the Many archaeologists in North America believe that fluted-point assemblage it also contains a stemmed-point fl uted-point traditions represent the earliest occupation assemblage (also not dated). Both assemblages are found in the Western Hemisphere. However, recent studies d is­ on the dried pluvial lake margins of Greater Alkali Lake agree w ith this notion and have postulated a pre-fluted in multiple scatters. In general, the stemmed-point assem­ point occupation in some parts of North and South Amer­ blages are found at higher elevations than the fluted-point ica (Bonnichsen et a l. 1996; Dixon 1999; Overstreet assemblages (Willig 1988), but at times the "Clovis arti­ 1993 ). Fluted-point assemblages from locations in and facts ... overlap the occurrence of Western Pluvial Lakes around the Columbia Plateau are not well dated. j aguar Tradition artifacts in places" (Fagan 1988:390). It is not

26 ANDREFSKY ern stemmed points (e.g., Lind Coulee, Windust, Cascade) (Davis 2001). Two acceleratOr mass spectrometry dates, one on bone and the other on charcoal, produced dates of n,o2o :!:: 170 B.P. and u,370:!:: 70 B.P. (Wisner 1998). A freshwater mussel shell taken from the rop of a cobble bed and associated with a western stemmed-point assem­ blage ar Granite Point was dared ro q,roo:!:: r r6o B.P. This date was discarded as being "too earl y" (Leonhardy 1970). An average date of 12,830 :!:: rosa B.P. was taken on a bison scapula from rhe Lind Coulee sire. This date

b d was discarded because of rhe minimal amount of collagen from rhe poorly preserved bone (Irwin and Moody 1978: 0 3 2.2.4). However, rhis specimen was recovered stratigraphi­ em cally below Mr. St. Helens J ash presumed to have been deposited approximately II,7oo years ago. Western stemmed points have also been found at the earliest occu­ pation levels of Forr Rock Cave in Oregon. While a radio­ ca rbon age of 13,200 B.P. was recovered in association ' wirh human artifacts, there is some confusion about the context partially because of the early age (Aikens and j enkins 1994:7). These anomalous dates have led some researchers to argue that the western stemmed-point tra­ b dition predates the fluted-point tradition in rhe Columbia Figure 2.2. Select Palcoarchaic artifacts. Items a-b: nuted Plateau region (Bryan and Tuohy 1999). points from site 35LK1529; c-d': crescents from site 35LKr529; The lack of fluted poinrs in an unquestionable dared e-h: western stemmed points from 3 5 LK r 529 (adapted from conrcxr in the Columbia Plateau coupled with rh c anom­ Willig 1988). alous early dares for some western stemmed points sug­ gests rhar the relationship between these two traditions therefore clear if the western stemmed-point tradition is is not fully understood at this rime. Parr of the problem ea rl ier than, later than, or coeval w ith the fluted-point might be clarified by a more derailed examination of the tradition at the Dietz site. There are, however, multiple styles and chronology of the western stemmed points. locations in and around the Columbia Plateau where the Currently, various shapes and sizes of points arc encom­ western stemmed points are dared after abour 1 r ,ooo years passed into this single tradition with limited considera­ ago. For instance, the western stemmed-point assemblage tion of the possibility that certain point srylcs may occur at Fivcm ilc Rapids is dated between 9,700 and 7,6oo earlier than orher styles. In fact, this appears to be the years ago (Cressman eta!. 1960); that at Wildcat Canyon case at Cooper's Ferry, where rhc Lind Coulee points is dared between ro,6oo and 7,300 years ago (Aikens appear to be earlier than the Windust points, which are er al. 1977; Hanes 1988); that at Connlcy Cave is dared followed by Cascade points (Davis 200 t). Lconhardy's bcrwccn 9,500 and 7,400 years ago (Bedwell1970, 1973); ( 1970) work ar the Granite Point site clearly shows Win­ that ar Marmes Rocksheltcr is dated between ro,8oo and dust points occurri ng before Cascade points. New analy­ ?,sao years ago (Sheppard et a!. 1987); that at Harwai is sis of materials from the Lind Coulee sire (Craven 2003) dared between 10,8oo and 9,300 years ago (Ames et al. shows char Daugherty's original sequence of Haskett to 1981); that at Sentinel Gap is dared between ro,6oo and Lind Coulee 1 , 2, and 3 appears tO follow a trend through JO,Ioo years ago (Galm and Gough 2ooo); and that ar rime. The ro,ooo-year-plus dates from Sentinel Gap (sire Bison Rockshelrcr is dared co approximately ro,300 years 45KTr362.) do nor include Windusr or Lind Coulee points ago (Swanson 1972). (Stan Gough, personal communicotion, 2003). Clearl y, It should be noted that the age of rhe flured-point tra­ there is some additional work yer to be done on the cul­ dition in the Columbio Plorcau is nor well established, ture historical sequence and technological sryles related and it oppeors that rhere arc several instances where west­ tO rhc earliest human occupation of rhc Columbia Plateau. ern stemmed-point assemblages may be older than the The early human occupation of the Columbia Plateau oldest well-dared fluted-point assemblages from the Colum­ does not appea r ro be restricted to a single environmental bia Plateau and other places in North America. For in­ zone or ro a single key subsistence resource. Both western stance, the Cooper's Ferry site located along the Lower stemmed-point tradition and fluted-point tradition sires Salmon River in Idaho contains several varieties of west- are found in the southern Columbia Plateau along drying

