An Explorative Study on Teaching Religious Education for a Culture of Peace in Haiti

AN EXPLORATIVE STUDY ON TEACHING RELIGIOUS EDUCATION FOR A CULTURE OF PEACE IN HAITI

VIRGINIE MARC

A dissertation submitted to the department of education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Major: Curriculum and Instruction

Adviser: HSIAO-LAN SHARON CHEN

National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan June 2019

“If I went back to college today, I think I would probably major in comparative religion, because that’s how integrated it is in everything that we are working on and deciding and thinking about

in life today.”

John Kerry, U.S. Secretary of State, 8/7/13

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, who told me that she would rather walk bare foot so that I can become a philosophe. I was a five-year-old girl, mom, I still remember. Though you meant Philo that is equivalent to 12th grade, but I made it way farther.

I love you, mom!

This dissertation is also dedicated to the nation of Haiti, my country. It is a way to show my love

and hope in a peaceful and prosperous Haiti.

This dissertation is your voice, Haiti!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Dissertation would not have been possible without the tremendous encouragement of family and friends, the guidance of professors, and strength from the Lord, to all of whom I am heartily thankful. I am very grateful to the MOFA Scholarship who had provided me the opportunity to get most of my Ph.D. studies at the National Taiwan Normal University – NTNU – by their financial support. My thanks go to NTNU which has provided us a sane environment with facilities for studying, and to the Office of International Affairs and the Education Department office teams who had been always there for me that I’m so grateful for their patience and tolerance. I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my dissertation advisor, HSIAO-LAN SHARON CHEN who has been devoted to guide and support me kindly throughout the journey. Without her expertise, and willingness to help by her suggestions, encouragements, this study could not have been completed.

Besides, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. CHUEN-MIN HUANG, Dr. WEI-

WEN CHANG, Dr. YI-JIA TSAI, and Dr. THERESA YE, who appreciated my research efforts and gave me constructive comments, and suggestions to improve my Dissertation. Also, I would like to take this opportunity to thank all the other professors at the Education Department who help me with a more understanding about my topic.

An honorable mention goes to my families, especially my brother – Vladimir Merard – who accompanied me during the data collection process. Finally, to the anonymous respondents/participants of study in Haiti and my friends for their understandings and supports on me in completing this Study. Without helps of the particular that mentioned above, I would face many difficulties while doing this research.

促進和平文化的宗教教育教學探究-以海地為例

論文摘要本論文主要以海地中等及高等教育階段之學生與教育工作者為研究對象，探

討海地人對宗教教育的觀點，包括對宗教教育應該涵括的內容與焦點的相關

見解。本論文之研究設計，兼採質性分析及量性研究途徑，在資料蒐集方面，

分為兩個階段進行:第一階段採問卷調查方法，共計回收 297 份問卷資料(其中

175 份男性及 122 份女性作答者)；第二階段則採訪談方法，蒐集了 10 位海地

的宗教教育專家(其中 7 位男性及 3 位女性專家)的訪談資料。

透過研究分析，本論文發現，宗教包容上的需求與促進社會的和平文化密切

相關，而這兩個議題也是理想宗教教育課程設計的要素。換言之，一個好的

宗教教育課程是可作為一個社會發展和平文化的有效工具。故本論文建議政

策制定者可適當地運用好的宗教教育課程，來修正淨化許多現階段海地社會

所廣泛存在不良的一面。最後，制定有效力的宗教教育課程體系，將能助於

海地人更加理解及尊重有別於海地傳統宗教信仰間的歧異，進而有助海地國

內文化更深一層的相互理解。

關鍵字: 宗教教育、宗教包容、和平文化

AN EXPLORATIVE STUDY ON TEACHING RELIGIOUS EDUCATION FOR A CULTURE OF PEACE IN HAITI

ABSTRACT

This research delimited its scope to secondary and higher education students in Haiti and focused on discovering how Haitians regarded RE, what its contents should be, and what its focus should be. The research employed quantitative and qualitative approaches. The data collection was divided into two phases. The first phase was administered and collated survey data from 297 respondents out of which 175 and 122 were males and females, respectively. The second phase administered and collated interview data from 10 educational religious experts, of whom 7 were males and 3 were females. The findings reveal a core issue which emerged from the analysis section – the correlation between the need for religious tolerance and the creation of a social culture of peace – with both of these issues being developed out of an effective RE curriculum. Where this need is, perhaps, greater lies in the ability to use RE as a tool for developing a society that is at peace with itself, thereby suggesting that if applied correctly, RE can act as a cathartic vehicle for addressing the ills of the wider Haitian society. From here, the creation of an effective RE course is viewed as a system that can also help to develop a greater social understanding of the domestic culture, and one that seeks to recognize and respect divergent attitudes towards religious practices that lie outside of Haitian tradition.

Keywords: Religious Education, Religious Tolerance, Culture of Peace

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEGMENT

摘要 ...... I

ABSTRACT ...... II

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... III

LIST OF TABLES ...... VII

LIST OF FIGURES ...... IX

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY...... 1

Rethinking the Purpose of RE in the Real World ...... 2

Approaches to Teaching RE ...... 3

RE and the Culture of Peace and Violence ...... 3

The Context and Issues of RE in Haiti ...... 5

Redefining RE in Haiti ...... 8

PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 9

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ...... 11

RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 12

DEFINITION OF TERMS ...... 12

Religious Education (RE) ...... 12

Culture of Peace ...... 13

SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY ...... 14

III

RATIONALE AND SIGNIFICANCE ...... 16

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW...... 20

CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND OF RE IN HAITI ...... 20

History of Religion in Haiti ...... 20

An Anthropological–Historical Analysis between Vodou and Christianity ...... 24

Historical Conflicts between Christian and Vodou in Haiti...... 26

Vodou Conflict and Cooperation ...... 29

Contexts and Functions of Vodou and Christian Worldviews ...... 31

The Culture of Haiti ...... 44

Haitian Educational System ...... 47

Teaching RE in Haiti: Protestant versus Catholic ...... 53

REVIEWS AND REFLECTIONS ON RE ...... 56

Curriculum Concept of RE ...... 57

Purpose of Teaching RE ...... 70

Local and Global Issues in RE ...... 76

Teaching RE in Schools ...... 88

An Appraisal of Previous Studies ...... 101

RE as Human Rights ...... 112

RE as Multicultural Education ...... 115

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RE AND CULTURE OF PEACE ...... 117

Concept of Peace and Culture of Peace ...... 118

Teaching RE for Peace ...... 132

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ...... 147

LESSONS LEARNED FROM PILOT STUDY ...... 148

Views on RE from Pilot Survey ...... 148

How RE is taught in Haiti – from Pilot Interviews ...... 154

RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 156

Research Procedure...... 156

Rationale for the Research Design ...... 159

Phase I: Survey ...... 162

Phase II: Interview with Experts ...... 171

CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 179

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 180

PHASE ONE: FINDINGS FROM THE SURVEY ...... 180

Respondents Views on RE ...... 181

Respondents Views on Religious Tolerance ...... 187

Respondents Views on Culture of Peace ...... 191

Suggestions for a Prototype RE ...... 195

Interpretation of the Data ...... 197

PHASE TWO: FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEWS WITH EXPERTS ...... 199

Experts Perspectives on Advantages and Challenges of RE ...... 199

Perception of RE as a Subject ...... 203

Experts Perspectives on a Prototype RE for Haiti: Its Content and Teaching

Methods ...... 206

Experts Perspectives on the Contribution of RE to a Culture of Peace and

Tolerance ...... 211

DISCUSSIONS ...... 212

Teaching RE in Haitian Schools ...... 213

Gender Differences on Teaching RE in Haiti ...... 215

Core Issues of RE in Haiti ...... 215

Suggestions for Teaching RE in Haitian Schools ...... 217

Views on Religious Tolerance for a Culture of Peace in Haiti ...... 221

Views on RE for Haiti’s Schools ...... 225

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ...... 227

MAIN RESEARCH FINDINGS...... 227

EMERGING NEEDS FOR AN RE PROTOTYPE FOR A CULTURE OF PEACE FOR HAITI ...... 230

The Design of the RE Prototype for Haiti ...... 231

Importance of this RE Prototype for Haiti ...... 233

IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY ...... 234

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES ...... 235

EPILOGUE ...... 238

REFERENCES ...... 242

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Cover Letter & Survey Questionnaire ...... 260

APPENDIX B: Pilot Survey Questionnaire...... 268

APPENDIX C: Interview Questions ...... 270

APPENDIX D: Descriptive Statistical Results from the Survey ...... 273

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 2.1.1: Brief Religious History of Haiti ...... 24

Table 2.1.5.1: Five Basic Questions and Value Orientations Reflected Possible Answers ...... 34

Table 2.1.5.2: The Function of Worldviews ...... 36

Table 2.1.5.4: Basic Questions about Reality ...... 41

Table 2.1.7 a: Haiti Education System ...... 48

Table 2.1.7 b: History of Education in Haiti ...... 49

Table 2.1.7 c: Organizations Supporting Education Sector in Haiti ...... 50

Table 2.2.1.2 a: Differences between Catechesis and RE ...... 64

Table 2.2.1.2 b: List of Key Concepts in Religious Studies...... 66

Table 2.2.3.2 a: The Agreed Syllabus ...... 79

Table 2.2.3.2 b: The Ladder of Skills Eight-Level Scale for RE ...... 79

Table 2.2.4 a: Questions to Ask Oneself Before Planning any RE...... 88

Table 2.2.4 b: Characteristic of Caricatured CCAF and HEBS Schools ...... 89

Table 2.2.4.2: Examples of Specific RE Pedagogies ...... 98

Table 2.2.5: The Relationship between Morality and Religion ...... 104

Table 2.3.1.4: Differentiation between Culture of War and Violence from Culture of Peace ... .126

Table 3.2.3.1: Survey Questionnaire Structure ...... 163

Table 3.2.3.4: Survey Data Collections...... 169

Table 3.2.4.1: Experts Background Information ...... 173

Table 3.2.4.2: Interview Questions ...... 174

Table 4.1.1: Descriptive Statistics – Respondents Views on RE ...... 182

VII

Table 4.1.2: Descriptive Statistics – Respondents Views on Religious Tolerance ...... 187

Table 4.1.3: Descriptive Statistic – Respondents Views on Culture of Peace ...... 191

Table 4.1.5.1: Independent Sample Test for RE, RT, CP ...... 197

Table 4.1.5.2: Correlations Using Bivariate ...... 198

Table 4.2.2: Subgroups of Experts ...... 204

Table 5.2.1: The Design of the RE Prototype for Haiti ...... 232

VIII

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 3.1: A Graphical Portrayal of Data from the Project’s Pilot Study ...... 150

Figure 3.2.1: Research Procedure ...... 158

Figure 3.2.3.4: Survey Responses Volume ...... 169

Figure 3.2.3.5: Importing Data ...... 171

Figure 3.2.4.5 a: Columns of Menu, Nodes and Data ...... 177

Figure 3.2.4.5 b: Excerpt Ready for Dropping into the Relevant Node...... 178

Figure 3.2.4.5 c: Theme and Subthemes ...... 178

Figure 4.1.1.1a: Views on the Inclusion of RE as a Subject in Haiti Schools ...... 183

Figure 4.1.1.1b. Reasons for support of RE in schools ...... 185

Figure 4.1.2.1: Suggestions on how to Religious Tolerance can be reached ...... 189

Figure 4.1.3.1: Suggestions on how to Reach Peace ...... 193

Figure 4.1.4 a: Word Graph on what an ideal RE should look like ...... 195

Figure 4.1.4 b: Percentages for the Various Views on how an ideal RE should look like ...... 196

Figure 4.2.1.1: Advantages of RE mentioned by the Participants ...... 201

Figure 4.2.1.2: Challenges of RE mentioned by Participants ...... 203

Figure 4.2.3.1: Words used to describe what RE should Contain ...... 207

Figure 4.2.3.2: Words used by Participants when Describing how RE should be Taught ...... 210

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

People hold widely divergent views on teaching religious education (RE). The divergence lays in the different definitions of RE and in people’s concerns about what part RE can play in the real world. What is RE? Collins English Dictionary defines ‘RE’ as follows 1) an education in a school which places a strong emphasis on the beliefs associated with a particular religion; 2) the teaching or instruction of a particular religion; 3) a subject taught in schools in the UK which educates about the different religions of the world (Collins Dictionaries 2015). These perspectives are not randomly chosen. The way many countries define the nature and purpose of RE have been influenced by modern philosophies of education from Rousseau to Dewey, by new interpretations of human rights including the rights of children, and by progressive reinterpretations of religion on the part of theologians and religion scholars (Hull, 2002).

Scholars in the field of RE such as Engebretson et al. (eds.) (2010), Jackson (2004) and stern (2006) have dealt with the question ‘what is RE?’ and all agreed on the complexity of RE definition. The plural nature of the term RE differs in the content that is delivered, notably in the methodology and theories of this curricular subject (Gellel, 2010 p. 442). For instance, in his book (2006),

“Teaching Religious Education: Researchers in the Classroom”, Julian Stern describes RE as a subject that is non-confessional, multi-faith and respectful of non-religious ways of life (as described in the National Framework for RE in England and in the most locally Agreed Syllabuses for RE). Meanwhile, as Gellel has stated it, “RE, Religious Knowledge, Religious studies,

Catechism, Christian Education, and Religious Instruction are only some of the overlapping terms

1 that are used and each term brings with it different emphases and consequently different academic and ideological underpinnings.”

1.1.1 Rethinking the Purpose of RE in the Real World

Depends on the purpose of RE, it varies from one country to another country or/and from one school to another school. In historical religious schools (including Jewish, Christian and the others), the purpose of RE was to indoctrinate or evangelize the students only. Meanwhile, the purpose of

RE is gradually shifting to a more holistic life point of views that “encourage students’ critical thinking and independent learning” (Kohn, 1999). Today, many people (especially those in the field of RE) believe that the purpose of RE is to equip students in their “personal, social life, and intellectual development” (Capel, Leask & Turner, 1999). In England, for instance, in 2004 an

“inclusive statement of the aims, purposes and nature of RE in schools was agreed by all major faith communities and professional associations in RE”. These people believe that RE develop pupil’s knowledge and understanding of Christianity, other principal religions, other religious traditions and other view of the world (The importance of religious education: joint statement- The

Church of England 2006). Further, culture of peace (or education for peace) is another purpose of

RE because religious and spiritual bodies have always been concerned about peace (i.e. Tyrrell,

1995; Arweck et al, 2005a, b; Harris & Morris, 2003; Nesbitt & Henderson, 2003; Said & Funk,

2003; Wesner, 2005) as well as individual specialists in the field of RE (i.e. Nipkow, 2003). So, many educational initiatives in RE are taken that overlap with peace education. For instance, to teach peace education, Johannes Lähnemann’s Nuremberg Forum has been encouraging teachers to use the spiritual and ethical teachings of students own religious traditions as resource in order to develop a new understanding of, and respect for, people of other faiths and backgrounds.

1.1.2 Approaches to Teaching RE

Approaches to teaching RE diverge greatly. According to Andrew Wright and Ann-Marie

Brandom (2000), “views of the nature and aims of education immediately affect approaches to RE, just as views of religion affect models of the subject.” These views of education are described in three approaches: 1) RE as an induction into community and culture; 2) RE as the liberal study of religion; and 3) RE as an agent of humanization. In England, “the current truce in RE between the advocates of the different approaches is exemplified by the twin idea of learning about and learning from religion (s)”. (Wright & Brandom, 2000). Because of these different views of RE, teaching RE also have different approaches. For instance, almost all countries in Europe see religion as a part of public education (Lähnemann, 2008); so, the predominant approach to teach

RE is multi-religious/non-confessional. But in countries like Turkey and Greece, RE is confessional with absence of other religions. However, today, as mention Lähnemann, these countries begin to lively discuss on the necessity to incorporate more element of interreligious learning.

1.1.3 RE and the Culture of Peace and Violence

RE is being used in various parts of the world to encourage and enable a culture of peace. The latter includes the teaching of world religion in school, interreligious and interfaith dialogues, religious toleration, and so on. Many are convinced that religion has contributed to both peace and violence throughout human history (Huntington, 1996; Pew Conference Report, 2003; Richardson,

1960; Wright, 1941; UNESCO,1994).

What is peace? Indeed, the concept of peace needs to be defined here. Like RE, peace definition has evolved through time. According to Navarro-Castro & Nario-Galace (2008), “Early secular writings on the subject of peace indicate that peace was defined as merely the absence of war or direct violence. This negative formulation was first given by Hugo Grotius in 1625 (Dobrosielski,

1987).”

Today, peace researchers and educators agree to split the concept of peace in two, stating that the meaning of peace can be captured by the idea of a negative peace (the absence of war or physical/direct violence) and the idea of a positive peace (the presence of just and non-exploitative relationships, as well as human and ecological well-being, such that the root causes of conflict are diminished) (ibid p. 13-14).

Concerned about culture of peace, in the years of 1993 and 1994, UNESCO held a conference in

Barcelona, Spain under the theme “The Contribution by Religions to the Culture of Peace” which pioneered a dialogue with the religious traditions and peace research centers. The objective of this dialogue was to concentrate on the cultural aspect of peace and the wisdom of the great religious traditions. The conference gathered many eminent religious figures from over a dozen religious traditions, several renowned peace researchers, prominent educators, as well as social workers and political personalities (UNESCO, 1994). Of course, UNESCO is not alone; Johannes Lähnemann’s

Nuremberg Forum has contributed to this initiative by linking religious and interreligious education, by promoting education towards violence-free communication and conflicts resolution, environment education, and education for socio-economic development, all under the umbrella of peace education. The forum brings together NGOs such as the Peace Education Standing

Commission, a branch the World Conference on Religions for Peace. In addition, this publication was the first to bring East Asian and Western contributions specifically to the debate about RE and peace education. (Jackson & Fujiwara, 2008)

1.1.4 The Context and Issues of RE in Haiti

1.1.4. 1 Religious Context in Haiti

Haiti has emerged from a colonial system, a Historically-Catholic colony (France). During the colonial era, Christianization of the slaves was integral to the colony. Subsequently, French

Catholic priests were sent to the colony to provide Christian instruction. The enslaved people were mandated by the Code Noir to be baptized, and they sporadically attended Mass, married, and were directed in catechism (Debien, 1967). The Black Code of 1685 outlawed the practice of other religions as well as formal education for blacks. As Brutus (1948) put it, formal education was not provided for black slaves in order to maintain distance between species who command from those who obey. But the slaves did not tame, dubious about the unsavory reputation of the white masters, continue to practice Vodou by incorporating a variety of catholic practices into their belief system.

After Haiti declared its independence in 1804, the Vatican withdrew its (European) priests and refused to recognize the world’s first Black republic. General Fabre-Nicolas Geffrard, a member of the mulatto elite, was president of Haiti from 1859 to 1867. As he was eager to replace Vodou, signed the country’s first concordat, which made Catholicism the official religion. An amendment to this concordat in 1862 granted the Church “an important role in secular education” (Haggerty,

1989). Besides, the English Wesleyan Mission in 1807 was the first Protestant group to come to

Haiti after its independence (Edmonds & Gonzales, 2010). These Protestants were well welcomed

5 by Haitian officials like Pétion, Christophe, and Boyer, who were concerned on the need for

Haitian education. Other Protestant missions, largely imported from the United States, were gradually established in Haiti building schools (and churches) in different parts of the country

(Fass, 2004 p.237).

Therefore, Catholic and Protestant have a predominant role in Haitian education and society.

Meanwhile, the folk religion is struggling for rights and recognition. The 2019 Central Intelligence

Agency – The World Factbook estimates the affiliation of Haitian as follow: Roman Catholic 54.7,

Protestants 28.5 (Baptist 15.4%, Pentecostal 7.9%, Adventist 3%, Methodist 1.5%, other .7%),

Vodou (official) 2.1%, other 4.6% (i.e. Baha’i Faith, Islam, Judaism, Buddhist, Hindus), unaffiliated 10.2%. Many Haitians practice elements of Vodou in addition to another religion, most often Roman Catholicism. (Haiti, 2019) One common saying is that Haitians are 70% Catholic,

30% Protestant, and 100% Vodou.

1.1.4.2 Religious Issues in Haiti

In Haiti, RE refers to a school subject taught in Christian schools such as Bible class and catechism mostly to convert students. This is indicative of religious dominion over the school system in Haiti, i.e. many Haitian schools are being funded by faith-based organizations. Consequently, most of these schools and their curricular are significantly directed by the religious principles of their sponsors. The confessional approach of RE in Haiti’s school is problematic; because, the teaching method disregards other belief system. As a result, creating a lack of understanding (or ignorance) of other religions which evolves religious discrimination and religious intolerance.

In addition to religious discrimination, there is a tendency to marginalize other religion in the school. For instance, in catholic schools, students with catholic faith are more likely to feel comfortable with all the school’s requirements than students from Protestantism background.

Students from Vodou background have no problem to fit in a catholic-based school as both religions merge together and recognized by the Haitian government. However, in Protestant school students from Catholic or Vodou background are more likely to feel oppressed as protestant emphasis on their conversion rather than embracing their religious experience. Whereas, having students from diverse beliefs in the classroom is by no means negative for it can be beneficial to an enriched learning environment.

Learning is a social activity according to constructivist theories of learning (Bruner, 1966).

Therefore, teaching and learning RE need to be situated in real life experiences and link to previous learning, and to share their learning process with others accordingly. RE can be attractive to learners if the environment is inclusive and respectful of their background knowledge, levels, faiths, needs, and interests and wonders. Keeping students with diversity to engage in a classroom as well as engage them in their quest for learning can be challenging, but effective teaching can enable this process.

Many Haitians militants and intellectuals aspire to a secular state and believe that Haiti’s progress certainly has been hindered by religious beliefs and practices of different members of the society

(Saint Paul, 2014). Education in Haiti has been driving by this secularization affirmation as RE has not been taught in non-religious public school anymore. However, as Moore (2013) mentioned it, “the marginalization or removal of teaching about religion ensures that students will have little

7 or no understanding of Christian socialism (fusing Christian morals with socialist economic principles), liberation theology, the civil rights movement, or the religious origins of social justice.”

Thus, according to Moore this phenomenon is nothing short of educational malfeasance (p.69). It is the role of school more than ever, especially Haitian schools, to teach about world religion in the ultimate goal of producing religiously literate citizens.

1.1.5 Redefining RE in Haiti

Above all, it is important to redefine RE for the purpose of this study. It is my thesis that RE is not complete without the inclusion of all the other religious beliefs. Also, an education or curriculum without RE, is incomplete. As it is the case in Haiti, this does not mean that teachers have an excuse to promote their religious beliefs against other belief system nor to impart knowledge about religion to students to memorize and recite only. What this means, rather, is that religious leaders, educators, curriculum makers, social workers, politicians, and so forth should adapt real situation approach to RE in order to invite students to join thought and action for fostering knowledge of world religion, religious tolerance, and religious dialogue. In Haiti, RE which is inclusive can be helpful in promoting peace and addressing violence and resistance caused by religious intolerance.

The ability for people to get along well with one another in society depends a great deal on the kind of interaction they had with one another during their school experiences. It is of paramount importance that students develop skills in interactional exchanges in order to be successful both in their studies and in life. In order to achieve this, teachers need to provide them with opportunities for meaningful communicative modeling when their classes are made up of learners from difference religious backgrounds.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

As mentioned above, religion creates social problem in Haiti. Religious communities and private operators have gradually become the main providers of education in Haiti because Haiti’s former leaders had never developed a well-functioning system of public schools (Salmi, 2000; Bulder,

2007). Consequently, two-thirds of the private schools are religious schools. In addition, catholic schools were jointly funded by the Haitian government and the Vatican thus these schools became non-secular public schools. Subsequently, RE is taught in many schools in Haiti (Wolff, 2008); most of these schools are permitted to follow their own programs of RE. Religious schools approach to RE is faith-based thus does not address social problem. These social problems can be put into one term which is lack of a culture of peace.

As noted earlier RE is synonymous to Bible lessons or catechism. For instance, in addition to the secular curriculum which can be Bible-based curriculum, Haitian Christian schools teach Bible truths to pupils and share about God to them. Haiti is a country in which state and religion are not totally separated. This is due to the fact that though Roman Catholicism official status was repealed with the enactment of the 1987 constitution; but Haiti and the Vatican continue to honor the 1860

Concordat relation. It has been a tradition in Haiti to hold a Te Deum1 service for presidential inauguration and significant historical anniversaries.

1The term Te Deum refers to a religious service in which the Te Deum laudamus (Thee, O God, we praise) hymn is sung, it is held to bless an event or give thanks (Henry, 1912). This occurs mainly in traditionally Catholic nations.

The Haitian government tries to promote religious freedom and allows all religious groups to intervene in political affairs in order to bring peace through religion exempli gratia a committee of religious leaders was established to solve a problem with the most recent former president who was accused of having other nationality but Haitian. This committee was charged with the mission to ensure to collect evidences from different sources in order to check the veracity of this information. The committee carried out its mission the best way possible but ended up fizzling out because the problem was not tackled at the beginning. Whenever a political turmoil surfaces religious leaders are invited as competent people to use their wisdom and reasons to come up with a solution. Despite of their willingness to cooperate, their devotion to help the country out of the situation they always fail in their mission because they have to operate on the short term. Such experiences are living examples which can prove that religion can always be an alternative if used adequately, just to say that if we really want to resort to religion to sort out such important issues we should imperatively review our teaching methods and our way to see things. Thus, tackle such teaching with a reinforce dose of tolerance. Considering the important part religion can play in our daily struggle against the deterioration of the current situation while status quo is still maintained such a question ended up nurturing in me “what can education do?”

Lack of education (precisely a lack of religion literate) is one of the principal cause of religious discrimination and this latter is an obstacle to religious freedom or/and religious toleration in Haiti.

There is possibility to feel the gap: The Haitian population needs to be educated on its own history with link to African animist culture, on history of Roman Catholic with its western and eastern roots as well as its history with Africa, and the history of Protestantism with link from Germany,

France, England, United States, to Haiti. RE is said to contribute to peace, tolerance, and human

10 right. Stemmed from this problem, Haiti is an appropriate case study in which to explore Haitian views on RE.

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study was to explore Haitian perceptions on teaching RE in three specific areas: the content, teaching method, and the contribution of RE for a culture of peace and tolerance in

Haiti. This study was conducted with 297 respondents (including high school and university students) and 10 educational and religious experts. It employed survey method which administered questionnaires to selected respondents, and interview method that collated data from the experts.

This allowed for a quantitative analysis followed with a qualitative interpretation of the collated data.

In other words, the endeavour of this study was motivated by the fact that RE could play a huge advantageous role in the public administrative machinery of Haiti. As Clyde Weber Votaw put it,

“education is that process of nurture, instruction, and discipline which seeks to develop the character of the individual, and to fit him for a complete social service.” The purpose of education is exactly that of teaching RE. Concerned about Haitian views on RE for a culture of peace, this study attempts to bring forth Haitians views as one way to involve the population into this area of school curriculum. Hopefully Haitian views on teaching RE in schools would result in a clear and shared understanding of the knowledge and skills that young people will gain. By Haitian views,

I mean the way that they (Haitians) describe the role of RE in Haitian personal and public life, how it should be taught and what should be the content.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

As a school subject, RE is not clearly situated and defined in Haiti. For instances, the Haitian people are not yet aware of its advantages, contents, teaching style, contribution to peace, and vice versa. Accordingly, a survey questionnaire is designed for this study and after the data collection; the study will seek to answer these following four research questions below:

1- What are the RE issues in Haiti?

2- What are Haitians’ suggestions for RE in Haiti school?

3- What are Haitians’ views on religious tolerance in Haiti?

4- What are Haitians’ views on culture of peace in Haiti?

5- What are Haitians’ suggestions for a prototype RE?

1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS

The following definitions will be used for the purpose of this study:

1.5.1 Religious Education (RE)

The dictionary definition of the term RE is 1) an education in a school which places a strong emphasis on the beliefs associated with a particular religion; 2) the teaching or instruction of a particular religion; 3) a subject taught in schools in the UK which educates about the different religions of the world (Collins Dictionaries 2015). In this study, the term RE is a subject taught in

Haiti Catholic and Protestant schools which teaches catechism and Bible lessons respectively.

Thus the definition of the existing RE in Haiti. The study advocates for a new definition of RE, which will go beyond the actual definition – RE for peace building.

1.5.2 Culture of Peace

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines culture of peace and non-violence as a commitment to peace-building, mediation, conflict prevention and resolution, peace education, education for non-violence, tolerance, mutual respect, intercultural interfaith, dialogue, and reconciliation. The article 1 of the United Nations’ declaration establishes a set of points to respect in ideal circumstances in a society where culture of peace is promoted. It is summarized as follow:

a. Respect for life, ending of violence and promotion and practice of non-violence through

education, dialogue and cooperation;

b. Full respect for the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity and political

independence of States and non-intervention in matters which are essentially within the

domestic jurisdiction of any State, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations

and international law;

c. Full respect for and promotion of all human rights and fundamental freedoms;

d. Commitment to peaceful settlement of conflicts;

e. Efforts to meet the developmental and environmental needs of present and future

generations;

f. Respect for and promotion of the right to development;

g. Respect for and promotion of equal rights and opportunities for women and men;

h. Respect for and promotion of the right of everyone to freedom of expression, opinion and

information;

i. Adherence to the principles of freedom, justice, democracy, tolerance, solidarity,

cooperation, pluralism, cultural diversity, dialogue and understanding at all levels of

society and among nations; and fostered by an enabling national and international

environment conducive to peace” (UN 1999; UNESCO 1995-1997; Adams, 2000).

For this study, the term culture of peace refers to “love and respect for life and one another, and acceptance of different belief systems, and human rights,” employs to justify how RE based on education for peace can prevent religious-related violence and conflict, religious discrimination, and religious intolerance.

1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

I have already stated the general purpose of this research study was to determine Haitian views on teaching RE in school for a culture of peace. The study aimed to contribute to the field of RE and peace education. The topic is the following: “An Explorative Study on Teaching Religious

Education for a Culture of Peace in Haiti”. For phase one (the survey), secondary education and higher education (varsity) students were targeted as the potential population who can opine on the topic, due to their past experience with the Haitian educational system. For phase two (interviews), experts in RE including (not limited to) RE teachers, school directors, and religious leaders were selected to further analyze respondents’ views and suggest teaching methods. Since the proposed sampling technique (i.e., simple random sampling) did not go as planned, the background of the study population included Haitians who were actual and former students. The scope and the data collection method directly limited this research study. The character of research limitations is that they provide the drive for further investigation and studies to be carried out, thus, ensuring the continuous refining and expansion of knowledge. Some of the limitations of this research include the following:

Firstly, the respondents did not completely or equally reflect the multi-religious nature of Haiti as half of the respondents were protestants. Haiti is largely Vodou with a large Roman Catholic population and a smaller Protestant population in a remarkable syncretic formation (Simpson,

1945). This one-sided domination of the research respondents by people of the same faith and, presumably, with a similar outlook on life, would, in no small measure, influence the outcome of the research.

Secondly, the respondents did not represent the age categories of the Haitian population enough as the majority fell into young adults (n=255). Although this did not affect the outcome of the study, however it prevented the study to provide comparative analysis on view points of different age categories.

Thirdly, the convenience sampling which involves sending emails (including Facebook messages) directly to respondents precluded the survey which would have produced a richer and more in- depth data and would have afforded my opinions of people more knowledgeable on the matter.

The method of data collection immediately disqualifies certain categories of people, particularly those without internet access. In addition, the limitation of respondents to secondary and varsity students, members of a sub-culture, markedly different from the general Haitian culture in certain aspects, has greatly impacted the diversity of responses.

1.7 RATIONALE AND SIGNIFICANCE

Rational to undertaking this study is reflected on the importance of RE in undermining religious discrimination in Haiti. Thereby teaching RE (as a tool to prevent and resolve conflict) would play a significant role in the emergence of a culture a peace among Haitians. This study is important since it is hope to contribute in raising students’ awareness about religion and providing them with an understanding of human diversity, the complexities of social and cultural systems of thought, and the human pursuit of meaning.

Throughout human history, religious issues have caused conflicts within nations (Huntington,

1996; Pew Conference Report, 2003); traditional or religious value primarily reflecting people attitude towards life and the world. People with different traditional or religious value need to be more equipped with adequate understanding as well as act responsibly towards those values in order to avoid less conflict and promote peace. Take for instance what just happened recently in

France, the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo in Paris was attack by some Islamic faithful. While publishing cartoons mocking the Prophet Mohamed in the western media views is constitute as free speech. On the other hand, many in the eastern media see the Muhammad cartoons published by Charlie Hebdo as provocative. “The attack on Charlie Hebdo is a reason to think seriously and take measures to prevent terrorism and radicalism in Kazakhstan,” wrote the Kazakhstan’s New

Times outlet while trying to link the attack in Paris to the threat of blowback from Kazakh nationalists fighting in Syria and Iraq (Paraszczuk, 2015, para 37). This is the ultimate evidence that religious sensitivity (tolerance and understanding included) is not the concern of religious adept alone but a concern of all nation and social sectors. We could not neglect religion by no means since it can contribute greatly to both conflict and peace.

Another example of the importance of this study is the conflict that exists between Haiti and

Dominican Republic where the Dominican is using violence against the Haitian and the Haitian responds by hatred. Therefore, teaching RE for a culture peace is imperative to the nation and it should be taught in schools, especially learning about religion. Szego (2014) noted religion is imbedded in the study of history, sociology, art, geography politics and philosophy and advocated for the study of religion as it facilitates better communication of people from differing cultural backgrounds. The American Academy of Religion (AAR), the world’s largest association of scholars who research and teach topics related to religion, concerns about the widespread illiteracy about religion, the consequences that stem from it, it provides a religious studies approach to teaching about religion in public schools (2010). This religious studies perspective (or guidelines) is intended to introduce students to the vast array of faith-based expressions that exists within and between traditions with the aim of deepening understanding about religious diversity and the roles that religion plays in political, economic, and cultural life across time (AAR, 2010, p. 4).

I believe if Haitian students are well educated into inter-faith approach, this can overcome religious illiteracy thus religious attack would reduce. As Müller puts it, “Anyone who knows only one religion knows nothing about religion” (Chidester, 1994 p. 37). Being equipped with knowledge from different religious beliefs can enable the students to understand each other in school, in the society, and the world. Multi-faith and inter-faith education is also an important part of global citizenship. With that being said, RE should not be ignored since religion illuminates us on who we are, why we have certain way of living, and where we are from as well as where we are at now

(e.g., past, present, even future more or less) (Hick, 1963; Hood et al., 2005)

In the classroom, RE can provoke challenging questions about the ultimate meaning and purpose of life, beliefs about God, the self and the nature of reality, issues of right and wrong and what it means to be human. It develops pupils’ knowledge and understanding of Christianity, other principal religions, other religious traditions and other world views that offer answers to questions such as these. It offers opportunities for personal reflection and spiritual development. It enhances pupils’ awareness and understanding of religions and beliefs, teachings, practices and forms of expression, as well as of the influence of religion on individuals, families, communities and cultures. RE encourages pupils to learn from different religions, beliefs, values and traditions while exploring their own beliefs and questions of meaning. It challenges pupils to reflect on, consider, analyze, interpret and evaluate issues of truth, belief, faith and ethics and to communicate their responses. RE encourages pupils to develop their sense of identity and belonging. It enables them to flourish individually within their communities and as citizens in a pluralistic society and global community. RE has an important role in preparing pupils for adult life, employment and lifelong learning. It enables pupils to develop respect for and sensitivity to others, in particular those whose faiths and beliefs are different from their own. It promotes discernment and enables pupils to combat prejudice. (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 2004).

Since education has both suffered from and contributed to violent conflict in Haiti, an incorporation of peace education into RE can be a tool to help students deal with conflict in nonviolent and creative ways; and promote tolerance and understanding to develop citizen who are in harmony with their environment. Overall, the benefit of teaching RE and by integrating it in the school curriculum learning can occur in a number of areas such as spiritual, moral, social and

18 cultural development, key skills and thinking skills. Therefore, with Catholic and Protestant school that exit in Haiti a multi-faith RE syllabus is encouraged for the purpose of helping pupils to view the past present and future world events concomitant to religion. Another important aspect of teaching RE is that it can further pupils’ reading literacy (reading fluency and comprehension) which I believe can also promote the five strands of the language arts such as reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing (this topic is not intended to develop here). Thus, every pupil has the right to be taught on RE to encourage critical thinking skills and such subject cannot be neglected in the school curriculum because it covers the essence of human life.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND OF RE IN HAITI

It is necessary to have an overview of Haiti religious history for a better understanding on the context of religion, education, culture, and RE and even politic in Haitian society. Historians like

Hayes and Robinson (2001) affirm that “Haiti’s historical events have influenced the way in which

Haitians view themselves. In order term, we are the products of our past history.

2.1.1 History of Religion in Haiti

The first inhabitants of Haiti (The Tainos) worshipped deities known as Zemis, which are objects believed to be the dwelling of spirit and to possess magic potency. The religion of the Tainos was reported by the first missionary who came to the island, Father Ramon Pané. This later was commissioned by Columbus to study the religious beliefs of the indigenous people of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. (Rouse, 1992, p.13)

The Spanish introduced Christianity to the Island on December 5, 1492. The following years witnessed the evangelic effort of Catholicism towards the natives and the extermination of this population through disease and slavery. African slaves, brought to work in their place, were introduced to Christianity, too. Catholic missionaries were responsible for preaching to the Island inhabitants. (Rouse, 1992; Louis, 2007; Farmer, 2011; Heinl & Heinl, 2005)

When the African slaves were brought to Americas to work on plantations, they brought Vodou with them. Under French dominance, Catholic priests were sent to the colony to civilize the slaves

20 and convert them into Christianity. However, these attempts were unsuccessful because the system dehumanized the African slaves and these later continued to practice Vodou clandestinely. Even though, the code noir of 1685 prohibited the practice of other religious beliefs in the colony. The

‘Cérémonie du Bois-Caïman’ of 1791 is a result of the practice of Vodou during the colonial era.

(Rigaud, 1969; Dayan, 1996; Debien, 1967; Heinl & Heinl, 2005; Louis, 2007; Murrell, 2010; Rey,

2005; Schneider, 2012) It is said that they were Protestants in the colony but they were not allowed to evangelize because the general concordat signed between Roman Catholic and the European colonizers had been reinforced by the decree.

After Haiti declared its independence in 1804, the Vatican withdrew its (European) priests and refused to recognize the world’s first Black republic. After the overthrow of the father of the nation,

Jean Jacques Dessalines, in 1806 some missionaries returned. The Catholic Church and the Haitian government finally signed a concordat on March 28, 1860 after years of negotiations. The concordat provided that the Catholic Church would have the special protection. (Heinl & Heinl,

2005; Louis, 2007)

When the Vatican decided to acknowledge Haiti, it tried to impose what some saw as a third-class

Concordat. It finally established relations through this 1860 concordat (Pius IX was determined to put Haiti under an Apostolic Prefect). A humiliating treatment of Vatican regarding Haiti: After being snubbed for half a century Haiti was now to be treated as a mission territory rather than a normal country with dioceses.

General Fabre-Nicolas Geffrard, a member of the mulatto elite, was president of Haiti from 1859 to 1867. As he was eager to replace Vodou, signed the country’s first concordat, which made

Catholicism the official religion. An amendment to this concordat in 1862 granted the Church “an important role in secular education” (Haggerty, 1989). Meanwhile, Haiti held fast and finally got its dioceses, but at a price. The main text of the concordat stipulates that the Government shall give the Haitian dioceses “a suitable annual allowance in excess of the usual state treasury funds”.

(Concordat Watch). Two other concordats have followed since 1860: Papa Doc’s Concordat of

1966 (which allowed Dr. François Duvalier [Papa Doc] to nominate his own men as bishops and archbishops), and Baby Doc’s concordat of 1984.

In 1866, another amendment effectively suspended Articles 4 and 5 of this concordat. Thus, the second concordat let Dr. François Duvalier [Papa Doc] nominate seven key clerics, thus ensuring their personal loyalty to him. It also stipulates that future appointments should be “preferentially to members of the indigenous clergy”. Both these measures helped bring the Haitian church under

Papa Doc’s control. However, the third concordat revokes the privilege granted to the father of

Jean-Claude [Baby Doc] Duvalier of nominating senior clerics. It restores articles 4 and 5 of the country’s first concordat and thereby returns the appointment of archbishops and bishops to the

Vatican. (Concordat Watch).

After the American Occupation ended in 1934, there was a constant struggle for power between the Catholic Church and the followers of Vodou. The small number of priests and members of religious institutes in 1930s ministered mainly to the urban elite. Until the mid-20th century, the majority of priests were francophone Europeans, particularly distant from their rural parishioners.

Roman Catholic clergy were generally hostile toward Vodou, and they led two major campaigns against Vodou religion in 1896 and 1941. During these campaigns, the government outlawed

Vodou services, and Catholics destroyed Vodou religions objects. Later on, Nationalists and others began to resent the Roman Catholic Church because of its alliance with the mulatto elites. François

Duvalier opposed the Catholic Church and expelled the archbishop of Port-au-Prince, the Jesuit order and numerous priests between 1959 and 1961. (Farmer, 2011; Haggerty, 1989; Heinl & Heinl,

2005)

As for Protestantism, its first settlement was established in Tortuga Island under the agreement of

Le Vasseur and De Poincy in 1661. The protestant lived for 12 years in the colony. Later on

Protestantism was completely excluded. Protestant faith was reinstalled until after the independence of Haiti, particularly under the presidency of Alexandre Pétion in 1816 with the visit of Stephen de Grellet and John Hancock, two Quaker evangelists. Later on, the Wesleyan society came to Haiti because they thought there was a great need for the Gospel of God in Haiti. These missionaries were well received by Pétion, Christophe and Boyer. After the death of Pétion in

March 1818, a sudden fury of persecution burst forth against the Methodist Christians and the congregation was dispersed. President Boyer expelled the Wesleyan missionaries from the country.

