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Spectacles to behold: Colours in Newton’s experiments with the light Algonquian landscapes spectrum, which led to other influential colour theories, such as Johann Wolfgang Dagmara Zawadzka von Goethe’s (1970[1810]) Theory of colours, and Michel Eugène Chevreul’s Color is a vital necessity. It is raw material (1855) The principles of harmony and indispensable to life, like water and fire. Man's contrast of colors. The anthropologist Franz existence is inconceivable without an ambience of Boas (1881) commenced his academic color (Léger 1973:119). career with a dissertation in physics on the colour of water, Beiträge zur Erkenntniss Introduction der Farbe des Wassers. Colour has been Colour, ubiquitous in the environ- explored in various disciplines, such as ment, conveys crucial information about our psychology, neurophysiology, philosophy, surroundings and allows us to make sense of art history, as well as anthropology. Colour our world. Colour is also a powerful can be observed and measured scientifically medium for cultural meanings and cate- (for example with the Munsell chart), and gories, and its semantic potential is un- yet its perception is subjective as when leashed through stories, symbols and different people discriminate diversely the experiences. Colour communicates and same hue. evokes emotions, sensations, memories, Anthropological studies have ideological and religious beliefs, identities, recently turned to the exploration of colour gender, economic statuses and places, all the in material culture, as well as in landscapes, while defining periods and events in human revealing its intrinsic role in the semantic, history (e.g. the psychedelic colours of the symbolic and empirical dimensions of 1960s and the Red October Revolution in human life. This paper aims at expanding Russia), and structuring social relationships. this field of inquiry by discussing the Colour, the radiation of the wavelengths of symbolic and experiential aspects of colour the visible light spectrum, is perceived as in the landscapes of Algonquian-speaking hue (the dominant wavelength), saturation peoples of the Canadian Shield and the (intensity) and lightness (brightness), and all Great Lakes area. A brief discussion of of these aspects can be manipulated in visual colour studies in anthropology and archae- communication. ology will be followed by an examination of Humankind seems to have always Algonquian colours in natural and “human- been captivated by colour’s expressive and created” places. aesthetic potentials. Our modern poly- chromatic existence and attitudes towards Colour studies in anthropology and colour are due to factors such as the archaeology explosion in the manufacture of synthetic Studies of colour in anthropology dyes in the nineteenth century. However, took off in the 1960s via cognitive humans in the past likewise enjoyed a anthropology which sought to elucidate chromatic world as is attested, for example, systems of beliefs and thought processes by the discovery that classical Greek statues through the study of taxonomies and were painted or by the extant kaleidoscopic semantic categories (Colby, Fernandez, and textiles of ancient Andean cultures (see Kronenfeld 1981:422-423). Chromatic cate- Brusatin 1986:24, 79-80; Gage 1999:31). gories were studied at a worldwide level in Modern scientific interest in colour dates order to shed light on universal cognitive back to the seventeenth century and Isaac

TOTEM vol 19 2010-2011 TOTEM 7 structures. Brent Berlin and Paul Kay’s 179 for discussion of studies critical of (1969) study, Basic color terms, determined Turner’s colour triad). that black (dark), white (light) and red are Archaeology has always been the basic universal colour terms. It remains interested in colour as a heuristic device for the standard study of colour perception and describing and categorising artifacts and categorization that has prompted various soils. Moreover, colour can shed light on the scholars to revisit the topic (e.g. Bornstein provenience of materials and ancient 1975; Sahlins 1977; Saunders 2000; technologies through, for example, the Wierzbicka 2008; for studies documenting analysis of the chemical properties of colour categorization in specific cultures see pigments. Chromatic studies are often ham- Baines 1985; Conklin 1955).1 In addition, pered by colour’s survival. Some colours colour, cognition and perception have been fade, while others find themselves in explored in relation to human evolution and contexts that ensure their preferential sur- the emergence of trichromatic colour vision vival; therefore, what remains “colours” our (see Taçon 2008:163). perceptions of the past. One such mineral Anthropologists have also tackled that stands the test of time is red ochre (see the symbolic dimension of colour through Bednarik 1994). Red ochre has often been studies of ritual and art (e.g. Beck 1969; Gill invoked in early human symbolising, and its 1975; Strathern and Strathern 1972). Colour use has been documented as far back as the can be an element of cultural key symbols Middle Palaeolithic (e.g. Hovers et al. 2003; (Ortner 1973) as attested to by the role of Marshack 1981; Taçon 2008:163-164). The cattle for the Dinka people of Sudan: “The ancient appreciation for colour is likewise Dinkas' very perception of colour, light, and evident in the use of colourful stones for shade in the world around them is... tools and colourful or white shells made into inextricably connected with their recog- beads by Homo erectus (Gage et al. nition of colour-configurations in their 1999:120). cattle. If their cattle-colour vocabulary were As post-processual approaches taken away, they would have scarcely any gained a footing in archaeology and studies way of describing visual experience in terms emanating from symbolic anthropology of colour, light and darkness” (Lienhardt percolated into archaeology, colour stopped 1961:13 quoted in Ortner 1973:1340). being perceived as a simple empirical Victor Turner’s (1966) study of attribute of material culture and began to be Ndembu colour symbolism, where he linked envisioned as an important component of the colours red, white and black with bodily past social lives. Colour was symbolically fluids and excretions, substances of the potent (e.g. Plog 2003, Saunders 1999, natural world such as clays and, ultimately, 2001; Taçon 1991), and its attractiveness is with gender, and concepts of danger, among the factors that have prompted, for goodness, evil and purity, remains one of the example, the creation of an extensive trade most influential discussions on the topic of in exotic materials and the development of colour symbolism. The white-red-black triad new techniques for working metals to seems to represent a widespread pheno- achieve lustre. However, it is worth men- menon where red is universally associated tioning that questions of colour and with blood and life, though other archaeology have been especially explored significance can be attached to this hue as by scholars interested in prehistoric art (e.g. other ethnographic studies demonstrate Gage et al. 1999; Taçon 1991, 2004) as (Scarre 2002:229; see Young 2006a:178- colours are an indelible element of visual