MATERIALS AND CON TEXTS FOR A CULTURE HISTORY OF THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU 27 pluvial lake margins and marshes (Dietz sire) . This same ogy may be related ro salmon processing or bone grease kind of lake margin environment is found farther north extractio n (e.g., Andrefsky in press; Sense 1972.; Grater intO the Columbia Basin , where the Lind Coulee sire is 1966; Muto 1976). located. At such locations it is assumed that the inhabi­ The period is separated inro earl y a nd late subperiods tants were nor necessarily hunting large megafauna such rhar are part itioned ar the time of rhe Mazama ashfall as ma mmoth and mastodon bur, instead, may have been ar approximately 6700 B.P. Artifact assemblages are iden­ raking a variety of game such as bison, deer, waterfowl, tical for rhe early and late periods wirh the exception fish, and various plants. Pluvial lake margins a re nor the rhar large side-notched points are found after rhc fall of only place these earliest inhabitants of the Columbia Mazama ash (sec Figure 2. .3). These points have been var­ Plateau were camped. Sites have been found in rock shel­ iously called " orrhcrn Side- otched" or "Cold Springs ters and caves (including Marmes Rockshelrer, Fort Rock Side-Notched" points. It is nor certain why or under Cave, Windust Caves, and Owl Cave), where evidence what conditions the large side-notched points were added suggests that chipped-stone and bone technologies were ro the Early Archaic assemblage. This pattern is wide!)' used extensively by early Columbia Plateau populations. recognized by site excavations in areas outside of rhe Open-air sires above major rivers (H a t\va i sire, East Wen­ Snake Ri ver canyon as well. The Srockhoff Basalt Quarry atchee sire, Cooper's Ferry sire) were also occupied by in rhe Blue Mounrains of Oregon, for example, reveals people of the Pa lcoarcha ic. Although the data are few, we the production sequences of the Cascade poinr before a lso find initial archaic occupa nts using higher elevatio n the Mazama ashfa ll and also reveals the production of locations such as Wcitas Creek and Swamp Creek (Keeler Northern Side-Notched points after the ashfa ll (Womack 1973; Sappington J 994). It is nor known if one tradition 1977). grew from rh c o ther o r if both were using the Colo mbia Ea rl y Archaic sites a long the Middle Columbia River Plateau in an asynchro no us pattern. lt is evident, how­ have been grouped into the Vantage phase by Nelson ever, that these earl y traditions were widespread over the ( 1969 ). Nelson's Vantage phase is based on his work ar Columbia Plateau's diverse enviro nment. the Sunset Creek site (45KT 2.8) and previous work done by Earl Swanson (1962.) at Cedar Cave and Duck Cave. Arrifacr traits and rhe temporal span of the Vanrage phase Early Archaic (8ooo-5ooo B.P.) were modified by Galm er al. (r98r) after more sires were The Early Archaic period is represented widely through­ examined. According to Galm and associates' stud)' our rhc Columbia Plateau and as a result can be recog­ ( 198 1:6o ), the Vantage phase corresponds in time to the nized b)' multiple phase names, stage names, and tradition Cascade phase of the Lower Snake River, with early and names depending on the location within the Plateau. This !arc subperiods. T he Vantage phase also contains rhe period is roughly coeval with the early Holocene environ­ diagnostic leaf-shaped points, with the occurrence of mental period known as the Alrirhermal. This environ­ large side-notched points after about 6700 B.P. Olivella mental period is hypothesized as a rime of very widespread beads, cobble rools, and microblades are also found dur­ a rid conditions (Antevs 1955). The Early Archaic of the ing this period a long the Middle Columbia River. Lower Snake Ri ver in Washington is known as the Cas­ Robert Greengo's ( 1982.) work in rhe Middle Columbia cade phase (Leonhardy a nd Rice 1970). Based o n excava­ Ri ver has produced a similar Early Archaic chronology tions fro m ten sires along rhe Snake, including bur nor based on the excavation of some 2.0 sites. Greengo's Early limited w Tho rn Thicker, M a rmes Rockshelrer, Windusr " Prehistoric Period 1" and "Earl y Prehistoric Period 2." Caves, Votaw, Granite Point, a nd the Tucanno n sire, correspond to Leon ha rei y a nd Rice's "Earl y Cascade Leonhardy and Ri ce ( 1970:2.3) see this phase beginning Phase" and "Late Cascade Phase," respectively. As such, approximately 8ooo B.P. and ending a ro und 5 500 B.P. they a lso correspond to Galm's earl y and late Vantage Altho ugh orhers have slig hrly differenr beginning o r end­ phases. Excavations at Rye Grass Coulee and Sourdough ing dates fo r rhc Cascade phase, they cover roughly rhe Creek were significant in Greengo's culture history for same period of rime (e.g., Ames er a l. 1 998; Andrefsky the Middle Columbia River (Munsell 1968). Several large 1995; Sense 1972.; Calm eral. 1981; Reid 1991). archaeological projects were conducted farther upriver on The Early Archaic on the Lower Snake River (Cascade rhe Middle Columbia in rhe 198os- Chief j oseph (Camp­ phase) is characterized by the occurrence of leaf-shaped bell 198 5) and the Wells Reservoir (Charrers 1986) proj­ bifaccs or bipoints (Cascade poinrs), edge-ground cob­ ects. The Early Archaic period is known in this stretch bles, large cobble spalls, pounding stones, tabular end of the Columbia River as the Karrar phase and the scrapers, bone needles, and Olivella beads. The complex Okanogan phase. These phases are also characterized br cobble tool industry, wirh cobble spalls, edge-ground cob­ leaf-shaped lanceolate points, cobble spall tools, edge­ bles, and pounding or battering stones of va rious types, ground cobbles, and microblade technology. The Middle is especiall y noticeable. Some believe that such a techno!- Columbia River assemblages differ slighrly from Early