(Louis, 2007)

In 1890, Louis Joseph Janvier tried to promote protestant vision for Haiti. However, it was under the François Duvalier regime that protestant enjoyed peace and growth. Later on, the constitution of March 29, 1987 restores the peace and guarantees religious freedom to citizens (Article 30 of the Haitian Constitution). Today, both Catholicism and Protestantism, and other religious minorities enjoy freedom within the Haitian society. Though Vodou has gained greater respect and is widely appreciated as a source of Haitian pride and identity and driving force behind Haiti’s rich

23 artistic culture (Melton & Baumann, 2010); however, both Catholicism and Protestantism are campaigning for the eradication of Vodou in Haiti.

This table below provides a brief religious history of Haiti from Columbus discovery of Haiti to contemporary Haiti.

Table 2.1.1

Brief Religious History of Haiti 1492 Columbus lands in Haiti with Catholicism 1511 Vodou religion entered Haiti with the African slaves 1685 Code Noir recognized Roman Catholic and Apostolic as unique religion of the colony 1791 Ceremony of Bois Caiman - a Vodou ceremony against slavery 1804 Haiti became Independent thank to the Vodou religion 1807 First Protestant group to enter Haiti - The English Wesleyan Mission 1816 President Pétion welcomed the two Quaker evangelists Persecution of the English Wesleyan Mission, President Broyer encouraged their 1818 departure. They came back 18 years later. 1860 Haiti and the Vatican sign a Concordat 1890 Promotion of Protestant vision for Haiti by Haitian intellectuals and nationalists 1904-1960 Separation Era (i.e. between Haitian government and Catholic) 1915-1934 US Protestant missionaries enter Haiti under the US Occupation 1930 Haitian intellectuals started to defend Vodou as a national religion 1935 Decree-law against the Vodou rituals 1959-1971 Protestant enjoyed peace and growth 1987 Decree-law for religious freedom 1997 Creation of KOSANBA - a scholarly association for the study of Vodou 2003 Haitian Vodou has been recognized as an official religion Earthquake, attack on Haitian Vodou, emergence of the Islam religion, creation of 2010 Religion for Peace 2014 Chibly Langlois nominated Cardinal of Haiti by Pope Francis Adopted from Rethinking the Issues of Religious Education in Haiti from a Post-Colonial Perspective (Marc, 2019)

2.1.2 An Anthropological–Historical Analysis between Vodou and Christianity

What is known as Vodou today are assemblages of beliefs and practices of African Traditional

Religion and culture. These heritages were transported to Haiti with African slaves who in a bid

24 to preserve their identity through a continuous revitalization of their spirituality combined traditional African beliefs and practices with catholic practices and certain beliefs to create the

Haitian Vodou as we know it (Simpson,1945). During the peak of the slave period, when slaves reach Haiti, they were prevented from practicing their traditional religions, in fact, they were prohibited from gathering for any reasons for fear of a revolt. The slave masters were Christians and Catholics who collectively decided to force catechism and Catholicism on the slaves as a means of preserving the institution of slavery, (Alexandre, 2015). Although forced into

Christianity, the slaves were not taught the values of equality, fairness and justice which

Christianity promotes for fear of encouraging the slaves to question their treatment as lesser beings,

(Alexandre, 2015). The slaves, however, preserved their original beliefs by finding and blending the similarities between components of their traditional religion and Catholicism. These presumed converted slaves held the decisive gathering known as the Bois Caiman which marked the beginning of the Haitian revolution. Christianity on the other hand, can be traced to life and the teachings of one Man-Jesus Christ of Nazareth. Born of a virgin Mary and Joseph through the ministering of the holy spirit, (Matthew 1:18, King James version). Jesus’ miracles and teachings exposed the hypocrisy of the Roman church, the elders and authorities and was viewed as a threat to the power of the state. The state and the church there conspired and killed Jesus, (Matthew 27:12,

King James version). After his death, his teachings, worldview and lifestyle were formalized, through some gradual informal evolution into what is known as Christianity. Analysis of both religions suggest that religions often emerge out of some form of social chaos, repression or very horrifying experience to create change or provide some kind of hope for better days. Importantly, these changes often alter the state of things, particularly, the social balance of society and threatens the state power structure. This was the case of Vodou and Christianity. There often emerges

25 antagonist relationship between the new religion and existing religions and the state often uses its whole might to persecute and discourage love, sympathy and empathy and support for the new religion. Christianity faced severe persecution from the state. This was clearly seen in the killings of Jesus and his followers. In the same vein, Vodou faced serious persecution from the state and

Christianity, and this was seen in the repressions and prohibitive laws made to end the religion. In addition, there is often a carefully designed demonization or a conscious misinterpretation and misinformation of the public about the practices and beliefs of the new religion to make people hate it. In the case of Vodou, the entertainment industry backed by the governments of North

America demonized Vodou religion thus, damaging its reputation, (Hebblethwaite, 2014). “In fact, a particular website listed 40 films that relate to Vodou and they are all in the horror genre”

(Hebblethwaite, 2014, p.7). But like all truths, the persecuted religion often has strength in their collective misery and soon rise above their demonized status. This was clearly exemplified in the historical emergence of Christianity and Vodou.

2.1.3 Historical Conflicts between Christian and Vodou in Haiti

Conflict riddled the historical evolution of Christianity and Vodou in Haiti mainly because of their diametrically opposed world views, beliefs and practices, as well as the fact that Christianity, at its core, supported the inhumane institution of slavery and servitude in Haiti, whereas Vodou supported radicalized liberation. In other words, Christianity, the religion of the oppressor wanted to maintain the status quo and ensured slaves were tranquil in their sufferings whereas Vodou, native to the slaves’ spirituality, although a clever fusion of numerous elements of African traditional religions native to different parts of the black continent, desired a new social balance, one particularly receptive to the idea of equal humanity. This antagonistic relationship pervades

26 the doctrinal postures of both religions and trickles down to the behavioral expressions of their devotees. With the evolutionary development of Haiti came the intensification of this, subtler, sublime and sometimes overt, confrontations between Vodou and Christianity which have been expressed in physical, ideological and political dimensions (Hebblethwaite, 2014). In briefly touching these confrontations from the afore listed dimensions, it will be important to state that in the early Haitian state, it was difficult to draw a clear demarcation between the state and the church since the state declared Christianity generally, and Catholicism, particularly as its official religion and since the catholic church used the state as its instrument of domination over all other forms of religious expression (Hebblethwaite, 2014). it is therefore safe to say that the conflict between

Vodou and Christianity was as well conflict between the state and Vodou. The foregoing statement would be seen clearly in the conflicts between the both religions. It can be inferred that Vodou had always had a peaceful and calm disposition. Its expression of radicality had always been to injustices, maltreatment and repressions of rights, we will attempt to validate this with a wealth of data in later paragraphs. This means that Christianity had always been in the offensive position which Vodouists have always occupied the defensive positions in these confrontations. Ample research and historical accounts bear testimony to this fact. The first phase of these confrontations was ideological. Here, the slave owners in Haiti, knowing that the traditional religion of the slaves had a uniting strength which could rally the slaves together to revolt, prohibited all gatherings and deemed it compulsory for all slaves to be baptized and Christianized. The aim of this was to create a conflict of spirituality between their emerging personality and their other self, an internal self- conflict which could manifest in a collective estrangement (Alexandre, 2015). “A colonial administration composed of bureaucrats, soldiers and police maintained the status quo for the plantation owners, business owner’s and shareholders in France” (Hebblethwaite, 2014, p.7).

Castaldo (2006, p.38) further confirms my argument when he stated that “the roman catholic religion was the only legal religion”. Following article 3 of the 1985 Black Code, he added that article 2, in the same Black Code stated that “all slaves who will be in our islands will be baptized and instructed in the catholic, apostolic and Roman religion, (Hebblethwaite, 2014). More so, the

North American entertainment industry backed by their governments demonized Vodou religion and practices. Thus, damaging its reputation among many. In fact, a particular website featured over 40 films that relate to Vodou and all were in the horror genre” (Castaldo 2006, p.38). This began the suppression of African traditional religions. This immediately led the slaves to incorporate elements of Catholicism in their practices in order to masquerade their traditional worship and practices as Christianity, as well as to keep in touch with their African identity through their spirituality. This ideological conflict quickly took a political dimension, manifested clearly in various decrees aimed at eliminating Vodou worship completely in Haiti. According to

(Hebblethwaite, 2014), government, over centuries in Dominican Republic and Haiti, have dealt blows to Vodou practice and culture in seemingly endless cycles”. Ramsey (2011) adds that the hostility against Vodou practice created the impression that Vodou threatened the power and hegemony of the state and the state religion, Christianity. In other words, Vodou was treated as the usurper. Haitian presidents, according to (Ramsey, 2011), including Boyer (1818-1843),

Geffrard (1859-1867) and Pierrot (1885-1886) enacted laws that criminalized Vodou practices. As if this was not devastating enough, Vodou was banned by government laws from contributing to the public domain (Deren, 1953; Dubois, 2013; Ramsey, 2011). US invasion of Haiti intensified these political suppressions more than the leaders of Haiti did. According to Dubois (2013),

“worshippers captured during Vodou ceremony by the US marines led by Faustin Wikkus were sentenced to 6 months’ hard labor in the project to construct a new police headquarters”. There

28 was also a systematic exclusion of Vodou worshippers from state positions and functions all in a bid to discourage practice. All the above attempts forced Vodou devotees into clandestine meetings and gatherings but never stopped Vodou practice. The persistence of Vodou practice despite its ideological and political adversities resulted in a more physical confrontation, “in 1941 the anti- superstitious attacks on Vodou were carried out by authorities of the state and the roman catholic church” (Ramsey, 2011, p.9). During this period, members of the catholic church, including the state security machineries, destroyed the properties of Vodouists which included temples, sacred objects drums, alters and fell sacred trees. In fact, an oath of renunciation was imposed

(Hebblethwaite, 2014). Again, after the Duvalier period in 1986, Vodou priests who supported or were presumed to be in support of Duvalier were attacked (Beauvoir & Dominique, 2003).

According to Hebblethwaite et al. (2012, p.9), “in a more recent attack, 40 Vodou priests and devotees were killed in 2010 at the beginning of the cholera outbreak. They were blamed for the disease and killed by an angry mob”. The evolution of Haiti is thus, replete with religious conflict between Christianity and Vodou showing a clear antagonism of the church in connivance with the state against a more defensive and calmer Vodou.

2.1.4 Vodou Conflict and Cooperation

While the survival of Vodou as a religion in Haiti has resulted in inextricable conflicts, Vodou religion itself has provided the motivation for certain slaves uprising and conflicts. Vodou religion was instrumental in mobilizing slaves for the Haitian revolution which led to the independence of

Haiti. According to Alexandre, J. (2015), on the night of August 14, 1791, in the middle of the forest called Bois caiman (alligator woods), the slaves held the last meeting to complete their plans for a revolution to be led by Boukman. A black pig was sacrificed and everyone in assistance

29 swore blindly to obey the orders of Boukman, the leader of the rebellion. It is important to note that the gathering was one of several gatherings dedicated to Vodou worship which endowed the slaves with a sense of collective determination and strength. Such repetitive gatherings united the slaves through worship and practices. It has been stated earlier that Vodou has a calm and peaceful disposition. According to Alexandre (2015), its devotees are twice likely to seek peace and cooperation than conflict. This is reflected in its smooth integration of catholic doctrines and practices into its own. According to Pierre-Jerome in Alexandre (2015), catholic prayers such as

“hail Mary” and the “Pater Noster” are used before transitioning to the prayer to the Lwa during their services. This shows Vodou’s high sense of respect and acceptance of practices from other religions as novel and respectable enough to be integrated into its own. This is unlike the apprehensive demonization which other religions often subject practices of others to. Again,

Vodou devotees are partly Christians often times and completely takes part in their Christian activities. This implies a high tendency for Vodou devotees to band together with others in cooperate symphony than to fan the embers of conflict. Unlike Protestantism and its clear promotion of capitalist individualism, traces of which is scattered among all Christian communities, in varying degrees which often leads to separation, loosed and weak unity, Vodou which is rooted in African traditional togetherness creates a sense of brotherhood and community (Alexander,

2015). It is this feature which made possible the unification of slaves from several parts of Africa.

That communal cooperation inherent in all of them banded them together. The same communal cooperation weaved the fabric of Vodou, hence, making it amenable to cooperation than conflict.

It is this cooperation which often unites Vodou devotees in conflict against injustice. According to

Trouillot (1977), the slaves of saint Domingue, many of who served the Vodou spirits against captivity. Similarly, Hebblethwaite et al. (2012) remarked that through colonial epoch, Vodou

30 fought and resisted slavery and set the pace for others. The remarkable strength of unity which

Vodou had led Trouillot (1977) to say that Vodou united a significant diversity of slaves and gave them conviction and confidence to fight. A second look at the confession of these scholars establishes a trend which is the fact that Vodou worshippers’-initiated conflicts were often in response to injustices which may be slavery, maltreatment, demonization etc. This implies that

Vodou worshippers would remain cooperative unless their lives and identity were threatened.

Murray (1980) crowns it all when he remarked that the contribution of Vodou to inspiring spiritual expressions, unification of culture and social connectivity manifest progressive character of the religion.

2.1.5. Contexts and Functions of Vodou and Christian Worldviews

2.1.5.1 The Formation of Worldviews

Culture is a concept that often comes up in worldview discussions. Many anthropologists such as

Ruth Benedict, Mary Douglas, Edward Saphir and Benjamin Whorf, Robert Redfield, Michael

Kearney, Morris Opler, E. A. Hoebel, W. J. Ong, Stephen Pepper, and Clifford Geertz study cultural beliefs, rituals, languages, cognitive dimensions of cultures, dimensions of cultures, and worldview. There are contested viewpoints between some theologians and anthropologists on the issues of worldview whether it emerges from culture or not. From an anthropologist perspective worldview is regarded as a product of one’s culture (Hiebert, 2008; Kraft, 1979). But if we cling to the philosophical definition of worldview as being “our basic way of viewing the world”; and if religion is synonymous to the concept of worldview as seeing in table 2.6 above Islam and

Christianity (including Atheism) differing worldview. That includes basic perspectives on the

31 nature of God, human beings, and the world. Therefore, we can argue that worldview is not a product of culture, in supporting N.T. Wright’s claim of what a worldview is.

Worldviews are like the foundation of a house: vital, but invisible. They are that through

which, not at which, a society or an individual normally looks; they form the grid according

to which human organize reality, not bits of reality which offer themselves up for

organization. (Wright, 1992, p. 125)

Among other scholars who tried to define worldview we can cite Horner & Vandersluis, 1981;

Sue, 1978b; Ibrahim et al., 2001. Ibrahim et al. defined worldview as “a set of beliefs, values, and assumptions that undergirds a person’s behavior and emotional reactions. It provides an implicit frame of reference for interpretations of the world and its experiences and is derived from one’s social and cultural world (including family, primary group, secondary social cultural groups, community, and nature)”. (p. 445). Farah A. Ibrahim, a professor of Counseling Psychology and

Counselor Education stem on Clyde Kluckhohn (1951, 1956)’s analytical schema which is to compare systematical value-emphases in different cultures, and on Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck

(1961)’s research on existential categories that enable her to access the client and understand his or her cultural identity. Therefore, in 1984, the Scale to Access Worldview (Ibrahim & Kahn, 1984) was developed.

Ibrahim believes that “the existential categories can serve as a framework for the concerns that people have in general across cultures and can be used to understand individual and group world views” (Ibrahim, 1985). The following are the five basic types of problem to be solved by every society (the existential categories):

1) The modality of human nature (good/bad/immutable).

2) The modality of human relationship (relational orientation),

3) The relation of people to nature (people-nature orientation),

4) The temporal focus of human life (time orientation, and

5) The modality of human activity (activity orientation).

Ibrahim quoted Zavalloni (1982) on these existential categories stating that they were “limited to common human problems for which all people at all times must find a Solution”. Many authors applied Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)’s theory into their research, among them are Michael

D. Hills (2002), Russo (2000), Russo, Hill et al. (984) and so forth. According to Hills (2002)

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) begin their theory of Values Orientation with three basic assumptions:

- “There is a limited number of common human problems for which all peoples must at all-

time find some solution.”

- “While there is variability in solution of all the problems, it is neither limitless nor random

but is definitely variable within a range of possible solutions.”

- “All alternatives of all solutions are present in all societies at all times but are differentially

preferred.”

Table 2.1.5.1

Five Basic Questions and Value Orientations Reflected Possible Answers Question Orientation Description Nature of Evil/mutable Born evil, but can learn to be good. However danger of Human regression always present. Nature Evil/immutable Born evil and incapable of being changed. Therefore requires to salvation by an external force. Mixture/mutable Has both good and bad traits, but can learn to be either better or worse. Mixture/immutable Has both good and bad traits, and their profile cannot be changed Neutral/mutable Born neither good or bad, but can learn both good and bad traits Neutral/immutable Born neither good nor bad, and this profile cannot be changed Good/mutable Basically good, but subject to corruption Good/immutable Basically good, and will always remain so. Relating to Hierarchical Emphasis on hierarchical principles and deferring to higher other people (“Lineal”) authority or authorities within the group of equals As equals Emphasis on consensus within the extended group of equals (“collateral”) Emphasis on the individual or individual families within the Individualistic group who make decisions independently from others Humanity & Mastery We can and should exercise total control over the forces of, and Natural in nature and the super-natural We can and should exercise partial but not total control by Harmonious living in a balance with natural forces Environment We cannot and should not exercise control over natural forces Submissive but, rather, are subject to the higher power of these forces Time Past We focus on the past (the time before now), and on the preserving and maintaining traditional teachings and beliefs. Present We focus on the present (what is now), and on accommodating changes in beliefs and traditions. Future We focus on the future (the time to come), planning ahead, and seeking new ways to replace the old. Motive for Being Our motivation is internal, emphasizing activity valued by our behaving self but not necessarily by others in the group Motivation is to develop and grow in abilities which are valued Being-in-becoming by us, although not necessarily by others Our motivation is external to us, emphasizing activity that is Achievement both valued by ourselves and is approved by others in our (“Doing”) group. Notes: This table provides possible answers to the five universal problems.

It is important to note that according to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961), the solutions for these problems preferred by a given society reflects that society’s values. By value, it is “A conception, implicit or explicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means and ends of action” (Kluckhohn, 1951, p.395 cited in Hills, 2000).

2.1.5.2 The Function of Worldviews

In their book Reason for Our Hope (2011) H. Wayne House and Dennis W. Jowers explain the function of worldview by emphasizing on the nature of worldviews; which they point out “must be able to function logically (intellectual credibility) and be practical (livability)”. According to

House and Jowers “worldviews speak to matters regarding ethics, metaphysics, the nature of man, and epistemology.” (p.28) subsequently, they provide three functions for worldviews:

A. Statement of Faith

Worldviews are inherently religious. Even an atheist’s assertion that there is no God is a

religious statement. Even though he embraces a naturalistic, closed system regarding the

universe, the assertion about God is a metaphysical statement about reality.

B. Ethical Guides

Metaphysically worldviews speak to issues about existence, in particular the quality of

existence. Ethics deals with how people conduct themselves in relation to one another.

Worldviews engage us in determining not only what constitutes ethical behavior but also

by what authority right conduct is binding. Ethics not only involves conduct freely

practiced but also conduct prohibited by a higher authority. All worldviews have an ethical

component by which people make moral judgments (Nash, 1988 as cited in House and

Jowers, 2011).

C. Linguistic Referee

Worldviews impact communication. When reading any literary work of any period of time or any culture; one may understand it properly only when he also comprehends the worldview espoused in that work.

Table 2.1.5.2

The Function of Worldviews Statement of faith A worldview serves to explain.

Ethical guide A worldview serves as a guide of one’s ethical system.

Linguistic referee A worldview serves to help understand the ideas expressed by those who hold it.

Note: Adapted from Hope H. Wayne House and Dennis W. Jowers (2011)

Paul G. Hiebert (2008) also describes the function of worldviews. He points that “worldviews serve a number of important cultural and social functions. First, Hiebert echoes Brian Walsh (2006,

244-45), worldviews are our plausibility structures that provide answers to our ultimate questions:

Where are we (what is the nature of the world)? Who are we (what does it mean to be human)?

What’s wrong (how do we account for evil and the brokenness of life)? What is the remedy (what is the path from brokenness and insecurity to a life that is whole and secure)? Thus, worldviews dictate our behavior and action (a guide). Second, our worldview gives us emotional security. Thus worldviews provide comfort and security in time of distress and felicity. Third, our worldview validates our deepest cultural norms, which we use to evaluate our experiences and choose courses of action. Thus worldviews help us deal with reality. Fourth, our worldview helps to integrate our

36 culture. Thus worldviews give a sense of belonging. Fifth, Hiebert echoes Charles Kraft observation, our worldview monitors culture change (1979, 56). Thus worldviews operate as catalyst for our decisions. And finally, worldviews provide psychological reassurance that the world is truly as we see it and a sense of peace and being at home in the world in which we live.

Therefore, worldviews enable us to harmonize with the world. (Hiebert, 2008)

2.1.5.3 Vodou Worldviews

Religions, no matter how similar their ends may be, often parade a diversity of means. Their narratives and operationalization of the concept of man, creation, the universe, death, spirits God etc. often uniquely separate them from one another. Without an in depth understanding of these unique operationalization, it would be difficult to fully appreciate different religious expressions, their practices and significance. Vodou. Like other religions has a unique understanding of man,

God, the universe, etc. I would briefly look at the Vodou world view to give us a richer background of the religion for better appreciation of its practices.

God, Man, and Deities – According to Vodouists, God, the creator is the ruler of the universe. To

Vodouists, God seems far removed from the problems of humans. Hence, they believe that Lwa or superior gods, assisted by a host of minor spirit beings, who are powerful enough to influence the affairs of men and approachable, can be persuaded to meddle in the affairs of men. These deities include: Bade, god of the winds; Sogbo, a thunder god; Sango, the Yoruba god of thunder and lightning; and Agwe, god of the sea. The functional Lwa include: Legba, guardian of the cross roads and all barriers; Ogun family, gods of war; Zaka, gods of crops and agriculture; Erzilie, a sea goddess; the Gede family, the spirits of death; Adja, a deity skilled in herbs and pharmacy;

Obatala, the Yoruba divinity responsible for forming children in the womb (Herskovits, 1937;

Courlander, 1939; Simpson, 1945; Rigaud, 1946; Metraux, 1946). Vodouists believe that these deities are the Vodou version of Christian saints. According to Simpson (1945), the two most prominent saints and their Vodou versions are St. Peter known as Papa Pie ad St. John known as

St. Jean Baptiste in their Lwa versions. Simpson further stated that there are three schools of thought regarding the relationship between the Lwa and the saints. The first view believes that for every saint in heaven there is a replica spirit under water. They believe these saints and the Lwa are friends and both act as mediators between God and man. Since God is deemed to be too busy, the saints and the Lwa meet at a halt way point between heaven and earth and the Lwa tell the saints what their human fellows want. The saints then return to God and give their reports on these appeals and then God grants or refuses requests. The second view holds that the Lwa and saints are the same, while the third view argue that the Lwa and the saints are bitter enemies. This view argue that the Lwa are fallen angels which are worshipped by people chosen by them, however, this worship is said to be based on the fear of the powers of these Lwa (Simpson, 1945). Vodouists believe that these Lwa reward and punish good and bad acts respectively in line with the moral laws of society.

The Dead – “Vodouists believe that every man has two souls. The first is the Gros-bon-ange which gives life to the body and the Ti-z-ange which provides protective covering for humans during the day and night,” (Metraux, 1946, p.192). They argue that after death, the Gros-bon-ange returns to the creator for judgement. To Vodouists, good souls remain with God in the sky, while some are sent to earth as good Lwa and some inherited by new born babies. On the other end of the moral spectrum, bad souls become bad Lwa who spend their time between suffering in hell and doing

38 evil on earth (Simpson, 1945). To Vodouists, their dead fellows must spend at least one year at the bottom of a lake or river. This environment is cold and the dead is believed to appeal to their living relations to rescue them by performing certain ceremonies. In Vodou, the dead, are next to the Lwa in the order of significance and dead relatives who are not promoted to the status of Lwa must be venerated with songs and offerings during every Vodou ceremony to attract their favor. To anger the dead is believed to bring calamity.

Spirit Possession in Vodou – Vodouists believe that supernatural beings possess the bodies of human beings who they choose as their mouth pieces in order to bring to knowledge their wishes.

When one is possessed, the personality and behavior is altered temporarily and such person within that time only acts and/or speaks as directed by the Lao who has possessed him/her. “The personality and state alterations can be as deep as unconsciousness or as light as dizziness”

(Simpson, 1945, p.195). It may be even hallucinatory or trance like experience.

2.1.5.4 Christian Worldviews

In his book Developing A Christian Worldview (2015) C. Fred Smith dedicates the first four chapters to four questions he believes will “break down the inner logic of every belief system we encounter:” Who are we? (Chapter 1), Where are we? (Chapter 2), What is wrong? (Chapter 3), and What is the answer? (Chapter 4). According to Smith these four-question format he offered through his book can make the basic outline of the biblical worldview clear through a series of short statements:

- Who are we? We are beings created in God’s image.

- Where are we? We are in the world God created.

- W hat is wrong? Sin.

- What is the answer? Faith in Jesus Christ. (p. 10-11)

Let us now address the four fundamental questions. According to Ravi Zacharias any worldview offers answers to four necessary questions: origin, meaning, morality, and destiny. These four questions form a worldview, said Ravi. Someone may assume that he/she does not have a worldview. However, Jim Leffel, C. Fred Smith among others argues that everyone has a worldview. Likewise, in his book The Universe Next Door (1976) James W. Sire defined worldview as a set of presuppositions which every individual hold about the makeup of the world.

Sire further explains what a worldview is in his fifth edition of The Universe Next Door (2009):

A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed

as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or

entirely false) that we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconstantly)

about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live

and move and have our being.

Everyone has a worldview entails that it is possible someone else’s worldview contrasts yours.

Our worldview influences the decisions we make, the opinions we form, and actions we take and so forth. For instances, differing values modify a Christian opinion from an Atheist and from a

Muslim; and sometimes different beliefs can create uncomfortable situation and conflicts. In addition, tensions can exist within someone’s identity, sense of belonging, and worldview, and also between each of them. The following table shows how these three worldviews answer the four

40 mentioned fundamental questions (This literature review sticks with these four questions of worldviews):

Unlike Ravi Zacharias, Sire proposes eight basic questions every worldview must answer: 1) what is prime reality-the really real? 2) What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? 3) What is a human being? 4) What happened to a person at death? 5) Why is it possible to know anything at all? 6) How do we know what is right and wrong? 7) What is the meaning of human history? 8) What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? (Sire 2014 in Christianity.com 2016).

Table 2.1.5.4

Basic Questions about Reality – Questions Answered by Worldviews Questions Atheism Islam Christianity Vodou Origins: Only Universe created We are from God We are divine spirits Where do I materialism from nothing by an (i.e. Gros-bon-ange). come from? exists – no god, all-powerful creator. no spiritual, no supernatural Meaning No meaning. God gave the Glorify God and Serve the spirits. What does life “There is no universe meaning come to know Him. really mean? such thing as a and purpose. Obey Relationship is our why question.” God- good deeds very purpose- the outweigh our bad meaning of life. deeds. Morality Struggled with God has God is goodness Free will. How do I naturalistic commanded right Itself. differentiate morality. Some and wrong – will of between good say it doesn’t Allah. But we can’t and evil? exist. ask why. Destiny Death and Heaven and Hell New heavens and The gros-bon-ange What happen then… nothing exist, , but human new earth, and those will start its journey to a human remain always who trusted Christ to Ginen then to the being when he uncertain will be resurrected creator–Bondye or she dies? with new bodies (Good God). Note: Adapted from Ravi Zacharias and Andy Banister’s Lecture “The 3, 4, 5 Grid” & “Worldview as a Concept respectively” respectively, RZIM ACADEMY 2016. Vodou was added by the researcher.

As theologian, Wright’s argument is based on Christian fundamental belief, God’s revelation. God revealed Himself to the Israel people as the creator, the savior, and almighty king. In other terms,

Wright’s worldview approach involves that the biblical metanarrative conveys a worldview. Any worldview typically provides us with stories through which we can view reality. These stories, according to Wright, also provide us with an answer to four basic questions about existence: (1) who are we? (2) Where are we? (3) What is wrong? And (4) what is the solution? In contrast, Paul

G. Hiebert (2008) draws on critical realism position to approach worldview. He defines worldview as “the fundamental cognitive, affective, and evaluative assumptions and frameworks a group of people makes about the nature of reality which they use to order their lives” (p.25-26). This triadic definition of the core of worldview which he uses throughout the volume serves as an etic model by which we can examine specific cultures (Hiebert 2008, p. 25). The nature of reality involves physical and immaterial realities. The assumptions we make about the physical and immaterial realities (which differ from culture) encompass our worldview. For Hiebert, worldviews exist at the core of culture.

However, the contents of our worldview are contingent and always changing. Exposing to other worldviews, new discovery of knowledge, and reevaluation of our own worldview can change our conception of the nature of reality. To echo Hiebert (2008) worldviews change in two ways: through growth and through radical shifts (p. 316). For instance, conversion into the Christian worldview “must encompass all three level of culture: behavior and rituals, beliefs, and worldviews”, proclaims Hiebert (p. 315). That is to say of conversion is a (slow) process or transformation.

2.1.5.5 The Conflicting Worldviews of Vodou and Christians

As earlier stated, religions are uniquely differentiated by the world view and more often than not, a comparative analysis of two religions for their world view perspective is bound to reveal the conflicting elements of their ideological foundations. A host of factors coincide to furnish religions with their unique world views. Since these factors and circumstances are different, the world view would certainly be different. This is responsible for why Vodou world view conflicts with

Christian perspectives. Some of these conflicts I will discuss presently. Christianity is a monotheistic religion which believes in the existence of one supreme God, the creator of all things, all other creations are under his command. Vodou on the other hand, has a strong polytheistic dimension. It believes in the existence of Lwa and deities who acts as intermediaries who help take the supplications of men to God, who is believed to be too busy to directly concern Himself with the affairs of men. Christianity believes that God is everywhere and hears us at all times. This means that Vodou’s believe in the absence of God conflicts with Christian believe in the omnipresent and immediate availability of God. Christianity believes that upon death, man’s soul returns to God to give an account of its action on earth on the basis of which it would be rewarded with eternal sweetness in heaven or eternal sufferings in hell (Hebrews 9:27, King James version).

On the other hand, Vodou believe man has two souls, one which gives life and the other which protects. At death, the former returns to God for judgement and is faced with three possibilities which are: to remain in heaven as a saint, to return to earth as a good Lwa or to be inherited by a new born and to return as a bad Lwa. Thirdly, Christians believe that Jesus’ atonement on the cross nullifies the need for further sacrifices. Vodou on the other hand believes in the sacrifice of animals during rituals. This practice is one of the reasons Christians label Vodou as fetish and demonic.

2.1.6 The Culture of Haiti

Culturally Haiti differs from most of countries in the Caribbean. One of the most basic features one must know about Haitians, they always share greetings to one another. When two men meet to greet each other they usually shake hands and maintain eye contact. Two women generally do the same at first meeting. Whereas friends and close acquaintances usually kiss each other once on the cheek; when a man and a woman for the first time generally they shake hands the first time they meet. Family and close acquaintances usually share a light kiss on the cheek.

Haitians tend to be very indirect in communicating. Often tiny points are made with stories and parables as many people take the long way around to get to the point. A good conversation starter is asked about one’s family. Conversation via telephone is commonplace, but it is no substitute for personal visits and conversation in person. The traditional “see you tomorrow” is translated

“Demen si Dye Vle.” Haitians always say “Si Dye Vle” “if God wants” just to state that only God can decide whether they will have the opportunity to meet again. If ever you forget to mention “Si

Dye Vle” if “God wants” while taking an appointment either an old person or the person you talk to will remind you to add it.

Language. - The two official languages of Haiti are French and Haitian Creole. French was the only official language since independence until the Constitution of 1987 recognized Haitian Creole as an official language alongside French. Haitians express best in Haitian Creole for a good joke can only be told in local vernacular. Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language. For many decades French has been the solo language of instruction until Haitian Creole was added into primary school curriculum by the

1987 Constitution. Today, the two languages are present in instruction nationwide even some schools and parents are still reluctant to the idea of using Haitian Creole as language of instruction.

Transportation services like the “tap-tap” (taxi/bus combo), do not tend to run on time and will surely depart they are full. Punctuality is not highly valued and being late is not considered rude.

The legally drinking age is 15, and is not readily enforced. It’s best to ask permission before taking pictures of locals. When it comes to negotiating, most Haitians love the drama and show of negotiating. They may pretend to be horribly offended by your offer, but this is usually just ploy to up the ante. Usually the best actor wins.

Haitian art is a complex tradition, reflection of African roots with strong indigenous American and

European aesthetic and religious influences. It is an important representation of Haitian culture and history. The Haitian sculpture is made of natural materials, traditional art mediums and recycled materials.

An iceberg can serve as a useful metaphor to conceptualize culture as consisting of different layers

(Schein, 1992). As an iceberg floats in the water, the huge mass of it remains under the surface.

Certain aspects of a culture are more visible, just like the tip of an iceberg. This manifest culture includes observed elements such as behaviors, language, music and food. A deeper understanding of a culture only develops by looking at the submerged tip of the iceberg. This deeper layer consists of expressed values that reflect how cultural members explain the manifest culture. Finally, the very bottom of the iceberg consists of basic and taken-for-granted assumptions which form the

45 foundations of each culture. It is these basic assumptions that provide the ultimate meaning to the expressed values and behaviors.

Based on surveys taken during July 8, 2009 to January 20, 2010 and utilizing Hofstede’s national culture dimensions (Hofstede, 2001), Haiti has a national culture value system differences that investors and sojourners who are interested to do business or live in Haiti need to know about people’s ways of thinking in order to reduce cultural shock when they enter Haitian culture (Marc,

2010). It is also imperative that Haitian people be aware and seek to understanding national culture value in order to resolve cultural and socio-political conflicts.

Religious population. – As most of the inhabitants of Haiti are of African descent (i.e. black 95%, mixed and white 5%), the folk religion is Vodou but other religions such as Christianism and Islam are practiced too. Currently, the population is estimated to be 10, 788, 440 (July 2018 est.) people and religious affiliation of Haitian was estimated in 2003 as follow: 54.7 % of the population are

Roman Catholic, 28.5 are Protestants (Baptist 15.4%, Pentecostal 7.9%, Adventist 3%, Methodist

1.5%, other .7%), Vodou (official) 2.1%, other 4.6% (i.e. Baha’i Faith, Islam, Judaism, Buddhist,

Hindus), unaffiliated 10.2%. (Central Intelligence Agency, 2019). There is a small growing community of Muslims in Haiti; it is estimated between 4, 000 and 5, 000 according to the officials with the major Islamic groups (Arab News, January 18th, 2013).

According to Central Intelligence Agency – The World Factbook, Haiti’s main import partners are Dominican Republic, the Netherlands Antilles, China and the USA. Haiti is the world’s leading producer of vetiver but it exports crops such as mangoes, coffee, papaya,

46 mahogany nuts and watercress as well. The national currency of Haiti is the Haitian gourde, currently 90.94 HG for 1 USD. Today, Haiti is classified as one of the world’s poorest countries and the poorest in the America region. However, it welcomes plenty of tourists from everywhere.

Tourists usually enjoy Haiti’s tropical climate, cuisine and social life.

Music and dance are integral part of social life, culture, religion and even politic in Haiti.

Performances like dancing, singing, acting or playing music always occur during religious holidays, ceremonies, and official/special events. For instances, Catholic Lenten season in Haiti intertwine with Rara festival and Haitian Carnival. While many Christians are fasting and doing penance, these festivities are celebrating on the streets with music, bands and parades (often traditional Vodou related). The Haitian carnival has been one of the most popular carnivals in the

Caribbean. Due to Haiti’s historical pass, its music and dance (even its cuisine) have been influenced by French, African, native Taino, and Spanish rhythm. Alongside music and dancing, the culinary delights of Haiti are well appreciated among locals and tourists. In the household

(especially those who can afford it), Haitians eat two or three meals per day consisting of a light breakfast, a large lunch and a light dinner; these meals are often served hot and eaten the same day.

2.1.7 Haitian Educational System

In Haiti, though the education system has gone through different reforms, many schools have steaked to the French classical model since the signing of the 1860 Concordat with Vatican until now. The school system is divided into primary and secondary schools. Compulsory education is

9 years; it includes primary and middle schools. After attending Kindergarten, the compulsory age of starting school in Haiti is 6 years old. Pupils are expected to be out of school at 18 years old

47 more or less. Official examinations are required to reach each level from primary to secondary school pupils obtained three certificates in total. With these three certificates pupils are ready to apply to university.

Table 2.1.7 a

Haiti Education System (International Standard Classification for Education- ISCED) School Level Duration (Years) Entrance Age Pre-primary 3 3 Primary 6 6 Lower Secondary 3 12 Upper Secondary 4 15 Adapted from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) 2018

Education. –is organized and structured by the Haitian Ministry of National Education and

Professional Training (Ministere de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation Professionnelle-

MENFP). However, primary and secondary education is actively and largely supported by non- state sector like international and Haitian NGOs, foundations, associations, and religious organizations. In July 2010, the American Institute for Research-AIR published a directory identifying more than a hundred organizations that were currently active in supporting primary and secondary education and school-based health activities. This table below presents a list of organizations that contributes to education in Haiti (while disregard small-scale activities benefiting less than 100 children).

Table 2.1.7 b

History of Education In Haiti Colonial Era 1625-1803 Uneducated slaves; slaveholder children were homeschooled and sent to France for further study A Monitorial System in the North and a French Model in the Independence January 1, 1804 South: 350 Schools were built, and 750 at the eve of the US Occupation The American Occupation 1915-1934 Emphasis on Agricultural Education over the Traditional Academic Education Post Occupation 1934-1971 The Haitian Government attempted to Expand Access to Public Education during the 1940s 158 New schools were built by Duvalier the Father between Duvalier Era 1957-1986 1960 &1971; Duvalier ordered that any new church to build an affiliated school between 1971 and 1986

Post Duvalier The expansion of private schools increased further after the end of the Duvalier regime in 1986 Reform Efforts Bernard Reform of 1978 tried to modernize the system, make it more efficient, and build its capacity to satisfy vast educational needs, The National Plan on Education and a shift to a model of participatory learning based on student- Training (NPET) of 1997 centered approaches; and citizenship education

The Presidential Commission for to provide 100% enrollment of all school-age children, a free Education in Haiti of 2008 education to all, including textbooks and materials, and a hot meal daily for each child The Operational Plan of 2010- calling for private schools to become publicly funded which 2015 would increase the access of education for all children. Current Model of Education

The Solidarity and Subsidiarity Some private institutions are educating Haitians pupils base on the Solidarity and Subsidiarity Model.

Table 2.1.7 c

Organizations Supporting Education Sector in Haiti 1. ActionAid Haiti 2. Aide et Action 3. American Institutes 4. Appui Social aux for Research (AIR) Enfants Demunis 5. Armée du Salut 6. Association Corps 7. Association Coeurs 8. Association des d’Honneur Chrétienne Unis – Ke Kontre Enseignants pour une Toussaint Louverture Nouvelle Vision pour le Développement Instructive et Éducative 9. Association Haïtienne 10. Association 11. Association des 12. Association of pour la Population de Passionnante Haïtienne Paysans de Vallue Volunteers Développement pour le Service Sociale in International Service Autonome 13. Ayiti Education 14. Blue Ridge Haiti 15. Bureau Anglican de 16. Bureau des Avacocats l’Éducation en Haïti Internationaux 17. Bureau de l’Église 18. CARE 19.Catholic Relief 20.Centre d’Action pour Méthodiste d’Haïti pour Sevices le Developpement l’Éducation Générale 21. Centre d’Aide aux 22. Centre 23. Centre d’Éducation 24. Centre d’Éducation Personnes a Problemes d’Apprentissage et de Communautaire Spéciale Auditifs (CAPPA) Formation pour la Alternative (CES) transformation 25. Centre de Formation 26. Centre de Formation 27. Centre Humanitaire 28. Centre de Nutrition, et de Nutrition des et de Promotion de Adelina (CHA) de Santé et d’ Éducation Enfants (CFNE) l’Homme des Enfants de la Caraïbe 29. Chances for Children 30. Christian Reform 31. Comité Central 32. Commission World Relief Mennonite Episcopale pour Committee l’Éducation Catholique 33. Compassion 34. Concern Worldwide 35. Confederation des 36. Cooperative Housing International-Haiti Écoles Privées Foundation (CHF) Indépendantes d’Haïti 37. 38. Église Méthodiste 39. Espoir des Jeunes 40. Féderation des Écoles EducationDevelopment Libre pour Avancement Évangéliques et Center, Inc. (EDC) Mangot-Marion et Protestantes de Environ l’Artibonite 41. (FEPA) 42. Fédération des Écoles 43. Foundation Boisette 44. Foundation Boussole Protestantes d’Haiti 45. Foundation pour la 46. Foundation Digicel 47. Foundation Haïtienne 48. Foundation Haïtienne Défense des Droits de d’Appui au de l’Enseignement Privé l’Enfant (FODDE) Développement Local 49. La Fondation Mortel 50. Fondation Nouveaux 51. Fondation Paul 52. Fondation Unibank Horizons Gerin-Lajoie 53. Le Fonds de 54. Food for the Poor 55. Foyer Maurice Sixto 56. Groupe Haïtien de Parrainage National (FMS) Recherches et d’Actions Pédagogiques

Continue . . . .