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arts, and finely coloured, aesthetically example of sperm whale teeth necklaces pleasing objects are often categorised as art. (tabua) from Fiji illustrates this point: Colour studies in anthropology and Most tabua have moved through archaeology have gained momentum as many hands and this longevity experiential and sensuous approaches began of chiefly ownership and to be increasingly explored in the discipline. exchange is much venerated. As This realisation was further entrenched as a whale's tooth ages it becomes anthropology and archaeology recognised darker in colour as oils from the the holistic nature of present Indigenous and hands of its many owners past worldviews, thus altering the view that become incorporated into the colour is an isolated abstraction (Thomas ivory, and the power of 2003:573). successive chiefly owners As the “sensuous turn” in anthro- accumulates within the sub- pology contributed to the dismantling of the stance of the tooth. The depth of primacy and objectivity of vision (e.g. a tabua's colour, as indicator of Howes 1991), it additionally opened up the a lengthy biography, is a pri- door for an exploration of synaesthesia. mary determinant of a tooth’s Colours are known to evoke emotions, value (Gosden and Marshall smells, tastes and sounds (e.g. Classen 1990; 1999:170-171; see also Young D'Andrade and Egan 1974; MacLean 2001 2006a:174, 181). and for archaeology Hosler 1995; Saunders Chromatic changes resulting from manu- 2002:218-219) and thus, participate together facturing processes are similarly imbued in the maintenance and reinforcement of with significance (Cooney 2002:95), and cultural concepts. indeed colours are great markers of trans- Experiential approaches such as formation, seasonality and temporality, phenomenology and studies of materiality whether in material culture or in landscapes (the relationships between people and the (e.g. the changing colours of tree leaves) material world in which they live) have (e.g. Beck 1969; Borić 2002; Gage et al. promulgated the power that colours can 1999:122). exercise in experiences, whether of material Young (2006a) argues that colour culture or of landscapes. Colour is has been dematerialized by scientific, inextricably bound with its medium, often linguistic and symbolic studies. Instead, becoming its index. The shape, texture, size colour is better envisioned as a “relational and placement of the object, as well as the quality” participating in the lived world of interplay of colours on the object (e.g. daily and seasonal social practice, where its contrasts) are all revealers of meanings (e.g. relation with humans and objects is of Cummings 2002; Tilley 2004:11-12). importance. Colour unfolds in social Moreover, the lighting condition affects the practice as it is manipulated and it mani- perception of colours. For example, reds are pulates. It acts as an agent, affecting/ always darker at dawn while light blues are animating (e.g. empowering) objects, people almost white, a phenomenon known as and places. An example of the power of Purkinje effect (Gage 1999:16). The state of colour is evinced in the canoe prow-boards the colour’s preservation and the visible from the Trobriand Islands, where the signs of aging and handling of an object dazzling designs of bright hues participate in evoke meanings and values, which the magic inherent in the board and affect contribute to the object’s reception. The

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the will-power of the onlookers (Gell been used variously across the ages to 1992:44-46). accentuate the aesthetic appeal of objects. The experience of colour is often subjective and is immersed in a specific Landscapes of colour cultural and historical context. However, Colours in landscapes are potent colour perception occurs through a species- semantic agents that contribute to the shared neurophysiologic mechanism, and experiences of places whether they are some qualities of colour seem to have present naturally (e.g. geological formations, affected people throughout history. Such an rainbows) or due to anthropic agency (e.g. effect is brilliance, which finds expression in architecture). Natural places with salient, the symbolic value attached to bright, shiny striking colours such as mountains, quarries and luminous surfaces and consequently to or mineral outcrops were often imbued with materials such as shells, pearls, quartz, cultural significance while rainbows can be crystals, gold, as well as light sources such linked with power and spirits (e.g. Boivin as sun and moon (Bille and Sørensen 2007; 2004:10-12; Saunders 2002:211; Taçon Jones and MacGregor 2002:14; Gage et al. 2008). Minerals, including lithic materials 1999:120-123). Light and brilliant hues are used in tool manufacture (e.g. Taçon 1991, often linked with spiritual ideas, this 2004) and the construction of temples, situation no doubt arising from the presence mounds or cairns were often characterised of light and brilliant colours in shamanic by specific colours which carried symbolic visions and the attribution of radiance to overtones. Stones of various colours, supernatural beings (Saunders 2002:213; textures and sizes were combined to convey e.g. Köhl 1985[1860]:205-207). particular meanings and create specific The “aesthetic of brilliance” experiences of monuments and landscapes. (Saunders 1999) has been documented in For example, white stones and quartz were various places and times. In Australia, used in the construction of Neolithic monu- among the Yolngu, the concept of bir’yun ments in the British Isles, and at times, (brilliance) is the aesthetic visual effect striking contrasts were created. For instance, created by the cross-hatched designs in bark the façade of Newgrange in Ireland is paintings, the brilliance encapsulating ances- dominated by black and white stones. tral power (Morphy 1989). In the case of the Sometimes, these materials were imported Americas, Saunders (1999, 2001, and 2002) from long distances like, for example, the has devoted much ink to ideas associated bluestones used in the construction of with brightness and light and to the various Stonehenge (e.g. Darvill 2002; Gage et al. materials, such as pearls or obsidian which 1999:113-117; Jones 1999; MacGregor convey these ideas. In Christian beliefs, light 2002; Scarre 2002:232-236; Trevarthen is imbued with high ideals as one of the 2000). At the same time, soils of different titles of Jesus Christ, Lux Mundi, attests, and colours were used in the construction of the shimmering mosaics and stained glass mounds and embankments (e.g. Bernardini windows of Byzantine churches serve then 2004:340; Owoc 2002). The sensuous to capture this godly light (see Gage 1993: engagement with (past) landscapes is 39-61). Jones and MacGregor (2002:14-15) mediated through colours and colour additionally point out that colour patterning manipulation can be an effective component – juxtaposition, contrast – also strengthen in the methodological toolkit of phenomen- colour’s communicative potential and have ological landscape studies. Tilley, Hamilton and Bender (2000) have employed variously

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coloured materials to wrap stones at the late Materials traded from distant locales Neolithic and early Bronze Age settlement become the palpable embodiments of these on Leskernick Hill in the south-west of places, or “pieces of places” (Bradley Britain and in the process gained new 2000:96) and of the symbolism inherent understanding of the stones within the within them. The colours of these materials landscape. are often the links to these other places Colours are an inextricable element (Bradley 2000:91; Cooney 2002:96; Taçon of cultural landscapes (see Buggey 2000) 1991). Case in point, ultramarine, a blue that not only have symbolic potential but pigment made from lapis lazuli was highly further mark the identity of a place, establish prized in medieval and Renaissance Europe. relationships to places and manifest the Ultramarine means “beyond the sea” agency of a landscape. Taçon (2008; Gage et harking back to its origins in the Middle al. 1999:121) has discussed the role that East (Gage 1999:13). Additionally, colours colour plays in the identity of a place and in landscape can influence cultural pointed out that toponyms, as well as the expressions. For example, the colours in practice of using colour to communicate in landscape (stones, boulders) influenced the places through, for example, place alteration depiction and placement of the Rainbow (e.g. rock art sites), enactment of rituals and Serpent rock art motif among the Waanyi of storytelling, establishes relations between northern Australia (Taçon 2008:173). places, people and colours. Colours of Colour studies in anthropology have places can form and maintain interactions demonstrated that colours are potent between groups, as among the Yolngu of symbolic agents inextricably bound to their northern Australia, who determine their medium. Whether in material culture or in seascape tenure patterns based on the colour landscapes, they communicate, structure of water (Young 2006b:242). Among the relations and anchor identities. The A angu of South Australia, relations with Algonquian-speaking peoples have also landscape are, moreover, maintained by tapped into this chromatic potential, and it is dressing in concordance with the colours of to the discussion of their colours that we the landscape, the change in landscape now turn. colours being itself an indicator of the agency, sentience and ancestral power of Algonquian colours landscape: The Algonquian-speaking peoples After winter rains sheets of were and are one of the most populous flowers cover the desert in groups in North America. The people who sequences of colour; purples, inhabit the Canadian Shield and the Great pinks, yellows and more rarely, Lakes area are the Anishinaabeg (also blues. Women, and to a lesser known as the Ojibwa, Odawa and extent men, use the colours of Algonquin2), the Cree, and the Innu (also their clothing to create a known as the Montagnais-Naskapi). These synergy between their bodies groups, which traditionally subsisted and country. Thus women might through hunting, fishing and gathering, wear very green or green and shared many common cultural traits but blue clothing when heavy rain were by no means homogenous. Their has turned the land green material culture represented an adaptation to (Young 2006b:240). the range of environments they inhabited and their religious and social life likewise