28 ANDREFSKY '~• b c d

e

0 3 an

Figure 2..3. Select Early Archaic' artifacts. Items a-b, e: large side-notched poin ts from site toCW3o; c: Cascade point from sire toCW541!; d: Cascade poinrs from site toCW584; f: edge-ground cobble from site1oCW2.89; g: edge-ground cobble from sire TOCWJo (adapted from Draper 1993; Sappington 1994).

Archaic assemblages on the Lower Snake River primarily (Cole 1968; Cole and Cressman 1961; Minor and beca11sc of the inclusion of microbbdc technology. Tocpel 1986; Shi ner 196 1; Tocpel er al. r98o). Ar Wild­ The Columbia River and irs tributaries below the car Canyon this period is known as rhe Canyon phase conAucncc of the Snake River contain a num ber of and included leaf-shaped points as well as large side­ important sites occupied during the Early Archaic period. notched points after rhc fall of Mazama ash (Dumond Within the Colu mbia Gorge, excava tions at the India n and Minor 1983). On the southern reaches of rhc Colum­ Well Sire, \XIakcmap Mound, and Fivemilc Rapids were bia Plateau (Fort Rock Valley, Connley Caves) rhe Early significant in defi ni ng this cultural historica l phase (B utler Archaic period is represented primarily by Northern Side- 1959, 1965; Cressman cr al. 1960). During rhc Early arched points and some Elko series points as diagnostic Archa ic peri od sires in this end of the Columbia Gorge artifacts (Bedwell 1973; Oetting 1994). The leaf-shaped tended to have few stylistically diagnostic artifacts; how­ point docs nor appear to be temporally diagnostic for this ever, there is evidence fo r fish and bird exploitation edge of the Columbia Plateau. Lake margins and marsh (Hansel 2003). Sites farther upstream such as Bob's Point, environments were still being used during this period. Wi ldcat Ca nyon, Hat Creek, and Cold Springs con ra in Evidence of fish, bird, and small mammal consumption artifact assemblages similar to those of rhc Middle Col­ is also found in rhcsc locations (Dean 1994; Greenspan umbia and Lower Snake ri ve rs. llcre, aga in , there is evi­ •985, •994). dence for the edge-ground cobbles, cobble spa II tools, Significant Early Archaic occupations in rhc Blue and la rge side-notched points nca r rhc end of the period Mountains and Hell's Canyon include the Srockhoff