57. Groupe de Support a 58. Gwoupman Peyizan 59. Haitian Education & 60. Haitian Vision la Communauté Haïtienne Gason ak Fanm Vanyan Leadership Program 61. Hosean International 62. Institut Mixte Sidney 63. International Mission 64. Jeunes Contre Ministries (HIM) Woodman Outreach Violence et Criminalité Haït 65.Kad Timoun Nan Sid 66. Kindernothilfe (KNH) 67.LAKAY 68.Mission Évangélique Baptiste du Sud d’Haïti (MEBSH) 69. Mission des 70.Mission Chrétienne de 71.Mission Eben-Ezer 72. Mission des Églises Advantistes du 7e l’Eau de Vie Baptistes Indépendantes Jour Nord-Ouest d’Haiti (MANOH) 73. Mission Évangélique 74. Mission Lutherienne 75. Mission de Nazaréen 76. Movement des Bon Berger d’Haïti en Haïti Organisations Sociales pour l’Avancement d’Haïti (MOSAH) 77.Mutuelle 78. National Spiritual 79. Oganis pou Kore 80. Organisations des d’Organisation pour Assembly of Pwoje Kominote (OKPK) Habitants pour le le Développement de the Baha’is of Haiti Inter Aid Développement de Trouchouchou (MODET) Boucandrice/Ganthier ( 81.Organisations des 82. Organisations des 83. Organisations pour le 84. Organisations de Jeunes pour le Jeunes Penseurs pour le Renforcement de Support Familial pour Developpement Développement de l’Éducation et de l’Epanouissement de (OJEDESEM-3) l’Ouest (OJPDO) l’Instruction l’Enfant 85. Organisations Tet 86. Orpheline Eben-Ezer 87. Oxfam Quebec 88. Pain aux Hommes Ansanm pour le de Simon Développement de Marre-Roseau 89. Picardo Social Club 90. Plan d’Action pour le 91. Plan Haiti 92. Programme National Chrétien Développement et de Cantine Scolaire l’Intégration (PADEVI) 93. Pwoje Espwa de Sud 94. Rassemblement des 95. Save the Children 96. Société Haïtienne Amis de Petit-Goave d’Aide aux Aveugles 97. SOS Village 98. Soutien aux Enfants 99. Star of Hope Haïti 100. Viva Rio d’Enfants Haïti de Tabarre (SAEDT) 101. Yéle Haïti Note: Adapted from “Supporting Education in Haiti: A Directory of Civil Society Organizations working in the Education Sector in Haiti” (AIR, 2010).

2.1.7.1 Foreign Influence in Haiti Education

Without wanted to deny the selective system of catholic and the inefficiency of Protestant schools, religious schools have contributed to the intellectual and spiritual of many Haitians. Although the

51 current constitution (enacted in 1987) prescribes universal access to primary education free of charge, the Haitian government is not able to establish enough schools to serve all children between

6 and 11 years of age. According to the Ministry of Education, in 2003, net enrolment for this age group was 70% and, for the secondary level, it was close to 20%.3. In 2008, the Haitian State estimate the amount to 66%, but other sources estimated it to 60% of Haitian children enroll to school (Joint, 2008, p.19). With the state’s lack of institutional strength and capacity to provide basic services to the Haitian masses, the education sector has become increasingly privatized.

According to the 2002–03 education census cited by the World Bank, only 8 percent of Haitian schools were public, while approximately 92 percent were privately owned and financed, meaning they were tuition-based in most cases. (United States Institute of Peace, 2010)

The history of religion and education in Haiti retraces the origins of foreign influences over the society. Unlike many nations, Haitian officials had never put a comprehensive educational system into existence. One has to note that the new nation was isolated after becoming independent with no schools since literacy was not imperative in the colony, and the isolation period brought the entirety population into anxiety of an eventual return of the oppressors and had to pay an indemnity to the French to secure the country sovereignty. How would Haitian official in such conditions build a Haitian model of education? In 1860, Haitian leaders, to open Haiti to the rest of the world, subjected the country to Vatican by making Roman Catholic the official religion of Haiti, and paid the Catholic Church to run Haiti’s public school. In 1915, with the American occupation, US facilitated the introduction of Protestant Churches and schools to Haiti. Christianity, which originates in the Middle East and evolves in Europe, becomes the religion and culture that are taught in Haitian schools while Haitian culture, traditional religion and African history are

52 excluded from the curriculum. Secular education is largely run by foreign institution or Christian organization.

As a result, Christian educations in Haiti unfortunately create social inequality. I pinpoint two main causes: the exclusion of Haitian culture (or Vodou) and Haitian Creole throughout the history of education in Haiti. Catholic schools have a long history of educating the Haitian elites, mostly due the historical alliances between Haitian officials and the Vatican to educate and evangelize the

Haitian population.

2.1.8 Teaching RE in Haiti: Protestant versus Catholic

RE in evangelical protestant schools is confessional/faith-based oriented. In a typical Baptist school, they would emphasize on the teaching of the Bible lessons, Christian service and the putting the Holy Scriptures into practice. The mission of protestant is to evangelize, instruct, and educate student on Christian moral value. This is done through:

- Morning devotion every day.

- Teach Bible at least three days a week.

- Day/Week’s memory verse.

- Formatively assess students through multiple-choice evaluation.

- Summative assessment on the Bible lesson.

- Etc..

The curriculum could emphasize on the chronological Bible story. For instances, a chronological set of bible classes for each grade of elementary school can start from the stories of Genesis: the

53 stories of creation through the Old Testament Stories; then concentrates on the Life of Christ stories; to the beginning of the Church teaching through the Book of Acts. Students’ conversion might happen. Protestant rationale for using the Bible as to religiously educate student is their fundamental argument that “The Bible is the book par excellence”. “It is inspired by God, useful for teaching, instructing, educating, correcting and combating those who are in error.” (2 Tim. 3:16

[paraphrase])

While Protestant uses Bible as textbook, Catholic schools teach catechism. By catechism, it means

“an established group of questions and answers, especially about a set of Christian’s beliefs”

(Cambridge Advance Learner’s Dictionary). RE in the catholic school considers the significance of faith from the perspective of the life of the person and the faith community. It does not study religion as phenomenon from an external perspective. (Lay Catholics in School, Sacred

Congregation for Catholic Education 1982, 28) Consider this rhetoric from a Haitian catechism of the anti-superstition campaigns of the 1940s:

- Who is the principle slave of Satan?

The principle slave of Satan is the houngan [Vodou priest].

- Why do the houngan take the names of the angels, the saints and the dead for Satan?

The houngan give the names angels, the saints and the dead to Satan to deceive us more

easily.

- Do we have the right to mix with the slaves of Satan?

No, because they are evil-doers and liars like Satan. (Hurbon, 1972)

Notably, from Catholics perspective there is distinction between religious instruction and catechesis. In the document “The Religious Dimension of Education in a Catholic School” (1988) by the Sacred Congregation for Catholic Education a clear distinction is provided between the two concepts of religious instruction and catechesis:

The distinction comes from the fact that, unlike religious instruction, catechesis presupposes that

the hearer is receiving the Christian message as salvific reality. Moreover, catechesis takes place

within a community living out its faith at a level of space and time not available to a school: a

whole lifetime… this happens most especially in a local Church community. The aim of school,

however, is knowledge. Religious instruction, therefore, should be integrated into the objectives

and criteria, which characterize a modern school. Like other course work, it should promote culture,

and it should make use of the best educational methods available to schools today. (# 68, 69, 70)

Obviously, the purpose of teaching of RE in the classroom in catholic schools is to help students become informed and capable of rational thought toward religion, acquiring knowledge, attitudes, values and skills.

For the Protestant evangelical schools, however, “RE is the art of giving instruction and education to children.” They believe that is the objective of the school to develop the personality of the child, which entails that: “the aim of education is to form sturdy characters and steadfast souls.” (A

School Leadership Anthology for Haiti, 2009) Furthermore, while Catholic believes that time is insufficient at school to religiously educate student and most likely takes place within the context of the wider Catholic faith community, in partnership with home and parish; Protestant claim that

55 parents are no longer teach their children the Word of God and that pastors preach but do not teach, therefore, it is important that school integrate Bible teaching in school cultural education.

2.2 REVIEWS AND REFLECTIONS ON RE

In his book How Children Learn (1972) John Holt makes room for chapters on Games and

Experiment, Talk, Reading, Sports, Arts, Maths and Other Things; and The Mind at Work. Of these six divisions, the RE of children could find tangents with at least four. After all, depending on the instructional pedagogy, the RE of children could adopt a variant of approaches between experimentation, talk, Arts, the mind at work, and in fact games. It is therefore instructive for even the RE of the child when Holt writes that Children can, do, and will learn to speak the language that most people speak around them. If a child grows up where most people do not speak what is called standard English, then we will do only harm if we try to make him [or her] think there is something wrong with his speech. It will make much more sense, as some schools are beginning to do, to teach standard English as if it were a foreign language, encouraging a child to talk and write about things that interest him [or her], in the way that is most natural to him [or her], all the time exposing him [or her] to as much standard English as possible (Holt, 1972: 68).

While veering into a discussion on standard English comes across, initially, as a deviation; Holt’s notions becomes pertinent on the present subject once ‘standard English’ is substituted with ‘RE’ across contexts as are relevant. In order to proceed with the discussion into RE at the basic (child) and Secondary School level, it may be appropriate at this stage to evaluate a selection of studies that have engaged with RE through the course of the past decade. This review shall range between researches that have culminated in doctorates as well as others that have help to define the field

56 through less elaborate means. This review will then proceed to assessing existing definitions on the terms ‘Religion’, ‘Religious’ and ‘Education’ just before a synthesis of an appropriate definition for the phrase ‘RE’ is attempted.

2.2.1 Curriculum Concept of RE

I feel compelled to throw a look on the definition of religion, the different types and ideologies before I get to the heart of the matter which is RE teaching. I reckon that the best ways to understand RE is to have a good understanding of religion and its related concepts. Let’s first define the word concept. According to Elisabeth Ashton, “concepts are mental structures which help us to assimilate experiences and information, and to formulate, as a result, values, theories and opinions which may, or may not, be based on informed judgment (Ashton, 2000, p.45). She argues two other ways to imagine concepts as ‘maps’ (Cooper, 1985, 27) and as networks, or associations of ideas. As maps, because they are constantly being redrawn to accommodate new discoveries and changes, and use a variety of signs and symbols which are tangible and readily accessible. The term concepts can be seen as networks, because they are constructed metaphorically. (p.46)

2.2.1.1 Concepts of Religion

Many specialists in religious studies resist the idea that a definition is possible for the word

“religion” (Fontana, 2003. P.6). Ninian Smart in his book The World’s Religion (1989), shares a similar point of view. For fundamentalists, religion is a systematized and complex system that requires an authoritative base capable of subordinating to itself all other elements of human experience (Hood, Hill & Williamson, 2005, p.16). They think that the notion that something

57 called religion can be isolated, analyzed or defined is primarily a western conceit stemming from the tendency of western culture to divide the secular from the sacred, and thus to regard nature as an autonomous domain with religion confined solely to spiritual concerns (Fontana, 2003, p.8).

The Oxford English Dictionary defines religion as the representation of the human recognition of superhuman controlling power, and especially of a personal God or gods entitled to obedience and worship. Leonid V. Tulpa (1935) broadly defines it as “a series of attitudes toward God and man”

(p.31). Attitude is a psychological term covering a wide range of mental and motor states or conditions, with which human beings respond habitually to given stimuli, as Tulpa described

(p.32). According to Argyle and Beit-Hallami, religion is a system of beliefs in divine or supernatural power and practices of worship or other rituals directed toward such a power. Either way a definition does not seem complete for all religions are somewhat different from their perspectives or way to undertake things (methods).

The concept ‘religion’ is derived from the Latin word religio that originally refers to the human fear of God or other divine beings. It incorporates an intimate association with formal ceremonies and rites, such as sacrifice during the course of its development. Its precise Latin etymology is unclear; Cicero traces it to relege, which refers to gathering together, repeatedly passing over, or to read over again. Others look to the Latin term religare which means binding together. Both derivations suggest the social aspects of religio. There are not only many definitions of religion, but there are also different approaches to the subject that reflect occurrences in intellectual history at the time of particular scholars. These approaches include the following: theological, anthropological, sociological, historical, phenomenological, psychological, economical,

58 hermeneutical, feminist, racial, cognitive science, and postmodern. Each different methodological approach to the subject of religion or some aspect of it shapes the scholarly definition of religion.

(Olson, 2011)

If we disregard the religions of the ancient world such as those of Europe, Greece, South America, and Rome, there are some 11 religions that have had a marked impact in various ways upon world history and the history of ideas. India has given us Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism;

China and Japan have given us Taoism, Confucianism, and Shinto; and the Middle East has given us Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. There are also countless more transitory cults and beliefs that over centuries have attracted and inspired men and women to worship and revere

(Fontana, 2003, p.vi). Based on popularity, geographic position (region) religions can be classified into large and small religions. They also can be classified into monotheism and polytheism.

Religion such as Christianism, Islam, Judaism, and Sikhism are called monotheistic religions.

They are listed on this label because they share a common belief that there is one God, in contrast to the others which are considered as henotheistic (Max Müller) or polytheistic.

The organization of religions is extremely varied. According to The Oxford Dictionary of World

Religions (1997), religions may be large-scale and coherently organized and hierarchical: an example is Roman Catholicism, which has a strong center of authority and control, the Vatican, and a clear hierarchy of Pope, cardinals, bishops, priests, male religious orders, female religious orders, laity, running in parallel with a spiritual hierarchy of apostles, saints, martyrs, confessors, doctors. In the same way, religions may be large-scale and loosely organized, with virtually no

59 overall structure at all: Hinduism is under these categories; however, among Hindus there are extremely strong subsystems, based, for instance, on gurus or temples or holy places.

In addition, they may be small and local, extending perhaps only to the borders of a village. Often times these categories are organized in such ways that enable them to control aberrant beliefs or practices: between the extremes, there are many variations on the theme of protecting information and transmitting information, of allowing or denying access to the religious system, and sharing or restricting knowledge with the wider outside world. Thus, we can see religions in two lenses: mystery religions and missionary religions. Mystery religions set and maintain conditions before access is allowed; in contrast missionary religions feel compelled to share what has been entrusted to them. Among religious specialists’ organization evokes are priests, witches, shamans, gurus, imams, rabbis, monks, nuns, bhiksus and so forth. (p. xix)

For Chris A. M. Hermans religion is contested concept with three rival conceptions such as experience/language/practice. Based on an historical overview of the concept religion, Hermans concluded that there are at least 3 different ways in which religion has been defined in Western

(i.e. Christian) history. The following are Hermans’ ideas about the three ways religion has been used in Western cultural history:

1) As ritual practices performed in a community. A religious community is characterized by

the use of certain symbols, rituals and religious objects. These practices reflect human

communication with God or supreme powers. “No communication event is possible

without an institutional context governing it” (Plavoet, 1999, p.262). A religious person is

someone who observes the practice of a religious tradition.

2) As belief based on knowledge of God. This knowledge is expressed in linguistic form (i.e.

words, texts, stories). Religious people are characterized by the use of this language and a

concomitant reverence for God.

3) As a certain type of experience. Human beings have certain primary or basic experiences

that can be called religious. These experiences are interpreted differently in different

cultures and by different religious traditions. All religions (plural) have their origin in this

one type of human experience. (Hermans, 2003 pp. 147-151)

Contemporary concept that describes different belief systems (or paradigm) in the world is

‘worldviews’. Dr. Kenneth Funk, an associate professor at Oregon State University, in his essays on worldviews, defines it as “A worldview is the set of beliefs about fundamental aspects of reality that ground and influence all one’s perceiving, thinking, knowing, and doing.” In other words, it is one’s philosophy of life. Belief systems have evolved throughout the centuries due to people’s quest for truth, especially the four fundamental questions of life: origin, meaning, morality, and destiny. These four fundamental questions are usually the principle issues debated in RE. Hence, the reasons to discuss them later in this literature review.

2.2.1.2 Concept of RE

RE concept connects with two critical concepts, ‘religion’ and ‘education’. Just like religion, education is a complex concept; it constitutes by a variety of concepts and discourses. Originally, the concept of RE has been used to refer to faith-nurturing activities of a communities of faith, especially those designed to initiate or induct children and young people into its central corpus of knowledge and beliefs, its traditions and practices, its perspectives on moral issues, how it sees its

61 relationship to other religious traditions, and how it responds to civil and legal obligations that are a consequence of its being part a wider, secular society. (Chambliss, 1996, p. 543) The essential characteristics and purpose of this conception of RE, according to J.J. Chambliss, are rooted in its being seen as both an expression of faith and an initiation into faith. For example, the rationale for engaging in such an activity will be based upon religious or theological concepts which themselves are derived from core beliefs that a community holds to be revealed truth about human nature and its relationship to divine nature. (ibid, p. 543)

Two other concepts stem from RE: they are religious instruction and instruction about religions.

The concept religious instruction traditionally has meant teaching the doctrine of a given religion with the intention of persuading the learners. This type of teaching aims at converting learners both intellectually and emotionally to a set of convictions; it is considered by far the dominant form of RE in the world. For instances, the 19th century Sunday school movement taught the working-class children in Britain to read and write by using the Bible as textbook; at the same time,

Christian morality and virtues were inculcated into pupils; in turn these pupils often graduated to become Sunday school teachers (Timothy Larsen via 2016 Christianity Today). Whereas instruction about religions is a relatively recent developing concept: with the teacher describing various religions rather than seeking to convert learners to a particular faith. (Thomas, 1991, p.638)

In 1975, Michael Grimmitt and Garth Read introduced the twin terms ‘learning about religion’ and

‘learning from religion’ with the intention of presenting Christianity as a world religion.

Many scholars in the RE field state some distinction between different meanings of the concept to avoid ambiguities. As it is the case in countries like Canada, England, and the United States, RE

62 does not necessarily imply the teaching of a particular religion. Concepts like religious studies, worldviews are used instead of RE. It is important to note that many of the works in the bibliography have a Christian orientation. Christian education as a discipline is an inquiry into teaching and learning as means and modes of commitment to value. Thus, Christian education is

RE guided by a particular set of assumptions as to truth and value. (Wyckoff & Brown, 1995, p.5)

However, the 1970s marks a shift for Christianity from being a confessional subject to an inclusive approach (e.g. humanism and world religion) in school RE.

Based on the various definitions of RE, it can be categorized into two standpoints: 1) the practitioner perspective and 2) the scholarly perspective. From the practitioner’s standpoint such categorization assists greatly in comprehending the vast array of ideas being generated in the literature about the intentions, methods, procedures, and outcomes of RE. From the scholarly perspective in the other hand, RE has a strong theoretical base characterized by a variety of paradigms. As the Rev. Dr. G. E. Gorman puts it, these theoretical or scholarly approaches to RE may be described in a number of ways, one of the most accessible being that proposed by Harold

Burgess, who speaks of the traditional theological theoretical approach (exemplified by the works of Gaebelein and Jungmann), the social-cultural approach (Coe, Bower, and Chave), the contemporary theological approach (Crump, Miller, Sherrill, and Smart), the social science approach (the works of James Lee and others) (Burgess, 1975 in Wyckoff & Brown, 1995, p. viii).

Therefore, two key features help to position RE: 1) as an academic enterprise and 2) as part of the religious life. According to an academic viewpoint, RE draws on a wide range of cognate disciplines, which gives its literature an unusual breadth. In addition, within itself RE manifests a

63 complex network of theoretical frameworks that are not easily traced through the literature. In contrast, based on the practitioner viewpoint RE has one eye on the past and one on the present, drawing substantially on a particular heritage to inform and direct action in the present. This feature of the religious life focuses on people of all ages who are trying to live out a life of faith, and to maintain this focus religious educators utilize all appropriate means. (ibid) Michael Warren (1986) tries to provide some clarification about the differences between Catechesis and RE as the two concepts often use interchangeably and can be overlap and ambiguous, especially in the context of school RE. The following table summarizes Warren’s distinction of the two terms:

Table 2.2.1.2 a

Differences between Catechesis and RE Focus Catechesis RE Goal Growth & commitment Growth & understanding Reaches fulfilment Worship & action for justice Mastery in an intellectual sense Presumes Conversion; that participants stand Some commitment to disciplined within the circle of faith inquiry Examines religious A position of commitment A more objective position that taken in question from catechesis Is part of Church pastoral ministry Education Is a cousin of Celebration Study Style A way of walking along with people A way of studying Choice Involves a conscious choice to meet May not involve a such choice specifically for the enrichment of spirituality Need for freedom Can only occur in an ambiance of May take place in a zone freedom of obligatory attendance Note: from (Warren, 1986)

The literature of RE has revealed its complexity. RE is complex because it is difficult to interpret and assess without taking several factors into consideration. Not to mention its emergence into an academic discipline; it is a derivative one, dependent on other academic disciplines and on the

64 institutions it serves. The foundations of RE convey its complex nature; they are as follows:

‘Theological Foundations’, ‘Philosophy of Education’, ‘History of Education’, ‘Behavioral

Studies of Religion’, ‘Behavioral Studies of Education’, and ‘Multidisciplinary Foundations’. The latter is a contemporary by-product of many scholars conducting research in religion and education who have found it valuable to address their questions to several disciplines at once. Each foundation discipline is treated with integrity. Differences in research results and differences in interpretation are recognized and honored. As religious educators seek to understand and use these disciplines, differences of opinion, of course, emerge among them. (Wyckoff & Brown, 1995, p.

5-6)

Fortunately, many books and authorities provide guidance on terminologies of various faith traditions and/or worldviews. These documents are primarily beneficial to RE teachers and students of religious studies, and to reach to consensus of spellings. Among them we can cite:

‘Religious Education: Glossary of Terms by School Curriculum and Assessment Authority of

London (1994);’ Religious Studies: The Key Concepts by Carl Olson (2011);’ ‘Continuum

Glossary of Religious Terms by R. Geaves (Ed.), 2002).’ Students learn a great deal of new vocabulary in the subject of RE to prepare them in terms of knowledge, understanding, and interpretation of religious concepts, both inside and outside the classroom. Religious language in

RE is important with the premise that it will enable students to come to grips with and appreciate the complexities of religion in a positive way (Wright & Brandom, 2000, p. 92). More recently,

Carl Olson (2011) gives us a list of key concepts which he considers to be imperative in religious studies. They are presented in the above table.

Table 2.2.1.2 b

List of Key Concepts in Religious Studies Afterlife Cursing Heaven Millenarianism Power Sin Agency Dance Henotheism Modernity Prayer Society Agnosticism Death Heresy Monasticism Priest Soul Space: sacred Ancestor Demons Heterodoxy Monism Prophet & profane Animism Doctrine Holiness Monotheism Psychology Speech acts Antinomianism Dreams Holy people Music Purgatory Spirits Apocalypse Drugs Homosexuality Mysticism Purification Suffering Architecture Earth Images Myth Rationality Sun Art Ecology Incarnation Narrative Reality Symbols Interpretation/ Asceticism Economy Nature Reductionism Taboo hermeneutics Theatrical Atheism Emotion Judgment Oral tradition Relics performances Belief Eroticism Kindship Orthodoxy Revelation Theism Rites of Blood Ethics Knowledge Other Theology passage Body Evil Language Pacifism Ritual Time Celibacy Experience Last things Pain Sacraments Totemism Chaos Faith Law Pantheism Sacred Truth Violence/non- Church Festivals Liberation Perception Sacrifice violence Clothing Fire Liminality Performance Saint Visions Comic Food Love Pilgrimage Salvation Women World Community Gender Madness Play Sanctification religions Comparative Gifts Magic Pluralism Scripture Worldview religion Conversion Goddesses Martyrdom Politics Sects Worship Material Cosmology Gods Pollution Secularization dimension Covenant Grace Meditation Polytheism Self Cult Harmony Memory Possession Sexuality Culture Healing Metaphors Postmodernism Shamanism Note: Adapted from Religious Studies: The Key Concepts by Carl Olson (2011)

These and other concepts enable pupils/students to understand various religions or make sense of religion in a broadly manner. The various concepts that pupils learn in RE fell into three categories.

The first category is concepts from religious traditions; the second category is concepts derived from our shared human experience; and the third category is concepts derived from the study of religion (p. 25). Basis of RE includes religious instruction, religious studies, interreligious dialogue and so forth. Meaning that, RE can refer to different things in different community of faith, schools, and countries. Whatever the form, RE is taught for specific reasons in school. Let’s turn now to the teaching of RE in Schools.

2.2.1.3 Models of Interfaith Religious Dialogue

As the world increasingly opens itself up for diversity, different cultures, views, practices, life styles and religions become entangled in the same space. This proximity has a tendency to evoke, consciously or unconsciously, feelings of apprehension and sometimes conflict. Neutralizing these conflicts, particularly, its religious dimension has often been achieved through dialogues.

According Nash (2008), we are “each not only a member of a particular community of belonging but also citizens of the world and as such, we have obligations to others beyond our kith and kin” to be kind, even hospitable to “religious strangers so that we might learn from them”. Nash’s remark implicitly implies that while we are all citizens of one and same world, we differ in our cultural and religious expressions and as citizens, we have a task to deemphasize our dissimilarities through mutual understanding and to trump our similarities through knowledge of ourselves.

Dialogue helps us to bridge this chasm of diversity and provides a platform for discussion and understanding. Religious dialogue refers to conscious attempt by religious groups estranged by their convictions and practices to close the gap between them through interaction guided by open mindedness, tolerance, acceptance and brotherly love. Dialogue have numerous tools in its arsenal

67 with which it achieves its aim. Out of these, we will discuss the four models of interfaith religious dialogue which are exclusiveness, inclusiveness, pluralism and acceptance.

Exclusive Model: Exclusive dialogue is the opposite of the Inclusive model. The model believes that to the exclusion of all other religions, there is only one true religion. The model has essentialist superiority which states that a particular religion possesses a certain character, belief or practice which makes it the only true religion. Exclusive model often creates a contentious situation and follow from very strong and unwavering believe in one’s own convictions. According to Brecht

(2012, p.36), “if Christians really believes Jesus’ messages that salvation comes only through him and believe in the necessity of his discipleship, then how could Christians also affirm the salvific significance of other religious traditions. The model often has an arrogant tone without respect for the religion of others. It is sometimes blind and radical in its assertion and does not perform well in plural environments.

Inclusive Model: According to Buber (1955), “genuine inclusive dialogue takes place where participants consciously consider others and engage them with the aim of creating mutual; understanding and relations between themselves”. Inclusive dialogue model forms a living foundation of cooperation and meaningful relationship through interaction even though the parties hold different beliefs. The model aims to promote solidarity in spite of religious differences.

According to Larson & Shady (2009), inclusive dialogue must include complete openness from both faiths and the emphasis on commonalities, rather than differences of both groups. Buber

(1955) describes genuine inclusiveness using the term “We” which reveals that the parties to the dialogue have crossed the enduring distinctions characterized in “Us” and “Them” without one

68 becoming completely absorbed in the ideological positions of the other. This middle point wherein both parties meet, with their unique differences in tact, yet with the creation of a “We” consciousness which allows for the interpolation of their different ideas, provides a veritable platform for dealing with the challenges of diversity.

Pluralist Model: According to Keaton and Soukup (2009), pluralism is a dialogic response to religious otherness. It is a vehicle for interfaith understanding and pluralism requires a communicative climate in which religious differences and disagreements are interpreted as learning opportunities rather than sources of conflict that must be resolved. Both scholars further add that pluralism is the only interfaith dialogue model with a communicative perspective to the understanding of dialogue. Pluralism, as a model of interfaith is guided by the following principles:

Empathic attentiveness, engagement of the religious opponent, communication of personal religious experience, non-presumptive and non-relativist, aimed at understanding, views differences in religious expression as learning opportunities and not threats, emphasize faith and not religion, encourages an atmosphere of open communication and interactions and means to understanding.

Acceptance Model: The acceptance model believes in the existence of numerous religions and focuses on bringing about peace among the different religions. It is a model which seek to transform the components of other models that seems to be working against themselves, as well as, transform the way people perceive themselves, their religion and the world at large. It does not focus on finding the points of convergence in different religions but seeks to accept these unique differences as they present themselves. According to Knitter (2012), the religions of the world

69 differ from each other and we must accept these differences, that you might say is the succinct summary of the model.

2.2.2 Purpose of Teaching RE

It seems that there is a variety of purpose of RE as there are authorities, countries, community of faiths, school curriculum and program. My observation after reviewing the literature is that purposes of RE has been modified due to many factors like country historical experience, challenge of religious pluralism, globalization, modernization, religion related conflict to name just a few.

For instances, Osmer & Schweitzer organizes three chapters in their book (2003) covering three decades per chapter: 1900- 1930, 1930-1960, 1960-1990; examining key texts to explain how the twentieth-century RE faces challenges as it confronts modernity, globalization, and postmodernism in Germany and the United States (p.79-208). Furthermore, the growing need for citizens to develop religious literacy and interreligious understanding made RE even more purposeful nowadays. Let’s explore some of RE purposes according to different authors and countries.

In his book Religious Education and the Brain (2000) Jerry Larsen compares the (learner) brain to a factory and the educator to a factory consultant; the latter is to the learner meaning-maker. As

Larsen (2000) put it, the educator represents a stream of meaning and history passed from generation to generation as religious culture. The religious educator role as a factory consultant has six ways of consulting and is summarizing as such: 1) rearing, 2) teaching, 3) informing, 4) equipping, 5) training, 6) nurturing. (p.35-36) In that case, the purpose of RE can be to impose truth as well as to promote growth. Thus, it is obvious that RE has multipurpose orientations.

The purpose of RE can be to promote character training (Tulpa, 1935; Alexander & Agbaria 2012).

Leonid V. Tulpa describes RE as a process of developing desired attitudes toward God and man.

He argues that the task of RE should be that of forming certain habits in people. According to

Tulpa (1935), the following agencies are responsible to insure the formation of desired habits: 1) the Church and the Sunday school, 2) the home, 3) secular schools, 4) street, 5) cinema, 6) radio,

7) newspapers, 8) magazines, 9) books, 10) vocations. (p. 38-39). Certainly not all these agencies are necessarily consistent with one another. Conflicting attitudes, tendencies, and habits will surface unless there is an active cooperation of those agencies. Thus the religious character (based on Tulpa’s idea it includes loyalty, devotion, compassion, altruist, responsible, cheerfulness, courageous) is achieved successfully. In discussing cooperation of agencies (for attitudes desired), this idea opposes the liberal democracy views which promote liberal character like tolerance, openness to new ideas, ability to exercise independent judgment, self-reflection, and reasonable levels of moral autonomy.

From the practitioner point of view, the purpose of RE is to nurture the faith of the adherents

(Atkinson, 1995). In the Handbook of Young Adult Religious Education edited by Harley

Atkinson (1995) John Elias states that “… purpose of young adult RE naturally begins with an understanding of young adult” (p.9). Elias tries to understand young adult in two dimensions: social-science and religious. A social-science understanding of young adults includes 1) life cycle development, 2) psychosocial development, 3) lifespan development, 4) cognitive development,

5) social psychological development, 6) affective development. A Religious understanding of young adults includes 1) biblical concept of maturity as it relates to development, 2) discipleship

(young adults as disciples of a religious teacher), 3) followership (young adults as followers of a religious leader), 4) religious conversion (young adults in need of conversion to a new way of life),

5) young adults as community members (young adults are invited to enter assemblies, churches, congregations, communities, and associations), 6) young adults as people of faith (p.12-18). Based on the above claim, young adults can be understood as people between 18 to 40 years old with scholastic and religious knowledge (not necessarily) or in search for life meaning and/or spiritual guidance. Therefore, young adults RE is achieved by teaching subjects like social sciences and pedagogy (theological and social science principles), and religious traditions.

Many scholars think that the purpose of RE is to promote peace, social cohesion, cultural literacy, understanding of other worldviews (Kathleen Engebretson; Astley et al. 2011, Stephen Prothero;

McCreery, Palmer & Voiels, 2008). They argue that people should be educated in their religious traditions. Stemming from interfaith theology, interfaith education is an influencing trend in RE in public and private schools, especially in Christian school and other religiously affiliated schools

(in Australia). According to Engebretson, interfaith education in the Christian school is considered as one stage in a transformative RE (p. 83). Thus, the aims of instrumental interfaith education in the Christian school include: 1) the development of greater understanding and appreciation of the people and groups in the community, leading to enhanced tolerance, appreciation of religious diversity, and social cohesion; 2) the rejection of prejudice and intolerance based on misinformation; 3) the acquisition of basic knowledge about religious traditions such as their historical roots and foundational stories, and the doctrinal basis for religious practices; 4) the development of critical and informed awareness of the religions in local and national communities;

5) the enabling of a deeper understanding of the religious perspective of others in the community

72 as a basis for shared action for peace and justice; and 6) provision of the opportunity for an enhanced knowledge and appreciation of the student’s own religion, and an expansion of religious consciousness through learning about others (p. 87).

The purpose of RE differs from different countries. A country like England acknowledge the role of religion in people lives throughout the world and the effect of those beliefs on culture and society, thus, RE aims to help children to:

- acquire and develop knowledge and understanding of Christianity and other principal

religions represented in the United Kingdom;

- develop an understanding of the influence of beliefs, values and traditions on individuals,

communities, society and cultures;

- develop the ability to make reasoned judgments about religious and moral issues with

reference to principal religions represented in the United Kingdom;

- enhance their spiritual, moral, social and cultural development;

- develop positive attitudes towards other people, respecting their right to hold different

beliefs from one’s own, and towards living in a society of diverse religions. (McCreery,

Palmer & Voiels, 2008, p. 5-6)

Unlike England, RE is forbidden in public schools under the law in the United States. Given the high degree of secularization and Concerned over religion as multicultural education (Randolph

Crump Miller, Liz Jackson, James Banks, Jonathan Chaplin, Sonia Nieto, Richard R. Osmer &

Friedrich Schweitzer), RE has been replaced by ‘teaching about religion’. Multicultural education, as Jackson (2014) puts it, a type of education that aims to respond to the presence of diversity and

73 inequality in society. Many countries such as Canada, Western Europe, South Africa to name a few are in the process of introducing a RE curriculum aiming at educational rather than religious purpose. The purpose of teaching about religion (especially in public schools in the U.S.) is to instill understanding, tolerance and respect for a pluralistic society. Teachers are expected to teach students about the role of religion in the historical, cultural, literary and social development of the

United States and other nations. From a Christian perspective, multicultural education aims at preparing children for intercultural relationships, helping youths to develop personal identity

(Donald Ratcliff), and helping adults to understand other culture.

While educators from both Christian and secular agree on some elements of multicultural education there are some fundamental differences. Salter (2001) in his article on multiculturalism from a Christian perspective, he states that multiculturalists want to emphasis the differences among people whereas Christians focus on the unity of all people and their common needs such as their needs for salvation. Virgilio Elizondo comments that “a true multicultural RE program is the original New Testament story of the Christian movement: how the slaves, the disenfranchised, the low merchants, the widows, the unemployed, the immigrants, and the socially downcast found a new and exciting alternative to social life that the world had not imagined possible”. In the new community, Elizondo points out that “everyone was accepted with reverence and respect”.

(Wilkerson, 1997, p. 395)

RE brings in issues of social cohesion, diversity, tolerance and respect. It is the case of England and the United States where teaching of RE are being scrutinized because of events like the bombings in London in July 2005 and the New York incident back in 2001 so called 9/11. Ever

74 since, there are higher expectations on the subjects than just rote learning but to enable pupils/students to explore the ambiguity of religion, wart and all. In his article entitled Time to

Rethink Religious Education? (2000) Derek Gillard states that, “in a multicultural society, RE can help children to develop tolerance and respect for other people’s beliefs and practices.” He also points to the fact that the major world faiths don’t seem to have much respect for each other; and they (religion) encourage you to believe that your truth is better than theirs.

RE aims at fostering personal, moral and religious development (Bradford, 1999; Tacey, 2000;

Yust, 2003; NCC, 1993; Hilliard, 1959; John Keast in Broadbent & Brown, 2002; Walshe & Teece,

2013). Christian, Buddhist, Muslim and the like teach/transmit spiritual and moral value to their adherents with the hope that the faithful would become moral agents within the society. The literature shows that both spirituality and morality are being objected. However, teaching RE has contributed greatly to spiritual and moral development through the study of religious and non- religious groups, by showing how values change over time, and within different contexts and engaging in a direct and challenging way with concepts such as justice, truth, love, rights and equality. Though RE contributes to many positive aspects of people lives, there is a great deal of contestation on the meaning and purpose of RE around the world. That compels me to look at some of the issues in RE, especially on how RE enable pupils/students to answers the four fundamental questions of origin, meaning, morality and destiny.

2.2.3 Local and Global Issues in RE

2.2.3.1 Local Issues in RE – Haiti

RE faces issues native to different countries as well as some global issues which it continues to grapple with. I would briefly touch on certain local issues in Haiti and cover a more global look.

Achieving an all-encompassing RE design has never been easy. In Haiti, the challenges of RE range from a conservative apprehensive Christian population to weak curriculum design amongst others. Haiti’s historical emergence shows that after independence, Catholicism was made a state religion. The state was thus, split between catholic and protestant groups in a battle for domination of Haiti. As a result of this, the major purveyors of education in Haiti were the Christians. Since the Christians in Haiti control the schools, and provision of education in the country, RE therefore, restates the Christian beliefs and worldviews. Consequently, RE in Haiti remains one sided and

Christianized, glamorizing the Christian faith as the purest and divine while demonizing others, particularly Vodou. This ideological demonization sets Vodou apart, labelled as a fetish, devilish religion which should be abhorred. RE, thus, in Haiti lacks tolerance, accommodation, open mindedness and a genuine desire to understand others. An even more significant challenge of RE in Haiti is the need for a dependable method of knowledge delivery for maximum impact, as well as, instruments of this delivery. By methods of delivery I mean the modes of teaching RE for maximum retention and behavioral transformation, while instruments mean the teachers who would deliver the lectures. Since these teachers, more often than not, would be Christians, it requires professional open-mindedness to teach other religions without bias, condescension and condemnatory tone. Neutrality therefore, on the part of RE, teachers create a huge challenge for

RE.

2.2.3.2 Global Issues of RE

Islamic issues on RE – Away from the national front, globally RE is equally plagued with a number of challenges which the world is still grappling with. One of these global challenges, and a significant one at that, is the challenge of Islamic education in RE. With the increasing rate of terrorism and its seemingly strong ties with Islam, as well as the demonization of Islam as a religion of war, there is an increasing neglect and discrimination against Islam. However, if our end is peace, then our means must be cooperation, acceptance and understanding. As diversity continues to embolden its position, there is increasing recognition and provision for Islam in RE. The most significant contributor to the challenges faced by Islam within the purview of RE is the mass media which litter the world with, often times, false information which discourage even Muslim parents from really patronizing Islam as a component of RE for their children, they would rather spend their resources in securing western education for their children.

Assessment Issues on RE – The already mentioned purposes of RE are meant to deliver through teaching and learning. The second issue is assessment. Every teacher would know that teaching, learning and assessment go together for at least two main purposes: assessment for learning and assessment of learning. In that vein, the big question is how we can assess achievement in RE. As

John Keast puts it “assessment can get caught up in the philosophical issues about the nature and purpose of RE in the school curriculum”. Keast uses an attention getter when he stated that “We cannot pretend assessment is not, and has not always been, part of teaching RE.” Meaning that assessment is imperative in the process of teaching and learning so teachers of RE have always been assessing the progress and achievement of pupils and it is impossible to imagine that, in the case of England, in all the generations of teachers and cohorts of pupils there have been in RE

77 since 1944 that no assessment has occurred, said Keast. The dilemma is there are some aspects of

RE that cannot be assessed and one may be skeptical whether these aspects can be taught (John

Keast in Broadbent & Brown, 2002; Watson & Thompson, 2007). For instances, pupils spiritual and moral development are very sensitive thus difficult to assess in the classroom. (Though there are challenges in teaching, learning and assessing spirituality many efforts are made by researchers to develop approaches to meet the requirements such as the working definitions of spirituality in education and the experiential approach to RE (Erricker & Erricker, 1999; Hay and Nye, 1998;

Hammond et al. 1990; Wright, 2000). Watson and Thompson also believe it would be inappropriate to regard pupils’ expressions of personal views and ideas (although integral to teaching and learning) for formal assessment. Watson and Thompson quote the draft document on assessment of the Birmingham agreed syllabus. It states:

The review and ideas people hold are constantly subject to such assessment. We may regard

them as deep or shallow, ill thought out or well-ordered, badly supported or soundly argued.

What may be wrong is to assume there are set answers to perennial questions, or to assume

that many of the most important concerns in religious life are open to public scrutiny or that

everything should be made public.