TOTEM vol 19 2010-2011 TOTEM 11 exhibited variation. However, socio- the well-known practice of body decoration religious commonalities prevailed as attested (paint, tattoo, and accessories), as well as the to by the presence of shared beliefs and decoration of various items of material rites. In the early post-contact era, the culture, decorations which not only groups in question were traditionally embellished the items in question but also organized into egalitarian bands of approx- carried symbolic and ritual meanings, trans- imately 100-300 people headed by nominal mitted information on identity and, in the leaders who acquired their status through case of body art, protected against biting and their exceptional hunting skills or medicinal stinging insects.5 The various dyes and knowledge and powers. Bands were pigments used, often praised for their traditionally mobile and practised seasonal durability, were chiefly derived from min- rounds by aggregating in the summer into erals (e.g. iron oxides), clays and plants (e.g. larger settlements and scattering to the the bark of trees, roots, berries, lichens). family’s hunting grounds in the winter They were mixed with water or oil and (Hallowell and Brown 1992:36, 44-49; applied with fingers and various implements Wright 2004:1562). These people situated such as brushes; objects such as porcupine themselves within a multilayered universe quills were immersed in colourful solutions inhabited by various other-than-human in order to dye them (e.g. Blair 1911- persons (e.g. Underwater/ Underground 1912:1: 327; Densmore 1974[1928]:369- beings such as Mishipeshu) where the 374; Franklin 1823:89; Harmon 1820:377- secular and the sacred were inextricably 378; Schoolcraft 1821:231). linked (e.g. Hallowell and Brown 1992: 74, Attention to colours seems to be 81; Smith 1995: 22-23, 44-47).3 present from the beginning among the For these people, colour was an people who inhabited the Great Lakes and important element in their cultural life, a the Shield region. Exotic stones with structuring agent in the environment replete surfaces of various colours and textures, with symbolic and ritual significations, often often traded over long distances, have been inseparable from the medium which carried exploited in lithic production since the it. As hunters and gatherers, these people Palaeo-Indian Period (e.g. Storck 1982:22). were sensitive to the sensuous nuances of For example, Laurentian Archaic (8,000 to their environment and their sensitivity to 4,500 years ago) bannerstones in southern colour is evident, for example, in the Ontario were made from banded slate, terminology for the various colour phases of which comes in various colours and were the fox (Burgesse 1944:13). Colour was the polished to further accentuate the contrast source of nomenclature. For example, between the bands (Penney 1986-87). Ellis animals such as the hare/rabbit are called (1989) argued that the visual characteristics wâpus (Cree) or wâbos (Ojibwa), that is “the of the materials played into the lithics’ role white animal” (Chamberlain 1901:674, 678; as emblems of social identity. The use of red see also entries for opossum, mouse, marten, ochre, a spiritually potent and animate hornet). These names and, in some cases, the substance, in mortuary contexts is likewise colour symbolism attached to animals are well documented throughout the area entangled with their appearance and/or (Ritzenthaler and Quimby 1962; Williamson seasonal exploitation, further cementing the 1980). bond between people, landscapes and Colours are linked with spiritual cultural practices.4 power and are potent carriers of symbolic The fondness for colour is evident in meaning. The power of colours is evident,

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for example, in their association with [1860]:60, 152; Smith 1995:47). Ceremonies medicine. Medicine bags, essential para- were often performed in relation to the phernalia of the medicine-man, contained cardinal directions in a “sun-wise” (clock- various potent substances for wise) manner. For example, the calumet communication with spiritual beings, and for pipe was pointed to the four cardinal healing and protection, such as coloured directions (east, south, west and north) in mineral materials (Boyle 1895:18-19; order to offer smoke to spirits (e.g. Franklin Hoffman 1891:220). Franklin (1823) 1923:75; Hallowell and Brown 1992:62, 70, described the medicine bag of a hunter as 74; Jenness 1935:30; Tanner 1979:90-91). possessing “a little bit of indigo, blue vitriol Entrances to ceremonial structures might [Copper sulphate], vermillion or some other face a particular direction, often east (e.g. showy article” (64). Densmore (1974[1928]: Franklin 1823:74; Hallowell and Brown 331) reported that among the Ojibwa, red 1992:74), and offerings might be displayed pipestone (Catlinite) was used as a remedy facing a particular direction (e.g. Blair for scrofulous neck (tuberculosis of the 1912:2:234). Hues associated with the neck). cardinal directions might vary (e.g. Hoffman Offerings to other-than-human 1891:178, 256, 275 vs. 182; Pitawanakwat persons were sometimes of a specific hue. 2006). East was often associated with white, For example, to appease Underwater beings yellow or red (the colours of the sun) (Dixon and ensure that no calamity occurred during 1899:11), north with black or white, south a canoe voyage, white or black dogs were with green or red, and west with red or thrown into the water (Blair 1911- black. 1912:1:61; Jones 1861:84; Morriseau 1965: 27). In other instances, red was the preferred A chromatic trilogy colour. According to the missionary, Peter Various hues were and continue to Jones (1861), the maymaygwayshiwuk be employed in the symbolic language of (beings that live in cliffs), “are reported to Indigenous people. However, red, white and be extravagantly fond of pieces of scarlet black are colours which seem to pre- cloth and smart prints; and whenever they dominate in the ritual and symbolic universe appear to an Indian, if he can only bestow of Algonquian-speaking peoples, as pig- some such gaudy present upon them, ments, material culture and stories attest however small, the giver is sure to be (e.g. Barnouw 1955:347-348). George rewarded either with long life or success in Hamell (1983, 1987, 1992 and Miller and hunting” (157). Indeed, spiritual beings are Hamell 1986) has written extensively on the fond of cloth, that is known as “colour”, and symbolic aspects of colours and the the brighter the cloth’s colour the more materials associated with them. Hamell pleased they are (Zawadzka 2008:140; see argued that white, and by proxy other light also Dorman 1881:319). colours such as blue associated with clear One of the most famous examples of skies or green associated with clear reflect- colour symbolism among Indigenous people ive water, stands for Life, Light, Great of North America is the colour symbolism Being, Knowledge, and the positive social of the cardinal directions (e.g. Dixon 1899; state-of-being. Dark colours, such as black DeBoer 2005). For the Algonquian-speaking or indigo represent the asocial state of being peoples, cardinal directions were associated and ideas such as death and mourning which with specific teachings and were homes to are contrary to the social aspects of life.6 four spirits (Jenness 1935:30-32; Köhl 1985 Red is a mediating colour that represents the