MATERIALS AND CONTEXTS FOR A CULTURE HISTORY OF THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU 29 Basalt Quarry (Bryan and Tuohy 196o; Womack 1977), The Middle Archaic period on the Middle Columbia Pilcher Creek (Brauner 198 5 ), and Bernard Creek Rock­ River is recognized as the very late Vantage phase and the shelter site (Randolf and Dahlstrom 1977). Reid (1991) Frenchman Springs phase (Galm et al. 1981), as well as reports that 21 sites from the Wallowa-Whitman Na­ the late Kartar and Hudnut phases (Jaehnig 1983). Pit­ tional Forest have been attributed to the Early Archaic house sites on the Middle Columbia River often consist period based on the presence of Cascade and Northern of one to three or four contemporaneously occupied struc­ Side-Notched points. The Cascade bipoint followed by tures. Site 450Ku contained "three to four households, the large side-notched point is the same sequence evident living in pit houses year round" (Lohse and Sammons­ in most parts of the Columbia Plateau. Hell's Canyon at Lohse 1986:116). Other sites such as Cox's Pond suggest Bernard Creek Rockshelter also shows clear signs of fish a single pithouse occupation (Hartman 1975). Chatters (salmon and local species) and freshwater mussel use as a (199sa) suggests that the early part of the Middle Archaic food source during the Early Archaic. period on the Columbia Plateau was characterized by a Early Archaic material culture shows a surprising relatively mobile residential pattern similar to that of the amount of uniformity over an extensive geographical Early Archaic period (see also Rousseau, this volume). range. The kinds of interactions and communications This relatively mobile existence, which utilized pithouses needed to maintain such cohesion in the material assem­ seasonally in some areas, was followed by an occupa­ blages have not been well studied, but certainly they may tional hiatus (3900 B.P.). Then at approximately 3500 relate to sparse population densities, extensive mobility B.P. a more sedentary lifestyle was adopted. Chatters ranges, and similar adaptive strategies. characterizes these two periods as "Pithouse I" and "Pit­ house II," respectively. One of the primary differences between Pithouse I and Pithouse II is the inclusion of Middle Archaic (sooo-zooo B.P.) storage features after 3 500 B.P. According to Chatters, Unlike the preceding Early Archaic period, the Middle Pithouse I did not exist on the Lower Columbia River Archaic does not have a uniform "signature" of artifacts and it is not until 3000 B.P. that Pithouse II occupations across the Columbia Plateau at simultaneous times. One are recognizable there. of, if not the, most important and recognizable character­ Ames et al. (1998) argue that the Lower Columbia istics of this period is the first appearance of semisubter­ River cultural chronology for the Middle Archaic period ranean pithouses. On the Middle Columbia River the is not well understood. Wildcat Canyon site and Hobo earliest pithouse was used at approximately 5 200 B.P. Cave appear to have a Middle Archaic component, but (Lohse and Sammons-Lohse 1986). A date of 5050 B.P. there is evidence of disturbance in the form of artifact was taken from house #6 at Hatwai Site on the Clearwa­ mixing (Ames et al. 1998:110-111). Dumond and Minor ter River (Ames and Marshall 1981). By about 4500 B.P. (1983:157-162), moreover, suggest an occupational hia­ small pithouse villages were located extensively through­ tus at the Wildcat Canyon site between approximately out the Columbia Plateau (Chatters 1995a). The Middle 5000 and 2ooo B.P. The Fivemile Rapids area near The Archaic period on the Lower Snake River was originally Dalles, Oregon, appears to have been abandoned during characterized by Leonhardy and Rice (1970) as the Tucan­ the Middle Archaic period, with human occupation before non phase. They characterize the artifact assemblage as and after this period (Ames et al. 1998; Minor et al. containing sinkers (notched cobbles and pebbles), hopper 1987:40). However, sites just to the south of the Colum­ mortars and pestles, cobble spall tools, a short contract­ bia River on the Deschutes River (Jenkins and Connolly ing stemmed projectile point, and a short expanding 1996) and the John Day (Endzweig 1994b) show evi­ stemmed projectile point. Again, there seems to have dence of extensive habitation during this period of occu­ been a broad spectrum of small and large game included pational hiatus along the Lower Columbia River. The in the diet, as well as the use of salmon and freshwater proximity of these areas and the concordance of occupa­ mussels (Leonhardy and Rice 1970). Harder's (1998) tion and abandonment suggest a potential cultural rela­ analysis of the Tucannan phase sites along the Lower tionship. More research must be completed among the Snake River reveals that hopper mortar bases, notched sites and assemblages in these occupations to better under­ sinkers, corner-notched points, small side-notched points, stand these potential relationships. and ground-stone smoking pipes were first introduced The culture historical sequence in the Hell's Canyon during the Middle Archaic period (see Figure 2.4). Im­ region of the Columbia Plateau for the Middle Archaic portant sites along the Lower Snake River at this time period appears to conform to the sequence on the Lower include the Marmes Rockshelter, Granite Point, Alpowai, Snake and Middle Columbia rivers. The Middle Archaic Hatiuhpuh, Three Springs Bar, Votow, and Tucannan Site in this region is referred to as Squaw Creek I phase and (Brauner 1976; Brauner et al. 1990; Grater 1966; Harder Squaw Creek II phase (Pavesic 1971). Squaw Creek I 1998; Leonhardy 1970). began at approximately 6500 B.P. and lasted until 3500