The question is what can be assessed in RE? In England to assess pupil’s learning they come up with the so-called attainment targets (AT): Learning about Religion (AT1) and Learning from

Religion (AT2). Most agreed syllabuses make reference to six areas of inquiry. These areas of inquiry help to provide a guide for teaching, learning and assessment in RE and have been used as the basis for many RE school curriculum. Here are the Six Areas of Inquiry (Key Concepts in RE):

1. Beliefs, Teachings and Sources (AT1)

2. Practices and Ways of Life (AT1)

3. Expressing Meanings (AT1)

4. Identity, Diversity and Belonging (AT2)

5. Meaning, Purpose and Truth (AT2)

6. Values and Commitments (AT2)

The following table presents key stages and programs of study that pupils/students are expected to cover in RE:

Table 2.2.3.2 a

The Agreed Syllabus requires the following religions to be studied in depth in these key stages, and other religions as appropriate Key Stage Religions to be studied Foundation Christianity and religions and beliefs represented in the class, school or local Stage/Reception community Key Stage 1 Christianity and Sikhism Key Stage 2 Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism Key Stage3 Christianity and revisiting the other major faiths building on knowledge of Islam, Judaism, Sikhism and Hinduism and Buddhism Key Stage 4 Two religions, including Christianity 16-19 RE for All Beliefs systems and life stances as appropriate Note: Adapted from (The Agreed Syllabus 2013, Cambridgeshire Country Council)

The following table represents the two attainment targets (AT1/AT2):

Table 2.2.3.2 b

The Ladder of Skills Eight-Level Scale for RE: A Basic Tool AT1 AT2 Learning about Religion and Belief Learning from Religion and Belief 8) Analyze and contextualize… Synthetize and justify their views… 7) Account for, show coherent understanding… Evaluate Critically and personally 6) Interpret Express insights… 5) Explain Express views (Why, similarities and differences) (in the light of religious teachings)… 4) Show understanding… Apply ideas 3) Describe … Make links… 2) Identify, retell… Recognize, response sensitively … 1) Recall, name… Talk about… Note: Adapted from The Agreed Syllabus 2013, Cambridgeshire Country Council

To answer the above question “what can be assessed in RE? According to The Agreed Syllabus three aspects can be assessed in RE: Knowledge, understanding, skills. Which for instance

“through the early learning goals in the Foundation Stage pupils will begin the process of being introduced to religious language, stories, celebrations and practices in the Catholic Christian tradition as well as developing a range of generic skills” (Level of Attainment in Religious

Education in Catholic Schools 2000). However according to Geoff Teece learning ‘about’ religion and learning ‘from’ religion was intended to be seen as pedagogical strategies NOT attainment targets (Sally Elton-Chalcraft, 2015, p.18).

Neutrality Issues of RE Teachers – The third issue is neutrality. Neutrality is a very important issue in RE, considering the fact that the world has been hooked on a monochromatic education design, attentive alone to the native religion of societies. The creation of an all-encompassing curriculum to scatter its attention across all world religions is bound to hit the Jericho walls of discrimination and bias constructed by teachers. A man’s religion is a sum of all the beliefs and practices which he holds sacred to the exclusion of all other conflicting beliefs. There is some natural tendency towards the monopoly of religious superiority (the belief that one’s religion is purest and more sophisticated in comparison to all other religions). This was clearly echoed in

Volf’s statement that, in the face of difference and disagreement, it is common for humans to want to exclude the other. (Volf, in Larson & Shady 2009). It therefore takes conscious and calculated open mindedness to accept other religions as worthy and on equal terms.

Neutrality, from a religious angle, refers to a state of mind or disposition which treats all religions equally without favoritism or bias to anyone. Teachers therefore must assume a genuine neutral posture when teaching RE so that they do not overtly or covertly slander one religion and place another on a silver platter and so that every atom of condemnatory tonality is stripped from their voice. But despite the importance of neutrality, it has not been deployed in its full dose. This is because religion is an emotional issue which is entangled with the soul and mind of individuals.

Neutrality, at the very extreme, require emotional, value laden beings, who have become entangled with a particular set of beliefs and have been immersed in a particular pool of values to numb their emotions when discussing an emotional issue which conflict with everything they hold sacred or may fail their internal validation tests, more so, to instruct students with the same enthusiasm and emotional fervor with which they would teach their own religion. Neutrality thus presents a huge challenge. Martinez -Torrom & Durham (2012) add that Neutrality is very difficult to guarantee in this particular sensitive area.

To Warnock (1975), the need for this neutrality in RE knowledge transfer stems from two main fears which are: the fear of instructors consciously or unconsciously indoctrinating students and the subconscious of self-learning which often emerges when teachers fail to provide direction.

Warnock (1975) however presents her own argument against neutrality. First, she remarked that a teacher is a role model who must guide students responsibly with self-evidential examples of how the teacher navigates similar issues. The scholar added that the openness for students to agree or disagree is a calculated way to address the fear of indoctrination. In other words, the teacher according to Warnock (1975) shares her opinion in a way that is open to debate and discussion amongst students. Against Warnock’s is the fact that the first instinctive response of students of

81 impressionable minds is imitation and repetition rather than debate. This implies that students are more like to take after their teachers’ choice than to question its validity. Warnock would have been exculpated from this oversite, if the age bracket to be subjected to this had been stated clearly.

In addition, Warnock’s idea implied that the teacher should carry his religion to the students with all emotional enthusiasm and significations. This has a tendency to lead to arrogant and subliminal conversions.

Kelly (1986) developed four variations of pedagogical neutrality which includes: exclusive neutrality, which avoids all controversial things; exclusive impartiality, which teaches one perspective as the truth; neutral impartiality, where a teacher’s view point is neutral; and committed impartiality, where teachers’ views are not disguised.

With the recognition of pluralism there is a demand for school to include different ethnicity, nationality, culture and religions in the teaching of RE, thus the demand for RE to be secularized

(Smart, 1967). Ninian Smart argues for the secularization of RE and shifts its focus to the analysis of religion seen in a global context, yet still attempts to relate it to pupils’ personal and epistemology questions (Smart, 1968 cited in Jackson, 2004, p. 6). Due to the issues of religious difference, human rights, and indoctrination from both religion and secularization, RE teachers are asked to adopt a neutral view while teaching RE. A typical example is the introduction of Ethics and Religious Culture (ERC) program by the Ministry of Education of Quebec in 2008, which became a mandatory course for all elementary and secondary students in both public and private schools (Maxwell, Waddington, McDonough, Cormier, & Schwimmer, 2012). This program intent to increase religious literacy and combat some of misunderstanding around the differences in

82 religious and cultural practice; however, as Arzina Zaver (2015) puts it, “… the implications of a neutral professional posture asked of its teachers have been difficult to translate into the classroom”. The implications involve distance teachers must maintain from their own worldviews, and this form of neutrality promoted by the Ministère de l’Éducation du Loisir et du Sport (MELS) contradicts the ethics of religious sensitivity and religious literacy promoted in the Bouchard-

Taylor report (Bouchard & Taylor, 2008), mentioned Zaver (2015). Douglas Farrow (2009) challenges the ERC curricular aims by raising three points on (1) the impossibility of pedagogies to be neutral as they are rooted in specific philosophies and worldviews, (2) the marginalization of teacher voice and agency, and (3) the role of the state in promoting its values system through ERC

(cited in Zaver 2015).

Prior to Arzina Zaver’s article Martinez-Torron and Durham (2012) conducted a report examining the implementation of RE across the world. The results show that a neutral, non-denominational type of RE has “been gaining momentum in various countries”; in examination of the practical problems of the implementation of RE, the teaching of such a subject requires teachers that are highly qualified in teaching moral issues, and also that “neutrality is very difficult to achieve in the particular sensitive area” (p. 22-23).

Conflict Resolution Skills – As the wind of globalization traverse national boundaries, it carries with it specks of diversity which settles overtime and lump people of diverse culture, religion, and world view into same social space. The occupation of same social space by these estranged groups means that there would at some point be interpositions and overlaps which would result in apprehension and conflicts. One of the aims of RE, therefore is to endue students with the requisite

83 skills for conflict management and resolution. According to Blake & Morton in Madalina (2015), there are five typical responses to conflict which are the fight, avoidance, adaptation, compromise and collaboration. The fight is the least respected style, yet the most patronized, ironically. It is highly assertive and less cooperative. The avoidance style involves staying away from everything capable of resulting in conflict. The adaptation style promotes cooperation as it involves deemphasizing one’s own differences to fit into another’s design. The compromise, promotes high cooperation. It involves sacrifices from both parties in order to reach a middle ground. Finally, the collaboration style involves the fusion of beliefs and ideas to creating a lasting understanding and peace. Among the five styles, the collaboration, compromise and adaptation are the best styles for the achievement of peaceful resolution of conflict.

In his need’s analysis, Kelman (2016) argued that a large frustration of basic human desires constitutes a great danger to peace and social order in our society. Kelman’s theory rests on the assumption that all human societies have a set of collective psychological needs of identity, security, recognition, participation, dignity and justice and failure to fulfill these needs or not recognizing these needs sends a clear invitation to conflict or exacerbates conflict (Kelman, 2016).

Kelman argues that the lack of recognition for these vital needs motivated and sustained the

Israeli–Palestine conflict. Kelman’s theory thus reveals that most of the local and religious conflicts in Haiti and the rest of the world are not far from the lack of recognition for these innate psychological needs. identifying and respecting these needs would clearly send a message of peace and cooperation. For Yang (2018), experts in conflict resolution and group matters, and scholars are important in the resolution of conflict. These experts and scholars provide assistance as mediators, arbitrators (Lewicki et al. 1992; Ross and Conlon, 2000). Yang’s suggestion

84 immediately demonstrates the importance of RE scholars and teachers in nurturing excellent minds to work towards resolving conflicts. All of the above discussion by no means suggest the superiority of one method over another, or the strength of one approach over another, rather it is an exposition of diverse methodologies which should characterize conflict resolution attempts as there is no one size fit all.

However, to use these styles one must own a certain level of mastery in the use of certain skills.

These skills include: emotional intelligence to discern when issues are likely to degenerate into conflict, communication skills to bridge the barrier of apprehensiveness through discussion and analytical understanding of issues, which will allow for more in depth understanding of the cause of conflicts and their resolution from a very informed position. The above conflict management skills will provide interreligious groups with the required skills for dialogue which will further promote cooperation and peaceful coexistence.

Gender Issues in RE – Although significant progress is made in many nations, gender inequality is considered to be a worldwide issue, especially in aspects concerning education, violence, income, power and so forth. According to many authors, gender inequality is an attribution of religions

(Cooray and Potrafke, 2011; Lehrer, 2004; Seguino, 2011, Seguino, 2016). The status of women and the power they wield has a direct bearing on the provisions of their historical accounts as well as the cultural and social set up of their communities, (Klingorová, 2015). Every religion promotes diverse beliefs and these norms furnish different social institutions and behaviors, culture and historical antecedents, hence, creating a unique status for women compared to other religious persuasion (Klingorová, 2013).

According to Young (1983), all world religions, to a large extent, stifle woman within their societal designs. Women were only regarded, for the most parts, as participants and followers within their religious communities, (Hamplová, 2013; Renzett and Curran 1999). Islam particularly, reduces the woman to a mere sexual receptacle without a voice in religious gatherings and almost without clear liberties in society. According to Holm (1994), Krejci (2009), Islam exhibits a continued plummet of the place of women within its religious and social design in comparison with the recently increasing recognition of women rights in “advanced” religions. This implies that Islam relegates the woman to the bottom rungs of the ladder of rights and liberties and only affords them liberties as the religion prescribes. This discrimination against women which is not exclusive to

Islam might be as a result of the patriarchal historical environments which all of the world religions were fashioned in (Nešpor, 2008; Seguino, 2011).

This implies clearly that the low feminine positions in religions is often borrowed from the societal social designs wherein these religions took roots. In other words, as the societal designs grows to accept women, religions over time, begins to reflect this acceptance and change of status. In addition, the feminist rise and respect of women in the West has translated into the recognition and respect of women in Christianity. On the other hand, the continued relegated place of women in the Arab world is still responsible for their insignificant place in religion. Religion often attribute the place of God/creator to a man and attributes the place of mother to women (Klingorová, 2015).

This immediately creates unequal status. Holm (1994) however states that some women have attained lofty religious posts.

One goal of equality-in-educational agenda is the creation of democratic designs for schools which ensures participation at all levels, which improves performance levels and academic standards.

The achievement of this goal demands that all teachers recognize how inequalities, based on social class, face, gender, sexuality and disability are perpetuated through the educational structures, systems and individuals within the schools. RE has a significant responsibility towards the establishment of equal access to education for all. RE should be designed without gender bias and favoritism. Unfortunately, issues sufficiently plague RE.

Access to education in the first place is gender biased to a large extent, this is particularly prevalent in Muslim countries. According Syed (2018), 22.5 million Pakistani children are out of school and girls are more affected, 32 percent of primary school aged girls are out of school compared to 21 percent boys. This already shows a design by the society which somehow neglects the girl child in her quest for education. There is some sort of indifference towards education for the girl child in these communities and this translate for less access to females receiving RE. Haitian girls between the ages of 5 to 15 often work as domestic laborers, called restavek and those who get access to education are often marginalized resulting in a high dropout rate. Hence, the girl access to education, is the first determinant of girls’ access to RE. Conservative fundamentalists often fear that allowing their children to engage in instructing and practices of another religion could lead to their conversion and thus, prevent their children form access to this knowledge. This is more serious with the girl child who is considered more fragile and gullible compared to the males.

Hence, a reduced access to RE.

2.2.4 Teaching RE in Schools

In the introduction of her book Teaching Religious Education Creatively (2015) Sally Elton-

Chalcraft encourage teachers to consider their own attitudes towards religion and RE before they plan any RE. Elton-Chalcraft stresses that “religion and beliefs are notoriously contentious topics”; so, teachers need to do a self-evaluation on what values and attitudes they bring into the classroom.

Table 2.2.4 a

Questions to Ask Oneself Before Planning Any RE Your Baggage What do you think about religion?

What influence did your upbringing have on the values you hold?

What do you think the aims of RE ought to be?

Note: Adapted from “Creative Religious Teaching”. Teaching Religious Education Creatively (Elton-Chalcraft, 2015)

Teachers’ values and attitudes (their Baggage) can have a positive or negative influence on their capacity to engage children in creative and effective RE, said Elton-Chalcraft. (p.8) Like Elton-

Chalcraft Daniel O’Leary believes creative RE can engage students. To echo him “Maybe we need to re-romanticize faith and RE, to give our students something beautiful to fall in love with”. For

O’Leary the hearts and minds of educators need to be taken care of. (in Schmack et al. 2012, p.157)

Engaging pupils/students can be complex. Both Elton-Chalcraft and O’Leary point to the school curriculum/prescribed books and programs. Elton-Chalcraft quoted Twiselton (2004) to encourage teachers not be curriculum deliverers but to be creative and effective teachers, skill and concept builder “who think carefully about what the children need to learn and why this knowledge and this skill are relevant”. Such teacher, as she puts it, ensures the learning fits into the wider curriculum and she/he scaffolds the learner’s experience. (Elton-Chalcraft, 2015, p.7).

To foster our understanding on what is creativity in teaching and learning Elton-Chalcraft compare two hypothetical schools in the UK where the children are engaged in learning. Table 2.2.4 b describes the characteristic of School CCAF (challenging, creative and fun) and school HEBS

(hard/easy, boring, scary).

Table 2.2.4 b

Characteristic of Caricatured CCAF and HEBS Schools CCAF (challenging, creative and fun) HEBS (hard/easy, boring, scary) Children and teachers are challenged, have fun Teachers and learners find school too hard or too and are creative at school. easy, boring or scary. Children possess the magnificent eight qualities Children are unmotivated to learn, get upset when of a powerful learner (Claxton 2007) –curious, they make mistakes or fail, are bullies or victims of imaginative, disciplined, reflective etc. bullying. Teachers enjoy the challenge of planning, Teachers put minimum effort into planning, teaching teaching and assessing. They have positive and assessing. They dominate or are scared by their relationships with their pupils and find their pupils. They are miserable, feel powerless and only jobs tiring but rewarding. work to pay their bills. Note: Adapted from “Creative Religious Education”. Teaching Religious Education Creatively (Elton-Chalcraft, 2015)

While Elton-Chalcraft argues for teacher responsibility on designing a meaningful curriculum,

O’Leary emphasis is more on the affective level stating that “The heart of the catechesis is the heart of the catechist”. He also added that “The teacher’s spirit must be transformed before the students’ will be. In echoing Cardinal Hume, O’Leary states “Unless the faith means something to the teacher, it will not mean much to the students.” (Schmack et al. 2012, p.157). In other term, teachers need a supportive environment in order to achieve positive engagement in RE. Let us now explore some pedagogical strategies and pedagogical knowledge in RE.

2.2.4.1 P edagogical Knowledge

Effectiveness for teaching any subject is the most pressing issues for teachers. It is expected that teachers possess some subject matter knowledge before they embark into teaching. In his article

Those Who Understanding Lee S. Shulman retrospect teacher’ knowledge clearly states this point of view: “The person who presumes to teach subject matter to children must demonstrate knowledge of that subject matter as a prerequisite to teaching. Although knowledge of the theories and methods of teaching is important, it plays a decidedly secondary role in the qualifications of a teacher” (Shulman, 1986). Teachers can acquire knowledge of their disciplinary subject matter through substantive college disciplinary education, completion of (pre-service) teacher training, and daily work with the materials (or in-service training). Findings on teacher preparation reveal that it helps candidates develop the knowledge and skill they need in the classroom. However, research on teaching shows that many teachers enter the teaching profession without an adequate teacher training and/or knowledge about their discipline (Anderson, 1988; Shulman, 1986, 1987;

Darling-Hammond 1999; Jepsen & Rivkin 2009; Aggarwal & Aggarwal, 1991). Both subject matter and pedagogical knowledge are imperative in teaching.

Let us come back to our topic on pedagogical knowledge. Dewey (1904/1964) argument for the inclusion of the knowledge of subject matter into the curriculum for teacher training was comprehensible. Shulman (1986) observes the subject matter transform from knowledge of the teacher into the content of instruction while reflecting on research-based conception of teacher effectiveness of his time. Referring to this new conception about teaching and teaching effectiveness policymakers put heavy emphasis on procedures to evaluate teachers without realizing the subject matter was omitted in those researches. In reasserting the importance of the

90 subject matter in educational practice; Shulman and his colleagues called this omission of the subject matter among the various research paradigms for the study of teaching the ‘missing paradigm’ problem.

Education systems around the world observe that teacher professional knowledge can affect all phases of instruction including planning, teaching/learning, assessment, and reflection. Shulman

(1986) suggests the following aspects to assess teacher knowledge: (a) subject matter content knowledge, (b) pedagogical content knowledge, and (c) curricular knowledge, (d) knowledge of general pedagogy, (e) knowledge of learners and their backgrounds, (f) principles of school organization, (g) finance and management, and (h) the historical, social, and cultural foundations of education etc. The first three aspects form what Shulman called content knowledge and the rest form pedagogical knowledge of teachers. Both are indispensable in teaching. In his view, the key to distinguish the knowledge base of teaching rested at the intersection of content and pedagogy.”

Thus: the concept ‘pedagogical content knowledge.’

Lee S. Shulman (1987) defines the concept ‘pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)’ as teachers’ interpretations and transformations of the subject-matter knowledge in the context of facilitating student learning. He proposed several key elements of pedagogical content knowledge: (1) knowledge of representations of subject matter (content knowledge); (2) understanding of students’ conceptions of the subject and the learning and teaching implications that were associated with the specific subject matter; and (3) general pedagogical knowledge (or teaching strategies). To complete what he called the knowledge base for teaching, he included other elements: (4)

91 curriculum knowledge; (5) knowledge of educational contexts; and (6) knowledge of the purposes of education (Shulman, 1987).

Quoting Aristotle, Shulman (1986) point out that “ultimate understanding rested on one’s ability to transfer knowledge into teaching. Much research on effective teaching shows adequate teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge is a strong predictor of student achieving. The contrary is also true

(ineffective pedagogical content knowledge underpins students’ poor learning), research evidence supporting this fact point out the ineffectiveness of teachers. A variety of factors undoubtedly contribute to this ineffectiveness; such as time, lack of teaching skills including creativity and misconception, teachers’ resistance to change, irrelevant curriculum etc.

Such issues are not foreign to RE teachers in many part of the world. A study on theory and praxis in three secondary school programs in Cambridgeshire (Simpson, 2012) observes significant difference between teachers who fully understand the concept of gifted and talented in RE and teacher with a vague conception. The study reveals teachers’ assumptions about giftedness in RE were the main factor enabling/hindering them to identify and challenge students gifted and talented in studying religion. Baamphatlha Dinama (2013) study on ‘Pedagogical Knowledge of Religious

Education Teachers in Botswana Junior Secondary Schools’ showed despite teachers’ awareness of the content and pedagogies they are expected to use in teaching a multi-faith RE curriculum but fail to broaden their scope about the subject in term of the approaches they use and shortage of teaching and learning materials.

The Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted)’ report ‘Religious

Education: realizing the potential’ (2013) recognizes the improvements in RE in schools over the past decade. According to the report more pupils recognize the values of RE and nearly two thirds of them left school with an accredited qualification in the subject in 2012. Furthermore, the range and quality of resources to support teaching in RE are much better than they were. However, the report discusses eight key challenges about RE in schools in England. These concerns are summarized as such:

- Low standards

- Weakness in teaching

- Curriculum problems

- A confused sense of purpose

- Limitations in leadership and management

- Weaknesses in examination provision at Key Stage 4

- Gaps in training

- Impact of recent education policy changes on RE in schools

All these challenges are factors affecting teaching effectiveness. If we consider one of the key findings from Ofsted (2013) report:

The teaching of RE in primary schools was not good enough because of weakness in

teachers’ understanding of the subject, a lack of emphasis on subject knowledge, poor and

fragmented curriculum planning, very week assessment, ineffective monitoring and

teachers’ limited access to effective training.

Result from the conducted survey shows that the subject’s potential is still not being realized fully in the majority of schools in England. As they observe many pupils leave school with scant subject knowledge and understanding. Moreover, RE teaching often fails to challenge and extend pupils’ ability to explore fundamental questions about human life, religion and belief. (Ofsted, 2013)

2.2.4.2 Pedagogical Strategies

Educators/Teachers use many different theoretical approaches and instructional resources to facilitate learning. The approaches are based on the different modern principles and practices of western education. In their book Approaches to Learning (2008) Anne Jordan, Orison Carlile and

Annetta Stack discuss many of these theoretical approaches (into 17 chapters) as a guide to teachers:

Philosophy of education- it explains how educational theories arise. The first chapter traces the philosophical underpinnings of teaching strategies such as reflective questioning, problem-solving and critical thinking.

Behaviorism- behaviorists define learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior as the result of experience (p.21).

Cognitivism- cognitivists believe that learning results from organizing and processing information effectively. If educators understand how learners process information, they can design learning experiences that optimize this activity. For example, an awareness of how learners transfer short- term memories into meaningful knowledge is likely to be useful in the classroom. (p. 36)

Constructivism – teachers see learners as constructors of meaning. The chapter 4 discussed tree perspectives of constructivism: trivial constructivism and individual meaning-making; social

94 constructivism, which emphasizes collaborative meaning-making; and critical constructivism, which considers the construction of meaning as empowerment. (p. 55)

Social learning- it goes with the assumption that learning usually occurs in a social setting. Social learning is examined from two perspectives: the sociological and psychological perspectives.

Cultural learning - it explores the ways in which culture influences learning. In chapter 6 the authors emphasize on theories related to the cultural determination and expression of meaning, and outline the educational implications of these theories.

Intelligence- chapter 7 outlines the concept of intelligence and presents a number of traditional and modern definitions and their justifications. This includes an examination of the use of intelligence testing for educational selection purposes, and concludes by drawing out other learning and teaching implications. (p. 3)

Life course development- it deals with changes and development over the live course. The authors present three distinct models. They examined a number of developmental theories which contrast holistic, psychosocial and moral theories with cognitive ones.

Adult learning- it provides an explanation of the terminology associated with adult education and learning. The theories that underpin recent developments in adult learning are those of andragogy, transformative learning and critical thinking.

Values- it explores the value of education as an instrument in achieving the goals of society and the individual.

Motivation- outlines how motivation theories affect learning.

The learning body- it presents individuals as embodied learners. The chapter 12 draws on a range of disciplines to argue that learning is not simply a function of the mind, but is inherently physical

Language and learning- it considers the significance of language in thinking and learning. It investigates language development from a number of different perspectives, including its role in reproducing societal advantage.

Experiential and competency-based learning- it examines theories of experiential learning, and skill and competence acquisition.

Inclusivity – it presents an overview of the historical constructs of disability. Chapter 15 discusses two current discourses of disability, the deficit and the inclusivity models, together with their justifications, and indicates the stance adopted by the authors. It evaluates the educational consequences stemming from both discourses and points to a compromise position.

Blended learning – it begins by defining and distinguishing the terms blended learning and computer-based learning. Chapter 16 outlines the development of relevant theories and their current use in online collaborative learning systems.

The future – it considers three major transformations occurring in modern society: individualization, the network society and globalization, and identifies significant trends and implications for education, together with some strategies for educators.

Of these 17 approaches, teaching RE could find tangent with almost all them. Though more relevant to teachers in England, various approaches are based on philosophies and pedagogies specific to RE, as well as more generic approaches. In “Pedagogies of Religious Education: case studies in the research and development of good pedagogic practice in RE” (2000) Michael

Grimmitt provide a good summary of approaches relating specifically to RE. Another example is a chapter on effective teaching and learning, based on different pedagogies in Julian Stern’s book

“Teaching Religious Education: Researchers in the classroom (2006).

According to the authors (Jordan et al., 2008) educators base their professional practices on some aspects of theory and claim that a knowledge of theory gives the educator the following benefits including (1) insight into theoretical positions; (2) access to the considered experience of others;

(3) validation and affirmation of existing practice; (4) mind-tools for recognizing, analyzing and evaluating issues; (5) power to manipulate and develop concepts in a reflective manner; (6) terminology to explore epistemological and pedagogical topics; (7) shared educational discourse for engagement in the scholarship of teaching; (8) justifications for personal teaching practices to colleagues and stakeholders; and (9) protection from unproven and faddish ideas (p.1).

Having defined theoretical approaches in part as a set of teachers’ professional practices, the next question becomes: what is teaching through these approaches, and when and how should it be done?

Let us look at one example: the case of the United States. In the USA, religion is not a separate, required subject in public K12 schools; however, religion is embedded in curriculum standards across disciplines, especially in social studies and English, and there are a growing number of elective courses that focus on religious themes or topics explicitly (AAR, 2010). The American

Academy of Religion (the world’s largest association of religion scholars) provides comprehensive guidelines of teaching about religion in public schools.

Table 2.2.4.2

Examples of Specific RE Pedagogies Phenomenological Approach As exemplified by Ninian Smart (1969) “The Religious Experience of Mankind” and his dimensions of religion. This is based on a study of phenomena associated with different world religions. RE as Human Development As exemplified by Michael Grimmitt (1987) “Religious Education and Human Development”. The focus is on mankind meaning through RE. This is at the heart of learning from religion (AT2). Experiential approach As exemplified by David Hay and John Hammond (1990) “New Methods in RE Teaching: An Experiential Approach”. The emphasis is on spiritual development through RE. Interpretative Approach As exemplified by Robert Jackson (1997) “Religious Education: An Interpretative Approach”. The focus is on the skill of interpretation, and the importance of internal religious diversity as well as religious plurality. De-constructivist Approach As exemplified by Clive Erricker (2000) “Reconstructing Religious, Spiritual and Moral Education”. See also the Hampshire Agreed Syllabus (2003). This approach is based on constructivist theories of education, the task of education being to construct the ‘self’. In terms of RE, this is to do with the philosophical or spiritual self. World views as well as religions become increasing important in this approach. Religious literacy As exemplified by Trevor Cooling (1994) “A Christian Vision for State Education: Reflections on the Theology of Education”. and Andrew Wright (1993) “Religious Education in the Secondary School: Prospects for Religious Literacy”. The focus is on understanding the central concepts and truth-claims of different religions. Examples of generic pedagogies Dilemma-based learning Developed by Phil Wood, Barry Hymer and Deb Michel. The approach involves reflection and action in equal measure. It does this by allowing the teacher to expose their students to enquiries into a number of difficult choices based upon real life. The dilemma-based learning approach helps students to improve their group skills, as enquiries are based upon a joint quest, in the belief that several thinkers working together are more effective than just one. For more information see Dilemma-Based Learning in the Humanities, B. Hymer, P. Wood and D. Michel, published by Chris Kington, London 2007. Mantle of the expert This is an inquiry based approach to teaching and learning involving role play (donning the mantle of the expert). It was invented and developed by Professor Dorothy Heathcote at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in the 1980s. The big idea is that the class do all their curriculum work as if they are an imagined group of experts. For more information see www.mantleoftheexpert.com. Thinking actively in a social context (TASC) This is an approach developed by Belle Wallace (past president of NACE). The TASC approach encourages personalized learning and a sense of ownership. Students use the TASC problem solving wheel to guide their thinking. The approach encourages creativity and flexibility, within the framework of the Agreed Syllabus. For more information, see www.nace.co.uk/tasc and www.tascwheel.com.

Continue. . . . Concepts and processes: the ethos of Curriculum 2008 The focus is on exploring and understanding concepts, rather than a content led curriculum. The emphasis on personal, learning and thinking skills exemplifies this, and the opportunities to work with a range of different curriculum areas is presented through the cross curricular dimensions. See http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/. Philosophy for children (P4C) and community of enquiry This approach was developed by Professor Matthew Lipman and his associates at the Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children at Montclair State College, New Jersey. Lipman emphasized the importance of questioning or enquiry in the development of reasoning. In this he was influenced by Vygotsky, the Russian psychologist. Lipman developed a new model of learning, the ‘community of enquiry’, in which teacher and pupils collaborate with each other to grow in understanding, not only of the material world, but also of the personal and ethical world around them. For more information see http://sapere.org.uk Note: Adapted from RE Matters for Every Child. (Essex County Council, 2014)

These guidelines stresses on the following methodological approaches including historical, literary, traditions based, and cultural studies. In applying these approaches, the AAR is also clear that public school teachers would be reminded of three central premises of academic learning about religion: religions are internally diverse; religion are dynamic; and religions are embedded in culture. As stated in AARK-12 Curriculum Guidelines, “These Guidelines support the former, constitutionally sound approach for teaching about religion in public schools- encouraging student awareness of religions, but not acceptance of a particular religion; studying about religion, but not practicing religion; exposing students to a diversity of religious views, but not imposing any particular view; and educating students about all religions, but not promoting or denigrating religion” (Nashille: First Amendment Center, 1999 as cited in AAR, 2010). Furthermore, since few educators have taken religious studies courses, AAR encourages using these Guidelines in substantial teacher pre-service and professional training that imparts content, pedagogy, and academically and constitutionally sound approaches for teaching about religion in K-12 public schools. (p. i.).

Let us explore some of the instructional resources involved in RE teaching. Selection of the necessary learning resources for teaching is the responsibility of school administrators, teachers, authority and so forth. Learning resources may include, but are not limited to, print and non-print materials; audio, visual, electronic, and digital hardware/software resources; and human resources.

According to Akubue (1992), the pedagogical criteria in selecting instructional materials involve the following elements. The materials should

- relate directly to the objectives;

- be in keeping with the ability of learners;

- be in keeping with the age level of the learners;

- be of interest of learners; and

- be varied enough to make provision for individual differences.

2.2.4.3 The Needs for Better Training Preparation of RE Teachers

Every country boasts of an organized educational institution with designed curriculums, subjects and methods of teacher’s recruitment and training (Cole, 1972). Most times there is a ministry of education charged with this responsibility (Chidester, 2006). It lists the required qualification required and prescribes the course contents and curriculum, as well as, methods through which universities and colleges would train teachers in order for them to acquire the needed pedagogical skills. For instance, in the UK, people must have a degree, which seems to be the minimum requirement and a special teacher certification. The Initial Teacher and Training Program often serve this purpose and it prescribes content of study teaching methods, all of which is guided by state regulations. RE teachers are furnished with the required knowledge in the same way and then

100 are subjected to specific RE teacher training courses to develop all rounded and experienced knowledge mediators (Warnock, 1975). New teachers are often trained by well experienced teacher who have been in the field for as long as they can remember (Warnock, 1975). To add, teachers can also be trained by experienced scholars of these religions who might not be pedagogically certified to transfer knowledge but who are well vast in their religions and know everything about. Lessons from such scholars, pastors, priests, Imams or elders would be enriched with life experiences which cannot be gotten within the walls of a class room.

2.2.5 An Appraisal of Previous Studies

Quite recently, in April of 2011 to be precise, Yonah Hisbon Matemba completed a doctoral dissertation at the University of Glasgow which focused on comparing developments in High

School RE. Matemba’s comparative study was a gaze into the inherent dynamics between the forty-year period from 1970 to 2010 in the study’s host country of Scotland and in the researcher’s home country of Malawi. Matemba (2011) thus successfully managed to create knowledge on

High School Religious Education in both a European (Scottish) and an African (Malawian) context in one fell swoop. The author cites a number of studies in other liberal-democratic societies that have been subject to curriculum reform in their RE between the years 1970 and 2010, beyond

Scotland and Malawi. These include Jackson’s study on the English RE curriculum (2004),

Matemba’s own study multi-faith RE in Botswana (2005), Chidester’s in South Africa (2006), and

Weisse’s intervention in Germany (2007). Matemba (2011) proceeds into a discussion of specific societal trends which have a measure of effect on RE at the global scale; he lists these as democratization and pluralization, egalitarianism and educational access, migration, and secularization. Matemba quotes Brennan’s 2005 definition of secularization as the process

101 whereby explicit religious notion, practice and institutions lose their social significance in public life (Brennan, 2005).

Due to its focus on Secondary School RE, the foregoing exploration on Matemba’s comparative work is poignant and fitting to begin this section to the extent that it is at once basic, somewhat recent, yet encompassing both an African and a European perspective on the subject. The adoption of Matemba (2011) in opening this review is therefore done advisedly. Indeed, there have been several studies of doctoral implications in RE both prior and after Matemba’s effort. Matemba’s effort is however a milestone because of its ability to take on the practice in two different continents. Further than this, it is poignant for the present study in that it assesses one of the United

Kingdom’s most important components – Scotland. Meanwhile, barely a year prior to Matemba’s study, in May 2010, Geoffrey Teece completed a PhD at College of Social Sciences of the

University of Birmingham’s School of Education on a topic themed on ‘A Religious Approach to

Religious Education: The Implications of John Hick’s Religious Interpretation of Religion for

Religious Education.’ Teece (2010) was primarily concerned with “the question [of] how to present the study of religion to students in RE in schools that reflects a distinctively religious character but not a confessional one” (Teece, 2010, p. iii). Teece’s thesis argued that a nuanced understanding of John Hick’s religious interpretation of religion could provide a “second order explanatory framework for the study of religion in RE” (ibid.).

The previous year, in January of 2009, Anthony Gerard Finn completed a Doctor of Education degree at the Australian Catholic University. The thesis themed on ‘Parents, Teachers, and

Religious Education: A Study in a Catholic Secondary School in Rural Victoria’ looked into

102 perceptions about the nature and essence of RE of parents and teachers in the context of secondary schools by deploying a Catholic secondary school in regional Victoria, Australia as its case study.

Finn’s study (2009) was seminal to the extent that it sought to compare and contrast how parents and teachers understood RE within the domain of the field research in the selected Catholic secondary school. Finn (2009) observed that parents and teachers were in vigorous agreement regarding such aspects of RE as values, morality, individual spirituality, and religious literacy.

However, whereas most teachers who served as respondents in the study felt that charity ought to begin at home, hence have parents spearhead the RE of their wards; the bulk of the parents interviewed through the study thought they were busy with their jobs as the teachers were. For these parents, it is the teachers’ responsibility to build the primary religious foundation in their students through the course of RE classes, modules and interpretive exercises.

Finn’s findings are perhaps understandable considering that “the relationship between morality and religion is, to say the least, confused – not least because it has never been clearly defined”

(Bull, 1973, p. 89). Bull offers a framework through which to interrogate this blurry relationship between religion and morality:

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Table 2.2.5

The Relationship between Morality and Religion The forms of Effects: At Effects: At the Effects: At the Effects: At the Relationships the first second (dual) third (triad) fourth between Morality (mono) stage stage stage (quartet) stage and Religion Morality Married A Dangerous The Inadequacy of The A moral Decay to Religion Position this Position Conservatism of the Position Morality Divorced Religion’s Christian and The peculiar from Religion hostility to Humanist nature of morality secular ? (N/A) Humanism

Christian Christian Changes in Deductive Inductive Humanism Ethics ‘Christian Ethics’ Approaches Approaches

Religion and Child Studies Isolating Religious Adolescent Morality in the Influence Humanism ? (N/A) Child Note: A framework from (Bull, 1973, 89-104)

Bull’s delineation deserves a proper exploration. After all, of the traditional view which marries religion to morality, there are three characteristics namely that (a) this view sees morality as an outflow from religion, indissolubly bound up with it (b) the view portends that without religion there can be no effective morality; for its content, its form, its learning and its sanctions are rooted in the supernatural; and (c) this view of morality as married to religion, therefore, sees moral decay as the logical consequence of religious decay; if man neglects the supernatural he is morally lost.

The second form of relationship between morality and religion is that wherein morality is divorced from religion. On this secular humanist approach, Bull (1973) is explicit about a human rather than a supernatural base position; with the needs of human society, not towards God. Bull continues that such humanism is no less concerned with morality than the religious view; the only difference being that it makes morality primary while religion is relegated to the place of a barrier which does

104 not trigger moral progress. Bull’s third form of relationship between morality and religion is what is simply known as the ‘new morality’ (Bull, 1973, p. 97). In this relationship, Bull highlights notions such as the one wherein the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath; just as morality was made for man, not man for morality. Indeed, this approach recognizes that goodness implies love in action; and that evils are invariably wrong, not because authoritarian rules say so, but because they deny or conflict with love. Nonetheless, herein is the arena where morality is somewhat flexible based on immediate circumstances and contexts.

While Chizelu (2006) had dealt with the issue of ‘Teaching Religious Education in Zambian Multi-

Religious Secondary Schools’ through doctoral research at the University of South Africa precisely a decade ago, Richard Patrick Branson interrogated ‘The role of the imagination in the religious conversion of adolescents attending Catholic secondary schools’ four years later at the

University of Notre Dame, Australia. The same year at the University of Punjab in Lahore,

Pakistan, Afifa Khanam completed doctoral research committed to studying the ‘Effect of

Religious Education on the Moral Development of Children’ (2010). Also in June 2010, Eanna

Johnson completed a doctoral study on RE in Ireland titled ‘A Theological and Pedagogical

Analysis of the Catechetic Programme for Irish Catholic Primary Schools, 1996-2004’ at the

Pontifical University: St. Patrick’s College Maynooth, Republic of Ireland. And the list of citations goes on. The examples of doctoral standard research on various aspects of RE abound. The snag, however, is that there is a stark dearth of research, indeed, of literature on the subject of RE in the

Caribbean. This is rather curious considering the fact that religion features prominently in the culture of the region, even more so in the nation of Haiti – the proposed location of the present

105 doctoral study. Indeed, the selected title for the present study reads ‘An Explorative Study On

Teaching Religious Education for A Culture of Peace in Haiti.’

But beyond doctoral research, what is the caliber of literature available in the field of RE out there, particularly those disseminated through the much cited indexed journals? The British Journal of

Religious Education recently ran a special issue in its latest edition on the theme of

‘Professionalism, Professionalization and Professionality in RE’ (2016). Indeed, research in the field is so diverse, so broad based and so nuanced to the extent that the editorial team considered a need for such a special issue on the professionalism, professionalization and professionality in

RE. Let us begin this section with an assessment of the most widely read and most cited articles on this journal label in order to command a sturdy grasp of the cutting edge material in the area.

By a mile the most cited article in the British Journal of RE is John White’s analysis of the subject

‘Should RE be a compulsory school subject?’ (2004). Therein, White is preoccupied with the vexatious subject of RE as a separate, compulsory subject in British schools. White is particularly irked by the idea that the subject simply reels out a syllabus that propagates morality as established by the subject’s conveners as against being a subject that critically interrogates the notions being propagated. White informs that Britain is an increasingly secular society where the continued existence of RE as a compulsory school subject cannot hold having argued that its compulsory status isn’t justifiable. White takes his readers through a historical ride noting the origins of RE as a compulsory school subject in 1944 in order to support the moral values underlying democracy.

White is baffled at how an official justification of RE can be made in terms of moral education whereas the civic justification being referred to faded after the Second World War. White is also

106 of the opinion that the subject if it must exist – as a non-compulsory elective – should comprise elements imbued with understanding and respecting other religions and beliefs (White, 2004).

Based on the nature of his doctoral thesis at the University of Birmingham, it is hardly any surprise that Geoff Teece’s article titled ‘Is it learning about and from religions, religion or religious education? And is it any wonder some teachers don’t get it?’ (2010) is the second most cited piece in the British Journal of Religious Education. In the piece, Teece sought to clarify different possible interpretations of what is meant by current uses of the terms learning about religion and learning from religion. Indeed, Teece interrogates the issues involved in matters of teaching RE and wonders how much the teachers of the subject actually get what they teach and why they teach it in the first place. Teece emphasizes the fact that the terms ‘religions’, ‘religion’, and ‘RE’ mean three entirely distinct things with distinct implications for the concept of learning from religion which depends on being clear about what it is that pupils should learn about religion

(Teece, 2010).

Yet another doctoral study already considered here, in fact, the first of the lot to be considered is

Yonah Matemba’s comparative analysis of Secondary School RE in Scotland and in Malawi. It is, therefore, further striking that Matemba’s review of the ground breaking book Does religious education work? A multidimensional investigation (2013) by Conroy et al.; comes in an impressive third on the overall ranking of the most cited articles in the British Journal of RE. It is pertinent to note an observation at this point in the trend of questions for titles or better still questioning titles in the top three cited articles in the British Journal of Religious Education. Indeed, it is the contention here that what this portends is a broader commentary on the larger field of RE as a field

107 of great doubt, palpable uncertainty, and deep questions which future research must brace up to adequately apprehend if the field is to remain relevant as a discipline, indeed, an instrument through which new knowledge is created and disseminated.