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emotive and animate aspects of life, as well is associated with powerful other-than- as the anti-social state-of-being epitomized human persons such as the culture-hero by war.7 Redness could signify life, in Nanabush (known as the white rabbit) and contrast to death, or aggression, in contrast Thunderbirds. Underwater beings, such as to peace and harmony. Mishipeshu or the Great Lynx and the Substances endowed with these bosses of animals were similarly perceived colours were often ritually potent and were as white (e.g. Chamberlain 1891; Jenness exchanged over vast distances. Among them 1935:23, 37). The hair of powerful spiritual were white shells, crystals, red ochre, beings was also white and denoted long life catlinite, native copper, obsidian, and (Hallowell and Brown 1992:90; Köhl charcoal. Shiny, reflective, bright, trans- 1985[1860]:207; Miller and Hamell lucent and light-coloured materials are 1986:324). elements in a semantic field of a “meta- Many objects and beings associated physic of light” and are positively valued with the sacred Midewiwin society were among people. The special nature of these white. The white cowrie shell was the sacred materials is further highlighted by the fact symbol of the society and the white bear was that many were obtained from other-than- one of its powerful spirits (Hoffman human persons, especially the Underwater 1891:167, 220, 265). Köhl recounted a story beings, such as a “big snake that looked like relating to the sacredness of white: brass” and whose “eyes and horns shone like An Ojibbeway, of whom I a mirror” (Hamell 1983:5-6, 1987:75; Radin inquired why a white colour was and Reagan 1928:145-146). The intimate so specially esteemed by the bind between colour and substance high- Indians, told me that the cause lights the importance of the spiritual world was as follows: “When the first which materializes through ritually effective man on earth fell sick, and saw substances (Vastokas 1992:30). The death before his eyes, he began aesthetic of brilliance was exemplified, for to lament and complain to the instance, by the practice of polishing and Great Spirit about the shortness rubbing wooden bowls with oil (Philips and suffering of this life. [To 1987:89). A general penchant for bright help the Great Spirit sent hues was equally in effect (e.g. Burden messengers bringing the 1895:78, 121; Harmon 1820:377; Midewiwin]. These messengers Schoolcraft 1821:127). brought down at the same time a Objects that appear white reflect the white hare-skin, the feathers of a light of the entire visible spectrum. White in white-headed eagle, and a Algonquian thought is often associated with medicine-sack of white otter- daylight, the rising sun and the dawn spirit skin. These contained all the and thus, east (Brinton 1868:174-175; Indian medicines and bene- Chamberlain 1891:207, 1900:276; Hoffman factions of the Great Spirit to 1891:275; Tanner 1979:102-103). A sunrise mankind. And from this time ceremony among the Eastern Cree and forth white became a sacred Naskapi involved the presentation of a colour among the Indians.” decorated white moose or caribou hide to (Köhl (1985[1860]: 414-415) the rising sun. The hide would absorb the Red was especially associated with power of the rays and would later be worn to ochre and native copper. Morriseau ensure luck in hunting (Tanner 1984). White (1965:19) claimed that red ochre was a stone

TOTEM vol 19 2010-2011 TOTEM 14 medicine acquired from earth itself. Red however, the north is dominated by tundra, meant “joy” for the Ojibwa and the while temperate mix forest covers the south- Menominee, and vermillion or red ochre central portion of Québec and Ontario and was used to enhance the redness of native the American states. The colours which copper, the redness itself bestowing the most predominate in these landscapes are greens, importance on the metal (Köhl 1985[1860]: blues, greys, reds and browns; whites prevail 16; Skinner 1913:63; Turgeon 1997:9; see in winter, while reds and yellows dominate Zedeño 2009:412-414 for discussion of red the temperate forests during fall.8 ochre as an animated substance). Known as The Shield and the surrounding miskwábik (red metal) in Ojibwa, its name Great Lakes region are the cultural was connected with blood known as miskwi landscapes of Algonquian-speaking peoples. (Baraga 1853:245, 246). Copper was These landscapes set the stage for the socio- considered a powerful animate substance, a religious, political and economic life of Manitou, and tobacco was offered to masses Indigenous people, and house their of copper (Köhl 1985[1860]:60-64; memories and stories while shaping their Whittlesey 1862:2-3). Red rocks for pipe cultural identity. Places in landscapes are production were highly valued. Such was remembered for the mythological events, as the case of the catlinite stone and its quarry well as the important historic events for the was a sacred place (Dorman 1881:136; tribes, that occurred there and which are Schoolcraft 1821:192). remembered in the “intangibles” — stories The interplay of colours was often and toponyms. The landscapes are sacred replete with symbolic meanings. Wampum and filled with other-than-human persons, belts, made from shells to commemorate which co-habit Earth with humans and events such as treaties, conveyed their which are associated with various layers of message not only through the pictographs the universe and often with particular depicted but also through the juxtaposition features on the landscape such as mountains, and sequence of their colours (Muller unusual rock formations, trees, lakes and 2007:133-134). Belts made with white rapids. For example, Thunderbirds were said wampum represented friendship and those to dwell on top of mountains (e.g. Copway of blue wampum beads painted with 1860:147-149; Jenness 1935:34-38; Jones vermillion, war, while alliance belts were 1861:85; Smith 1995:80-81). Places of made of white and blue wampum (Blair cultural importance can bear obvious marks 1912:2:185, 238-239; Brinton 1868:15; of anthrophic activity (e.g. mounds or rock Copway 1860:135; Speck 1919). art sites); however, many natural places, such as mountains, rivers, caves and effigy Colours in landscapes formations are similarly imbued with The Canadian Shield is a vast signification (see Bradley 2000 for import- territory that stretches, in Canada, from the ance of natural places in archaeology). The province of Québec to the Northwest importance of natural places is further Territories and Nunavut and, in the United evinced by the fact that the distinction States, from north-eastern Minnesota, between nature and culture is not as pro- northern Wisconsin, northern Michigan and nounced in Indigenous ontology as it is in north-eastern New York (Adirondack the Western one (Hallowell and Brown Mountains). This immense territory is a 1992:63). Many natural formations are the labyrinth of lakes and rivers set predom- result of activities and transformations of inantly within the boreal forest (conifers); mythological beings and humans (e.g. Köhl