30 ANDREFSKY I

c:

& d e r 0 3 em Figure 2-4- Selecr Middle Archaic artifacts. lrems a-b: notched ner weights from sire 45FRp; c: pestle from sire 10CW536; d-g: corner-notch projectile points from 10 P143 (adapted from Ames er al. 198r; Andrcfsky in press; Draper •993 ).

B.P. This was followed by Squaw Creek II, which lasted occupants of site 450Kn on the Middle Columbia River until 2500 B.P. (Warren er al. 1968). These phases were positioned themselves ro exploit a wide range of subsis­ established primarily on the occurrence of various hafted tence resources (large and small game, fish, shellfish, root biface forms. The ea rl y end of the Squaw Creek I phase plants, etc.) from one cen tral base. It is imporrant to note inccrsccts chronologically with the late Cascade phase of that the exploitation of a single critical resource such as the Lower Snake River. Large side-notched bifaccs arc salmon or camas roots has not been established across the found for this time simultaneously in Hell's Canyon and Columbia Plateau for the early end of the Middle Archaic along the Lower Snake River sires. The remainder of the period, despite sedentary and semiscdenrary occupations chipped-stone assemblage of the Squaw Creek I and II (but sec Ames and Marshall 1981; Thoms 1989). Char­ phases is very sim ilar to those of the Tucannan, Karrar, ters (1995a) believes that it was only after 3500 B.P. that and Hudnur phases of rhc Lower Snake and Middle a collector economic strategy was adopted by Columbia Columbia rivers. Plateau groups. Evidence for intensive root crop exploita­ Drawing on available evidence, and following rhe tion seems ro correspond ro this age (Andrefsky 2ooo). work of Binford ( 1980), I argue that the earl y end of the Derailed excavations on rhe camas-processing and resi­ Midd le Archa ic period might be characterized as a for­ dential sites along the Pend d'Orcille River in norrhcasr­ ager economic strategy. Even though some pithouscs were ern Washington provide a clear history of camas root used at approximately 5000 B.P., they probably were exploitation from Middle Archaic times through recent occupied by people foraging for seasonally available food history (Andrefsky ct al. 2000). Although camas acquisi­ rcsou rccs. Lohse and Sam mons- Lohse ( 19 8 6) note tha r tion and processing began as early as 5 500 B.P., cxploira-