Another very important voice and authority in the field is Professor Robert Jackson, author of the highly influential and acclaimed Rethinking Religious Education and Plurality: Issues in Diversity and Pedagogy (2004). Jackson is also the Editor in Chief of the British Journal of Religious

Education. But, all that is secondary – for purposes here - to the fact he is responsible for the fourth most cited article in the journal entitled ‘Should the State Fund Faith Based Schools? A Review of the Arguments’ (2003). We see here a continuation of the questioning trend and a corroboration of my submission in the preceding paragraph. Nonetheless, Jackson is here concerned with the debate about state funding for faith based schools in England and Wales which had intensified following the 9 / 11 attacks in New York and Washington and their aftermath internationally, together with tensions related to religion more locally, typified by riots in the north of England in the summer of 2001. In this article, Jackson is preoccupied with reviewing the opposing arguments by proponents and opponents of state funded faith based schools. Jackson’s conclusion is characteristic and palliative to the extent that he proffers that the undesirable practices referred to by opponents are not intrinsic to a faith based education and that all schools should promote social justice (including religious tolerance), knowledge about religions, the development of pupils’ skills of criticism and independent thinking and also dialogue and interaction between pupils of different backgrounds (Jackson, 2003).

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A much cited article from the British Journal of Religious Education which shall be reviewed here before the attention shifts to the official journal of the Religious Education Association: Religious

Education is Joyce Miller and Ursula McKenna’s ‘Religion and religious education: comparing and contrasting pupils’ and teachers’ views in an English school’ (2011) which focuses on teenagers in the 15 and 16 age bracket of European descent, and their views regarding religion and

RE. Miller and McKenna’s study is quite unique – albeit not ground breaking – as they compare these teenagers’ opinions with those of humanities teachers of a school in an unnamed multicultural town in the north of England. The duo offers an analysis of the similarities and differences in worldviews and beliefs which emerged (Miller and McKenna, 2011).

A final much cited report in teaching RE is the Toledo Guiding Principles. It has been established that teaching RE is vital to creating a culture of peace. Importantly, certain factors must be taken into consideration in order to achieve a perfect design for teaching RE. Against this background, we will examine the principles laid down by the Toledo report.

Toledo provided one of the most comprehensive foundation and guidelines for the provision of

RE, which have been largely implemented by OSCE countries like England, Ireland etc. Its guidelines had multidimensional structures touching on the human rights, legal implications of teaching, protection of ethnic and religious minorities, the role of parents, teachers, the students and the state, curriculum design and instructors of RE. Concerning states, the document remarked that “the state has the responsibility, not only to refrain from interfering with religious rights but also to take steps to protect the enjoyment of the religion and beliefs of every group.” What this means that the state ought to be a neutral umpire in matters of religion and must refrain for the

109 repressions and persecution of people who practice congruent with their religious convictions.

These repressions amount to gross infringements of their rights to freedom of association, expression of thought and their spirituality because international agreements and human right treatise state unequivocally that every individual had unlimited right to choose his own slant of thought and religion, free form persecution from the state in any and every way. According to the

Toledo report (as cited in Santoro et al., 2008), people holding such forms of beliefs should benefit from the protection of the international human rights law when acting in ways which manifest their convictions. There are four of these protected manifestations which are worship, teaching, practice and observance. The report further added that while states have the responsibility of designing the modes and system of education, such model must protect the interest of all within the state.

Regarding parents and children, the report submitted that, parents reserve the right to have their children educated in accordance with their own religious and philosophical convictions. This principle means that parents have the exclusive preserve to decide the RE designs which their children should lend their hearts and ears to. Where their preference is not provided for, they could decide for their children to ignore any design forced by the school. Although, children are considered independent beings entitled to freedom of choice, as children of impressionable mind, this prerogative of choice is exercised by their parents. Hence, the parents ultimately decide for their children until the child is old enough to exercise their right of choice. This principle ensures some sort of philosophical continuity within the family and a harmonization of thought patterns and beliefs.

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Regarding teachers, the report remarks that, having chosen to work in an educational, a range of restrictions may legitimately be placed upon teachers to ensure that an environment conducive for learning is maintained. In addition, teachers must approach their task in a balanced and professional manner, and may not exploit their positions as teachers to influence the beliefs of their pupils. This implies that the moment the teacher takes on the responsibility of teaching, he is no more to be seen as a member of a particular religion when teaching but as a neutral custodial of religious knowledge who would guide the minds of students to the universality of truth and the diversity of its expressions.

In pluralized societies, the minority often suffer socio-political and economic neglect which often manifests in all other subtle dimensions. One of these is the religious dimension and such neglect often breeds contempt, hatred and hinders the smooth cooperative atmosphere which brings peace.

To eliminate this, the Toledo report encourages that the design of RE should be sensitive to the needs of minority groups. Conscious efforts should be made to identify the fears of these groups, within the purview of RE recognition and allay them. Concerning the design of RE curriculum, sensitivity, inclusivity, universality, impartiality and religious equality guided by respect for the rights to religion and beliefs should be the guiding principles. In other words, curriculum must be reasonably simple but not overly simplified to trivialize complex matters and must be free. In addition, curriculum should be comprehensive and focus on key historical and contemporary events concerning issues of religion and belief. This means that the curriculum must be simple enough for children to understand yet retain the complexity required to explain certain concepts.

It must be dynamic in such a way that it comprehensively covers historical events and occurrences concerning religion. Importantly, since societies are not stuck in the past, but continually adapt

111 with the present social conditions presented by their environment, it must equally cover contemporary happenings and explanations. It must provide a link between the past and the present and even make trajectorially prophesies of the future. the document suggested that curriculum should include reference to sources drawn from various religious beliefs and traditions. This is believed will promote tolerance, respect for others, as well as, show the relative significance of all beliefs and their equality.

Curricular should also ensure that it reflect the particular religious’ conviction native to school environment. What this implies is that teaching Islam in a community in Haiti with no Muslim, even though it is one of the largest religions in the world in terms of worshippers, would be a waste of man hours, when such time would have been used to teach Vodou which is native to that community. However, important lessons from, religions must be integrated into the RE design to drive home particular points. What this means is that RE should reflect the local religions and beliefs in order to really be inclusive. Concerning recruiting teachers to teach RE, the Toledo report remarks that an individual’s religious convictions should not be a basis for his exclusion from teaching RE. Professional expertise, genuine zeal towards the transfer of knowledge and commitment to the protection of human rights, as well as, freedom of religion and beliefs should be the guiding values for chosen RE teachers.

2.2.6 RE as Human Rights

According to the Toledo report, freedom of thought, conscience and religion is one of the most fundamental human rights. Man, by nature and nurture develops a unique strand of thought, reflective of his accumulated stimuli and development. This unique thought pattern creates in him

112 an internal validation design (conscience) which weighs actions and intentions in the balance if this thought patterns and validates them as good or bad, these thought and conscience play significant roles in man’s religious expressions.

Since man’s thoughts and his religion are an inseparable part of him, they constitute part of him which he has inalienable rights to express. Haven established the fact that religion, thought and conscience are inalienable freedoms which must be protected, an attempt to develop thought into expression in order to manifest them in practices, an attempt to gain deeper insights into one’s religion through learning, reading and practice of ones thought pattern and religion becomes a human right. In other words, RE is a human right because it allows for the exercise of thought expression and the strengthening of religious convictions and manifestations.

Secondly, education is an alienable right that cannot be denied. The seventh secretary-general of the United Nations and 2001 Nobel Peace Prize winner, Kofi Annan, explained that: “Education is a human right with immense power to transform. On its foundation rest the cornerstones of freedom, democracy and sustainable human development” (Bellamy, 1999, p. 4). In the same vein,

RE is a human right that is capable of transforming Haitian citizens toward a culture of tolerance and understanding, since a sustainable result of such as culture would lead to peace building.

Articles 2 of the protocol to European Common wealth to human rights provided that “no person shall be denied the right to education. In the exercise of any function which it assumes in relation to education and teaching. Additionally, Article 29 of the UN Convention on the Right of the Child

(1989), stated that the aims of education include the ‘respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms’ and ‘the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society in the spirit of

113 understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and people of indigenous origin’ (as cited in Smith & Vaux, 2003).

Therefore, my assumptions about RE as a right is supported as it clearly validates the fact that education which is an attempt to develop the capacity of the individual is a right which must be protected by the state. In other words, RE curriculum must reflect diversity and equality of all religious expression so that individual’s choice is protected. This is clearly covered by Carolyn

Evans when she stated that “the school curriculum has become the place to solve a whole range of social ills, as well as to teach an ever-growing body of knowledge and skills to equip children for a rapidly changing world” (Evans, 2008).

RE is subsumed in education and thus, enjoys the inalienability which education enjoys.

Individuals therefore have the right to be educated in the religions of the world with solid state protection of this right. Lastly, the rights to equality and non-discrimination makes RE a human right. The right to equality implies treating Mr. A with the same measure which Mr. B is treated.

This implies that if Christianity is taught in Haiti as a means of strengthening Christian convictions and faith, then, the Vodou parent has the right to demand that her child be instructed in Vodou worldviews and practices without persecution from the state or demonization. On the other hand, non-discriminatory behavior means fair and just treatment of all, without condescension to one and without demonization. What this means is that if morning prayers are held in Haitian schools in Christian fashion, then Vodouists should also be able to lead prayer sessions for the school guided by Vodou practices and patterns without disdain for its manifestations or respect for its expressions. In other words, there should be no RE apartheid. RE based on based on the provisions

114 of the right to equality and non-discriminatory behavior enjoys the status of a human right and lends itself to the teaching of numerous religions with equal fervor and enthusiasm.

2.2.7 RE as Multicultural Education

According to Ghosh & Galczynski (2014), multicultural based education assists in the development of friendly identity and predisposition, critical thinking skills and democratic tolerance. Both scholars add that it enables students analyze situations from a broader perspective, particularly challenges of racism, poverty, violence, human rights and the development of unity.

RE on the other hand aim to educate students on the different religions of the world and their different modes of expression and practices with a view to producing religious literates with sound interfaith communication skills, tolerance for peace and inter religious cooperation. From the above definition of both RE and ME, we can deduce that RE and ME have at their core the same desire to teach diversity, as well as, emphasize our commonalities in spite of our differences.

According to Cole (1972), religious educators in multicultural environment were beginning to see improved acceptance in religious diversity locally and promotions of community relations as a result of the implementation of RE. According to the Home Office (2001), the significance of RE in multicultural education-based environment was made known by conflicts and riots in Northern

England in 2001, particularly in areas populated by Muslims. The riots were triggered by the demonization and vilification of Islam through racist views (McRoy, 2001). This implies that even while an atmosphere multicultural education thrived, but sadly, without strong presence of religious diversity in this multicultural context, the goals of peace and cooperation will, more often than not, be defeated. RE thus becomes a tool in the hands of multicultural education, which

115 emphasizes our similarities in spite of the glaring differences which characterizes of spirituality.

In examining the numerous foundational ideologies that characterize racism, multicultural education must ensure that religious and cultural groups that have become interlaced in an overlapping relationship do not lose their individual identity. This implies that while RE must become an inextricable part of multicultural education, care must be taken to preserve the unique individual views and character of each religion so that all its glories and seemingly mundane practices would be tolerated and accepted completely. This would prevent cloaking one religion in the garments of another and creating a false sense of tolerance due to incomplete knowledge of the religion. RE and ME are the dual wings of modern education upon which peace and cooperation in a diverse world would soar.

While the world is increasingly being choked under the suffocating grip of minority neglect, RE provides a platform for culturally relevant and trained teachers to enhance marginalized students and increase their cultural confidence by interacting with, and teaching these students (Abdul and

Awang, 2017). This implies that RE raises the consciousness of these marginalized students from a defeatist one, hence, narrowing the psychological distance. To Jackson (2018), RE contributes to engendering an inclusive society because it ensures the learning of other religions and worldviews without bias and prejudices (Jensen, 2010). It equips students with analytical minds which sees all religions as useful and valid hence creating religious equity and respect. Peace and unity in a multicultural society requires understanding and cooperation, (Abdul and Awang, 2017).

Chandra (1984) argued that Islamic education was responsible for the culture, politics and administration guided by its Islamic tenets and teachings, which inspired tolerance of the

Malaysians towards other religions. In other words, RE promotes tolerance and peaceful

116 coexistence. RE provides a panoramic perspective for looking at religions. Hence, instead of a judgmental and prejudicial stand, students of RE look upon other religions with a sense of understanding, acceptance and compassion for those in persecution, knowing that, although means may differ, the ends are one and the same.

2.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RE AND CULTURE OF PEACE

Achieving a culture of peace in a multi religious environment requires inter faith communication, tolerance, non-discriminatory behavior toward others, inclusivity and understanding of the foundational principles of the otherness, the absence of which led to the riots in Northern England when racist slurs were employed to demonize Islam, (Home Office, 2001). To prevent this problem

In Nigeria, the two main religions which are Christianity and Islam, have been protected in the RE design by making sure that the parts of the country dominated by these religions reflect the religions in their RE designs, (Mohammed, 2018). The scholar added that in the northern part of the country dominated by Muslims, Islamic education is largely dominant in the RE design while in the Southern and Western parts of the country where Christianity is dominant, there is a dominance of Christianity in the RE design (Mohammed, 2018). This implies a reflection of the dominant religious persuasion of a particular area in their RE design, as well as a respect of the minority religious persuasions to encourage coexistence and a culture of peace. Mohammed adds that the African traditional religion, components of the Nigerian people, is demonized and not respected or recognized. This demonization still places a dent on the level of inclusivity which the

RE design in Nigeria enjoys, as well as the gradual extinction which the practitioners of African

Traditional Religion suffers, a practice which creates a religious divide between the people in the cities and the people in the Urban areas. According to Matemba (2009), “generally, in sub-Saharan

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Africa, there is some doubt as to whether multi-faith RE is relevant to the socio-religious setting, which mirrors Christian ideals. This situation seems to exist by virtue of the fact that Christianity, introduced over a century ago by missionaries, still dominates public life.” What this means is that the need for a RE diverse in curriculum is almost non-existent because the dominant religion which is Christianity dominates the RE design. However, with increasing diversity, the level of inclusiveness is bound to increase in order to broaden the spectrum of religious views and increase the understanding of the others and promote peace. Matemba’s tone suggest some level of exclusivism which plagues the religious relationship between Christianity and practitioners of other religions in Malawi. The importance of emphasis on knowledge of the various expressions of significant religious otherness is the potential impact which this revelatory knowledge holds.

This knowledge will bridge the communication gap and chart the way for mutual understanding and respect. RE presents itself as a veritable tool for achieving a culture of peace. Culture of peace is the end for which RE provides the means to achieving. RE is the antidote which neutralizes the destructive possibilities of religious diversity if not properly managed. It furnishes students with the communication skills, empathic attentivity, acceptance, tolerance and knowledge of others which eliminate the apprehension and psychological distance which hinders peace.

2.3.1 Concept of Peace and Culture of Peace

2.3.1.1 The Concept of Peace

The concept of peace often calls to the mind an image of happiness, calm and predictability. On the individual level it connotes a sense of inner equilibrium which reflects outwardly in a calm disposition, friendliness and acceptance while on the group level a collective sense of complete satisfaction and agreement which permeates the relationship between group members. According

118 to Nastase (1983) “peace is not the absence of conflict but the gradual organization of the multi value international interdependencies, as well as, the resolving of any disputes which may appear, by means that exclude the use of force and that emphasize the finding of appropriate forms of cooperation.” Implicit in Nastase’s definition is the fact that the resolution of conflict is as important as the absence of conflict. Galtung (1996) in similar slant puts it that “It is not a set of peaceful nonviolent representations of reality.” In other words, the presence of conflict does not necessarily mean the absence of peace, but the manner with which this conflict is tackled is the most important determinant factor of peace. When conflict is treated with openness and the search for similarities which would encourage cooperation, the peace exists. This logically follows that a society free form any physical conflict yet shows belligerence even to the expressions of friendship lacks peace and is at war. This remains a logical supposition until proven otherwise. Peace therefore is a state of mind or being, individual or collect, insulated from the externalities of war and conflict, yet decides how people and societies respond to conflict. In more recent times, an integrative theory of peace was built on four sub-theories that as a whole linked together to peace as a condition based on the political, psychological, spiritual and moral of individuals in society.

Let us now consider a brief overview of the integrative theory of peace.

The Integrative Theory of Peace – In 1975, Johan Galtung suggested that a theory for peace was urgent. Since then, many schools of thoughts started to ponder various theories of peace. Among the theories that are developed on conditions for building peace, we can cite: (1) Democratic Peace

Theory; (2) Liberal Peace Theory; (3) Peace Education Theory; and (4) Integrative Theory of

Peace.

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The Integrative Theory of Peace was introduced by Danesh (2006) and this contained the notion of peace as based on the idea that peace is, at once, a psychological, social, political, ethical and spiritual state with its expressions in intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, international, and global areas of human life. The theory holds that all human states of being, including peace, are the outcome of the main human cognitive (knowing), emotive (loving) and conative (choosing) capacities (Danesh, 1997; Huitt, 1999a; 1999b), which together determine the nature of our worldview.

The Integrative Theory of Peace consists of four sub-theories:

- Sub-theory 1: Peace is a psychosocial and political, as well as a moral and spiritual

condition;

- Sub-theory 2: Peace is the main expression of a unity-based worldview;

- Sub-theory 3: The unity-based worldview is the prerequisite for building both a culture of

peace and a culture of healing;

- Sub-theory 4: A comprehensive, integrated, and lifelong education within the framework

of peace is the most effective approach for a transformation from the conflict-based meta-

categories of survival-based and identity-based worldviews, to the meta-category of unity-

based worldview.

Peace as a unity-based worldview is able to create a culture of healing and a culture of peace. A comprehensive education based on a world-view of peace may be an effective way of transforming conflict based views to a unity based view. Thus, peace education is one of the foundation cornerstones for building a culture of peace within a society.

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2.3.1.2 Scientific Community in Peace Studies

Johan Galtung, the principal founder of Peace and Conflict Studies, remains engaged in mediation and research in conflicts, and variously lives in Spain, France, Japan and the USA. Prof. Galtung is the founder of TRANSCEND: A Network for Peace, Development and Environment (1992),

TRANSCEND Peace University, TRANSCEND Media Service, TRANSCEND University Press,

TRANSCEND Peace Service, and TRANSCEND Research Institute. With 26 conveners,

TRANSCEND is currently present in 14 regions of the world, which includes Latin America,

North America, Euro Latina, Europe Deutsch, Europe Nordic, Eastern Europe, CIS

(Commonwealth of Independent States), including Russia, Africa, Arab World, Middle East,

Southeast Asia, East Asia, Pacific Oceania and South Asia. Prof. Galtung founded the founded the world’s first academic peace institute, the International Peace Research Institute (PRIO) in Oslo in 1959, after returning from Columbia University in New York, where he had taught mathematical sociology. He had also founded the Journal of Peace Research in 1964 and he helped found the

International Peace Research Association in 1964. In the past six decades, he has introduced peace studies as an academic discipline in many institutions. Today, more than 500 academic programs at various universities all over the world offer as peace studies courses. The Galtung Institute for

Peace Theory and Peace Practice was established in Grenzach-Wyhlen, near Basel in Germany in

2011. Its goal is to continue contributing to the further development of peace theory and practice in the interest of much desperately needed reduction of human and environmental suffering.

Galtung’s work has been criticized principally for its anti-conservatism [conservative peace theory]. Kenneth Boulding objects to the Galtungian peace research for these reasons namely, “a

121 concentration on redistribution over production, an obsession with equality, and support for liberationism” (Page, 2008, p. 114). These concerns are contradictory to conservatism which “by nature cautious in supporting a commitment to programs of wealth redistribution, concentrating rather upon economic growth” (ibid, p.114).

Other well-known peace study scholars include Joachim James Calleja, James Page, Ian M. Harris,

Mary Lee Morrison, Betty A. Reardon and so forth. James Page for instance, has suggested that a rationale for peace education might be located in virtue ethics, consequentialist ethics, conservative political ethics, aesthetic ethics and the ethics of care (Page, 2008). He also mentioned that there are strong connections between virtue ethic and religious ethics. Many authors have studied the relationship between religion and peace, and have come to the conclusion that religion has a significant role in peace-building (Abu-Nimer, 2001; Appleby, 1996; Dubois, 2008; Funk,

2007; Harpviken & Røislien, 2005; Johnston, 2007; Mische, 2007; Rasul, 2004; Smock, 2006;

Sivaraksa, 2007; Salhani, 2008). Thus, it is in consensus with that belief that I want to want to devote my writings to the RE and peace education, specifically to promote a culture of peace in the Haitian society. It is my belief that studying about other religions and empathizing with people from different denominational doctrinal backgrounds may well promote both a mutual respect and understanding, and in turn to create peace.

The education curriculum could be revised to promote the attitudes, behaviors, and values stipulated in the above nine areas of the UNESCO culture of peace; particularly dialogue, peaceful resolution of conflict, and the building of consensus. Education should also endeavor to promote the other eight areas of the Program of Action on the culture of peace, for example, by promoting

122 a sustainable social and economic development by eliminating social and economic inequalities, eliminating poverty and building sustainable food sources, the empowerment of women and social justice.

2.3.1.3 The Concept and Purpose of Culture of Peace

The concept of culture of peace stems from UNESCO’s investigation on how societies develop a diversity of cultural arrangements to solve the problem of how people can live together and cooperate with environmental challenges (Rivera, 2004). According to the UNESCO program, peace anchored on socio-political and economic designs hang on very delicate precipice unanimous and enduring peace must be anchored on the intellectual and moral solidarity of man

(UNESCO, 1945). The United nations general assembly in the year 2009 launched a campaign to promote culture of peace for the world’s children. This campaign drew largely from the earlier program of UNESCO and focused on proactive peace, tolerance and abundance (Rivera, 2004).

The program addressed significant pillars fir achieving a culture of peace. These pillars include the following:

 Education, sensitive to the management of conflict

 Sustainable development

 Human rights

 Gender equality

 Democratic participation

 Understanding, tolerance ad solidarity

 Open minded communication

 International peace and society

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The campaign provided an all rounded approach to achieving a culture of peace through conscious effort to plug all loopholes which might sabotage its intentions. Implicit in the combination of these components under the design of a culture of peace fashions a harmonious whole and provides a veritable formula for achieving peace. MacGregor (1986) described a culture of peace as one which resolves conflict with non-violence as opposed to violent means. MacGregor’s definition presents an over simplistic explanation which narrows culture of peace to a tool for conflict resolution. Culture of peace is that and more. It is a way of life focused on the elimination of violence before it even occurs, it is the language which diversity understands. It is a tool for uniting groups estranged by ideological or religious differences which focuses on gender justices, development, inclusiveness, human protection among others. (Rivera, 2004) culture of peace as a concept was first conceived more as an analytical tool used for comparative examination of the culture of war, and as a strategy for political action. To Boulding (2001), the culture of peace is that which deals creatively with differences and conflict in a listening culture. Boulding’s emphasis was on problem solving and patience. The scholar believed that solving problems required time and time should be given to the culture of peace. His work pointed out three important components which must be put in place for the achievement of a culture of peace. According to Nastase (1983), a multi-dimensional strategy aimed at the transformation of attitudes and behavior and different social categories from all nations, through a kind of education which promotes progressive through communication and mutual understanding would produce a culture of peace. A culture of peace, thus would be a conscious design to treat diversity with tolerance and conflict with cooperation through an understanding of the causal ambiguities responsible for these conflicts through a balanced and sensitive education design and proactive concern for the social, political, religious

124 and economic elements which predisposes people to conflictual behavior. Let us now explore the culture of peace proposed by UNESCO.

2.3.1.4 UNESCO’s Projects for Culture of Peace

According to the UNESCO document “53/243 A. Declaration on a Culture of Peace” (UNESCO,

Article 1, 1999) there are nine principles consisting of attitudes, values, and forms of behaviors, traditions, and ways of life, for a universal culture of peace. These consist of, firstly, a respect for all life, the stopping of violence and the practice and promotion of nonviolence through dialogue, education and cooperation; secondly, a respect for the underlying foundations of territorial integrity, political independence and sovereignty of states, additionally, non-intervention in concerns that within the jurisdiction of a state; thirdly, respect for fundamental freedoms and the promotion and respect of human rights; fourthly, a commitment to a process of peaceful settlement of any conflicts; fifthly, a strong effort to address the environmental and developmental needs of both future and current generations; sixthly, the promotion and respect of the human right to development; seventhly, promotion and respect of equal opportunities and rights for both men and women; eighthly, promotion and respect of the right of every individual to freedom of opinion, information and expression; finally, adherence to the principles of freedom, justice, democracy, tolerance, solidarity, cooperation, pluralism, cultural diversity, dialogue and understanding at all levels of society and among nations; and fostered by an enabling national and international environment conducive to peace.

In 1999 the ‘Programme of Action’ on a culture of peace was adopted. This involved eight areas namely:

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‘education for peace, the promotion of sustainable economic and social development,

respect for human rights, equality between women and men, democratic participation,

tolerance, the free flow of information and of disarmament’ (Adams, 2005, n. p.), [and the

promotion of international peace and security].

Stemming from the 1998 UN resolution on the culture of peace these eight actions has been proposed as an ‘alternative to the culture of war and violence’. The following table illustrates the differentiation of a culture of war and violence from a culture of peace:

Table 2.3.1.4

Differentiation between Culture of War and Violence from Culture of Peace Culture of War and Violence Culture of Peace and Non-Violence Belief in power that is based on force Education for a culture of peace Having an enemy Understanding, tolerance and solidarity Authoritarian governance Democratic participation Secrecy and propaganda Free flow of information Armament Disarmament Exploitation of people Human rights Exploitation of nature Sustainable development Male domination Equality of women and men Note: Adopted from Adams (2005)

The members of the UNESCO (1994) meeting in Barcelona on religions influence, on the culture of peace agreed that “peace lies at the heart of all religions, seen in their true spirit” (1994, p.6) and this spirit could be taught to children. The members of the meeting gave their commitment to teach the importance and value of dignity, humanity, to ensure the relations between individuals are based on love and all individuals can live in a harmonious and respectful manner. Consequently, importance was placed on behavior displaying compassion, generosity, wisdom, charity, solidarity and the choice of responsibility and freedom.

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The culture of peace proposed by UNESCO proposed an education that advocates a respect for all life, the stopping of violence and the practice and promotion of nonviolence through dialogue, education and cooperation. Building peace stems from children’s education and the awareness of those committing harmful activities and realizing that those harmful activities have negative impact on those receiving the outcome of the harmful activities. The path to peace is the acknowledgement of harmful activities and the creation of a positive peace culture.

2.3.1.4.1 Truth and Reconciliation

According to the United Nations Education and Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) it is possible to “promote individual responsibility for serious crimes” (UNESCO, 2006, p.2) through the principles of truth and reconciliation. The UNESCO notion of truth and reconciliation has been used by the ‘Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC)’ (unesco.ca, 2016) in a dialogue to improve the relations between Canadians and the indigenous people of Canada.

They hope to publish a report that details the relevance of truth and reconciliation between these two groups of people. As demonstrated in the following two statements by the TRC:

Show Canadians the complex truth about the history and ongoing legacy of residential

schools in a way that fully documents the individual and collective harms perpetrated

against indigenous peoples and honors their resilience and courage; and

Guide and inspire a process of truth and healing, leading toward reconciliation within

Indigenous families and between indigenous peoples and non-indigenous communities,

churches, governments, and Canadians generally (unesco.ca, 2016).

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Similarly, South Africa used their TRC to deal with the problems of apartheid. The TRC process ensured peace could be resolved through a ‘truth for amnesty’ (Dieltiens, 2005). And this involved the granting of amnesty to the initiators of violence associated with apartheid. It saved the lives of many people who would have been killed in continued conflict.

2.3.1.4.2 The Sustainable Development Goal 4 – SDG4 on Culture of Peace

Because of the finite resources of planet earth, compounded by the alarming growth of human population with unabated demands on nature to produce resources for man’s survival, man has set the world on a precarious cliff steadily edging towards a spiral into anarchy. The exploitation of the earth beyond its elastic limit has resulted into poverty and environmental devastation etc. which have consequently heralded disasters of unimaginable proportions and globally palpable implications. To keep natures destructive tendencies at bay, emphasis now is on sustainable development which is a design for development which takes care of the socio-economic needs of today without jeopardizing the environment for future generations to support economic viability.

Sustainable development has been designed into 17 goals with political, economic and social implications designed with emphasis towards securing the future. An important component of the

SDG, particularly goal 4 focuses on “quality education: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-long learning opportunities for all, (UNESCO, 2017).

The objectives of this goal includes “delivering education as a public good, a global common good, a fundamental human right; which guarantees the promotion of other human rights (UNESCO,

2017); promoting culture in education as a tool for achieving sustainability and promote education as a means for achieving a sustainable, equitable and peaceful world (UNESCO, 2017); promote

128 gender equality through education, provide a behavioral guide from which students will draw from all through their lives to guide them through everyday situations and promote sustainable development, (UNESCO, 2017). It is clear that the goal of SGD is to build peace, justice and inclusive societies that create equal access to social justice without bias and with respect for human rights, effective rule of law and good governance reflected in transparent, effective and accountable institutions (UNESCO, 2017). Importantly, education has been called upon to champion this course.

The objectives of the SDG4 clearly resonates with the pursuits of RE. RE, at its core, is a commitment to the protection of the right to association without prejudice, right to expression, thought and practice, (Awang and Abdul, 2017). It ensures the transcendence of culture, particularly, the religious dimension, from generation to generation, (Chandra, 1984); promotes peace and understanding, and equips students with knowledge on behavioral patterns for unity and cooperation, (Chandra, 1984). RE therefore, since it already embodies ideals of SDG4 and already has a design for achieving these ideals, becomes a vital component of the education design for

SDG4. It will ensure inclusiveness and religious equity which will promote cooperation and peaceful coexistence. It will ensure an all rounded knowledge of religions and a genuine appreciation of even the mundane practices of religions leading to tolerance and understanding. since religions are set in particular culture, it will provide a spring board for launching into the cultural uniqueness of societies and an appreciation of their differences. SDG4, armed with RE in pursuit of these lofty ideals, would therefore achieve inclusiveness, cooperation, unity, understanding, as well as a unique behavioral pattern, sensitive to differences and similarities and thirsty for peace.

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2.3.1.4.3 Building Negative Peace versus Building Positive Peace

For seven decades the United Nations (UN) have been long contributors or supporters of negative peace-building that is the absence of war. Many nations have benefited from the different UN

Peacekeeping Missions, including Haiti. The good news is that there is an ongoing effort and a shift towards positive peace building, such as, social Christianity. Social Christianity is the movement that convey the Christian gospel as one that needed to relate the here-and-now problems of industrial society. In his 1995 article, Industrial Society and Its Future, Theodore Kaczynski discussed several social problems attached to the change in people living conditions. These changes generated conflict and frustration among individuals in the society. In many cases, in their quest for freedom or peace, people respond to conflict and frustration violently. Religion can train people on peaceful conflict resolution.

Peace will not and cannot result from violence, indeed, as Johan Galtung the founder of academic peace research continues to point out: security grows from peace-not the other way around. A vivid example that violence cannot result in peace is the continuing struggle between of the Israelite-

Palestinian conflict. For security to be established in the Middle East, especially between Israel and Palestine peace agreements need to be made by both engaging with security related issues and resolving security-related issues. A similar logic was employed by the Israeli Prime Minister

Menachem Begin in 1979: By signing a peace treaty with Egypt, Israel could launch Operation

Peace to the Galilee in 1982 and evict the Palestine Liberation Organization from Lebanon, without fearing a military reprisal from Cairo on its southern border. The name of the peace treaty reflected the fact that the breakthrough between the Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and the Israeli Prime

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Minister Menachem Begin, took place in September 1978 at the U.S. presidential retreat, at Camp

David.

2.3.1.4.4 Building Positive Peace

Building Positive Peace however, entails educating children on dignity and humanity and the importance of having good relations with others. RE from a peace building perspective can result in the opening of peoples’ eyes about their harmful deeds, which may in turn enhance humanitarian principles. For instances, teaching RE to build peace can train students in effective conflict resolution, such as, restitution. Restitution skill is one of the important biblical concepts. This principle is found in the book of Numbers 5: 7, and it applies to the situation of when a person has injured someone else, God stated that he “must confess the sin he has committed… and make full restriction for his wrong” (as cited in Sande, 2004, Appendix). The main point to this is that Bible lessons can be used to train citizens on how to restore relationships in justice, forgiveness and fairness. Forgiveness can be considered as a good thing but it is more effective when it is supported by actions.

2.3.1.5 Contribution of the Literature Review Contents to a Culture of Peace

All religions differ from each other to varying degrees. Their world views, practices, beliefs all take antagonistic postures by default. As a result, diversity from the spectrum of religion analysis present huge challenge for peace. To achieve peace, these religions must adopt certain cooperative postures which would encourage communication, friendliness, acceptance, mutual understanding and respect. Firstly, religions must let go the pox of exclusivism and the essentialist condescension to other religions. This monopoly of superiority to the exclusion of all other religions creates ideological warfare as there immediately emerges an ideological battle for supremacy which often

131 sets the tone for a spiral into conflict. Religions must therefore adopt a posture of tolerance, acceptance, genuine inquisitiveness into the mysteries of other religious expressions, equality and a genuine desire for communication. This would eliminate the brick walls of hatred and set in motion communication which would create mutual understanding which would result in peace.

Peace requires compromise and collaboration and religions must present such cooperative spirit, genuinely.

2.3.2 Teaching RE for Peace

2.3.2.1 How Religion Can Lead to Peace

Diversity today is considered the cause of many conflicts and enduring cultural and religious misunderstandings. Importantly, diversity is originally not the cause of these conflicts, rather it is the intolerance, discrimination, demonization and trivialization of these expressions of diversity, particularly, religious diversity, that has caused our problems. If intolerance and demonization of religious expressions are the cause of our problems, then an understanding of the building blocks and foundational principles of these alien religious expression would give us an understanding of others and eliminate the apprehension that comes with lack of knowledge and thus bring peace. It is against this backdrop that it is believed that religious education would bring peace. RE, if properly designed would have an all-encompassing curricular which would reflect tolerance, equality and non-discrimination in teaching RE will instill these values in students, thus increasing the capacity for cooperation. One of the most important aims of RE is to provide knowledge on religions. This knowledge will correct a lot of misdirection and misinformation which have often evoked hostile and antagonistic behavior, and eliminate the apprehension with which alien religions are regarded. This knowledge will open the doors to communication, compromise and

132 peaceful co-existence. Knowledge increases understanding and with understanding one can appreciate better the relative significance of all religions and find a point of convergence which emphasizes their similarities and trivialize their differences. Another important concern of RE is furnishing students with conflict management skills. Our literature listed five conflict management styles and important skills needed to put these styles to work. Interfaith communication skills, sensitive to the convictions of others; analytical skills to consider situations from a vantage point for fair and just actions, emotional intelligence; to discern the trajectories of issues, so as to nip occurrences in the bud among others are the skills which RE promises (Blake & Morton in

Madalina, 2015).

These skills will increase the capacity to manage conflict between religious groups and more importantly to eliminate conflicts before they arise and assume destructive proportions. RE’s ability to teach these skills significantly increases the possibility of smooth communication and understanding between estranged religious groups. Implicitly revealed in our review is the human right dimension of RE. These dimensions stated clearly that humans have inalienable rights to thought, conscience and religion, as well as, the manifestations of these rights in their numerous dimensions without interference. Recognition of this fact by the state and assuming its rightful place as a neutral umpire to guide the practices of different religions in a way that they equally respect one another will, no doubt, promote peace amongst religions. When government who should be exemplary in neutrality side steps its place and becomes the purveyor of religious discrimination then conflict is set in motion.

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2.3.2.2 RE and Peace Education

Development of Peace Education–The literature has shown that the development of peace education emerged by ‘a general evolution of thinking and reflection on peace education, and reflect also by developments in United Nation thinking on peace education.’ This development has been summed up in threefold: (1) education to prevent the suffering and wastage of warfare, this the fundamental concern of peace education; (2) linkage of peace education with cognate social concerns, such as development education, education for international understanding, human rights education, futures education, and environmental education. And (3) interpersonal and intrapersonal aspects of peace education, this level of development in peace education deals with self-understanding and how we ought to react with each other at a personal level. (Page, 2008, p.1-

The above discussion demonstrates that there exist shared values between RE and peace education namely war prevention, fairness, justice and so forth. For example, in the 1960s the Christian movement so called liberation theology in Latin America challenged the status quo of that time that “The poor need to accept that they are poor because that is God’s will” and heavenly rewards await them in the afterlife (Fallon, 1996, n. p.), in facts, many base communities proclaim “that human redemption can occur, in part, by organizing to correct or overturn the conditions that cause that suffering” (Harris & Morrison, 2003, p. 79). Thus, the Church started embracing its earthly mission which is to support the oppressed. This example shows the fight for human rights by the

Christian communities (including Catholics and Protestants) in Latin America. Today, human rights education [an approach to peace education] is promoted in many parts of the world with the aid of the United Nations and UNESCO.

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2.3.2.3 The Emerging Relationship between RE and Peace Education

The literature has indicated that there is an emerging relationship between RE and peace education.

It was argued by Karen Armstrong that religion does not simply emerge. But it transforms. In her book “Religious Transformation” Armstrong retraces some interesting transformations of violent institutions into something nonviolent and spiritual, one example is the Aryan tribes and Yoga.

She explains that “A man of yoga was a violent man, a warrior, who yoked up his animals and went and raided his neighbor’s cattle and rustled cattle, carried off goods and property and women”

(n. p.). Today, this institution teaches RE to its practitioners by accompanying them to a spiritual journey promoting nonviolence and [a culture of peace]. The concept of RE here denotes models and processes of transmission and acquisition of knowledge and competences, inside religious traditions (Tanaseanu-Dobler & Dobler, 2012). Early religion in classical Greece showed individuals how they should follow the example of their gods and live a life following the divine rule of the gods. Let’s now explore how RE and this divine rule was taught.

It was stated by Cartwright (2013) that in ancient Greece “religion was personal, direct, and present in all areas of life.” Individuals living in Greece could live a religious life by avoiding acts of impiety and by performing acts of regular worship (Biblical training.org). Individuals were dependent on the Greek gods and they were obedient to the religious divine rule imposed by the gods, since gods represented the ideals of normal human life. They trusted that the gods would provide protection, loving care and would bless them.

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In the 17 th century the notion of the “golden rule” was used to encourage individuals to treat other people how they would like to be treated themselves. Individuals may use such a rule to believe in a common humanity between individuals. According to Eric Marlowe (2010) the notion of ‘The

Golden Rule’ provides moral guidance for all individuals. Marlowe quoted from the Bible

“Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them” (Matthew 7:12) to explain the origin of the religious principle of the golden rule. The principle derives from ancient times and was used by various English authors in the seventeenth century, including Bishop

William (1679), and John Goodman (1688) (Wattles, 1996). Marlowe noted that the golden rule teaches all individuals to respect their neighbors in all activities of their daily lives. The meaning of the rule means individuals do not need guidance from any other individuals, such as their parents or their teachers. It is a moral searchlight of the individual that guides individuals on how to treat other individuals (Wattles, 1996).

The Golden Rule may be applied effectively with a consideration of two factors. Firstly, knowledge is needed on the effects of individual’s actions on other individual’s lives. Secondly, individuals need to imagine themselves in another individuals’ situation when they receive the effects of another’s action (Gensler, 2013). However, an individual may not have a shared experience of another’s situation, if they are the instigator of the action or the receiver of that action. For Gensler (2013), members of a church assume a common humanity between individuals, and all individuals have knowledge or a ’godly attribute’ (Genesis 3: 22) of what is evil and therefore, all individuals can use the golden rule. The searchlight of the golden rule provides a

“moral ladder for all humankind” (Wattles, 1969, p. 189).

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2.3.2.4 Teaching-Learning Approaches and Strategies to Peace Education

According to Navarro-Castro and Nario-Galace (2008) there are five compatible teaching-learning approaches to the goals of peace education namely (1) holistic, (2) participatory, (3) cooperative,

(4) experiential and (5) humanist.

When it comes to compatible strategies with the above approaches, there are several teaching- learning strategies that teachers can choose from. The list is as follow: (1) discussion, (2) pair share,

(3) visualization/imagination exercise, (4) Perspective-talking, (5) role-playing, (6) simulation games, (7) problem-solving, (8) considering positions/issue poll (9) encouraging action, (10) reading or writing quotation, (11) web-charting, (12) use of film and photographs, (13) telling stories, including personal stories, (14) song/poem analysis, (15) sentence completion, (16) journal writing/individual reflection, (17) go-round, (18) teachable moments, (19) interviews/research, (20) expert resources, (21) reciprocal teaching, (22) twinning projects, (23) dialogues, (24) exposure trips, (25) use of globes and maps, (26) brainstorming, (27) reading quotations, (28) use of charts and graphs, (29) case studies, (30) collage-making, (31) show and tell. (Navarro-Castro & Nario-

Galace, 2008)

RE as content can be delivered through these approaches and strategies mentioned above. However, teachers must avoid indoctrinating the students. Since the literature provides significant criticisms about the indoctrination aspects of both RE and peace education. In addition, it is important to clarify the distinction between “Peace Education” and “Peace Studies.” Though the two concepts can be overlapped sometimes; thanks to Harris and Morrison (2003) a clear difference has been made between peace education and peace studies. Here is a short summary:

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“ Peace studies tend to focus on the causes of war and alternatives to war; whereas peace

education is more generic, attempting to draw out of people their natural inclinations to

live in peace. Peace researchers identify processes that promote peace; whereas peace

educators, educating people about those processes, use teaching skills to build a peace

culture” (p. 80).