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1985[1860]:460-464; Thwaites 1896-1901: According to Nelson's account, Esculapius 10:165, 167; see Bradley 1998 and Insoll lived in a mountain from which issue forty 2007 for discussion of the problematic rivers: dichotomy of natural and cultural places). The water in every one of the The colours encountered in rivers is of a different color, no Algonquian landscapes participate in two being alike, one is Black, people’s cultural lives. Often, it is unusual another white, red, Green, blue, colours – bright, brilliant and atypical for the ash-color, &c, &c… In the region – that will point to and sustain the latter grow herbs and plants of a spiritual potency of places. The importance vast variety… These rivers, i.e., of colours emerges in immaterial goods, waters, are of different colors, such as stories and toponyms; in atmo- so also is the rapidity of each spheric phenomena such as the aurora stream; some of them moving in borealis; in natural places, such as rock a turbulent and awful manner as formations and water bodies; and in human- the rapids and eddies at the foot made places such as rock art sites, mounds of large falls; some moving in and effigies. In combination with haptic, large majestic waves like the auditory and olfactory qualities and swells of a large and deep Lake embedded in stories, colours reveal the agitated by the wind; and some cultural landscapes of Algonquian-speaking in a beautiful smooth current, peoples.9 down which the canoes are scarcely perceived to move. Stories These are the tokens or signs or Stories are often engrained in emblems of the manner of our landscapes. “The story and the place lives, here below, so far as dialectically help to construct and reproduce regards to health and sickness. each other” while the story helps to anchor (Brown and Brightman teachings and knowledge onto the land and 1988:55-56) to create and reaffirm ties between people These coloured waters were mixed with and places (Basso 1996; Tilley 1994:33). powders to produce medicines (Brown and Colourful landscapes are invoked on the Brightman 1988:57). This account of earthly plane, as well as in the mythological polychromatic rivers linked to powerful dimension. In Ojibwa beliefs, souls medicines hints at the power of colour in the travelling along the path of the dead landscape as a source of spiritual power. encounter a giant strawberry, which turns Atmospheric phenomena could into a rock when the soul attempts to eat it. moreover create varicoloured mani- The people around Lake Superior festations. Aurora borealis or the northern envisioned the rock to be the red sandstone lights, the spectral illumination in the sky of the type found in that area (Tanner and that can be accompanied by sounds, was James 1830:290). The nineteenth century fur envisioned as dancing spirits (Chamberlain trader George Nelson, who lived among the 1902:62; Dorman 1881: 337; Franklin Cree and northern Ojibwa, recounted the 1823:283-284). In one myth recorded among story of the Indigenous Esculapius10, the the Ottawa, the aurora borealis is a spirit owner of medicinal plants and “reflection of the great fire kindled” by minerals, who was visited by those seeking Nanabush (Hamilton 1903:231). medicinal knowledge during vision quests.

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Toponyms that nourish spiritual expression. As Peter Place names arise out of experiences, Jones (1861) remarked, “[a]ny remarkable affix memories in the landscape and act on features in natural scenery or terrific places subsequent experiences and memories of become objects of superstitious dread and people. Place names orient a person or veneration, from the idea they are the abodes people within a landscape, and they regulate of gods: for instance, curious trees, rocks, the relations between places and those who islands, mountains, caves, or waterfalls” (85; are in the place (Tilley 1994:18-19). Among see also Dorman 1881:136). Algonquian-speaking peoples, particular The nineteenth century explorer, places received their names based on “some Major Stephen Long, described the appeal unique or distinct characteristic within the of one such formation in Illinois on the area” (Johnston 1986:9) as well as based on Mississippi River. Known as the Red Rock, activities and events that occurred there in it was venerated by the local Indigenous historical and mythological times (Arsenault groups: 2004a:297). Salient colours and useful It is a fragment of sienite, which colours, such as those used in pigments, is about four and a half feet in were commemorated in toponyms. Places diameter. It is not surprising that could be named after a chromatic the Indians should have viewed particularity as was Ka-wa-ba-ton-gwa or this rock with some curiosity, White Sand River, Ka-ma-ka-te-wa-ga-mig and deemed it wonderful, con- or Black Water River and Nipigon Lake, a sidering that its character differs contraction of the expression for “Deep so materially from the rocks Clear-water Lake” (Bell 1870:339, 340, which are found in that 354). neighborhood. A man who lives Red ochre is referred to in certain in a country where the highest toponyms. For example, the river La hills are wholly formed of sand- Romaine in Québec is a 'frenchified' version stone and secondary limestone, of the Innu toponym Oluman shibu, which will necessarily be struck with means “the river of red paint” on account of the peculiar characters of the first the red ochre deposits found there; at least specimen of the granite that one explorer recorded the reddish colour of comes under his notice, and it is the water (Pâquet 1984:237; Rouillard not to be wondered at that one 1906:77). Other references to red ochre and who “sees God in all things” paint are similarly made in the names of should have made part of a stone Onaman Lakes (Ontario, Québec), O-na-ma- an object of worship. (Copway nisagi River (Ontario), and Oloman River 1860:233-234) (Québec) (Bell 1870:340; Guinard Luminous, shiny and often white 1960:123-124, 130-131), and most likely, formations in the landscape were equally the many Vermillion and Red Lakes and recognised. In Québec, there is Montagne Rivers found throughout the Shield. Brilliante or Shining Mountain, which is Natural places very likely thus called on account of the Many rock formations of unique and white and greyish quartz intrusions sprinkled prominent hues also bore chromatic in its upper reaches (Valiquette 1909:43). A appellations. These striking colours were famous example of a sacred location of among the environmental “affordances” white colour is the account left by the Jesuit (Gibson 1979), in this case, the potentialities Pierre Laure of the Antre de Marbre cave in

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the quartzite outcrop of la Colline Blanche Fort Gratiot [Lake Huron, in Québec: Michigan],) we passed the The most remarkable of all the White Rock, an enormous curiosities to be seen in these detached mass of transition woods, in the direction of limestone, standing in the lake, Nemiskou, is a cave of white at the distance of half a mile marble, which looks as if a from the shore. This is an object workman had carved and looked upon as a kind of mile- polished it. The aperture is easy stone by the voyageurs, and is of access, and lights up the known to all canoe and boat interior. The vault corresponds, travellers of the region. It has by its brilliancy, to its supports. already found a place upon In one corner is a slab of the some maps. The White Rock is same substance, but somewhat an object which had attracted rough, which projects, forming a the early notice of the Indians, kind of table as if to serve as an who are the first to observe the altar. Consequently the savages non-conformities in the appear- [sic] think that it is a house of ances of a country; and it con- prayer and council, wherein the tinues to be one of the places at Spirits assemble. Therefore all which offerings are made. do not take the liberty of (Schoolcraft 1821:87-88) entering it; but the jugglers who As is evident from Schoolcraft’s are, as it were, their Priests, go account, these colourful places not only there in passing to consult their anchored spiritual powers, but they further oracles. (Thwaites 1896- acted as landmarks in navigating the 1901:68:49) uniform landscape of water, rocks and trees Jones (1861) recounted that “the (see Golledge 2003). Algonquian-speaking La Cloche mountains, [near Manitoulin peoples relied on this navigational strategy Island, Ontario]...being principally when creating maps and when travelling. composed of white flint rock, when Thus, maps would emphasize landmarks, viewed from a distance... have all the and travellers, whether on land or by water, appearance of snow-capped mountains. It relied heavily on landmarks for orientation is on these mountains...the thunder-gods, (Hallowell, 1955:190-191, 196). Hence, or eagles, have their abode, and hatch colours act as important referents in the their young” (43). Keating (1824:2: 153) landscape for spiritual reasons, as well as reported that the Wabasemo Wenenewak practical ones. or White Dog tribe (Ojibwa) dwell near a Water, ubiquitous in the landscapes white rock that was held in veneration. in question, could also be indicative of Extraordinary humans could turn into spiritually charged places based on its rocks which sometimes were white (e.g. colour. Smith (1995:114-115) wrote that Jenness 1935:19). Another example of a many lakes, associated with the Underwater/ white formation was provided by the Underground other-than-human person, ethnologist Henry R. Schoolcraft: Mishipeshu, were recognised as such due to A few miles beyond the factors such as great depth, turbulent waters, termination of this clay bank, whirlpools and unusual colours. One such (about fifty-five miles above lake is Quanja Lake (Manitoulin Island,