MATERIALS AND CONTEXTS FOR A CULTURE HISTORY OF THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU 31 tion seems to have been most intense between 3 500 and pit structures are as small as 4-5 min diameter, and oth­ 2500 B.P. (Andrefsky 20oo:I9.5). This intensive exploita­ ers are over 20 m in diameter (Green I 9 9 3). There is a tion appears to coincide with increased salmon availability strong possibility that the smaller pithouse features were on the Columbia River system between 3300 and 2200 used as nonresidential structures (sweat houses, storage B.P. (Butler and Schalk 1986; Chatters eta!. 1995). pits, menstrual huts, etc.) and that the larger pit struc­ Studies imply that intensive critical resource exploita­ tures were used as habitation structures (Kennedy and tion did not occur until approximately 3 500 B.P. on the Bouchard I998; Smith 2000). Columbia Plateau. Clearly, more research is needed to Some Columbia Plateau archaeologists believe that clarify the timing of critical resource intensification in the ethnographic settlement pattern documented at the different regions of the Columbia Plateau. time of Euro-American contact actually began in the Late Archaic period 2,ooo years earlier. This "ethnographic pattern" is characterized as large winter villages estab­ Late Archaic (2ooo B.P.-A.D. 1720) lished in deep canyon bottoms where winter temperatures To many, the Late Archaic period represents an archaeo­ were relatively warmer; as spring arrived the large winter logical extension of the settlement and subsistence prac­ villages would begin partitioning into smaller groups to tices of indigenous peoples observed by early researchers. exploit seasonally available resources (Ray I936). People The Late Archaic period terminates at A.D. 1720 because in winter villages relied primarily on stored food mate­ this is the date at which most Columbia Plateau archaeol­ rials that were supplemented with freshly killed game and ogists believe that the horse was initially introduced into fish catches. Although this ethnographic pattern is widely the region (Presler 2ooo). There are many phase names accepted by researchers, it is interesting to note that associated with the Late Archaic period (Lower Snake pithouse villages were not directly observed by the first River uses Harder and Piqunin phases, Middle Colum­ Euro-American explorers into the Columbia Plateau. By bia uses Cayuse phase, Clearwater River uses Ahsahka the time Lewis and Clark had arrived into the region the phase, Hell's Canyon uses Big Bar I and II phases, Wild­ indigenous Columbia Plateau peoples were living in rec­ cat Canyon uses Wildcat phase, etc.). Regardless of the tangular mat-covered longhouses with no occupation of phase name used, the Late Archaic period is roughly simi­ circular pithouse villages. It is not known for certain lar in all areas of the Columbia Plateau. All areas of the when pithouses were replaced by rectangular longhouses; Columbia Plateau show evidence by approximately 2000 nor are the conditions under which this transition occurred B.P. of human occupation along all major and minor river known. However, several studies have provided evidence valleys, in upland areas, and in dry basin areas. There is that rectangular houses might be considerably older than also evidence for the use of a great variety of nonlocal originally suspected. Galm and Masten (I 9 8 5 ), for exam­ raw materials in artifact form not common in earlier peri­ ple, have dated a rectangular longhouse found in the East ods. Obsidian artifacts traced to sources from southern Wenatchee, Washington, area to approximately I,200 Idaho and southern Oregon can be found in assemblages years ago. Evidence from site 45POI37 on the Pend from central and northern Washington (Galm 1994). d'Oreille River indicates that a large rectangular feature Marine shell from the coast of British Columbia and (perhaps a longhouse) was occupied at around I,I 50 years from the coast of California is also found in Columbia ago and possibly as early as I,7oo years ago (Andrefsky Plateau assemblages (Erickson 1983). The nature of the eta!. 2000). Nakonechny's (I998) study of house struc­ contact among different areas within and outside of the tures at the Wexpusnime site on the Lower Snake River Columbia Plateau is in need of further exploration by reveals that these structures were very shallow pits, sub­ researchers. rectangular in shape, dating to between r,ooo and I,2oo One of the most recognizable traits of a Late Archaic years ago. Some archaeologists believe that deeply exca­ period occupation is the occurrence of pithouse villages. vated circular pithouses were gradually replaced by shal­ Pithouse villages with as few as a dozen pit features and lowly excavated and surface rectangular longhouses as many as roo or more are found on all the major river during the course of the Late Archaic period (Ames et drainages of the Columbia Plateau in this period (Brauner a!. I998). 1975; Jenkins and Connolly 1994; Kenaston I966; Reid Relative to earlier periods, the Late Archaic period 199 I). Pi tho use villages are also located on small tribu­ showed significant population increases and higher popu­ tary canyons away from the major rivers (DiScipio I997; lation densities. There is a clear association with anadro­ Reid and Gallison I993), and they are found in higher mous fish harvesting and processing (Campbell r98 5; upland areas (Endzweig I994a; Gough I990; Reid and Schalk I977). There is also evidence, associated with the Gallison I992). Pithouse villages reveal a great amount intensification of fish harvesting, for storage technology of individual pithouse variability in size and depth. Some in the form of pits and dry rock shelters (Draper and

32 ANDREFSKY h j k

0 3 em

11 m C)

r u \' Figure 2..5. Selecr Lare Archaic arrifacts. lrcms a-1: corncr-norchcd and sremmcd arrow poinrs from 1oiH 1o 17; m-v: norchcd arrow and darr poinrs from orrh Fork of rhc Clearwarer River (adapred from Draper 1991, 1993).