This study regards both the pedagogical efforts (peace education) and researches on peace as solid lessons for Haiti to embrace a culture. Now let us explore some works done in peace studies.

2.3.2.5 The Role of Teaching RE in Building a Culture of Peace: What Lessons for Haiti

In this study, the teaching of RE takes an educational rather than a faith-oriented approach. Many pluralist multi-faith societies have taken this path, since the climate of change in RE has involved a major shift towards multi-faith, educationally oriented programmes (Hobson & Edwards, 1999).

Haiti is a multi-faith society where individuals interact on a daily basis with a variety of conflicting belief systems resulting in many divergent contradiction, such as, faith difference, fear of the others who share a different belief, religious intolerance and conflict, difference in opinion on moral values and so forth. What can ‘teaching RE’ do in such culture? Certainly, in the case of Haiti RE is an indicator that creates this cultural context. Therefore, it becomes imperative that Haitian schools, especially those with RE programmes take such issues into account.

A culture of peace involves “the aspirations of human society for a life in peace that had been trapped in a culture of war and violence” (UNESCO, 1999; Reardon, 2001, p. 19). According

UNESCO’s Culture of Peace Project education is imperative in achieving a culture of peace. Thus, those [schools and institutions] who want to promote a culture of peace include peace education

138 in their teacher education curriculum. Since it is believed that “teachers are the most responsible, influential and significant agents in the schooling process” (Reardon, 2001, p.19), therefore, teacher preparation is required to achieve such a culture. To answer the above question ‘what can teaching RE do in such a culture? A culture characterizes by conflict and intolerance towards religion. I believe that the RE curriculums in Haiti could be revised to promote the attitudes, behaviors, and values stipulated in the nine areas of the UNESCO culture of peace; particularly dialogue, peaceful resolution of conflict, and the building of consensus.

Peace education is the channel to achieve a culture of peace. In the case of this study, teaching RE takes a peace education path. According to Harris and Morrison (2003) “peace education is the pedagogical effort to build a better world, including the teaching of the skills and techniques of conflict management – skills that aren’t traditionally taught in such fields as international studies or world order studies” (p. 66). In Haiti, schools haven’t implemented education addressing social problems such human rights, environment, internal, conflict resolution, development. While such problems are the main cause of our daily sufferings; thus, this study sees schools [and religious groups] in Haiti as agents capable of addressing these issues.

2.3.2.5.1 Implications for Teaching and Learning

One of the fundamental roles of education is to aid the fulfilment of personality; therefore, a dialogic approach to RE can help students to understand each other since they are all from different religious backgrounds. The concept of dialogue has its roots in a variety of disciplines, for example, philosophy, rhetoric, psychology, and relational communication. The theologian Martin Buber has been considered by most to be the father of the modern concept of dialogue. Buber suggested that

139 dialogue involves an effort to recognize the value of the other-to see him or her as an end and not merely as a means to achieving a desired goal. Buber suggested that individuals should view others not as objects—the “I You”, but as equals—the “I Thou” (quoted from Kent & Taylor, 2002).

Alternatively, Carl Rogers’ perspective on dialogue, outlined in his formulation of client-centered psychology, suggested that any effective therapist-client relationship must be characterized by a stance of “unconditional positive regard for the other” (Kent & Taylor, 2002). As Paulo Freire advocated, dialogue among human beings will lead to a better understanding about the world. I think a critical dialogue on religion would empower students to promote an understanding between people from different beliefs. I also encourage schools in Haiti to teach multi-faith education based on Freire’s ideology that has stipulated that ‘education is never neutral’ (Freire, 1994b, p.189).

Whether we admit it or not, the transmission of knowledge (RE) of different [religious] groups in the society follows specific [political] agenda. Thus confirms Freire’s claim on the relation of education and politics, both are inseparable. If education is not neutral, why should RE be neutral and/or be excluded from the school curriculum? Therefore, a problem posing RE may be used as an important instrument to change or recreate a culture of peace and understanding between

Christians, Vodouists, Atheists, and others, which will hopefully lead to a consciousness rising as human beings sharing the same country and same world.

2.3.2.6 Teaching RE for Peace: An Appraisal

The article “Towards religious education for peace” in 2007 by Robert Jackson and Sakoto

Fujiwara remains one of the first comprehensive exposition of RE and the path to it with contributions from different scholarly experience focusing on the organization of RE in the western and oriental parts of the world. According to Duerr et al. (2000), “the culture of peace is considered

140 to resist violence through the promotion of human freedom and dignity, equality and respect for life and by introducing the leaner to non-violent strategies, dialogic mediation and non-prejudiced perception of others.

The above remark clearly furnishes a dependable guide for RE with direct focus on achieving peace. The article added that peace education transcends the boundaries of self-understanding and interpersonal relationship to global peace and justice. Implicit in the work is the idea that global peace had always been the ends of RE and that “using the ethical and religious teachings of students own religious tradition as a resource, peace educators help students to develop a new understanding and respect for people of other faiths and background” (Lahnemann in Jackson,

2007).The work thus prescribed for RE a curriculum which uses the religion and religious conviction of pupils as springboard for the perfect launch into an understanding and acceptance of other faiths.

The article importantly exposed the operational ambiguities in the concept of RE as the scholars have often avoided the use of RE since it suggests instruction, nurture or indoctrination (Chidester,

2006). RE then meant just another subject without concern, as its name might misdirect, for the development of religious knowledge and culture and its transmission from generation to generation.

The article split RE between confessional and non-confessional models. The former believed that the goal of RE is to instruct faith with its content and design, as well as, instructional resources provided by the religious communities, while the latter model is one which supports the teaching of diverse religious convictions. The article reiterated its commitment to the sanctity of the rights of RE when it stated that “children should have the right to learn about and engage with a plurality

141 of religious traditions, including their own (if they have a religious background) as part of public education.”

The above remarks suggested the importance of equality in the treatment of religions as regards the design of curricula to reflect the diversity of religions and to protect the right of choice and education of students. The article also suggested that children be furnished with other than those of their own religions. In line with the above (Baidhawy in Jackson, 2007) remarked that Islam, on the basis of its own cultural diversity, should develop a multiculturalist theology ready to respect religious differences within educational practice. The article added that RE with plurality in mind should promote dialogue and reflect this in its materials and support for pupils and teacher’s religious diversity. A thorough examination of the work should show a clear theme focused on the encouragement of diversity through students understanding of their own beliefs and their own foundational convictions as a bridge to reaching acceptance of the religious otherness.

In addition, RE as a human right which should not be denied the children echoes loudly through the thoughts of the article.

Marie and Braten (2015) argued that comparative investigation should characterize the design and the study of RE since the problems which faces RE is similar. To these scholars, comparative investigation and the knowledge it provided led to the transformation of RE in England and

Norway from a traditionally driven religious indoctrination in multi-faith study sensitive to the diversity of religious expression. In their argument, RE curricula should reflect this largely. Marie

& Braten (2015) describe the different levels of curriculum. These levels include the societal level, which they explain to involve the political and social determinants of what subjects and topic

142 should be taught in schools and the method of delivery to be employed. The general public, government officials, interest groups etc. are the major actors on this level; secondly the institutional level, which is derived from the societal level, concerns the school board; the instructional level, which concerns itself with pedagogical methods and resources and the experiential level, which is concerned with what is internalized and made personal.

Cush (2007) brings to knowledge the multiplicity of conceptualization which RE experienced when he stated that religious plurality in religious education has been subjected to numerous interpretations concretized in numerous activities. To him, there exist a dominant theme in this plethora of operationalization which is the fact that education should help children and young adults deal with the world which they find themselves. This implies that RE design and curricula should reflect diversity and inclusiveness as this will create the platform for cooperation. Teece

(2008) believed that in designing curriculum, the components chosen from religions to study must reflect the spirituality of that religion completely. This means that the peripheries of religions should be neglected when chosen to design a universal curriculum for RE, only those components which lies at the heart of the religion and which make the religion what it is would be integrated and thought.

Ilisko (2016) opened up the impact of RE on the mental balance and pointed to the importance of critical skills of the individual when he argued that an indoctrinated mind is more dangerous than we imagine and dealing with this should employ the school’s ability to develop the critical skills of students. He argued that students should be allowed to learn about different religions other than theirs as this will set in place the platform for solidarity. He argued further that sustainability can

143 be achieve d when we learn to respect those with whom one disagrees and engage in discussion of one’s stereotype and presuppositions. This implies that Ilisko, like other scholars, throw his weight behind communication as a veritable means for opening up peaceful relations between faiths. He added that pedagogical methodologies should teach students to respect and help others in need rather focus on the fulfilment of their own rights alone and that there should be a local manifestation of religious and circular plurality.

To Niazi, Assad, Assad, Harvey and Dorff, RE can help promote mental and physical health. this fact has not been given the much-desired recognition and promotion. For instance, Islam promotes personal hygiene, stress control and management, and healthy nutrition; Buddhism teaches avoidance of drugs or drinks that could cloud the mind; Jews believe their bodies are a vessel unto

God which must be kept clean through proper diet, proper hygiene, adequate exercise, sleep and a healthy mind (Assad, Niazi, Assad, 2013; Harvey, 2013; Dorff, 1996). The scholars equally add that religion can also have negative effects on the human mind and physical health. For instance, certain religious practices and beliefs contributes to the development of certain mental disorders like, obsession, anxiety and depression. In some cases, RE discourages people from seeking professional medical attention, (Haynes, 2010; Bullock, 2012). RE have also been known to be vulnerable to manipulation by extremists. This was reported as the case in Pakistan and Indonesia

(Afrianty, 2012; Shah, 2019), scholars however remain divided on this conclusion.

Presently, RE is shifting focus towards eliminating the hatred characteristic of religious groups for a certain people, particularly the LGBT community, as well as the use of religions by extremist to achieve terror and inhumane destruction (Marianne, Jordan, Joel, 2019). This implies that RE is

144 becoming more concerned with making the world more prejudice free and preventing misrepresentation and misinterpretation perpetuated by religious extremists. All the afore explained ideas by scholars seek to promote peace and provide a foundation for peaceful coexistence between diverse religious groups through RE.

Article 8 of the UN Resolution 53/243 (A) “Declaration on a Culture of Peace” (September 1999) proclaims that:

“A key role in the promotion of a culture of peace belongs to parents, teachers, politicians,

journalists, religious bodies and groups, intellectuals, those engaged in scientific,

philosophical and creative and artistic activities, health and humanitarian workers, social

workers, managers at various levels as well as to non-governmental organizations.”

From that perspective, [religious] teachers can help students overcome some misconceptions within societies’ culture towards different beliefs. I assume this can be realized through a new pedagogy which values student voices, experiences, and knowledge; and teachers’ commitment to constantly modeling theories into practices, in order to continuity, trust, and respect. How would teachers achieve that?

In different parts of the world peace education took many forms. These forms or approaches to peace education are as followed: human rights education, environmental education, international education, conflict resolution education, development education, [and adult education]. Harris and

Morrison (2003) reserve an entire chapter explaining these types of peace education and how peace has been and being taught. According to the authors, types of peace education “depends upon varying notions of security and peace, differing religious traditions, cultural values, and linguistic

145 concepts” (p.65). Furthermore, peace educators initiate programs based on the political realities of their nations, emphasizing concepts valued by widely diverse cultures. Meanwhile, religions have an important role in promoting peace education: “…Church sponsored schools throughout the world promote concepts of peace and justice not often found in traditional schools run by the state”

(ibid, p. 79) (Harris & Morrison, 2003, p.65-83).

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, I argue that RE of a certain kind is needed in Haiti. I explain what makes Haiti an appropriate case in which to explore RE. Firstly, religion is a highly problematic construct and terrain in Haiti as it is reputed for contributing greatly to social conflicts. Second, historically, education has actively contributed to social inequality with religious schools being the main providers of education in Haiti. Their exclusive approach to teaching RE does not promote harmonious co-existence among different types of beliefs, but rather to the detriment of the society, propagates a pronounced and profound sense of difference in one another. Overall, their approach to RE contributes to social separation, fear for the other, and misunderstanding rather than harmony among Haitians with different beliefs. Though subtle, religion constitutes a fertile arena for combative debate within the Haitian society.

For instance, religious discourse is a source of conflict and peace in Haiti, at both the social and political levels. In their Religion in Post-earthquake Haiti (2010), Leslie G. Desmangles and

Elizabeth McAlister explored the way in which the theological discourse of religious leaders reconciled their communities to the disaster. The duo wrote that “in the day after the quake, discourse about the events took on a religious valence in theodicy, cause, and in the logic of response, and formed a framework of meaning-making for the catastrophe” (Desmangles and

McAlister, 2010: 70-71). However, many people (including foreigners and especially Haitian evangelicals) scapegoated the Vodou religion for causing the earthquake; whereas the Catholic and Vodou faith were less judgmental in their pronouncements (Munro, 2010: Desmangles and

McAlister, 2010).

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The foregoing is illustrative of how religion spurs division while constituting a breeding ground for the blame game within given societies, e.g. Haiti. The nature of the disconnect between religion

(or RE) and peace in Haiti is such that it can be investigated at the individual level. For example, what have these discords within religious beliefs in Haiti done to the average Haitian? How can such discords be re-oriented? This study investigated the research problem through quantitative means. To get a deeper understanding of the phenomenon, the study also incorporated the qualitative approach in the form of interviews to investigate the results gathered from the questionnaires. The questionnaire explored Haitian views on teaching RE through the four main research questions. These were invariably intended to unravel how teaching RE in Haiti schools can foster the creation of a culture of peace for Haiti and Haitians.

3.1 LESSONS LEARNED FROM PILOT STUDY

3.1.1 Views on RE from Pilot Survey

Before the final form of the questionnaire was reached, a pilot study had been conducted to determine if the itemized constituents were yielding the kind of information that was needed. This pilot study answered two research questions primarily. The first research question was to stem on

Haitian views to state whether Haiti is a religious country or not, since there was no empirical study showing that Haiti is a religious nation. The second was to describe Haitians’ views on RE.

The pilot method used a survey questionnaire to collect data from Haitian University students living in Taiwan and in Haiti. The questionnaire was administered online and by mail; with a sample size of 111 individuals. Question answers obtained from the pilot study were analyzed per the research questions.

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Findings from the pilot study changed the direction of the study which intended to be a comparative study on RE between Religious Haiti and Secular France. The respondents’ views on teaching RE in Haiti schools opened up areas for this present research (i.e. the role of RE in addressing Haiti’s issues like inexistent RE program, religious tolerance and culture of peace). Then a new survey questionnaire was developed accordingly for the study by the researcher. In this new survey questionnaire, less open-ended questions were itemized advisedly. To farther expand what I had learned from the pilot study, I continued this research in the following two directions:

 Increased the survey scope to include Tolerance and Culture of Peace to understand

their disposition of the two subjects. The survey results will provide a more

comprehensive view to design a successful RE program.

 Interviewed educational experts and religious experts to analyze and interpret the

survey results. Their inputs are valuable in the deployment of RE in the future.

Overall, conducting the pilot study played an important role in confirming/shaping the feasibility and appropriateness of the study design. Moreover, answers to the two research questions of the pilot study were imperative to this present study. The pilot study respondents affirmed Haiti as a religious country and positively supported new teaching approaches of RE in Haitian schools, thus, it was necessary to conduct this research study in Haiti.

Findings from the 111 pilot study respondents were stimulating. Among the respondents were 45 females and 56 males, each of whom was Haitian college student studying in Haiti and in Taiwan.

Based on the responses I got from those who participated in the survey, the religious beliefs included Catholic, Protestant, Vodouist, and Atheist. All respondents had experienced RE either

149 in primary or/and secondary schools. Additionally, some had been raised in families practicing religion.

There were 23 questions. Among them, 11 were closed-ended; with 5 possible answers from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The first closed-ended question was “I believe that Haiti is a religious country” 93 respondents responded in the axis of ‘Agree’ (31 with strongly agree and 62 with agree) while 10 responded in the bracket of ‘Disagree’ (8 disagreeing and 2 strongly disagreeing). Eight of the respondents had chosen ‘Neutral’. The tenth closed-ended question asked the respondents to reflect on their past experiences with RE towards proffering an answer to this statement: “I liked biblical verses, Bible teachings, and catechism”. 70 students agreed (29 of them strongly agree and 41 agree), 12 responded as neutral, while 29 replied to disagree (23 are disagree and 6 are strongly disagree).

100 93 90 80 70 70 60 50 40 29 30

20 12 10 8 10 0 Haiti is Haiti is not Neutral Like Bible & Don't Like Neutral Religious Religious Catechism Bible & Catechism

Figure 3.1. A graphical Portrayal of Data from the Project’s Pilot Study

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The part of open-ended questions within the survey questionnaire asked the respondents to answer questions about whether multi-religious education should be taught in Haiti’s schools, the importance of RE in schools, should Vodou be taught in schools in Haiti, and so forth. The general disposition of the respondents was that RE should not be taught in Haiti’s schools as indoctrination or conversion but as a way of acquiring new knowledge about the world, to promote understanding among people with different beliefs, and for arousing for critical thinking from the students. Most of the respondents thought that schools should not impose their religions or beliefs on students; and it should be up to the student to choose his/her religious beliefs. However, all the students thought it is important to teach religion in the schools. For instance, one of the questions was “Do you believe that religion should be taught in Haitian schools? If you agree or disagree, please state why.” This was what one of the students’ comments:

“I agree! I believe religion should be taught in every school in Haiti. Students must be

introduced to religions in school because a lot of students don’t have people who are

educated enough or don’t have books to read to teach them about religions in their

households”.

Another student commented to the question “Should schools provide students with information about all religions without the aim of having them converted? If you agree or disagree, please state why”.

“Most definitely! I believe schools should provide students information about all religions

without the ultimate goal of having them to convert. After receiving all necessary

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information about religions, I believe it must be up to the students, only up to the students,

to make the decision whether to convert or not”.

When it came to whether Vodou should be taught in Haiti schools, I received different answers from the respondents. The question was “Should Vodou be taught in schools like any other religion?

If you agree or disagree, please state why”. Some gave negative answers. Below is an example:

“Hell no! Vodou is too horrid, foul-smelling, and too sinful to be taught in school like the

other religions. It wouldn’t be used as, “Oh, let me do some good Vodou for my classmate

who’s having a headache so he or she can feel better!” It’d be like, “Let me do some Vodou

to kill my classmate because he or she is smarter than I am!”

However, some gave positive views. Below are some examples:

“Yes, it is normal, because it is not only our culture, but it is a historical religion, because

from it we get our freedom. (The air of liberation)”

“Yes, they have to talk about Vodou in school for the student to not perceive it as mystical.”

“Yes, Vodou is a religion like all the others and they are people that are part of it as well.”

Overall, ideas were both convergent and divergent when it came to Haitian perspective on RE.

Although the majority view was to include RE into the school curriculum, some views were completely opposed to the idea. According to certain responses, school should be separate from religion because they are two different things; one is spirituality while the other is education. With notable remarks, some participants considered the Vodou too superstitious to be included in the school curriculum.

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In summary, Haitian perspective on RE, based on the pilot survey questionnaire, was that Haiti can be considered as a religious country since out of 111 Haitian college students, 93 (a resounding majority) believe that Haiti is a religious country. Therefore, the first research question was obtained through the pilot study. In a nutshell, Haitian views on RE were described as such to answer the second research question: They believed that RE was a plus for the intellectual development of Haitian students, and a way to overcome misunderstanding between Haitians of different religious beliefs, in addition to being a way to transform the country. If people (including students) with different beliefs would have conflicts, and if being part of a religious group is a human right; then, peace educators must find a way to bring different existing religions into dialogue with one another in order to resolve conflicts and to create a democratic school environment in which social justice, tolerance, and respect to others are promoted. Haiti hence needs RE to reach that end.

From the perspective of promoting peace, religion can be a principal subject that teachers can use to facilitate student in class participation where students should learn to take up independent viewpoints and to make their contribution towards solving problems and resolving conflict situations. More importantly, teachers ought to take on the role of facilitator of learning, rather than the transmitter of knowledge. The Peace Education Working Group at UNICEF provides a concise and comprehensive definition of peace education as the process of promoting the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values needed to bring about behavior changes that will enable children, youth, and adults to prevent conflict and violence, both overt and structural; to resolve

153 conflict peacefully; and to create the conditions conducive to peace, whether at an intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, national, or international level (UNESCO, 2002).

3.1.2 How RE is taught in Haiti – from Pilot Interviews

As mentioned above, very few researches are made on teaching religions in school in Haiti. This specific field remained unexplored since we do not have too many religions, I focused on the very few we have, collecting experiences from people who are raised and educated in these religions to make a better analysis on advantages, flaws of the current teaching contents and methods of RE in

Haiti.

According to Catholic faith, RE teaching is based on the seven sacraments, which are divided into three types: the sacrament of Christian (baptism, confirmation, Eucharist), the sacrament of healing

(penance, reconciliation, anointing of the sick), sacraments to attend communion (marriage, sacraments of holy orders). Most people are Catholics in Haiti, even those who never attend church pretend to be Catholics. Catholic churches delegate the teaching authority to the schools which share their doctrine and beliefs. During the late Elementary school, all students from Catholic schools are taken catechism classes to get ready for a religious exam in order to take their first communion sacrament which enable them to take part in communion ceremony. It is a very popular religious tradition within the Catholic community in Haiti. During this day the pupils wear special garment with a crown (especially girls) and pray with rosary. After the ecclesiastical ceremony a party is given on behalf of the pupil. Plenty of people are invited to drink alcohol, eat copiously and dance.

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The Catholic RE program fosters spiritual growth in parishioners of all ages. The parishioners provide RE for children, with their sacramental programs prepare both parents and children to receive the sacraments of Reconciliation and Eucharist for the first time and to receive the sacrament of confirmation for the strengthening of faith. The church holds that parents are the primary educators of children in their faith development. (Notre Dame D’Haiti Catholic Church)

The following lines are the testimony of Simone (not her real name) who was raised and educated in a Catholic family. She explains that in her Elementary school time there was no formal religion class but her teachers always had them pray. During the prayer time all eyes were shut and every head bowed down. Her parents always did the same with her every night. She attended Sunday

Mass every Sunday. She has her first communion at the age of 10 after having completed her catechism classes. According to Simone, catechism classes involved endless note-taking since there was not a textbook per se. In high school her teachers always taught her deep philosophical meaning of life and how God can help them to be a better person.

On the other hand, Protestant churches (Baptist, Pentecost, Methodist, Adventist and so on) they are somewhat different when considering their doctrine but they follow a similar method when it comes to RE. All the above quoted churches have their own school in Haiti, in which their doctrines are taught. In most cases, they hire teachers and personnel which share their beliefs. They have mandatory religious classes in their respective curriculum. Pupils are compelled to memorize part of scriptures every day. Such education is extended to the church. Some of those churches are affiliated with Christian missions in America which assist their respective churches in a way or another.

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Let’s consider this fragment of interview I had with Patrick (not his real name) who was raised by

Christian parents and educated by missionaries from America. He said he was adopted by an

American family since his early childhood and attended an American school attach to an American church called “Christian Church”. He said he had to attend devotion before leaving for school every morning. Once arrived at school he had to attend devotion again. Before 10 o’clock every morning he had a religion class with a different teacher who taught him steps to follow to remain a good Christian. Like Simone, Patrick did not have a RE textbook, but owned a Bible for personal reading and verse memorization. He was baptized when he was 14 and started having communion every Sunday. He reported such teachings were of great importance to him because he always uses what he had learned from that time to take sound decisions.

The experiences of the pilot interviewees show the manner in which religious schools shape

Haitian citizens. According to Weithman (2002) religion and religious organizations provide citizens with civic and political resources of great value to liberal democracy. Recall that churches are of interest for present purposes because they are the primary institutional bearers of view of the world which motivate political action (Weithman, 2002 p.38).

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

3.2.1 Research Procedure

The research procedure entailed a series of steps. The activities tended to overlap rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence. This implied that the activities were not mutually exclusive nor separated and distinct from each other. The research model adopted here might have

156 been complicated through the phases – as five research questions loudly illustrate – however, the model was basic at its core. The knowledge in question here was to deploy RE as a catalyst and/or reactant in bringing about improved/sustained peaceful relations within Haiti. With the nation of

Haiti at peace with itself through its national dynamics, the portends for the nation in the international sphere could be immense. With branding by nations taking on fresh and postmodernist dimensions, it is little wonder there has yet been a sensational tale of a nation that sells itself on peace; or indeed a nation whose key tourist asset is peace. The portends are innumerable. Yet, as a starting point, it was prudent to envisage the body of possibilities between peace, RE and Haiti, as the illustrated body of knowledge. This study thus set out to begin the critical fill up of this vast terrain which was approximately constitutive of a virgin ground as of the present time. In the meantime, it is important to note that social research methods are usually quick to sell themselves as the tools used to interrogate, examine, re-examine and explain forms of social phenomena. The interesting point here was that this study did not exactly propose to explain a social phenomenon. Rather, here was an attempt at applying the ‘technology’ of RE in reaching the product of ‘peace’ (Macdonald and Headlam, 1986; Conroy, et al. 2013; Babbie,

2016):

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Self-preparation:

- Personal observation To understand the existing - Reflection on personal practices, and issues of RE experience - Literature review on RE

Pre- Study Stage -To understand Haitian views on RE -To understand if Pilot Study: Haitians view themselves as a - Design and conduct a religious nation.

Survey

- - Inspirations: -Responses from the Pilot Study inspired further research study

-Participated in Peace Education Conferences increase curiosity & confidence

 -To explore the possibilities

 Phase I and related issues for peace

- Literature Review on RE, and RE -To understand Haitian

for Peace views on teaching RE for a culture of peace

- Design and conduct the survey

Dissertation Study Stage Phase II -To further examine the views analyzed in phase I - Interview - More Literature Review -To get advises on

on RE Practice for Peace approach to teaching RE - for a culture of peace

Study Results: - Develop a RE prototype for a Culture of Peace - Write-up the Final Report

Figure 3.2.1. Research Procedure

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Figure3.2.1 is a representation of the trajectory, philosophy, and forte of this research study with regards to the exploration of RE towards a culture of peace in Haiti. As Macdonald and Headlam

(1986) informed their readers, one can criticize a conclusion if one is well informed about the variety of methodology and tools applied. The effort culminated at the end of the research which is a RE prototype, indeed was a product of accumulation of existing knowledge. The long term contribution of the RE prototype is its implementation towards engendering a culture of peace in

Haiti. On this account, this research – both an applied and developmental effort – can assume sustainability with aplomb.

Overall, this study first explored the different issues on RE in both Haiti and other parts of the world. Thus, a review of literature was conducted in order to gain a contextual understanding on issues in the field of RE. Second, this study involved conducting a survey to understand ‘Haitian views on teaching RE for a culture of peace.’ Third, this study involved analyzing respondent and participant suggestions to reexamine held values and beliefs in the ultimate objective of emphasizing ways to a culture reconstruction through teaching RE in Haitian schools. Fourth, based on the findings this study provided suggestions for the development of an educational model program (RE) in the future from which Haitian students will be educated.

3.2.2 Rationale for the Research Design

Research methodology designed to collect data from a specific population typically utilizes a questionnaire or an interview as the survey instrument (Boudah, 2011; Robson, 1993). Both of the two approaches have advantages and disadvantages. Using a non-in-person questionnaire is less time–consuming to complete than using face-to-face interviews or telephone interviews for

159 quantitative data gathering because “a questionnaire can be sent and returned by post or email, completed on the internet, or handed directly to the respondents who completed it on the spot and hands it back” (Phellas, Broch, & Seale, 2012) while face-to-face or telephone interviews involves more time for activities, such as appointment making and carrying out the interview. Meanwhile, the Internet provides a cost and time efficient option to send out the survey and collect the results

(Klandermans & Smith, 2002, p.18). Robson (1993) also agreed that mailed surveys are extremely efficient at providing information in a relatively brief time period at low cost to the researcher.

On the other hand, face-to-face interviews are the most effective in term of collecting quality data, because interviewers can ask deeper questions when necessary during the interview session. These data are very helpful in clarifying respondent’s views which were not part of the interview questions.

In terms of sampling methods, the targeted population were secondary and higher education students in Haiti. I intended to use the random sampling method, which according to Neuman

(2011, 2006, 2003), yields samples that are most likely to represent the entire population (p. 249), even though it does not guarantee that the selected random samples perfectly represent the population (p. 252). There are other sampling techniques, such as convenient sampling, which selects samples that are convenient at the sampling time, they could have been another option if the purpose was not to create a representative sample. Neuman also stated that when we select cases based on convenience, our sample can seriously misrepresent features in the entire population (p. 242). In fact, I have used the convenient sampling to conduct both my pilot study and research study. The reason convenient sampling was used in this study was due the fact that

160 all the 57 institutions that were contacted (via email) in Haiti did not reply to the request of the survey research. Therefore, the sampling method of this study was drawn conveniently from Haiti population.

It is recognized that using previously published secondary data would be beneficial in terms of speed and cost (Gorard, 2001). However, primary study on Haitian views on teaching RE in school is almost non-existent. Therefore, a questionnaire survey was produced to collect primary data. It was hoped that this method contributes to the originality of the study. Indeed, it has created empirical data which shows clearly the perceptions of Haitians toward the contents and practice of

RE.

The methods applied in this study involved survey questionnaire and interviews with educational and religious experts. The questionnaire items were designed based on the literature review and preliminary respondent feedback from the survey questionnaire of the pilot study. As previously stated, findings (especially the qualitative feedback) of the pilot study indicated the direction of this research study. In other terms, the findings were inspirational, informative and instructive that they provide great ideas of what to explore (i.e. exploring teaching RE for a culture of peace). The study was carried out in two phases.

The first phase used a quantitative research method to understand Haitian views on teaching RE in schools in Haiti. This approach involved collecting data, reading/coding data, and analyzing data. Thus, combining the details created a system of belief that reflects a foundation of the ultimate RE program. This ultimate program conveys Haitian views on teaching RE for a culture

161 of peace. This information was kept in a document and hoped to serve as scaffolding for phase II of this study.

The second phase involved interview to assess the possibility of conducting RE for peace building in Haiti. A group of experts was commissioned to evaluate respondent suggestions in the perspective of a culture of peace. It was hoped that these educational experts will share their views on pedagogical methods that work and how to reconstruct a culture of peace in a religious perspective. Indeed, they shared many constructive pedagogical methods for RE which they thought are promising to instill a culture of peace in Haitian students (see chapter four).

3.2.3 Phase I: Survey

At phase I, this study involved designing a survey questionnaire to address the four research questions proposed in Chapter I. The survey was both self-administered and web-based to collect information from a sample of Haitian secondary and higher education students residing in Haiti.

For this study, respondents were asked to complete a questionnaire which required both structured and unstructured responses. Questions with structured responses used five points Likert scale

(Uebersax, 2006) to measure students’ responses, while the unstructured questions allowed open- ended responses. The data was eventually analyzed to address the proposed research questions

(Boudah, 2011, p. 158).

3.2.3.1 The Development of the Survey Questionnaire

This study used a survey questionnaire as instrument. This instrument was developed in English first and later translated into Haitian Creole to enhance clarity for respondents through the purposes

162 of this study. Two main purposes were taken into consideration for the design of the instrument.

The first purpose was to describe Haitian views on teaching RE in schools. Thus, RE and religious tolerance was measured. The second purpose is to explore students’ responses on how RE can contribute to a culture of peace in Haiti. Hence, culture of peace was measured.

Accordingly, the questionnaire was divided into four sections and contains 67 items in total. The first section addressed demographic data and contained 11 items. The second section included 18 items measuring RE. The third section had 12 items measuring religious tolerance. And the fourth section contained 26 items measuring culture of peace. Overall, the questionnaire consisted of 11 fill-in-blank demographic questions; 53 closed-ended questions, which were provided with response options (five Likert Scale); and 3 open-ended questions, which respondents could freely express their views. The purpose of these open-ended questions was to collect additional data.

Each section was concluded by an open-ended question. In addition, an introductory section

(which took the form of a cover letter) accompanied the questionnaire to explain the importance and implication of the study; vis-a-vis abide by the requisite research ethics.

Table 3.2.3.1

Survey Questionnaire Structure Survey – Teaching Religious Education Course for a Culture of Peace in Haiti Introduction Survey Introduction and Background Section one Demographic Data Section two RE Measurement Section three Religious Tolerance Measurement Section four Culture of Peace Measurement

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3.2.3.2 Reliability and Validity of the Survey Questionnaire

In this measurement instrument, reliability and validity was carefully considered. Consequently, the researcher developed this questionnaire after lessons learned from the pilot study (i.e. the feasibility and appropriateness of the study design) and literature reviews as well as comments from this dissertation’ committee members. Evaluation of the instrument was undertaken by experts (i.e. 2 University Professors who teach research method), who helped to ensure the consistency, efficient transfer of question answers, and biasing question of the questionnaire

(Peterson, 2000). Later, the translation from English to Haitian Creole was done by a native Haitian who mastered the two languages.

A pretesting method involving convenience-sampling of 5 individuals to evaluate the proposed questionnaire had been completed. The questionnaire was sent to Haitian university students in

Taiwan online through Survey Monkey. This latter is an online-survey software that helps to create polls and survey questionnaires for learning about different topics (from the official website

SurveyMonkey1999-2015). I requested from the tested participants to submit feedback on the survey, which enabled me to determine some unclear questions that needed to be improved.

After all the necessary corrections, this study applied a pretesting method all over again before sending the formal invitation to the study (i.e. to the fifty-seven institutions mentioned above). The final version of the questionnaire took two forms: online via Survey Monkey, and paper and pencil.

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3.2.3.3 Respondents Background and Sampling Strategy

Background. – The respondents for this research consisted of 175 males and 122 females. They were categorized by age into young adults (ages 20-34 years, n=255), middle-aged adults (ages

35-49 years, n=37), and older adults (aged older than 50 years, n=5). Background data relating to educational attainment is assessed as 1) secondary/vocational school, n=39; and college/university students, n=258. Here, it is important to note that a large number of respondents were also students at the time of the survey research. Their religions comprised of 1) Catholic, n=71; 2) Protestant, n= 157; 3) Vodou, n=21; 4) others, n=20; and no religion, n=28.

Of the 297 respondents, only 8 reported that they did not receive RE during their upbringing, and one respondent remained neutral. This finding reflects Haitians’ schooling experiences as majority of schools in Haiti are religious/sponsored by religious organizations. In other words, a significant number of Haitians had been somehow received RE throughout their lifetime/schooling. Note this

RE was in most instance confessional RE (i.e. Bible teaching or Catechism). The respondents came from the 3 main regions of Haiti, including 1) the big north, n=141; 2) the big south, n=43; and the transversal, n=113.

Overall, the 297 respondents represent a small population sample. A larger representative sample size (i.e. in terms of age, education, and religion) may have led to the research offering an increased or significant set of findings. However, a brief review of the background information shows that a majority of the respondents fell into the 20-34 age category and had benefitted from college or university education. This reality may help to explain that in Haiti, young people are more likely to be familiar with technology, easier to reach and communicate with, as well as be more willing

165 to fill out both online questionnaires and paper and pencil questionnaires than older people. Indeed, filling the questionnaire on Survey Monkey requires certain internet skills and reading skills which are indicative of the younger generation as opposed to older people (Katz & Rice, 2002).

It indicates that half of the respondents identified their religion as Protestant; this is an error of the research method given that the intended technique did not work as planned (see appendix D).

Indeed, the reality also is that all the 57 institutions that were contacted (via email) in Haiti did not reply to the request of the survey research. Therefore, it was necessary to adopt a different strategy for data collection. The new strategy required the researcher to send the survey hyperlink to respondents through personal contact systems on social media, including Facebook, Messenger, and via email. I believe that this strategy heavily influenced the data collection system.

Subsequently, it was considered important to undertake a visit to Haiti so that more data could be collected, hence the inclusion of a survey that involved paper and pencil. This approach allowed the researcher to access Muslim and Vodouist respondents who, it appeared, undertook little activities online.

As a result of the Haiti’s trip, the study collected data from 10 respondents who identified their religion as Muslim and 20 who identified themselves as Vodouist. While both male and female respondents were representative for the Vodou, the 10 Muslims who completed the survey questionnaire were only males. As a parenthesis, these 10 Haitian male Muslim respondents could not have been reached without a trip to the Mosque in Port au Prince, Haiti. Based on my observation at the Mosque yard, many males came to converse with me but the women. The

Haitian female Muslim went straight up inside without making eye contacts. Additionally, another

166 observation was when I was asked to partake in the worship service. The mosque is designed to segregate male and female. A large area made up the podium, the flat-and-open space for males and a designated place (closed) for the Muslim women through which you can see the upper part of their bodies only. This was very remarkable to observe as a first time visitor (both male and female first visitors sat near the doorway on the flat and open space area with the Muslim men).

Though it was not a requirement for first time visitor females to join the Muslims women, but I felt double segregated (i.e. a feeling of non-appurtenance and brain-teaser experience).

Sampling. – For this study, students from secondary and higher education institutions in Haiti was selected as the targeted population. Such selection was undertaken due to the fact that this sampling has the potential knowledge background about the education system in Haiti; so, they are at a favorable position to opine (or foresee) on the type of contribution teaching RE in Haiti schools would add to the society. In other words, they would more likely be able to reflect on the strength and weakness of the status quo i.e. confessional RE in Haiti’s schools.

Simple random sample technique was intended to use in this research, and this was for two main reasons: to reduce the potential of human bias and to make generalizations from the sample to the population. The technique that actually used to draw a sample from school and higher education institutions in Haiti was a convenient sampling because no name list was provided by any institutions. In fact, the fifty-seven institutions that were contacted (via email) in Haiti did not reply to the request of the survey research. Thus, the proposed random sampling method (i.e. Neuman,

2011, 2006, 2003) did not work as intended. This reality made it necessary for the study to use a convenient sampling method. This method involved sending the survey hyperlink to respondents

167 through personal contact systems on social media, including Facebook, Messenger, and via email.

The result heavily influenced the nature of sampling population – it misrepresents the Haitian population – (i.e. half of the respondents identified their religion as Protestant). Indeed, Neuman was right when he stated that when we select cases based on convenience, our sample can seriously misrepresent features in the entire population (p.242).

3.2.3.4 Data Collection

For data collection, this study used Survey Monkey Professional TM as survey software to design and administer the survey questionnaire online. It took each of the respondents 15 minutes (at the maximum) to complete the survey using the Haitian Creole language. The survey was self- administered over a five-month period.

A first wave was emailed out to personal contacts (i.e. acquaintance and friend) on 21st March

2017 for testing. The second survey was emailed out to 57 institutions in Haiti (i.e. included universities and professional schools) on 3rd April 2017 by the researcher. A third wave was emailed out again to the same group of institutions on the 10th April 2017. A fourth wave was emailed out to the Embassy of Haiti in Taiwan (i.e. they help forwarding the survey to more people), and some university’s professors on 20th April 2017. Finally, the researcher self- administered the survey (i.e. paper-and-pencil survey) over a 20day period in a couple of institutions in Haiti (i.e. from 25th May 2017 to 19th June 2017).

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Figure 3.2.3.4. Survey Responses Volume

As can be seen from figure 3.2.3.4, the survey started on March 2017 and ended on August 2017.

The three peaks in responses coincided with the three email waves that were issued by the researcher. There was a large peak in response after the first the email wave was issued (128 responses) followed by two further peaks on April (91 responses) and May (66 responses).

Responses of June 2017 (41 responses) and July (49 responses) corresponded to some data collected from the paper-and-pencil survey. However, the second and third email waves were neither acknowledged nor replied to. Therefore, it is difficult to report the number of population who received the survey questionnaire.

Table 3.2.3.4

Survey Data Collections No. Survey Collectors Respondents Complete Incomplete 1 Web Link 231 151 80 2 Paper-and-Pencil 171 146 25 Total 2 402 297 105

As can be seen from table 3.2.2.4, the survey yielded a total of 402 responses with only 297 fully completed surveys, thus, a response rate of 7 per cent. Survey data collection was self-administered in two ways: 1) online survey had 231respondents but only 151 completed the survey and 80 were

169 incomplete. 2) Paper-and-pencil survey had 171 respondents, only 146 completed the survey and

25 were incomplete.

Here was how I proceeded in collecting the data: a cover letter accompanied the questionnaire to be mailed to the Deans of the selected institutions in Haiti to ask for the list student names. Once the list was provided, questionnaire could be sent via Survey Monkey to a randomly selected 80% of the provided list. The emails were neither acknowledged nor replied to; an email reminder was sent to institutions one week following the date of the initial cover letter and the questionnaires were sent.

Then this study used another method of data collection (i.e. convenient) which involved (1) sending the survey hyperlink to respondents through personal contact systems on social media, including Facebook, Messenger, and via email. (2) including a survey that involved paper and pencil. At this juncture, a travel to Haiti was at utmost importance because of a low response rate from Vodou, Muslim, and the minority religion.