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Ontario) which is characterised by a peculiar colour and great depth. The Rev. Frederick Anthropic places Frost described the lake in 1904: Colours can be used to mark special It was truly a wonderful sight; places in the landscape. Stones, which were the water was, indeed, a peculiar venerated, were sometimes daubed with red color, a glittering, lustrous, paint (e.g. Keating 1824:1:304, 334, 360; greenish blue, not like the color Thwaites 1896-1901:55:191-193). Rock art of the water at Bermuda, or the sites are among the most striking places blue of the Meditterranean, nor where colours have a story to tell in the like the water in the harbour at chromatic spectacles of landscapes. Barbadoes, nor a mixture of Dewdney and Kidd (1967:32) described the these. The Indian was right Crooked Lake site (Minnesota) as “a great when he said it was ghastly. It bulk of granite … its walls streaked with was a beautiful color, yet some- rich mosaic of iron stains, vari-coloured what repulsive. I have never lichens, and vivid deposits of precipitate seen a blue snake, but it was the lime [where] man’s art is apt to be same color a snake would be, unnoticed, modestly appearing some fifty supposing it were blue. It was yards south of this colourful display.” It was intensely brilliant, glittering in rock art scholars who first paid attention to the sunshine; it looked like a the semantic potential of colour in the pigment, yet it was quite white, landscape as they tackled the study of sacred of course, when taken up in a Indigenous landscapes (e.g. Arsenault vessel or in the hand. It might 2004a; Conway 1993; Molyneaux 1980, have been the descriptions of 1983; Vastokas 1990; Vastokas and the Indians that had affected my Vastokas 1973; Zawadzka 2008). imagination, or the contagion of The Canadian Shield is dotted with superstition, but I do not wonder hundreds of rock art sites, with the greatest that they were struck with the concentration occurring in north-western unusual appearance of the lake. Ontario, eastern Manitoba and north-eastern It was not the sunshine that Saskatchewan (see Dewdney and Kidd made it that peculiar color; it 1967:164; Rajnovich 1994:10). Pictographs was not the reflection of the sky. painted with red ochre predominate, though It was the same when cloudy; it a few sites have images painted in yellow, was the same always, in the white and black pigments (Dewdney and daytime probably. (Frost 1904: Kidd 1967:6). They are found almost 135-136, quoted in Smith 1995: exclusively on vertical rock formations 115) bordering lakes and rivers. There are a few Copway (1860:227) reported that near St. petroglyph sites which are carved or pecked Paul (Minnesota), the explorer Jonathan into the rock and which also tend to be Carver came across “a remarkable cave, located along waterways. According to a called by the Indians the dwelling of the classificatory scheme devised by Dewdney Great Spirit. The entrance was about ten feet and Kidd (1967), Canadian Shield rock art wide and five feet high. About twenty feet includes images of human figures (“anthro- from the entrance was a lake, the water of pomorphs”), human hands, animals such as which was transparent” (Copway 1860:227). moose, bears and snakes, mythical creatures Within the cave were found petroglyphs. such as Thunderbirds, objects of material

TOTEM vol 19 2010-2011 TOTEM 19 culture such as canoes, and the so-called his head and smiled. He looked abstractions such as dots and short strokes at me directly and tapped the known as tally marks. Abstractions account table with his finger signaling for most of the motifs. The tradition is me to look through the believed by some researchers to be at least magnifying glass. I did so and, 2,000 years old (Arsenault 2004b:356; much to my surprise, there Rajnovich 1994:41); however, rock art within the image was the most continued to be produced well into the post- perfectly proportioned outline of contact era as evidenced by figurative motifs a fox head. (Allen 2009:10) such as guns and horses. Today, in certain The positive valuation of light areas such as Lake of the Woods in Ontario, colours is observed in the preference for rock art is still sporadically created by the smooth and light-coloured surfaces (e.g. local Indigenous people (e.g. Colson 2007: Arsenault 2004a:304; Dewdney and Kidd 269, 374-375). However, it is difficult to 1967:168). Moreover, the rock itself can be determine the age and cultural provenance white, such as the white granite boulders at of the majority of the sites. the Gros Cap site (Conway 1984:3), the Red ochre is a sacred substance that limestone background of the Burnt Bluff can further act as an index for the spiritual pictograph site (Lugthart 1968:98) and the powers it represents. William Allen studies rocky outcrop of the Peterborough the experiential dimension of sacred Petroglyphs (Vastokas and Vastokas 1973) Indigenous landscapes and he often (Figure 1). Light coloured surfaces were discusses the importance of effigy form- also created by calcite/silica precipitate11 ations in the landscape (see also Zawadzka that has been observed at many rock art 2008:81-82). Allen works closely with the sites. For example, at the Picture Rock Algonquin Elder William Commanda and Island site (Ontario), a heavy and wide- the following incident, which occurred spread coat of precipitate has been exploited during an inspection of photographs of for rock art creation. The precipitate is pictographs from Algonquin Park (Ontario), visible at a great distance and is not uniform illustrates the evocative nature of colour and but ranges from white to grey. From a its connection to rock art, landscape and its distance, this characteristic makes it inhabitants: resemble a frozen waterfall issuing from the After the pause [William rock itself (Figure 2). Through their ethno- Commanda] continued, “Yes, graphic research, Conway and Conway it’s such a beautiful… colour.” (1990:12) were able to obtain seventeen Now I wasn’t expecting a original rock art sites names. The names comment about colour. I such as Ka-Gaw-Gee- Wabikong or “Raven thought I would be hearing Rock White Cliff Beside the Water” alluded about the shape and the meaning to birds of prey12, which were a metaphor of the shape. “Yes, such a for Thunderbirds. The White is said to refer beautiful colour,” he continued, to bird excreta, which can be observed “It’s the colour of a fox. There below nests. Therefore, the white calcite must be a fox here somewhere.” washes are a metaphor for Thunderbird …within the texture of the rock droppings (Conway and Conway 1990:12- on which the pictograph had 13). Surfaces can also be shiny. At the been painted. After several Nisula site in Québec, the shimmering minutes Elder Commanda raised surface on which the pictographs are painted