Brauner 1989; Draper a nd Morgcnstein 1993; Endacott found mixed with dart point technology (Cannell 2.00 r; 1992.) . Test excavations in the Pa lo use Canyon Archaeo­ Leonhardy and Ri ce 1970). Ho wever, by approximately logical District ncar the confluence of the Palouse and 1 ,ooo yea rs ago a rrow point technology had a lmost com­ Snake rivers have revealed that shallow rock shelters had pletely replaced dart o r spear technology in all parrs of as few as one storage pit and that deep rock shelters such rhe Columbia Plateau (DiScipio 1997; Endacott 1992.; as McGregor Cave contained dozens of srorage pits (Hicks Jenkins a nd Connolly 1994; Sappington £994:383). and Mo rganstein 1994). Although ir can be a rg ued that bow and arrow technol­ Evidence for how and arrow technology first appears ogy reflects a greater efficiency for hunting compared with certa inty during the Late Archaic period. Often bow with dart technology, the rise of bow and a rrow technol­ and arrow technology is identified a rchacologicall y by the ogy and ultimate!)' the complete replacement of dart tech­ occurrence of small (< 2. em lo ng) chipped-stone projec­ nology by the bow and arrow might also be related to an tiles with narrow neck widths (Christenson J 986; Shorr increase in warfare on the Columbia Plateau during the 1997; see also Chatters, this volume; Rousseau, this vol­ Lare Archaic. In comparison ro dart technology, bow and ume; and Figure 2..5). Some of the earliest arrow points arrow technology is effective for fighting from safe dis­ from rhe Columbia Plateau were found at Strawberry ranees and for providing rapid deployment of projectiles. Island on the Lower Snake River (ca. 2.400 B.P.) (Schalk The Lare Archaic period shows evidence of large aggrega­ 198 3) nnd at Alpowai ncar the confluence of the Snake tions of people into villages, the isolation of villages on and Clearwater rivers (ca. 1900 B.P.) (Brauner r976). islands, the concealment of villages in deep side canyons, Enrly in rhe Larc Archaic period arrow technology was and inevitably more competition for limited or valuable