3.2.3.5 Data Analysis

It was essential, for a project of this scale, to ensure the ease and convenience of collating and interpreting the results from the completed questionnaires. SPSS refers to Statistical Package for

Social Science Research. To analyze the collected data, statistical methods were undertaken using

IBM SPSS Statistics 22. First, I used descriptive statistics to enable me to provide a summary of

Haitians’ views on teaching RE for a culture of peace. Second, I used inferential statistic that helped me infer (or reexamine) the respondents held values and beliefs. Third, to analyze the open- ended responses, I deployed a qualitative technic – a thematic analysis using Nvivo 11 – that

170 facilitated the findings towards the examination of themes and sub-themes in the responses which provided for in the research findings. Within this third stage are sub-stages: (1) I made sure that I carefully read the responses and (2) typed them into a single word document. (3) Then all the responses were translated into English and (4) put into an excel file orderly. During the translating process, I accompanied by native Haitians who master both English and Haitian Creole to prevent mistranslation. (5) The Nvivo software handled the data bulk by developing codes and identifying various themes and subthemes that occurred in the data. Examples of identifying themes and subthemes through Nvivo will be described in the next section. (6) Finally all the themes and subthemes were put in a single file, then the writing of the research findings was undertaken.

Figure 3.2.3.5. Importing data. This figure shows where the data falls once imported in Nvivo

3.2.4 Phase II: Interview with Experts

The second phase of this study involved interviews. Open-ended questions were asked to educational and religious experts through face to face. Ten experts (educational and religious) were interviewed. Before proceeding with the interview, a formal letter was sent via email to a group of experts in education and religion in Haiti. The letter involved explaining the purpose of the study,

171 listing the interview questions, and setting up workable appointments for the interview sessions.

Additionally, a summary from the analytical results of the survey was submitted to the experts for analysis. Hence, this enabled the experts to provide their expert views on the possibility of teaching

[an inclusive] RE in Haiti’s schools for a culture of peace.

This structured interview was used to gain different points of view from educational experts, so that, they would take the response into an area that the researcher did not consider (Boudah, 2011).

The collected data from the interview sessions helped me in formulating the final conclusions on the subject. Furthermore, it was expected that this phase of the study contributed to the evaluation of the future educational program model. Therefore, careful documentation was undertaken to present the different issues of RE in both Haiti and other parts of the world; and, to draw parallels with successful educational efforts in other countries especially in developing countries.

3.2.4.1 Background Information of the Experts

The experts of this research comprised ten individuals made up of three females and seven males.

Four of the ten experts are RE teachers teaching catechism and Bible. Although six of the experts are not RE teachers, surprisingly each of them had received RE (i.e. catechism/Bible) in their schooling. It is significant for this research to obtain the viewpoints of two experts who do not identify with any religion.

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Table 3.2.4.1

Experts Background Information No. Experts Religion Gender Year of experience 1 Scholar No religion Male 10 years 2 Administrator (university) Protestant Male 10 years 3 Pastor Protestant Male 40 years 4 Priest Catholic Male 32 years 5 Professor/Teacher No religion Male 13 years 6 Elementary Teacher Catholic Female 27 years 7 Mambo (Vodou Priestess) Vodou Female 30 years 8 School Director (Elementary) Protestant Female 39 years 9 Hougan (Vodou Priest) Vodou Male 3 years 10 School Director (Secondary) Protestant Male 45 years No.4, 6, 8, and 10 are RE teachers. Year of experience refers to number of years in respective function.

3.2.4.2 Design of the Interview Questions

As previously stated, the second phase of the study used interviews as an instrument. The interview questions contained four demographic questions namely gender, role/function, year of experience, and faith orientation (See Appendix C, p.271). They were actually drawn from the four key research questions of this study and the three open-ended questions from the survey questionnaire.

These three open-ended questions were re-asked to the interviewees to further evaluate the data collected from the survey. Then, these seven structured questions were used at conducting pilot interviews with three participants in June 2017. After revisions, Q2 and Q3 were combined together as well as Q4, Q6 and Q7 to avoid redundancies (see table 3.2.4.2). Finally, the interview questions were reduced to four.

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Table 3.2.4.2

Interview Questions Pilot Interview Questions Q1 What are the advantages and challenges of teaching RE in Haiti? Q2 What should be in the content of RE in Haiti? Q3 How the RE content should be taught in the schools in Haiti? Q4 How can RE contribute to a culture of peace? Q5 What is your opinion about RE as a subject in school curriculum in Haiti? Q6 Provide some ways to teach RE to produce tolerant citizenry? Q7 How to teach a RE in school to have a culture of peace in Haiti? Interview Questions Q1 What are the advantages and challenges of teaching RE in Haiti? Q2 What is your opinion about RE as a subject in school curriculum in Haiti? Q3 How the RE content should be taught in the schools in Haiti? Q4 How can RE contribute to a culture of peace and tolerance?

3.2.4.3 Invitation of the Interviewees

The sampling of phase two of this study involved educational experts and religious experts in Haiti.

These key people were chosen because they were representative to opine on educational matters,

RE, [and religion] issues. Here are the reasons: first, they are in direct touch with teaching RE as a subject in school, second, though they teach other subject but are affected by religious issues in the classroom, third, they are involved in religious ministry.

The sampling consisted of four RE teachers (i.e. catechism, Bible), six non-RE teachers with RE experiences in schools. These people were reached through contact person and acquaintance. The interviewees were firstly contacted via email and phone calls by the contact people. At this stage, the email described the purpose of the study and the reason for their selection and participation.

Then a phone call was given to each interviewee to self-introduce the researcher and schedule the interview. Initially the study intended to include experts from at least the three main religions (i.e.

Christianity, Vodou, Islam) present in Haiti, but it did not work as planned.

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Although many efforts were made to reach out to one Muslim leader (a Muslim expert would have been significant for this research study). My efforts included traveling to Haiti and spending almost an entire Friday at the Mosque in Port au Prince before meeting the Haitian Muslim leader directly

(I was told to attend the service if I want to talk to the Muslim leader which I did). He accepted the interview invitation and provided his phone number. We agreed to undertake a telephone interview. These proved to be fruitless because the interview was declined (i.e. he was unreachable via his phone number). This explains one of the difficulties to reach potential participants. As researcher, I cannot provide a clear explanation on the Imam’s declination. I suspected it was for privacy reason since the Islam religion is new in Haiti and represents a minority of the Haitian population, it can be easily identified. Another potential participant turned down the interview right after he was told about the purpose of the interview research. According to this particular individual, religious topic is a waste of time.

3.2.4.4 Data Collection

Individual interview was undertaken through face-to-face and phone calls. Each interview varied from one to three hours’ long. Four structured questions were asked to the interviewees, [and each interviewee was asked the same questions]. The interviews were recorded through a recording tape with the interviewees’ permissions. The data collected was kept on both laptop and USB flash drive. In addition to recording, note was taken for every question and to emphasis key points from the interviewees.

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It turned out that the trip to Haiti (from 25th May 2017 to 19th June 2017) contributed to the strength of this study. It allowed me to overcome time zone difference, technology barriers (i.e. using Skype, messenger), and cost. For examples, it became easier to find the interviewees and to schedule appointments with them. The phone interviews were more affordable than it could have been overseas. Overall, it allowed me to collect quality data.

3.2.4.5 Data Analysis

To analyze data taken from phase two of this study, the qualitative technique that was used, was thematic analysis using Nvivo 11. The analysis involved identifying interesting patterns or themes within the collected data. Therefore, the result findings are presented accordingly in chapter four.

Through this process, the data collected from the experts was transcribed, then translated from

Haitian Creole to English. Thus, a considerable time was needed to carefully listening to the recorded data and matching it with the written data. Afterwards, I spent quality time to (1) make sense of each data collection; (2) to look for themes and subthemes; and (3) to report the general discoveries about Haitians’ educational and religious experts’ perspective on teaching RE in Haiti schools for a culture of peace.

The data bulk from the interview which was in Word document was imported and stored in the

Nvivo software. Then I read through the data response by response using questions asked to help guide me into creating nodes on NVivo which represent the themes. For example, How RE should be Taught is one of the themes raised from the data. In this case, the title “How RE should be

Taught” was chosen as a theme and placed as a node on NVivo to represent the excerpts that showed the various suggestions given by the participants on how they felt RE should be packaged

176 during teaching. Reading through the data, sub-themes such as Encourage Dialogue, Taught by

Experts and Encourage Tolerance, these are individual suggestions that were given by the participants on how best they felt RE should be handled in schools. So, the themes (nodes) and sub-themes (child nodes) arrived at were guided by the questions asked while some were just words or phrases that represented what was being described by the participants.

Figure 3.2.4.5 a. Columns of menu, nodes and data

After that, I highlighted and dragged excerpts falling in the various themes identified and dropped them into the relevant nodes which represent the themes. This is shown in figure 3.2.2.4b as well and was done throughout the data sources.

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Figure 3.2.4.5 b. Excerpt ready for dropping into the relevant node

Overall, NVivo shows very clearly all the data that had been coded, the sources from which excerpts had been picked from, number of sources for every particular node or theme which are all important aspects to consider in the analysis process. Figure 3.2.2.4c shows an illustration of this.

Figure 3.2.4.5 c. Theme and subthemes

3.2.4.6 Validation Process of the Interview Data

The validation process of the interview was also carefully considered about their representativeness and credibility. The selected interviewees were selected after a critical

178 evaluation of the individual credentials directly related to this study. For example, interviewees can be religious priests or scholars, school educators in any subject matter, or staff members of the

Ministry of Education. They each command the ethos, logos and pathos necessary to comment authoritatively in RE. The analytical results of the interview data were sent to each interviewee for them to check in order to validate my interpretation of interview.

3.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter has provided the details of methodological undertakings planned for the study. The chapter opens with an introduction which subtly conveys the problem statement and contextualizes the issue as central to the research case study. In the same swoop, the purpose of the study and research questions are restated. The chapter proceeds to engage in a discussion of the pilot study and the lessons taken from this phase of research going forward. Sampled opinions are in fact quoted at length to enhance the research justification of this study and to ground the ethnographic lenses for the study. This section is followed by a breakdown of the entire research process and the position of this singular study in igniting subsequent interdependence between RE and a culture of peace in Haiti. The specific research design and its justification for this study are explained through the two phases via the efficacy in instrumentation, reliability and validity, sampling, as well as data collection and analysis techniques adopted for the respective quantitative and qualitative approaches here.

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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This study explored Haitian views on Teaching RE for a culture of peace. Findings are based on the analysis of questionnaire survey data and interview data. In this chapter results are discussed from Haitian perspectives (students’ respondents and educational religious experts), inasmuch as data was collected in two phases.

The analysis of data collected in the first phase was based on 297 respondents, with related background information being initially provided. Subsequently, findings on “Haitian views on teaching RE for a culture of peace” are presented. The analysis of data collected in the second phase was based on 10 participants. A brief presentation of the different participants is provided.

Then findings on respondents’/participants’ suggestions are offered as part of a discussion that re- examines held values and beliefs as part of the core objective of emphasizing ways to a cultural reconstruction through teaching RE in Haitian schools.

4.1 PHASE ONE: FINDINGS FROM THE SURVEY At the outset it is to be noted that this section is structured similarly to that of the questionnaire, which includes Haitian views on:

 RE

 Religious tolerance

 Culture of peace

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In the survey, respondents were allowed to include their views on each of these variables, and that the study is reliant upon descriptive statistics as a method for determining divergent Haitian perspectives and views. Here, and for the purposes of this analysis, mean scores less than 2.0 are considered strongly non-supportive. Additionally, mean scores ranging from 2.0 to 2.49 are considered to be moderately non-supportive, whilst scores from 2.50 to 2.89 are determined as being mildly non-supportive. Mean scores from 3.07 to 3.12 have been deduced as comprising an unsure response. Additionally, mean scores from 3.43 to 3.66 are defined as mildly supportive whereas scores from 3.88 to 4.0 are defined as moderately supportive. Mean scores greater than

4.0 are considered to be strongly supportive.

4.1.1 Respondents Views on RE

Respondents shared their views on RE on aspects related to its contents, teaching methods, objectives and applicability. Their responses moved from strong to moderate disagreements and from mild to strong agreements and sometimes unsure responses.

As can be seen from the values depicted in table 4.1.1, respondents’ strongest objection went to the domination of RE by a single religious persuasion when asked if the contents of RE should be on catechism only (RE4). While their most supportive choices went to the contents of RE to focus on a general knowledge concerning all religions (RE8) and the rights (RE2) of students to get an all-encompassing RE.

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Table 4.1.1 Descriptive Statistics – Respondents Views on RE Variables (17) Mean Std. Deviation RE2 Is a right 4.17 1.05

RE8 Focus on general knowledge about all religions. 4.12 1.16

RE10 Be part of the student’s education. 3.97 1.12

RE13 Provide by all primary and secondary schools 3.92 1.09

RE1 A school subject in Haiti 3.88 1.22

RE14 Taught in all levels of schools in 3.66 1.24

RE11 Critical thinking skills oriented 3.43 1.38

RE17 RE teacher must be a believer. 3.12 1.39

RE12 Experiential based approach 3.10 1.32

RE5 Include Christianism. 3.07 1.42

RE7 Include Vodou 2.89 1.39

RE3 Bible center 2.74 1.50

RE6 Include Islam 2.50 1.31

RE15 Involve secondary and university 2.49 1.36

RE9 Focus on students’ conversion 2.47 1.42 RE16 Center on the school religious beliefs 2.07 1.07 RE4 Catechism centered 1.78 0.92 Valid N (listwise) Note: Responses are arranged in descending order. N=297

4.1.1.1 Respondent Views on the Inclusion of RE as a Subject

Figure 4.1.1.1 shows the percentage of respondents who considered it a good idea to have RE in the school curriculum, those who were not in support of the idea, and the few who had no views on the subject.

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250 100% 90% 200 80% 70% 150 60% 50% 100 40% 30% 50 20% 10% 0 0% Pro RE in Schools Con RE in Schools Neutral

Figure 4.1.1.1a. Views on the Inclusion of RE as a subject in Haiti Schools. N=258

The findings reveal that respondents are divided in their opinion when it comes to incorporating

RE into the school curriculum. The first group comprises of those who think that it is a bad idea to teach RE in Haitian schools, and the second group comprises of those who think that it is a good idea to teach RE in schools in Haiti.

The teaching of religion in schools is deemed a bad idea by some of the respondents, with some of these reasons including a potential danger to schools. This perspective is also bolstered by an opinion by some of the respondents that teaching RE in schools is a bad idea and that it is dangerous, particularly in private schools. Others assessed that this teaching is irrelevant because they believed that it does not lead to students undertaking a profession and, therefore, not conducive to a career (“Considering that it is not a profession in itself”). Yet, for some of the other respondents, teaching RE was not deemed to be relevant because the subject matter offers little to the advancement of science—which they considered was a basic need for the delivery of education and effective attendance at school. One respondent is noted giving a reason for supporting the view that teaching RE in schools is a bad idea by saying: “…because this stuff has nothing to do with

183 science which is the principal mission every school and university should have.” A third issue that arose was from respondents who pointed out the fact that RE education is being imposed on students and that this process undermined those who are of the opinion that it is not a good idea to deliver RE education in schools because it is being imposed as part of a compulsory system of education.

With this, it is noted that the majority of the respondents felt that it was a good idea to have RE in school curriculum albeit based upon a multitude of reasons. Here are some of the reasons why it’s considered important to have RE in schools: 1) the students familiarize themselves with not just their own religion but also other religions and 2) they understand the core tenets of their own religion. When RE is taught in schools, it is considered that the process aids children in being able to think critically as well as diversify their religious knowledge. As a result, this approach can be assessed to help students develop an open mind towards different forms of religious practices.

The respondents also assess that RE can offer a good philosophical foundation for students because the subject provides them with space to assess and assert their own beliefs. As such, it is deemed to promote moral values like a mutual respect for other religions and, in turn, they will know how to conduct themselves in society; one respondent notes that: “Youngsters would learn many moral values for helping them live better in the society.” Spiritual growth is another result of teaching

RE in schools. It will help students understand God and change their mentalities when it comes to spirituality, as noted in the research “…it would help the children very much especially in brotherhood, mutual respect, and to know what God likes and doesn’t like.” Consequentially, children are able to have an identity and embrace their own beliefs and culture like the Vodou.

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When students are taught RE, they will develop an open mind when it comes to other people and not be judgmental of others. This way, they will not discriminate against other people who have different beliefs from them and will, in turn, bring about national peace. And when people and cultures are at peace with one another, national growth is bound to happen, with one respondent noting that it is “a way to rebuild our society which will create mutual respect as well as respect for our heritage.”

Tool for Understanding Religion 44 Promote Moral Values 31 Promote National Peace 28 Cultural Understanding and Preservation 18 Educational Benefits 16 Promote Open Mindedness 12 Spiritual Growth 11 Promote Strong Foundation for Children 5 Promote National Growth 5 Help with Identity 4 Help in Choosing Religion 4

Promote Love 3 Reasons for Support of RE in Schools in RE of Support for Reasons Promote Critical Thinking 2 Good for Future Generation 1 Good Citizenship 1

0 10 20 30 40 50

Figure 4.1.1.1b. This graph shows the reasons for support of RE in schools. N=184

4.1.1.2 Respondents Concerns over the Current RE in Haiti

The research findings illustrate the existing conditions of RE in Haiti as a subject with major issues.

These issues include “nonexistence of a well-designed RE program,” “bias on religion taught,”

“lack of religious knowledge,” and “being imposed on the student.”

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There were some suggestions that Haiti, as a whole, lacks a currently existing good RE program.

Participants argued that “…in Haiti there isn’t really a good religious’ education” and that this is the case because everybody is concerned with their own religion and wants to have knowledge about their own religion and don’t care about others’. Another reason why the current RE is not the best in Haiti is because of bias when it comes to what religion is taught to students. The research noted complaints on the curriculum being biased and teaching one religion and not the other, including “…they teach RE baldly, they only teach one religion.”

The Christian religion is mostly taught in Haitian schools and other religions like the Vodou are not taught. This doesn’t sit well with some of the respondents: “…the way they teach in Haiti is not good because they are teaching a bunch of Christian religions and other religion against the

Vodou.” There are respondents who felt that Haitians have no idea about religious knowledge and that there’s a lot of misunderstanding around it. So, this is why it would be important to make religious knowledge popular in Haiti: “It would be really important to popularize religion knowledge in Haiti.”

Additionally, there are those who also felt that RE is being imposed on students. The school makes the students study a religion that the school chooses, with one respondent stating that “it is currently a tool to forcefully impose on the students the religion that the school is affiliated to.”

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4.1.2 Respondents Views on Religious Tolerance

Results of the descriptive statistics of respondents views on religious tolerance varied from strong disagreement to strong agreement.

Table 4.1.2

Descriptive Statistics – Respondent Views on Religious Tolerance Variables (11) Mean Std. Deviation RT27 Help students cultivate non-violence attitudes 4.30 1.01 RT28 Teach students non-violent attitudes 4.28 1.08 RT22 Respect others’ religious beliefs 4.28 .89 RT26 Teach religious tolerance in the schools 4.25 1.01 RT18 Can listen to different beliefs’ opinions 4.22 .89 RT23 Help people from any religious background 4.22 .96 RT19 Other beliefs views are as important as mine 4.09 1.06 RT20 Comfortable to debate with those who share my belief 4.03 .95 RT24 More excited when people share my belief 3.66 1.24 RT25 Safe among those who share my belief 3.46 1.32 RT21 Support religious persecution 1.53 .90 Valid N (listwise)

Note: Responses are presented in descending order. N=297

Overall, as it is shown in table 4.1.3, the least supported statement of RT among the respondents was “support religious persecution” (RT21) which showed a strong objection to the idea of persecuting people for their religious choice. While the most supported statements were conveyed to “help student cultivate non-violence attitudes” (RT27). Interestingly, the respondents also agree mildly that friendliness characterises the relationship between devotees of the same faith and that people of the same beliefs are excited when they are in the company of each other. We can

187 conclude that the respondents saw the teaching of RE as a mean to fight religious persecution, non- violence attitudes, non-respect of religious beliefs and so forth.

4.1.2.1 Views on How to Reach Religious Tolerance

There were various suggestions that came up that could be implemented both inside and outside schools to help Haitians be more tolerant with each other’s religions. The inclusion of all religions into the curriculum was one of the suggestions that was popular among the respondents, including

“…but if they put it in the curriculum, they should talk about all religions.” This way, students can get to know about other religions in addition to theirs and be more tolerant of people with different beliefs from them.

There were also suggestions on the need for teachers to be patient and undergo effective training.

This, it is suggested, would assist them to be more tolerant when teaching and dealing with students who may have different religious beliefs during RE lessons. Respondents noted that teachers should teach without being biased and not influence the learners’ decisions and beliefs, (“Teach it without discriminating any religion, with tolerance and acceptance of people’s beliefs”). This way, they can also act as role models to the students and, as a result, they too will be more tolerant of other religious beliefs. RE should be taught to everyone whether they can afford it or not and should also be taught from kindergarten to high school (“Teach Bible lessons from Kindergarten to High schools”). This way, everyone gets exposed to other religions from an earlier age up until they are adults; as a result, they develop tolerance and acceptance for other religions.

The method of explanation should be very clear and should not miscommunicate anything to the

188 learners and end up influencing them in any negative manner (such as “…RE should be done in the schools in a manner that is clear to avoid that occidental ideas do not block the people on the path leading to development”). Again, RE should be taught in a language that every learner can understand.

Teach Acceptance 88 Teach All Religions 29 Teach What the Bible Says 25 Teach Without Bias 18 Enable Freedom of Choice 14 Include Religion in the Curriculum 13 Teach in Familiar Language 4 Create Debates 4 Emphasize on Practicability 4 Teach it in All Levels 4 Teach it at Basic Education Level 4 Should be Treated Like Other Subjects 3 Communication Strategy 3 Organize Seminars & Conferences for RE 3 Teach Haitian Culture 3 Through Catechism 2

Suggestions for REligious Tolerance REligious for Suggestions Create Awareness 2 Should be Compulsory 2 Teach RE on Television and Radio 2 Prefer Secular Education 1 Explain Clearly 1 Teach Everyone 1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Figure 4.1.2.1. This graph shows suggestions on how religious tolerance can be reached. N=230

Some respondents suggested that RE should be taught just like any other subjects and learners should know that they are expected to take exams on the subject and pass it (“It has to be taught like any other subject with a requirement to pass the sitting exam”). There were also suggestions that it should be a compulsory subject in the curriculum and should be done in a way that encourages dialogue. Added to this perspective, creating debate scenarios so students are able to

189 share their ideas with others and also having seminars and conferences for the students are deemed as beneficial (“By seminars while teaching them to accept all religions. Conduct debates on all religions”). This will help them learn more about each other’s religion and help them accept and tolerate people with beliefs different from their own.

There was also a suggestion about using practical methods in teaching RE to help explain the subject to students and also to encourage them to practice what they believe (“Explain them about the topic you have come with, i.e. today’s lesson. You can then take some students to show one or more demonstrations to help them understand better”). There, the teacher is also expected to act as a role model for their students. Other suggestions included teaching one religion about God,

Christ, and using the Bible as the basis of the RE for all students. This way, they will be bought about loving others and not doing evil against others, hence the earlier assertions regarding morality. There are those who also felt like no religion should be forced on anyone and they should be able to have the freedom of choice after receiving all facts from their teachers.

Acceptance was one of the major factors that emerged from the responses. The need for students to accept other religions seemed to be of utter importance if tolerance was going to be achieved

(“accept all students at any schools regardless of their religious backgrounds”). Another respondent said: “One of the ways, I think, is to make the citizen cultivate a spirit of indulgence toward his or her neighbors. [Another way is to] teach him or her to love everyone, and to accept everyone the way they are and with any way of thinking.” Also, there were suggestions to only teach secular education. That way, people will tolerate each other well. There were also others who thought that the RE taught should align with the country’s future.

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4.1.3 Respondents Views on Culture of Peace

Findings of the descriptive statistics from respondents’ views on culture of peace showed varied expressions – from mild disagreement to strong disagreements.

Table 4.1.3

Descriptive Statistics - Respondents Views on Culture of Peace Items (25) Mean Std. Deviation CP53 Live in a multi-faith society 4.21 .94 CP51 Overcome language discriminations 4.19 .99 CP52 Manage culture differences 4.15 .88 CP34 Become compassionate human beings 4.11 1.05 CP33 Respect others’ opinions and differences 4.11 .92 CP46 Educate male students to respect women. 4.10 1.06 CP36 Protection of the natural environment 4.06 1.09 CP47 Educate female students to respect men 4.06 1.11 CP43 Respect for human rights 4.06 1.06 CP44 Promote religious freedom for all religions 4.00 1.07 CP41 Instill moral cultural values in students 3.99 1.02 CP32 Better understand each other 3.99 1.13 CP38 Contribute to peaceful dialogue 3.99 .95 CP40 Overcome superstition and bigotry 3.93 1.09 CP42 Manage class conflicts in the society 3.93 1.03 CP39 Conflict resolution skills 3.91 1.06 CP31 Self-love 3.89 1.22 CP30 Love for others 3.89 1.19 CP35 Help Haitians become caring citizens 3.88 1.13 CP29 Contribute to a peaceful living 3.87 1.19 CP48 Haitian Creole as the language of instruction 3.85 1.19 CP50 French and Haitian Creole as languages of instruction 3.73 1.26 CP45 Promote gender equality 3.70 1.21 CP37 Own culture appreciation 3.46 1.25 CP49 French as the language of instruction 2.56 1.26 Valid N (listwise) Note: Responses are presented in ascending order. N=297

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As can be seen from table 4.1.3, respondents differed on the language of instruction. They were mildly disagreed to “French as language of instruction” (CP49) while mildly supportive to “French and Haitian Creole” (CP50). Remarkably all the statements that received strong supports concern

RE’s roles to obtain a culture of peace, including training students to live in a multi-faith society

(CP53), overcoming language discriminations (CP51), managing culture differences (CP52), respecting others’ opinions and differences (CP33), becoming compassionate human beings

(CP34), and respecting women (CP46).

4.1.3.1 How to Reach Cultural Peace through RE

Some respondents felt it was possible to reach cultural peace while others felt the opposite. Those who comprised the former considered this was possible to achieve and offered some suggestions on how this can be achieved. Most respondents felt that this can be achieved by encouraging fraternity among students through RE. This way, people are able to love and appreciate one another, e.g. “it must focus on fraternity, self-esteem, respect for each other and love of the country.”

Another way is to give freedom of choice when it comes to religion, including from one respondent, “The teaching must be done in an atmosphere of love and respect, without forcing anybody to accept what is against their will.” This way, they are able to be at peace with their choice and respect other people’s choices as well. Another way of reaching peace is by creating cultural awareness. Helping the students understand that each nation has a culture on which it was founded and that the spirit of their society can only be found in their culture. This way, the children are able to better understand the importance of Haitian culture and not adopt other cultures which

192 might make them copy foreign behaviors that may rattle other Haitians. One respondent is noted as suggesting that “…another culture will not allow them to progress. Such adoption might lead them to copy other behaviors that are not good when dealing with other Haitians.”

Religion with Tolerance 48 Promote Fraternity 47 Teach Religious Education 43 Teach Religious Without Violence 27 Teachers With Patience & Religious Knowlege 17 Use Appropriate and Familiar Language 16 Create Cultural Awareness 15 Inclusions of All Religions 13 Freedom of Choosing Religion 8 Introduce RE from an Early Age 7 Teach about Existing National Issues Suggestions for Culture of Peace of Culture for Suggestions 5 Freedom of Speech 1 Teach Historical Monuments and Sites 1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Figure 4.1.3.1. This Graph shows suggestions of respondents on how to reach peace through RE. N=248

Another way to realize peace is by teaching RE from an early age. They should be taught about other religions that exist in the world and should be taught how to interact with other people with different beliefs and cultures. Respondents suggest that children should be taught to be tolerant of others and not fault them for having different beliefs from theirs (“The best way to teach RE in the schools would be to teach the children that the different religions must respect and aid each other”), and those who teach RE should do so without any kind of favoritism or bias.

Another important factor that arose was the importance of teaching religion that is violence-free.

One respondent believes that teachers are not supposed to teach some religions in ways that make them appear to be violent (“RE must be done peacefully and without violence”). Whilst another

193 offered an opinion that children are not supposed to act in a violent manner towards other people of different religious beliefs, (“The teaching should focus on respect for each other and avoid rejecting a person’s opinion or belief. Such teaching must be done with wisdom and love so the truth can be understood by everybody. Thus, all Haitians will live in peace and fraternity without violence”).

Further beliefs that emerged from the respondents included that children should also be taught to love their country Haiti and be made aware of some of the issues that affect it. This way, it is suggested that they become aware of the problems their country is facing and will try to solve them. Additionally, respondents also argued that RE should be taught in an appropriate and familiar language that everyone can understand (“In a language which is not all difficult so that everybody can understand”). There are those who suggested the use of Creole and French. This way, they are able to understand what they are taught and put it into practice, things like fraternity among others (“RE should be taught in a language that everybody understands. And it would be great to invite people to put it into practice in their life”).

There are also those respondents who felt that achieving peace through RE was something that was not possible given the presence of particular religions (“a peace culture is not possible.

Because to teach a peace culture would require only one religion”), and that knowledge of religion is not a guarantee of peace because one may be knowledgeable in matters to do with religion, but not be advocates of peace (“Peace is a gift of God. If you don’t understand and believe that, it will be difficult to be an advocate of peace”).

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4.1.4 Suggestions for a Prototype RE

Figure 4.1.4 a shows some of the most commonly used words when giving views on what an ideal

RE course should contain. Respondents offered a wide variety of suggestions when it comes to how and what an ideal RE course should include and be practiced. Firstly, it was suggested that

RE should be able to help the students think critically; also, it was suggested that the teachers should be able to guide the students on religious matters as part of a personal journey. Lastly, a majority of participants emphasized a strong desire to have all religions included in the lessons.

There were also those who felt it was more beneficial to teach subjects related to Haitian culture than teach them RE (“Instead of teaching religion in schools, I propose a ‘Haitian Culture’ course”). This perspective also related to the Vodou culture as well as the Haitian culture.

Figure 4.1.4 a. Word graph on what an ideal RE should look like

From the respondents’ responses, it can be suggested that a common belief exists where RE should be taught starting from the basic levels to the higher levels of education. This should be done using

195 practical methods to help students understand better, and to motivate them to practice what they learn in class in their daily lives (“They have to convince the kids to apply in real life what was taught (to practice what was preached”). The subject should also be taught without any form of bias from the teacher. There are those who felt that RE should be handled like any other subject like Physics or Math (“They can teach it as one of the subjects taught in schools and universities”).

And this should be done with patience from the teacher’s side. This graph below shows the percentages for the various views on what an ideal RE should look like.

Teach What the Bible Says 30 Teach Without Bias 24 Enablr Freedom of Choice of Religion 16 Teach all Religions 13 Teach Acceptance 9 Teach it in All Levels 9 Should be Treated Like Other Subjects 7 Teach Love 5 Teach it at Basic Education Levels 5 Should be Compulsory 3 Teach Haitian Culture 2 Explain Clearly 2 Teach Moral Values 2 Emphasize on Practicability 2 Patience in Teachers 2 Views on an Ideal RE for Haiti forRE Ideal an on Views Should Help Students Think Critically 1 Let Them Understand Vodou 1 Teach it in Higher Education 1 Should be a Priority 1 Communication Strategy 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Figure 4.1.4 b. Various views on how an ideal RE should look like. N=136

A large number of respondents felt that RE should be centered around what the Bible says and this should be from kindergarten level to high school level (“Teach it following the scripture guidance”). And there were suggestions that it should be made compulsory as well.

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4.1.5 Interpretation of the Data

Using Levene’s test for equality of variance, the research showed a variance of opinions between genders (males and females) on RE, RT, and CP. Findings from the study show no significant differences between genders in their views of RE being (1) a school subject in Haiti (RE1), (2) provided by all primary and secondary schools (RE13), and whether (3) RE teacher must be a believer (RE17). This trend is also observed in their opinions with regard to feeling (1) safe (RT7) and (2) excited (RT8) around people who share their belief, and RE’s ability to (3) help cultivate

(RT10) and train (RT11) non-violent attitudes and Self-love (CP3).

4.1.5.1 Comparison between Genders (RE, RT, CP)

Table 4.1.5.1

Independent Sample Test for RE, RT, CP t-test for Equality Male Female of Means Variables M SD M SD t RE1 3.77 1.31 4.04 1.05 -1.96 RE13 3.82 1.28 4.06 0.93 -1.923 RE17 2.99 1.45 3.303 1.29 -1.92 RT7 3.59 1.32 3.76 1.106 -1.185 RT8 3.36 1.37 3.606 1.23 -1.575 RT10 4.25 1.12 4.38 0.83 -1.173 RT11 4.2 1.18 4.4 0.9 -1.724 CP3 3.83 1.28 3.98 1.13 -1.055 CP4 3.88 1.23 4.15 0.94 -2.132* CP5 3.99 1.08 4.27 0.62 -2.87** CP22 3.58 1.31 4.95 1.15 -2.602* Note: *p<0.05 **p<0.01. Bold values indicate significance difference.

Genders significantly differed in their viewpoints on three aspects of culture of peace (CP): better understand each other (CP4), respect others’ opinions and differences (CP5), and French and

Haitian Creole as languages of instruction (CP22). As can be seen from the values shown in table

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4.1.5.1, females were more supportive of CP4, CP5, and CP22 than males. We can conclude that there were differences in prediction among genders in expressing their opinions about RE’s contributions to a culture of peace. Overall, from the values obtained from this research, it can be concluded that males and females have different viewpoints about CP.

4.1.5.2 Correlation between RE, RT, and CP

Pearson’s r was computed to assess the relationship between RE and RT, RE and CP, and RT and

CP. The interpretations are according to Pearson’s r: “measuring the relationship between two variables.” It ranges in value from -1 to +1. The further r is from zero, the stronger the correlation.

For instance, /r/<0.30 stands for a weak correlation, 0.30

/r/>0.70 is a strong correlation.

Table 4.1.5.2

Correlations Using Bivariate (N=297) No. Variables M SD 1 2

1 RE 3.14 0.55 2 RT 3.85 0.54 0.454** 3 CP 3.91 0.71 0.64** 0.63** **p<.001

As can be seen from the values shown in table 4.1.5.2., a Pearson’s r data analysis revealed 3 moderate positive correlation between (a) RE and RT (r= .454. p<.01); (b) RE and CP (r= 0.64. p<.01); (c) RT and CP (r=0.63. p<.01). These were the correlations between the two constructs respectively: the first correlation indicates respondents who have supportive RE views reported moderate levels of tolerance; the second correlation indicates respondents who have supportive

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RE views reported moderate levels of culture of peace, and the third correlation indicates respondents who have supportive RT views reported moderate level of culture of peace.

4.1.5.3 Respondents Who Went to Religious Versus Non-Religious Schools

Respondents schooling background fell into 4 categories: (1) religious elementary schools only;

(2) religious secondary schools only; (3) religious elementary and secondary schools; 4) non- religious elementary and secondary schools. Findings on comparisons between respondents who went religious and non-religious schools of the survey statistically showed non-significant differences on the perception of RE, religious tolerance and culture of peace. Overall, from the analysis obtained from this research, it can be concluded that respondent schooling background is not a significant predictor on the views of RE, religious tolerance and culture of peace.

4.2 PHASE TWO: FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEWS WITH EXPERTS

The second phase interviewed and collated data from 10 professionals of which 7 were males and 3 were females. These professionals cut across academia/administration and clergy, with experiences ranging from 3 to 45 years.

4.2.1 Experts Perspectives on Advantages and Challenges of RE

Experts were asked to opine on the advantages and the challenges of RE. The findings are presented below:

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4.2.1.1 Advantages of RE

Some of the advantages of RE that could be derived from the participants’ comments included a perception that RE promotes peace. It was suggested that RE could be used to help the children understand other religions, and increase social tolerance and understanding. This way, there would be no differences between them. It also brings about equilibrium; on top of the knowledge students gain from other courses, they are also able to get RE which will help them grow spiritually

(“Equilibrium in the sense that it will bring value that will make the person a person truly and spiritually”).

RE is also considered to promote decent morals among the children and it is also assessed that these will benefit the development of respect as a set of principles for living. This implies that it is possible that RE could lead to a reduction in negative or poor behavior and conduct. Further, it is considered that RE can help children when socializing because they will now have respect and understanding of other people’s beliefs. Another advantage is the fact that it brings the children closer to God. One participant suggested that everything that is taught in class should incorporate

God in one way or the other. This participant also suggested that such a process could enable the children to put God first in everything (“The advantage is that children will also know who God is; they will put God first in all their learnings…”).

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Brings Pupils Closer to God Promotes Creates Good Morals Equilibrium

Create Awareness Encourages and Respect for ADVANTAGES Other Religions Socialization OF RE

Promotes Promotes Tolerance Spiritual Peace Aspect

Figure 4.2.1.1. This mind map shows some of the advantages of RE mentioned by the participants

4.2.1.2 Challenges of RE

Some of the challenges of RE that came up include bias. This is because if a child attends a Catholic school, the school will tend to teach their beliefs when it comes to religion and will not necessarily pay attention to other religious beliefs. Another challenge would be if the instructor has a prejudice against a specific religion. This would affect how they deliver information to the children, hence, the need for well-trained instructors.

Finding qualified, well-trained instructors who are able to include all religious aspects and give the basic religious knowledge is also a challenge (“And the challenges are finding teachers that are competent who are able to transmit this education. That RE that is inclusive…. because it is inclusive”).

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Another issue concerns the lack of interest on the part of people who are being taught. People today are getting too materialistic and don’t care for RE. RE can also make people intolerant of others. Participants suggest that they get to understand that they are different from other people and they may end up distancing themselves from them (“as soon as the child knows that a person does not belong to his or her own religion, he wants to put him aside and does not want to talk to him…”).

Dealing with intolerant parents is also a challenge to RE. This is because parents have a great influence on their children, and if they have a negative view on a specific religion, this will influence the child’s beliefs and it may be difficult to change them. There are also parents who will take their children out of the school if they believe that the school’s religious beliefs don’t align with their own beliefs. Also, there are parents who will ask so many questions and not allow their children to get RE (“…there are parents who are extreme and would not accept such teaching”).

An identifiable, large concern for the participants is the introduction of other (non-Christian) religions into the curriculum. There are also ideologies and trends that will pose challenges when it comes to RE. It will also be difficult to orient the children’s minds to specific religions given the presence of multiple religions’ sects and doctrines.

The teaching of RE will also be a challenge because there are children who are not exposed to other religions in their communities and homes. So, when they get to learn about new religions,

202 they might slowly move away from their own religions. So, they are easily influenced, hence, there’s a loss of values. There are schools which are trademarked; for example, a school might be a Christian school. So, they will advocate for Christian beliefs only. It might require the child to participate in some religious practices by the virtue of the school being associated with a specific religion. For example, a child might be required to attend mass in a Catholic school and even take communion (“In the congregational schools, the children must receive the first communion”).

Finding Qualified Professionals Bias Creates Intolerance Influence of Fashion and Intolerant Parents Ideologies

Non-exposure to CHALLENGES Multiple Other Religions Religious Sects in Communities OF RE and Doctrines

Introducing Other Religions in RE Trademarked Schools

Creates Poverty Lack of Interest Loss of Values

Figure 4.2.1.2. This mind map highlights some of the challenges of RE mentioned by participants

4.2.2 Perception of RE as a Subject

All the 10 experts provided their perceptions about RE. Two subgroups of experts stood out: those who supported the idea of RE being included in the school curriculum and those who felt that

203 including RE in the school curriculum is not a good idea. As can be seen from the various reasons depicted in table 4.2.2, there are more expert supporters than non-supporters (8 vs. 2).

Table 4.2.2

Subgroups of Experts According to their Religions and Supportive Arguments Experts Religion Pro Con Reason Scholar None Brings unity, prosperity and open-mindedness Administrator Protestant Religious literate; understanding Pastor Protestant Discover the others; respect and acceptance Priest Catholic Provide spiritual growth and regain lost values Professor/Teacher None Teach Haitian Culture to regain our identity Elementary Teacher Catholic Religious knowledge Mambo (Vodou Priestess) Vodou There are other places responsible for that. School Director (Elementary) Protestant Peaceful living; educational aspect Houngan (Vodou Priest) Vodou Knowledge about Vodou School Director (Secondary) Protestant Spiritual growth and moral value

According to these 8 experts, if RE is taught in Haitian schools, it will instill (in the pupil) understanding, tolerance, and respect for others beliefs and values. It is suggested by these experts that this approach will teach Haitian pupils that they can do other activities together despite having different religious beliefs. Essentially, it is suggested that RE should be part of the curriculum provided instructors and well trained and know how to go about it (“Yes, it can be part of the education of the children as long as those who will teach the pupils are prepared to do it”). Also, it should be treated like any other subject in the curriculum, should be evaluated, and made compulsory.

These 8 experts, overall, acknowledge that there is a need to include RE in the school curriculum and that it is through this process that they are also able to learn and understand more about other religions (as well as their own religions) and, therefore, understand and accept others. It should be

204 introduced not only in Catholic schools but also the Protestant schools as well. Overall, the 8 experts think it’s a very important subject and should be included in the school curriculum (“It is very important; it is supposed to be included in Haiti’s schools”).

A few of the experts (i.e. 2) felt that including RE in the school curriculum is not a good idea.

Haitian schools can teach any subject but RE. It is the role of religious leaders to teach and preach about tolerance and acceptance of other religious to their respective faithful. This expert strongly believed school should not have a trademark (Catholic, Protestant, Islam, etc.) because it is exclusive.

(“Vodou has never built schools because our philosophy is ‘school is a human right it

cannot have a signature/trademark. Schools cannot be Christian, Vodou, or Muslim

because saying that a school is Christian it’s only targeted the Christians, if it’s called

Vodou school it’s only targeted Vodouists, and I overlook the right of the other people.