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shines especially in the morning sun (Figure creatures (Conway 1993:90). Quartz veins 3). At some sites, sun rays reflected off the could also stand for the underwater snakes. water surface dance on cliff portions where Owen reported that: pictographs are located. At a point called by the Indians The aesthetic of brilliance is further Wa-bi-se-gon, near the entrance evident in the mineral feldspar and quartz to Nemakan or Sturgeon Lake, veins which crisscross the predominantly is an exposure of mica slate, granite rocks of the Shield. Quartz is usually with feldspar veins, …, which translucent or white, but it can be pink, from the resemblance of one of purple or grey. It is characterised by a the veins to a serpent, is vitreous lustre. According to one legend, the regarded by the Indians as a shimmering inclusions in rocks have a manitou or god, and must be supernatural origin: highly esteemed by them, from Kitche Manitou wrought the the quantity of vermillion mountains, the cliffs, precipices, bestowed on it, and the number and escarpments. Thinking that of animals depicted on the face perhaps the massive rocks were of the rock. (Owen 1852:318) too imposing and dark and grey In addition, De Charlevoix (1766:2) reported and dreary, Kitche Manitou that “[a]ccording to the Montagnais, fashioned small stones, the size [lightning] is the Effort which a Genius of plum pits and of brilliant hues makes to bring up a Snake which he hath of white, crimson, green, blue, swallowed, and they found this Notion on yellow, amber, azure. He hurled observing, that when the Thunder falls upon these brilliant pebbles against a Tree, it leaves a Mark something like the the mountains and rocky sides Shape of a Snake” (173). of the earth. Immediately, the Dark colours are likewise mani- rocks and mountains began to pulated for visual effects. Cliffs where sparkle. (Johnston 1976:167) contrasting dark and light colours are The shimmering inclusions are sometimes present were sometimes chosen for the incorporated into the images. At the production of images. The main panel at the Mazinaw Lake site in Ontario, a Fairy Point site is adjacent to a black surface Thunderbird seems to be clutching a vein in (Figure 5) and black vertical bands run its talons, while the main panel at Fairy along the cliff of the Nisula site (Québec). Point site (Ontario) is framed by quartz The exploitation of these visual effects is yet veins (Figure 4). another demonstration of the aesthetic Quartz veins can be envisioned as appeal for contrasts and bold colours among metaphorical lightning and snakes. Algonquian-speaking peoples that is Indigenous people consulted by Conway manifested, for example, in the decoration of (1993:89), reported that quartz veins were objects such as bark-containers decorated caused by lightning that had struck the cliffs. with contrasting colours (Phillips 1987:89- These lightning marks produced by the 92). Furthermore, it harks back to the Thunderbirds enhanced the spiritual charge universal fondness for colour patterning (see of the place. Furthermore, serpents have above Jones and MacGregor 2002:14-15; for been depicted near or on these quartz veins, a discussion of aesthetic effects present at thus replicating the eternal battle between rock art sites, see Zawadzka 2010). the Thunderbirds and the Underwater

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Colours were manipulated in other radiant light effects are present in stones, contexts through anthropic agency. A minerals and water. Some of these colours zoomorphic intaglio effigy mound located define animate substances. This is the case north-west of Lake Superior, near of red and ochre. These animate colours Kaministikwia River has been described in present in the landscape speak in their turn ethnohistorical accounts (Dawson 1966; e.g. of the animate nature of Algonquian Keating 1824:2:136-137). According to landscapes. Inextricably bound to their historical documents, the effigy, probably of medium, colours reinforce the relationships a dog, was of a brilliant white colour and of people to places and carry on the legacy easily discernible by canoe travellers. of cultural landscapes. Dawson (1966:31) suggested that it had been sprinkled with a shiny substance, such Acknowledgments as fine beach sand. Finally, burial mounds in Ontario were constructed with intermittent I would like to thank Prof. Daniel Arsenault layers of brown, black, yellow and white and Dr. Antti Lahelma for comments on clays and soils (e.g. Boyle 1897:24, 29). previous versions of this paper. This research is sponsored by the Joseph-Armand Conclusion Bombardier Canada Graduate Scholarship. The opening quote of this paper, written by the French painter Fernand Léger, Notes seems to hold true for most of humanity’s history. Colour’s expressive potential has 1Comparative and evolutionary colour nomenclature been employed to negotiate relations studies have been carried out since the nineteenth century (see Saunders 2000:84-85; e.g. Rivers 1902). between people, material culture and 2 landscapes for millennia. Though initially Algonquin is a designation given to a single tribe, while Algonquian is a term that refers to a group of perceived as an epiphenomenal aspect of the different tribes whose members speak Algonquian lived world, colour is increasingly languages. recognized within anthropology as an 3Other-than-human persons is a classification devised important player in social practice that by Irving A. Hallowell to designate supernatural defines relations between people, things and entities, mythological beings and natural elements landscapes. This paper hoped to demonstrate such as winds and sun who are animate and have powers but who are not supernatural in the Western the power that colour held and continues to sense as the division between supernatural and hold for the Algonquian-speaking peoples of natural does not exist among Indigenous people (see the Canadian Shield and the Great Lakes Hallowell and Brown 1992:63-65). region. In this area, chromatic symbolic 4For example, the Mistassini Cree (Québec) associate aspects have been harnessed in both material white with the caribou based on the species' culture and landscapes – the lived and predominantly white coat and its winter exploitation (Tanner 1979:143). mythological ones. Colours are of 5In 1665, David Pietersz de Vries wrote about the importance in the intangible heritage of Indigenous people of what is now Manhattan Island: stories and toponyms; their physical mani- “Their pride is to paint their faces strangely with red festation in atmospheric phenomena and or black lead, so that they look like fiends. They are natural and anthropic places reinforces then valiant, yea, they say they are mannette, cultural beliefs of spirituality, while helping [Manitou] the devil himself” (Boyle 1896:75). This description, which highlights the spiritual agency of these peoples to negotiate the lived everyday pigments, could certainly apply to the people further landscapes. Salient colours, especially the north. important black-white-red triad, as well as