MATERIALS AND CONTEXTS FOR A CULTURE HISTORY OF THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU 33 resources. These factors suggest that the adoption of the villages appear to have been occupied on the Middle bow and arrow may be related as much ro hostilities Columbia River and on the Clearwater and Deschutes among humans as to more effective hunting methods. rivers at the same time. We do not yet understand this relationship between the different spatially distinct areas; nor do we understand the conditions under which we CULTURE HISTO RY AND RESEARCH CONTEXTS might expect different groups co adapt to a sedentary ON TilE COLUMBIA PLATEAU lifestyle at approximately the same time. Thi~ leaves us This brief culture histOrical overview of the Columbia with a number of important questions. For example, do Plateau raises important quesnons about the extent and these different sedentary villages represent different cul­ content of regional prehistory. I argue that culture histO­ tural groups? Could there have been contact among the ries provide the foundation of prior knowledge that various groups that might have led to similar adapta­ allows researchers to ask relevant questions about past tions? Can any or all of the sedentary groups be histori­ human conditions. Coarse-grained culture histories (like cally traced to a common geographic or cultural origin? the one presented above) are helpful for defining coarse­ These are important questions related to human culture grained questions about a region. As culture hiStories change and continuity not only for the Columbia Plateau become more fine-grained {scaled by space and time) they but for a much wider anthropological audience (sec Pren­ become more effective measures of prior knowledge and tiss and Kuijt, this volume). Prior knowledge helps us allow researchers to ask increasingly more re levant anthro­ craft these questions for our regional studies. pological or behavioral questions about the data and The later end of the Late Archaic period on the Colum­ patterning under investigation (see Goodale et al., this bia Plateau shows clear evidence of population aggrega­ volume; Rousseau, this volume). This chapter concludes tion. Culture histories from all corners of the Columbia with a discussion of some of the important questions sug­ Plateau reveal multiple setnngs for these aggregated com­ gested in the culture historical overvie\'1' presented above. munities (islands, hidden side canyons, upland meadows, Archaeologists often assume that residential sedentism etc.) {sec Chatters, this volume). Refined culture hisrories can be recognized in the archaeological record by the use help us pose relevant questions about larger issues of of pithouse structures because pithouses are intellectually human organization, culrural evolution, and social for­ linked by researchers to increased residential sedentism mations, and they direct us toward meaningful data sets in and perhaps a more "collector-like" economic strategy. the archaeological record that may be useful for address­ This assumption of course needs ro be systematically ing specific questions (see Hayden and Cousins, this vol­ rested and demonstrated. If this is true, however, then it ume; Prentiss and Kuijt, this volume). To what extent is important that we develop a better understanding of was Columbia Plateau population aggregation related to the temporal and spatial ranges of Columbia Plateau coalition fo rmation? H ow might this be related to the sedentism. Culture history tell~ us that pithouse use was emergence of warfare, trade, and the centralization of not uniform in time and space across the Columbia power (see Chatters, this volume)? Along different lines, Plateau or the greater Plateau region (see Chatters, this we might ask if prior knowledge about raw material volume; Kuijr and Prentiss, this volume). A tally of pit­ sources and particular technologies helps define specific house dates from the 3 50,000 km2 Columbia Plateau may components of the archaeological record that might help nor provide a reliable understanding of prehistoric scden­ support or refute competing hypotheses related ro war­ tism. Different locations on the Columbia Plateau may fare, trade, and power (see Blake, this volume). have adopted residentially sedentary practices at much dif­ The intensification of food acquisition and processing ferent times. Without refined spatial segregation of such has been an important archaeological issue on the Colum­ data, 1t would be difficult to understand the potential bia Plateau for over 20 years. Most researchers attribute regional differences in Columbia Plateau sedentism. Could food intensification to greater population densities, or the same cultural group be moving from one location to they atrribute increased population densities to increased another over the centuries? Could specific locations hold­ food intensification. In either case, we know that increases ing sedentary peoples have been abandoned for more pro­ in human populations occur with a shift (even a slight ductive locations as microenvironments changed because shift) roward greater female-to-male survival ratios and of natural and human perturbations (see Kuijt and Pren­ potentially shifts in the economic roles of females and tiss, this volume)? Such questions are generated from our males. Female-to-male sex ratios in the majority of more detailed understanding of Columbia Plateau culture known hunter-gatherer populations worldwide rend to history. positively correlate with the economic contribution of Columbia Plateau culture history reveals that residen­ females and males. When considering how labor was tial sedentism was practiced ar multiple locations on the allocated in these communities, we should ask if our Columbia Plateau simultaneously. For instance, !>edcnrary broad understanding of culture history illustrates a shift

34 ANDREFSKY in food-production effort from males co females on the house villages by rectangular lodge houses? How exten­ Columbia Plateau (see Lepofsky and Peacock, this vol­ sive was this "replacement" pattern, and what does this ume). If so, when and where did this occur? Does it cor­ tell us about prehistoric settlement systems? Does it rep­ relate with increased population aggregation? From the resent a new adaptive strategy adopted by extant Colum­ standpoint of material correlates, what data sets can be bia Plateau groups, or does it mark the migration (or used to asses food-production and -processing efforts in invasion) of a different cultural group into the Columbia the archaeological record (see Goodale er al., this volume; Plateau? Hayden and Adams, this volume)? Culture histories provide imporrant material pattern­ If nothing else, this overview of Columbia Plateau cul­ ing over rime and across space. Such patterning affords ture history illustrates that there is a whole series of the contexts for which archaeologists begin ro synthesize significaor anthropological and evolutionary questions archaeological "facts." It is imporrant to remember char rhar have yet to be fully addressed by researchers. In even though culture histories cannot often help answer addition ro rhe issues of sedentism, aggregation, coalition questions about cultural evolution and human organiza­ formation, and food-resource intensification, rhere are a tion, these histories provide the contexts that allow us ro number of important unresolved cultural-historical top­ pose relevant questions about complicated human condi­ ics. For example, how should rhe phrase "Plateau ethno­ tions. Derailed culture histories yield pertinent questions graphic pattern" be used by researchers, and co what and help archaeologists identify data useful for address­ extent was it characteristic of the Columbia Plateau at ing our questions. It is both necessary and important that diffe rent points of the past? How do we account fo r the a book on the evolution of hunter-gatherer complexity, aggregated Late A rc h ::~ic pirhouse villages found in up­ such as this one, devotes the first third of irs conrenrs ro land a reas away from major river canyons (so uncha rac­ discussing preexisting social and economic systems and teristic of the "Plateau ethnographic pattern")? How do establishing how these regional patterns change through we explain the replacement of pirhouses and perhaps pit- rime.

MATERIALS AND CONTEXTS FOR A CULTURE HISTORY OF THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU 35