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6For example, among the Ojibwa, youths undertaking Algonquian sacred landscape: an the vision quest (an important liminal stage in life) archaeological, ethnohistorical, and would sometimes apply charcoal in order to blacken ethnographic analysis of Canadian their faces and elicit pity from potential guardian spirits (e.g. Hamell 1987:76). Mourners applied black Shield rock art sites». In The figured pigments to their bodies (Schoolcraft 1821:231). landscapes of rock-art: looking at 7There is an interesting connection with the turtle, pictures in place. Christopher who traditionally acts as a mediating spirit in Chippindale and George Nash, eds. conjuring ceremonies, as an interpreter and Pp. 289–317. Cambridge: Cambridge messenger (e.g. Brown and Brightman 1988:110- University Press. 111). One Ojibwa word for turtle is miskwadessi, which corresponds to the Nipissing term miskwatesi, and means "red creature" (Chamberlain 1901:682). ———. 2004b. Analyzing and dating the 8Detailed descriptions of the polychromatic minerals Nisula site, Québec. In The rock art and rock formations of the area are found in the of eastern North America: capturing accounts of early geologists and explorers (e.g. Bell images and insights. Carol Diaz- 1870; Schoolcraft 1821). 9 Granados and James R. Duncan, eds. Haptic, olfactory, auditory and visual qualities all Pp. 344–360. Tuscaloosa, AL: play into the cultural experience of a landscape. For example, among Algonquian-speaking people, University of Alabama Press. thunder is considered the voice of Thunderbirds (see Zawadzka 2008 for a discussion of these qualities in Baines, John. 1985. Color terminology and the Algonquian sacred landscapes). color classification: ancient Egyptian 10 Esculapius (variant of Asclepius), the name used by color terminology and polychromy. Nelson, refers to the ancient Greek god of healing American Anthropologist 87(2):282– and medicine. 297. 11The white calcium precipitate is formed by water which evaporates from the surface of the rock leaving behind dissolved, opaque calcium streaks. Silica Baraga, Frederic. 1853. A dictionary of the precipitate is formed in the same way except that the Otchipwe language, explained in deposits are clear. English: this language is spoken by 12 The author is unaware of a classificatory system by the Chippewa Indians, as also by the First Nations peoples regarding birds but it is Otawas, Potawatamis and unlikely that it resembles that of modern biological/ornithological classification. Ravens, Algonquins, with little difference; for though not of the same family, do resemble birds of the use of missionaries, and other prey in appearance and do feast on other animals persons living among the above though usually in the form of carrion. Conway and mentioned Indians. Cincinnati, OH: Conway (1990) associate ravens with birds of prey Printed for Jos. A. Hermann. such as eagles and thus Thunderbirds in that they are all said to inhabit cliff tops. Barnouw, Victor. 1955. A psychological interpretation of a Chippewa origin Works Cited legend 3. Analysis. Journal of American Folklore 68(269):341– Allen, William Arthur. 2009. Archaeologists 355. come to their senses. Looking beyond visual archaeological Basso, Keith H. 1996. Wisdom sits in evidence. Arch Notes 14(6):10–11. places: landscape and language among the Western Apache. Arsenault, Daniel. 2004a. From natural Albuquerque: University of New settings to spiritual places in the Mexico Press.

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Boas, Franz. 1881. Beiträge zur Beck, Brenda E. F. 1969. Colour and heat in Erkenntniss der Farbe des South Indian ritual. Man 4(4):553– Wassers. Kiel, Germany: Schmidt 572. & Klaunig.

Bednarik, Robert G. 1994. A taphonomy Boivin, Nicole. 2004. From veneration to of palaeoart. Antiquity exploitation: Human engagement 68(258):68-74. with the mineral world. In Soils, stones and symbols: cultural Bell, Robert. 1870. Report on the geology of perceptions of the mineral world. the northwest side of Lake Superior Nicole Boivin and Mary Ann Owoc, and of the Nipigon district. Montréal, eds. Pp. 1–29. London: UCL Press. Québec: Dawson Bros. Borić, Dušan. 2002. Apotropaism and the Berlin, Brent, and Paul Kay. 1969. Basic temporality of colours: colourful color terms. Their universality and Mesolithic-Neolithic seasons in the evolution. Berkeley, CA: University Danube Gorges. In Colouring the of California Press. past. The significance of colour in archaeological research. Andrew Bernardini, Wesley. 2004. Hopewell Jones and Gavin MacGregor, eds. geometric earthworks: a case study Pp. 23–43. Oxford: Berg. in the referential and experiential meaning of monuments. Journal of Bornstein, Marc H. 1975. The influence of Anthropological Archaeology visual perception on culture. 23(3):331–356. American Anthropologist 77(4):774– 798. Bille, Mikkel, and Tim Flohr Sørensen. 2007. An anthropology of Boyle, David. 1895. Notes on primitive man luminosity. The agency of light. in Ontario: being an appendix to the Journal of Material Culture report of the Minister of Education 12(3):263–284. for Ontario. Toronto: Warwick Bros. & Rutter. Printers & Co. Blair, Emma Helen. 1911-1912. The Indian tribes of the upper Mississippi Valley ———. 1896. Short historical and journal and region of the Great Lakes: as notes by David Pietersz, De Vries, described by Nicolas Perrot, French 1665. In Annual archaeological commandant in the Northwest; report 1894-95. Appendix to the Bacqueville de la Potherie, French report of the Minister of Education, royal commissioner to Canada; Ontario, Pp. 75–79. Toronto: Morrell Marston, American army Warwick Bros. & Rutter. Printers & officer, and Thomas Forsyth, United Co. States agent at Fort Armstrong, 2 vols. Cleveland. OH: The Arthur H. ———. 1897. «Mounds». In Annual Clark Company. archaeological report 1896-1897. Appendix to the report of the Minister of Education, Ontario, p.

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14–41. Toronto: Warwick Bros. & Chamberlain, A. F. 1891. Nanibozhu Rutter. Printers & Co. amongst the Otchipwe, Mississagas, and other Algonkian tribes. Journal Bradley, Richard. 1998. Ruined buildings, of American Folklore 4(14):193– ruined stones: enclosures, tombs and 213. natural places in the Neolithic of South-West England. World ———. 1900. Some items of Algonkian Archaeology 30(1):13–22. folk-lore. Journal of American Folklore 13(51)271–277. ———. 2000. An archaeology of natural places. London: Routledge. ———. 1901. Significations of certain Algonquian animal-names. American Brinton, Daniel G. 1868. The myths of the Anthropologist 3(4):669–683. New World: a treatise on the symbolism and mythology of the red ———. 1902. Notes of Cree folk-Lore. race of America. New York: Journal of American Folklore. Leypoldt & Holt. 15(56):60–62.

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Brusatin, Manlio. 1986. Histoire des Classen, Constance. 1990. Sweet colors, couleurs Paris: Flammarion. fragrant songs: sensory models of the Andes and the Amazon. American Buggey, Susan. 2000. Associative values: Ethnologist 17(4):722–735. exploring nonmaterial qualities in cultural landscapes. APT Bulletin Colby, Benjamin N., James W. Fernandez 31(4):21–27. and David B. Kronenfeld. 1981. Toward a convergence of cognitive Burden, Harold Nelson. 1895. Manitoulin, and symbolic anthropology. or, five years of church work among American Ethnologist 8(3):422–450. Ojibway Indians and lumbermen, resident upon that island or in its Colson, Alicia J. M. 2007. An obsession vicinity. London: Simpkin, Marshall, with meaning: a critical examination Hamilton, Kent & Co., Ltd. of the pictograph sites of the Lake of the Woods. PhD thesis, McGill Burgesse, J. Allan. 1944. The woman and University, Montréal. the child among the Lac-St-Jean Montagnais. Primitive Man 17(1- Conklin, Harold C. 1955. Hanunóo color 2):1–18. categories. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 11(4):339–344.

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Figure 1. The white rocky outcrop at the Diamond Lake site (Ontario). August 2009 (all photos by author.)

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Figure 2. White precipitate at the Picture Rock Island rock art site (Ontario). May 2006.

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Figure 3. Shiny surface with pictographs (lower right) at the Nisula site (Québec). August 2009.

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Figure 4.

Thunderbird clutching a quartz vein, Lake Mazinaw (Ontario). September 2010.

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Figure 5. Main panel at Fairy Point site (Ontario). September 2006.

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