And, a Christian school may require you to become Christian before you can enroll in the

school. School should not be a source of religious conflicts because the child has a right

to attend school, regardless of who he/she is, whatever his/her religion, the school must be

ready to receive the child.”).

Furthermore, the expect believed schools should keep off RE because (1) it is parents’ responsibility to orient children’ faith. (“The religious principles must base mostly in the families.

It’s the family role to orientate the child, and when the child become an adult he/she can choose”).

(2) There are places where pupils and students can get educated in matters to do with religion.

(“Religion doesn’t have to be a subject taught in schools since there are temples, mosques,

and churches that can do that. In my opinion, schools should remain away from religious

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norms. School must teach the social standards that are governed by religious principles,

but they should be done at the correct places. Other things that will help this is

secularization of the state. The state must be secular. And it’s only when the state is secular

that would be possible. Until today, Haiti is a Christian Republic, even the laws of our

constitution are inspired from the Bible. We have to change that”).

The other expert mentioned that, today, Haitians are in an identity crisis (i.e. confusion on our origin, history, cultural values etc.). So, this expert felt that instead of teaching a specific religion, national education should aim at teaching the child national values (“… I think it’s the kind of thing we need instead religion course, Bible lessons”).

4.2.3 Experts Perspectives on a Prototype RE for Haiti: Its Content and Teaching Methods

4.2.3.1 Content of RE Course

Participants who felt that it should be taught in schools also possessed ideas regarding how a curriculum should be comprised so that it would benefit the students and pupils fully. First off, the subject should be taught in a way that it brings a sense of brotherhood and should emphasize the need to care of each other.

They suggested that a course should have content that links to all Haitians through teaching the children about cultural heritage, where they came from, and about their ancestors. It should teach children to respect all religions; for example, they should be taught to respect the rules put out about attending mass when one is in a Catholic school. The course should be structured in a way that it’s instructive and tells the child how to conduct him/herself. The course should make good use of the resources and include all religions (“Regardless the child’s beliefs he/she should learn

206 about the Bible, the Qur’an or whatsoever…”). There were also suggestions that the Haitian civilization should also be included in the course.

Children should be taught why religion is important and should be taught in a systematic manner where the child has to finish learning about one religion before they move on to the next one. A participant felt that the Bible needs to be incorporated in the content and also that moral values taught to the children (“…the content is the learning of the moral values, the learning of the moral values…”). God should be incorporated into the course and should teach children that it is God who is the creator of everything, despite them having different religious beliefs.

Figure 4.2.3.1. This word graph shows some of the words used to describe what RE should contain

Many of the participants agreed that the course should emphasize tolerance (“The course must put emphasis on tolerance”). This way, it is increasingly possible for the child to have a greater understanding of why different people do different things required by their religions and they are

207 able to accept and respect that. Also, it is believed that real life experiences should be put into consideration when teaching the course and that it should have a more scientific approach to it

(“…strive to make it have a more scientific approach than the fundamental religious approach, or the holistic or dogmatic ones”); also there is a need for an effective RE course to be taught by well-trained instructors and should also emphasize unity.

4.2.3.2 RE Teaching Methods

Some of the suggested ways to teach RE include the use of debates to help everyone discuss and understand different religious aspects. These debates are done in the presence of experts; hence, there’s no bias involved.

RE should be taught from an early age because it’s easier to instruct them and they have fewer demands (“…if it is younger, from zero to 18 years old, this child has less pressure on himself in the society he can receive this education faster and it can mold him”). There are also participants who felt it should be offered to younger and older children throughout the grade levels and use different methods to teach different levels of grade, i.e.

(“Primary school children must watch videos where people talk to each other in a

respectful way. Older children can watch videos where things happen and people are

overwhelmed. To criticize by himself or herself and has critical thinking, and what he or

she thinks about that and now what he or she thinks that can be done he or she was in the

position of that person…”).

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It should also be done through videos and visuals (“…when they are in college, they can let them watch videos either movies related to those religions or go to observe the religion’s practices naturally in each place…”). This will enable them to see examples of how those religions are practiced in reality. This way, they are able to see the correct and incorrect practices of the various religions.

RE should be taught through a program developed by the Ministry of Education (“The curriculum must be first defined by the Ministry of National Education because it is the national education that has the responsibility to orient education in Haiti on a national level”). It should give out a clear and elaborate program so that there’s no confusion caused in the children’s minds.

Another suggestion is that RE should be taught in a way that it reflects the goals of the school and the instructors should be well-trained (“…make sure that people who know the religion to teach that religious to the children”). Teaching should be mobile and include teaching through site visits

(“This type of course is expected to involve lots of place visiting. For examples, take the children to visit MUPANAH or the Art Center. If you are telling the children about ‘Citadelle La Ferrière’2 or the ‘Palais Aux 365 Portes’3 you should visit these historical sites with them”).

There was also a suggestion that RE should be taught in a general way without narrowing in on specific religions. It should also be taught in a way that it encourages dialogue and that people

2 The Citadelle La Ferrière is a mountaintop fortress, located in the northern coast of Haiti. In 1982, it was nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 3 Palais aux 365 Portes was one of the royal residence of Henry Christophe, constructed in 1816. It is located in the Artibonite region of Haiti. Today, it is a well-known Haitian National Heritage Site.

209 from different religions can sit down and have a dialogue. There should be enough resources to help in the teaching of RE as well.

The type of RE taught should include all religions and the curriculum should be designed in a way to accommodate this. If the children understand each other’s religion, they are able to accept and tolerate each other more (“I compare RE to a polyglot, meaning someone who speaks many languages. If I speak eight languages, for example, I have 8 different nations in front of me, once they open their mouths I will know who they are. Though I am not Vodouist, I have an idea about

Vodou and I recognize a Vodouist, I’m not ignorant”).

Figure 4.2.3.2. This word graph shows some of the words used by participants when describing how RE should be taught

The instructors should be well trained, open-minded and should be able to work with the parents to help make the process smooth-sailing and not face opposition from parents. There are

210 participants who also felt that religion should not be forced on anyone and they should be allowed to stick to their own belief (“The child should not be forced to attend religious services that are contrary to his/her belief”). Others suggested that RE should be taught in a way that encourages unity and brings development to the country as well. It should be taught in a way that it brings out the errors that have been done previously in giving information about faith.

The instructional time should be accurate. The place of the course on the timetable and the allotted time are very important factors to ensure that the children are listening and understanding what they are being taught (“They should try to not put it in an unfavorable hour i.e. when the pupils/students aren’t motivated, when they are tired like the last period after a math class on

Friday. They should put the RE class when all the children are motivated and ready i.e. after lunch”). Finally, it should be taught in a way that the children are able to apply it in their real life.

They should be taught how to apply the RE principles they have been taught in class in real life.

4.2.4 Experts Perspectives on the Contribution of RE to a Culture of Peace and Tolerance

There are various ways in which RE can contribute to peace and tolerance. One way is by preaching non-violence. Also, since RE helps the children understand other cultures, they will learn to tolerate others.

Involving instructors who are well-trained and understand what RE should be about will also bring about harmony (“First, it is to find people who are competent, who are convinced that a RE that teaches tolerance and the respect of differences”). Also, it is suggested that a need exists for RE

211 to teach children how to live with others in harmony and tolerate them; this will help in promoting peace.

Understanding what the philosophical core of religion is about will also help in promoting peace and tolerance, since it is through this route that children would be able to better understand why other people do what they do and what they believe and can now live together. Knowledge about other religions can also be brought about through debates, and this way, people learn to accept each other (“These students will be able to learn the aspects of the religions, their practices and the differences between them; and understand why there are differences, what lies at the very heart of the differences, and how they can overcome the differences that exist…”).

Another way is by teaching RE through general mythology. This means giving them essays and religious books like the Quran or the Bible to read. This way, they will understand that what they are being taught is not one person’s ideology and that it’s something being talked about by other people as well.

4.3 DISCUSSIONS

Teaching RE for a culture of peace is complex and challenging, as has been shown throughout this dissertation—both through research findings and by other scholars. The incredible findings documented in this dissertation (from respondents and experts alike) demonstrate the perceived real state of RE in Haiti–as both complex and challenging. This section discusses five essential themes and subthemes that were identified that contribute to these complexities and challenges, based on data analysis of 297 respondents and 10 participants. The discussion is framed to answer

212 the five research questions and assists with the development of an RE course that supports social tolerance, peace, and understanding through the delivery of an RE education that sees all religions as being equal rather than where one religion is offered primacy over another, thereby sustaining social and cultural differences.

4.3.1 Teaching RE in Haitian Schools

Both respondents and participants alike provide methods to approach the teaching of RE in Haiti’s schools. There, it was suggested that the delivery of RE courses in Haiti should be based around a humanistic ideal that allows for gender equality (“RE should be taught in both French and Haitian

Creole”); (“RE should be taught in Haitian Creole”). Additionally, the teaching of RE needs to aid not only in the creation of a peaceful society (this is an issue that is discussed elsewhere in this section) but should also be one that sees religion as supporting a caring society, and one that supports a peaceful co-existence between citizens (“If all Haitian children were taught religious principles in school, this would inspire them to better resolve conflict”).

Essentially, where there is a need for teaching an effective RE course there is a set of parallels that allows for peace, tolerance, and understanding of all peoples, regardless of difference. This approach is reflective of Talcott-Parson’s (1951) beliefs regarding the school environment as a microcosm of the wider society but one where RE would play an important role in developing a social moral code that benefits society through altered attitudes, albeit in an incremental basis that sees change take place gradually as children develop (Talcott-Parsons, 1951).

Findings showed that research responses advocated for a more practical method of knowledge

213 transfer compared to the traditional methods. Responses favored debates curated by experts. The argument for this is that it will immerse students in the knowledge of RE. Videos and first-hand observation of the different faiths in practice were also suggested. This would serve to guide the students to more than just a class discussion; it would provide an observatory participatory experience which would enrich their learning. Age of students was a concern for experts because they felt RE would do better when the mind is still impressionable. Hence, it was advocated that

RE should begin at early ages. Again, Haitians felt the goals of RE would be defeated if it were taught by biased teachers; hence, the call for well-trained, unbiased teachers who will be ready to instruct students on all religions without teaching in favor of any particular one. More importantly, experts implicitly believed that for RE to achieve its goal, it must be guided by the values of tolerance, respect, love, brotherhood, and openness of mind towards the beliefs of others. This call is supported by Novis-Deutsch and lifshitz when they stated that value-neutral teaching and steering away from topics that create conflicts may create peace (Novis-Deutsch and lifshitz, 2016).

However, some respondents and experts alike believed that Haitian schools can teach any subject but RE. Reasons for RE exclusion in Haitian school included its divisive nature, and its confessional teaching approach. One of the experts believed school is not the appropriate place to teach RE. Another expert argued Haitian schools are more in need of a teaching on national values than teaching RE. Though this last claim is remarkable, after further analysis of what national values consist of (i.e. moral, intellectual, economic and religious); we cannot afford not to teach about religion in Haitian schools because of its integrative nature – religion is all what we do. This research study encourages a redefinition of RE (an all-encompassing RE) in Haiti for the same reasons some respondents and experts believed it should be excluded from schools. In other words,

214 teaching RE should focus on perspectives that promote the values of Haitian citizen including religious tolerance and respecting the rights of other citizens. There could not be a better place for teaching RE than school because this latter gathers pupils from diverse religious beliefs.

4.3.2. Gender Differences on Teaching RE in Haiti

Research indicates that males outnumber females in almost every social institution in Haiti. This research finding demonstrate that, since there are proportionally fewer females than males in this study (122 vs. 175 respondents; and 3 vs. 7 participants). This is one of the social challenges that need to be tackled in Haiti. For instance, girls are still less likely to enrol in primary school than boys. Haitian females deserve more opportunities to actively contribute to Haiti’s future progress and reduce the one-sided way of thinking in our society. Findings on gender comparisons show perceptive, humanistic, and predictive differences in expressing their opinions about teaching RE in Haitian school. But, the findings on gender comparisons of this study only show significant differences in term of predicting culture of peace for Haiti. Predictively, females intended culture of peace would result in more perfect balance between the self and the other than males. This study statistically shows non-significant difference on perception of RE as a school subject taught by believer in primary and secondary schools and the potential of RE to proliferate non-violent attitudes. These statistical non-significant findings were very important to discuss here. Because it will advisedly apply to practical and useful decisions in teaching RE for a culture of peace in the society.

4.3.3 Core Issues of RE in Haiti

Haiti is a Christian dominated country riddled with Vodou practice in a religious syncretic

215 formation wherein Christian worship is supplemented with Vodou rituals. Christianity, in Haiti, soars on the dual wings of Catholicism and Protestantism: the two main Christian formations in the country engaged in a war for souls or members and the superiority of doctrinal patterns, while

Vodou is demonized and taught against. The result of this inter religious divide is mutual distrust and violence, which creates social problems of unimaginable proportions.

4.3.3.1 Issues of Faith-based Schooling

Historically, Catholic and Protestant schools were the main education providers in Haiti; so, catechism and Bible lessons became the only RE resources. Unfortunately, since both religions were often focused on conversions, as stated by Min (2002), the Protestants and Catholic churches provided services and resources mainly to attract people. Within those services provided, there is an invisible struggle for souls; RE in Haiti is more of an evangelism for expansion rather than the delivery of the knowledge of unity and oneness. This lopsided religious content of schools’ curriculum immediately precludes the recognition of other religions and imposes on students, by default, the religious persuasion of the school. Put differently, Catholic and Protestant schools forced Christianity on students through their respective doctrines and teachings. RE in Haiti is, thus, a mono-religious one with a dual curriculum split between Catholics and Protestants. RE is, thus, biased, condemnatory, and discriminatory against other faiths. In fact, other faiths like Vodou are taught against and condemned. This is clearly captured in Clair’s statement that Protestant evangelization demonizes and rejects Vodou (Clair, 2012). It is, therefore, clear that RE in Haiti is not organized since there exists no national design which guides the curriculum of its knowledge transfer. It is rather designed as the school sees fit through the myopic lenses of their religious persuasions. This disorganized nature of RE makes it impossible to find balance and peace between

216 these estranged religions and makes RE an instrument of peace instead of the present discrimination and antagonism that characterizes it.

4.3.3.2 Acceptance Issues

One of the core issues that emerged from the participants’ responses was the idea that acceptance should be promoted as a necessary tool for RE teachers and that the courses that are delivered should comprise part of that evolutionary process. Seemingly, the need to ensure that students are able to accept the merits and systems within other religions are deemed as being of vital importance because tolerance is considered to be overlooked, but an effective RE course could assist with reversing that outcome (“accept all students at any schools regardless their religious backgrounds”).

Further concerns raised by respondents to this study suggested that there is a need to ensure that social attitudes are evolved to a point where neighbors look after one another, despite their following different religions (“citizens cultivate a spirit of indulgence toward his or her neighbors”). This approach sees RE as being central to an idea where people should be accepting of one another and, in fairness, this approach places RE at a position that allows it to be important when seeking a reformation of social attitudes and interpersonal thinking, and this issue can be addressed through a secular approach to RE education.

4.3.4 Suggestions for Teaching RE in Haitian Schools

Religious tolerance, social acceptance, and peace in today’s world have become luxuries which the human personality, made wretched by ego, greed, and group interest, is incapable of purchasing.

This is made worse when purchasing these luxuries requires lumping antagonistic elements of

217 estranged faiths into one all-encompassing RE program. Making this endeavor work, therefore, requires not only a perfectly and fairly designed model for RE, but also, and more importantly, a conscious effort on the part of all faiths to respect, tolerate, and embrace each other with an air of strong religious relativism and singularity of ends — irrespective of our diverse means. Much work has been put into this research study, yet much more needs to be done to make possible the proposed design for an unbiased multi-RE program in Haiti. In light of these, the study makes the following recommendations:

4.3.4.1 Schools’ Role Suggestions in this area of interest arose out of a consideration whereby schools could be used to assist with the local community to become more tolerant and acceptable of others’ religious beliefs.

There, the idea of inclusion is one that sees all religions being a part to the curriculum rather than merely one dominant feature that serves to indoctrinate learners for or against specific religions.

(“…but if they put it in the curriculum, they should talk about all religions”). Through this course of action, it is feasible to develop learners in a way whereby they see themselves as equal to others, rather than as more important, and it is via this route where participants think they will get to know about other religions and the benefits that they offer to social dynamics.

4.3.4.2 Replace the Traditional Exams System by Complete Active Participation

Attaching grades to RE might do more harm than good. This might make the subject just another rigidly-defined and mechanized one made uninteresting by numerous tests, assignments, and exams which would cause a majority of the student to put in just enough effort to pass the subject without really immersing themselves in the truths which the course contents lay bare. This study, thus, recommends that emphasis should be placed on complete active participation and not grades.

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Instead of standard tests, excursions to churches, mosques, or Vodou temples should be embarked upon. Instead of the traditional exam structure, interfaith discussions and debates should be promoted. This will help to eliminate the anxiety and mundane nature of the traditional learning methods and allow students to ground themselves in the course’s contents, thus, creating the desired end result, which is a tolerant, religious, literate, and respectable Haitian with knowledge and love for his/her fellow humans, irrespective of their religious persuasion.

4.3.4.3 Get Expert Knowledge

In fashioning an all-encompassing RE program, trained teachers would be fine but pastors, imams/Islamic clerics, and Vodou priests would be perfect. The religious bodies should, therefore, be involved in the design of the curriculum and should furnish educational institutions with their seasoned scholars to do the teaching of students and training of teachers where necessary. The reason for this is simply the fact that their wealth of experience is second to none. We become the best when we learn from the best. These religious scholars, more than the trained traditional teachers, often exude an aura of spirituality immersed in their faith, which is certain to rub off on their students with prolonged association. While this idea may be difficult to bring to bear at best, these scholars should visit the educational institutions to lend their wealth of experience to the teaching process.

4.3.4.4 Promote Experiential Knowledge

Theoretical knowledge is good but not enough. Experiential knowledge should be promoted. As part of the teaching process, students should visit Churches, Vodou shrines, etc., to observe, first- hand, the practices and theories they are taught in school.

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4.3.4.5 Create a Monitoring Team

A monitoring body should be set up, constituted by members of the different faiths and members of the national administrative arm of the Ministry of Education, which not only provides training for traditional teachers who would take part in the teaching process but also monitors the knowledge transfer to ensure it approximates with the laid-down values of tolerance, fairness, equality, and respect etc. The monitoring team will also measure the effectiveness of the education program through the character test on the students so as to make for continuous progressive modifications where necessary and to strengthen weak spots.

4.3.4.6 Create a Commission Committed to an all Inclusive RE Program

A national interfaith commission should be created that consciously works together to eliminate the long-established culture of mutual hatred and discrimination that have characterized the relationship among them. Friendly postures among initially estranged faiths would send a strong message to the country that religious tolerance and peace can be achieved and would give a massive boost to the interfaith RE program.

4.3.4.7 Religious Equality Should Reflect in all Activities in Schools

The culture of peace should not only be pursued exclusively through a multi-faith curriculum. All other activities in school should reflect this religious equality and the presence of all religions. For example, the morning prayers should not be dominated by one religion as it has always been, but, rather, a new structure for school morning prayers should be created wherein prayers would be led in different faiths according to their prescribed religious practices. This would immediately point

220 out clearly that religious equality and acceptance of all faiths would not only be confined to the course contents of RE and classrooms but also would be integrated into every sphere of Haitian life. This will also help to eliminate that deeply buried subconscious resistance and begin to create

Haitians whose spiritual dimension finds expression in many religions.

4.3.4.8 Replace Examination with Character and Behavioral Test

Lastly, character and behavioral tests should be introduced in place of the traditional exams where students will be exposed to hypothetical interfaith disputes and are required to proffer solutions to the issues. The goal here is to ascertain the level of character transformation and change of Haitians from single-faith fundamentalists to multi-faith advocates of peace, tolerance, equality, and respect.

4.3.5 Views on Religious Tolerance for a Culture of Peace in Haiti

Respondents and experts alike shared their views on religious tolerance for a culture of peace in

Haiti. This discussion identified tolerance as a significant catalyst for a culture of peace in Haiti.

Views on tolerance are discussed as follow:

4.3.5.1 Religious Tolerance in Haiti

Violent expressions among faiths and antagonistic relations amongst their devotees are all tied to the lack of religious tolerance. Tolerance in Haiti is non-existent as religions take a condemnatory stance against themselves. Schools will teach anything but another faith or religion which contradicts their own doctrines. This indicates that religious relations in Haiti is anything but tolerant. This reality is however not surprising when Christianity dominates the RE landscape.

Bryne (2011) warned about the dangers of this dominance of single religion when he stated that

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“where Christianity dominates, teachings will reflect their bias alone.” It is worthy to note that if our ends are the culture of peace, then our means must be tolerance. Respondents agree strongly that achieving tolerance would begin with the inclusion of all religions in the RE curriculum.

Gordon and Arenstein (2017) support this agreement when they stated that educational institutions must intentionally structure and engage their students in a process of transformative learning about other cultures and religions. This, they believed, will eliminate the idea that the religions taught were superior to the one condemned. More so, this inclusion of all religions in a single all- encompassing curriculum and its perfect delivery would equip students with the knowledge and understanding of the practices which they had initially abhorred in other faiths and promote acceptance. They (the participants) added that RE should be taught at all educational levels by trained instructors who would not let their own beliefs get in the way of RE knowledge transfer.

In Bryne’s own words, “teachers need special preparation to be aware of their religious biases when teaching interfaith understanding” (Bryne, 2011).

Overall, the respondents came to a consensus that the delivery of RE in Haiti should include a common thread that sees the creation and expansion of a number of attitudes that are indicative of a common sense of tolerance. The respondents suggested that a need exists for an RE course that sees to ensure that people are not persecuted or discriminated against, simply for holding alternate religious opinions and beliefs. Indeed, respondents appear strongly in favor of a social attitude that is borne of RE in which people feel safe amongst “their own,” but also where a common social attitude conflicts this idea through the experience of a common attitude that is borne of similarities

(“I feel more excited when people have the same belief as mine”).

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Indeed, the existence of these common ideas also suggests that respondents consider themselves comfortable when debating religion with those that hold alternate beliefs and perspectives; they also suggest, however, that the opinions of others, particularly those with an alternate belief, are not more or less important but, in essence, the same. With this, the idea of religious tolerance also allows for common social and humanistic threads that sees religious practitioners offering their own religious beliefs and standpoints as a basis for caring for others, including those with a different belief system (“I can listen to the opinion of people from different beliefs”); (“I will help people no matter their religious background”); (“I respect others’ religious beliefs”); (“RE should help students cultivate non-violence attitudes”); (“School should teach pupils to be tolerant to different religions”); and (“RE should train students on how to avoid violence attitudes towards other religions”).

4.3.5.2 A Culture of Peace for Haiti

Respondents agreed that a culture of peace would be a product of tolerance. Hence, their emphasis would be on tolerance and respectable coexistence as a means to achieve a culture of peace.

Respondents agreed that RE, the channel through which tolerance is to be achieved, would be designed to equip students with knowledge and skills for dispute management and resolution. The belief is that such skills will help manage fallouts and eliminate them before they assume destructive proportions. According to Askarova (2007), religious and ethical education of people would provide knowledge about the “eternal questions” of life and stimulate their active cognitive and exploratory involvement in thinking about global world view problems such as the existence and nature of God; the meaning of human life; life after death; and the nature and origin of good and evil. This implies that an RE program, although an unbiased one, is in the right direction. More

223 so, their (the respondents) responses implicitly demanded that emphasis be placed on the similarities of our humanity rather than the dissimilarities of our faiths. This will strengthen the idea that irrespective of our religious beliefs, we are one big human family. The absence of religious tolerance and cooperation is responsible for the relative lack of peace in Haiti, resulting in violent relations among faiths.

What is being suggested in the above section is the development of a peaceful and tolerant society in Haiti, much of which can be aided via the creation of an effective RE course that does not structurally discriminate against forms of religious practice and belief whilst promoting others.

This process can be used as part of a system that realizes that the establishment of a peaceful society begins with the teaching of common RE studies from an early age. Consequentially, the study should be undertaken (based upon participant responses) in a manner that not only educates about the merits of other forms of religion but also seeks to develop social attitudes that assist with the interaction of people who hold different beliefs and cultures. There, participants indicated that any RE course needs to be taught in a way that sees tolerance being central to the idea of a peaceful society (“The best way to teach RE in the schools would be to teach the children that the different religions must respect and aid each other”), whilst avoiding bias or favoritism.

Participants also argued that where students are taught RE, they should be able to develop ideas that are based upon an open mind in terms of the divergent set of social and religious ideas that are present within Haitian society. This approach would assist with helping others to see all people as equals and, in doing so, disavows the possibility of being judgmental towards others. This would reduce the potential for social and structural discrimination and aid the development and

224 sustainment of a national and societal peace that allows people to live side by side in harmony (“a way to rebuild our society which will create mutual respect as well as respect for our heritage).

4.3.6 Views on RE for Haiti’s Schools

Achieving the culture of peace through RE means that RE must be designed to promote peace. RE in Haiti is unorganized, lopsided and biased in favor of a few. Hence, the need for a new all- encompassing design. Respondents favored the inclusion of all religions in the RE curriculum as this will reflect equality and recognition. RE should be made compulsory and taught without prejudice as this will promote tolerance, and critical thinking should be made an important part of

RE. The reason for this is to equip students with the skills to analyze situations in the light of their multi-religious knowledge and to approach issues with an open mind in search of peaceful resolutions.

Overall, the development of an effective RE course should be developed that supports social tolerance and understanding, and one that allows for all religions to be offered equal respect within the social system. This approach also allows males and females to be treated respectfully and as equals, but also one that is geared towards children as part of an intent to change the social attitudes of Haiti over the course of time as an incremental issue. Effectively, what is being suggested is an

RE course that creates sufficient space for the development of a multi-cultural and religious society that is shaped by mutual respect and acceptance. What emerges also is the idea that an effective

RE course can be used to improve personal choice to follow a specific religion whilst not being censured by society.

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Indeed, the development of an effective RE course can also assist with aiding students to understand the basis for national Haitian cultures that are based upon inclusion. For this to be effective, a further need exists for the retraining of teachers to develop an RE course that is reflective of the attitudes and perspectives that are included within this chapter, but also where the training process should include related links to social dynamics, human rights, and a belief in the ability of the individual to develop their own religious practices as part of a process of individualism.

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

This Chapter summarizes the findings of the study and discusses the contributions of this dissertation to a culture of peace, as well as to RE teaching methods. It also bases on the limitations of the study in terms of design and approach and gives suggestions for improving the results of the study.

5.1 MAIN RESEARCH FINDINGS

Agreement for an All-encompassing RE for Haitian Schools. After thorough analysis, it was discovered that an RE design which includes and teaches all religions will proliferate religious literate Haitians and lead to a culture of peace, tolerance, and cooperation. The findings resulting from the analysis of questionnaire survey data and interview data indicate support for the constructs developed in this dissertation. On the quantitative interpretation of the collated data from correspondence, responses moved from strong to moderate disagreements and from mild to strong agreements and sometimes unsure responses. Respondents strongly objected to the domination of RE by a single religious persuasion when asked if the contents of RE should be on catechism only. Findings also showed moderate rejection of the ideas that schools’ religious backgrounds should guide its RE design and content, and that RE should focus on conversion and be limited to secondary schools and universities. In the same manner, the ideas of a Bible, Islam or Vodou-dominated RE was mildly rejected. All these buttresses the fact that Haitians desire an

RE design wherein all religions would enjoy equal attention and respect. When asked if critical thinking skill needed to be integrated into RE and if RE should be provided by schools of all level, respondents showed agreement. Moderate agreement greeted questions concerning if RE should

227 be taught in Haitian schools, if every school in Haiti should provide RE and if RE should be made a compulsory inclusion in the school curriculum. Responses to Questions 8 and 2 indeed proves the fact that Haitians desire a holistic knowledge about all religions when responses showed strong agreements with the ideas that the contents of RE should focus on a general knowledge concerning all religions and the rights of students to get an all-encompassing RE. On the importance and necessity of RE as a subject, 92 percent of the research respondents saw RE as a welcome idea while a negligible 8 percent went the other way. Using Levene’s test for equality of variance, the research showed a variance of opinions between males and females on most of the response questions. Findings clearly showed that RE, in its current design, was not organised and produced negative results because it was dominated by a single religion and was condemnatory and poorly structured.

RE Curriculum and Teaching Methods. The study has suggested a number of values which should guide the design of RE in Haiti, based on the collated responses and personal discoveries.

Some of these values include but are not limited to: a national design for RE for all schools, approved by the Ministry of education in Haiti, in order to harmonize the design and create a national structure equally beneficial and representative of all wherein all religions are to be taught without bias and where tolerance would be the guiding principle and in which RE would begin at a very young age when the minds of student are very impressionable and uncritical and where teachers would be trained to be unbiased in their impartation of knowledge. It emphasized respect and brotherhood as important contents of RE and favored debates, first-hand observations, and visual display/teaching aids as the most promising methods for teaching RE so that students can see and experience what they are taught.

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RE should be taught by professionals. Results also agree that an RE design which includes all religions pioneered by well-trained and unbiased teachers and taught like every other subject, with no condemnatory tone towards equals will ensure religious tolerance and peace, appreciation of alien practices, promote respect for other faiths and campaign against religious violence and illiteracy, and bring students to an understanding of humanity, its spiritual dimension, and the tendency for such to find expression in what others might consider mundane or fetish.

Core Issues of RE in Haiti. The religious atmosphere in Haiti, officially dominated by

Christianity, split between Protestantism and Catholicism and the demonization of Vodou, covertly practiced by the majority of Haitians, created an ambiance of religious rivalry and inter-religious strife in Haiti. This is responsible for the unorganized nature of RE in Haiti and the lack of a culture of peace and cooperation in the country. This lack of peace and cooperation informed the purpose of this paper to study and analyze data, on the issues of RE in Haiti, collected through surveys, interviews, and existing studies to proffer informed solutions which will guide the creation of an all-inclusive RE program that will usher in peace and cooperation. Some of the challenges RE faced are the challenges of biased knowledge transfer, building receptiveness in students, and eliminating rejection of the idea of an all-embracing RE on the part of parents, amongst others.

The correlation between RE and a culture of peace. Respondents agreed that the much-desired culture of peace can be achieved through RE built on mutual respect for shared differences, love, and brotherhood. More so, participants suggested the beginning of multi-faith RE when the mind is still impressionable. To the expert participants, the importance of RE finds justification in the

229 fact that it promotes peace and understanding. In addition, it exposes students to the hidden parts of their spirituality and brings them close to an experience of the true divine in them.

5.2 EMERGING NEEDS FOR AN RE PROTOTYPE FOR A CULTURE OF PEACE FOR

HAITI

Expose Religious Intolerance. The study exposed religious intolerance as one of the major obstacles to peace in Haiti and traced the problem to the unorganized design of RE or the biased design which allowed academic students, the purveyors of this knowledge, to structure RE in line with the dictates of their own faith and to the exclusion of all others. Consequently, this created a

One-Religion-dominated RE structure which is more often than not, discriminatory, condemnatory, and more interested in conversion than the delivery of RE knowledge. RE exposure has revealed the dangers of religious bias and intolerance and will kindle the desire for an alternative design for

RE.

Promote Religious Literacy. The study promotes religious literacy and through this, ensures social acceptance for the diversity of spiritualities of humans which are, more often than not, expressed in ways which contradict the faiths and practices of others.

Encourage an All-Rounded RE Design. The study exposes the need for an all-rounded RE design and promotes the compulsory knowledge of all religions which it believed would create a balanced scholar with knowledge of the different dimensions of human spirituality.

Lack of RE Content in the School Textbooks. An additional example of the need for this RE

230 course for Haiti is that, in Haiti, textbooks provide the basis for knowledge input pupils receive and discuss in the classroom. After I analyzed K6’s recent Haitian textbooks in Haiti, religion is almost non-existent in the lesson contents. An old K5-9 Haiti history textbook, Manuel D’Histoire

D’Haiti, critically introduced the religion of the first Haitians (the native inhabitants) by stating

“Ces sauvages voyaient un Dieu dans toute chose. Les arbres, les animaux, les sources, la mer, etc.” (Bellgarde and Lherisson, 1906, p. 9) [Translating to “These savages saw a God in everything.

Trees, animals, springs, the sea, etc.”]. Additionally, the textbook only provided a brief description of the first Haitian main deity-Zemes, belief system, and religious celebration. Consequently,

Haitian pupils receive 13 years of formal education without any training regarding religions.

Therefore, there is a need for revising and updating Haiti’s school curriculum, especially regarding history and social studies contents to proliferate religious literacy.

5.2.1 The Design of the RE Prototype for Haiti

A huge part of achieving a culture of peace in Haiti through RE is by the creation of an unbiased curriculum which would be designed with the values of our desired ends as its point of departure.

This research study, after careful collation of responses from participants and respondents, suggests a reliable curriculum which would chart our course to an RE that will usher in a culture of peace in Haiti. Through this course, teachers ought to enable students to learn about and from religion in the Haitian education system. This curriculum design suggested the following contents:

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Table 5.2.1

The Design of the RE Prototype for Haiti Title: Religious Literacy for Peace and Tolerance General Curriculum Goals and Aims • To instill the skills of critically analyzing situations. • To teach acceptance and the relativity of human spirituality and its numerous expressions. • To teach tolerance through interfaith relations. • To teach interfaith consciousness. • To foster religious unity, specifically, and national unity, generally. • To promote non-violence as a necessary value for interfaith co-existence. Content Objectives This would teach the reason for, and the origin of all 1. Background and the Origin of all Religions religions. 2. Human Spirituality and its Quest for This will teach the diversity of human spirituality and Physical Expression Through Symbols and its numerous shades of expressions with emphasis on Unique Practices the similarities of their ends. 3. The Relativity of Religious Practices and This will teach students that irrespective of diversity Their Path to Similar Ends in religious expressions, the ends are the same. A search for the divine and higher consciousness. This will teach the significance of different religious 4. Religious Practices and Their Significance practices and their role in the physical expression of the inward desire for the divine. This will teach students how to tolerate other faiths 5. Tolerance, the Path to Peace and to see from the perspective of those faiths in order to appreciate their practices. This course will teach students the different 6. God, Gods; Singularity and Multiplicity conceptions of God and his numerous symbolic representations. 7. Religious Practices; The Similarities in This course will teach the underlying similarities Their Differences: which cut across all religious practices. This course will teach communication which is 8. Interfaith Communication sensitive to religious differences, accommodating, and uniting.

9. Conflict Resolution in Interfaith Relations Finally, this course will teach skills for the resolution of conflicts in interfaith relations. Delivery Models • Traditional classroom discussions between trained teachers and students. • Incorporation of videos, audio, symbols, and slides in the knowledge delivery. • Observatory learning which would see students sit in religious worship programs and get a first-hand experience of what they have been taught. • Participatory learning: This will get students to take part in religious practices of religions other than theirs, not with a focus on conversion but to engender an appreciative perspective of others’ views. • Debates and character test and role-playing.

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5.2.2 Importance of this RE Prototype for Haiti

The promotion of knowledge of all religions and respect, tolerance, and love will, over time, eliminate the condemnatory and discriminatory character of Haitians and result in huge reductions in violent expressions by members of one faith against another as these teachings will amplify our similarities as humans and play down our religious differences.

An all-inclusive RE curriculum, sensitive to the differences in religious beliefs and practices and the numerous expressions of spirituality, holds many advantages for Haiti generally, while for students, specifically, the designed curriculum will: (1) Furnish them with effective communications skills for connecting and understanding people of religious persuasion different from theirs. This skill will improve emotional intelligence and increase sensitivity to the weaknesses of others. (2) The curriculum will, through its different delivery models, develop the analytical and investigative skills of students which will allow for quick analysis of social problems and promote solution-driven thinking. (3) In-depth theoretical and experiential knowledge of the world’s religions, their practices, and beliefs, are knowledge which the student stands to gain from this curriculum. This will make the student friendlier and open to new religious ideas and practices, due to the fact that his/her apprehension for alien religions and their practices have been eliminated through his/her first-hand knowledge of them. (4) Finally, the student will gain a sense of fluidity and adaptability, as well as the importance of these features in navigating social situations for desired outcomes.

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5.3 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY

The underlying motivation of this study was to reorganize RE in Haiti through an in-depth investigation of the existing RE design, its contents, problems, and the people’s perception towards it and their expectations. This study has done that through the use of surveys and a statistically quantitative analysis followed by a qualitative interpretation of the quantitative data, and interviews with educational and religious experts.

The first implication of this study is that it has created empirical data which shows clearly the perceptions of Haitians toward the contents and practice of RE, as well as their misgivings towards it. It has also revealed the rejection of the idea of a mono-religious structured RE program and the favoring of the idea of educating students on all religions equally without bias in the heart of

Haitians. This, thus, provides very important information for education policy formulation in redesigning the unorganized RE curriculum in Haiti to reflect the model favored by Haitians as capable of creating the desired culture of peace.

The second implication stems from the findings of the study that a faulty RE program engenders divisiveness and promotes discrimination and condemnation which becomes emotionally tied to the hearts of devotees and crystallizes itself in violent expressions and confrontations by people of different faiths. This study suggests the creation of an all-embracing RE design anchored on the foundations of tolerance, respect, and equal regards for faiths, love, brotherhood, and openness.

The third implication of this study is that it has opened up areas for future research and offers itself as a veritable foundational resource for further studies. The study will encourage comparative

234 studies of RE programs and the level of social acceptance and cordiality among faiths to determine the extent to which RE programs that are dominated by a single religion polarize people and predisposes them to antagonistic relations. Comparative studies will also be encouraged in

Catholicism and Protestantism, the two main providers of knowledge in Haiti, to determine which of the two had the tendency to promote more division and violence, and why?

The fourth implication of the study would be the achievement of relative peace, tolerance, religious literacy, and respect for all faiths. Owing to its suggestion of including all religions in the RE program in Haiti, the study will promote more cooperation (less friction), understanding, and appreciation of our religious differences and the similarity of our purposes and ends.

The fifth and final implication of the study resulting from the numerous benefits to be gained from multi-faith RE in the areas of reduction of violence and interfaith dispute, administrative balance, etc., is the creation of a multi-faith religious body to ease the tension between themselves and to combine efforts in the creation of a culture of peace through an all-rounded, all-embracing RE program.

5.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES

Designing an all-inclusive RE curriculum has been the drive for this research paper and in attempting to do this, numerous revelations were made which revealed that an RE curriculum, tolerant of all religions and sensitive to the diversity of religious expression will usher in peace and unity in Haiti. These revelations also point to interesting areas within the purview of interreligious cooperation and RE designs deserving of more in-depth studies in order to consolidate

235 what we have arrived at in this study and to increase the body of knowledge surrounding the entire gamut of RE. Some of the areas worthy of note include the following:

Firstly, the participants of this study were largely from the Christian community which, therefore, to a large extent, influenced the outcome of our research endeavor. As a result of this, a more diverse pool of respondents and participants should be made available for subsequent research investigations in order to achieve a broader and richer view. In addition, the number of participants interviewed for the study was too small to create a strong basis for generalization. More so, the overall responses from participants will furnish the researcher with a more balanced knowledge if the number of participants were larger and more evenly distributed.

Secondly, the same research investigation should be carried out in a different country with a more robust pool of diverse participants and respondents in order to validate the results of our studies in

Haiti. During our study, we discovered little or minor variations in the responses of female and male participants on certain issues. This provides an interesting area to explore in future research endeavors in order to explicitly understand how gender uniqueness affects religious tolerance, peace, and interfaith cooperation and their unique views on how best to ensure an all-inclusive RE curriculum.

Thirdly, the use of the electronic email platform for the provision of survey materials to the respondents makes it impossible for people without access to computers, smartphones or internet access, who may be more experienced and knowledgeable on the subject, to participate. In the future, more emphasis should be placed on the use of paper questionnaires in order to increase

236 response rates and make it possible for more people who lack tech and internet access to participate.

Fourthly, and finally, since it has been affirmed that RE, tolerant of all religions, will promote peace and cooperation, an investigation on the best combination of methods to teach RE for maximum impact should be considered. This specific investigation of the specific methods of teaching RE would provide knowledge which will guide our teaching methods in order to arrive at the best outcomes.

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EPILOGUE

It would be incomplete to design an RE for a culture of peace in Haiti without also discussing its implementation process. Every Haitian school should teach RE to equip students with religious literacy, religious tolerance and education for a culture of peace. Though my wish is that this curriculum be implemented at a national level, but small action will be taken to jumpstart. I present the following epilogue.

Being a Haitian citizen myself, exploring Haitian views on teaching RE for a culture of peace was a reflective endeavor. The urge to know about other religions started after an encounter with a stranger in Taipei metro. The young lady shared knowledge of her culture and religion passionately but me. The conversation became awkward as I was trying to persuade the lady I am not Vodou.

That was when I realized the effect of lacking religious and cultural literacy (my upbringing was without knowledge of the Haitian culture and other religions). Furthermore, in January 2010, many

Haitians from the Christian sector created a scapegoat for the devastating earthquake by accusing the Vodou as the principal cause of the natural disaster. For these reasons, conducting this research study necessary. As a result, an integrated RE course is designed to guide social understanding of the national culture, respect other religious practices and promote a culture of peace.

RE, its emphasis on tolerance, acceptance, mutual understanding and cooperation, through knowledge leads to peaceful coexistence and a culture of cooperation. In fact, Chandra (1984) confirms this when he identified Islamic education as responsible for the cultural, political and administrative tolerance, enshrined in Islam, which inspired tolerance of the Malaysians towards

238 other religious persuasions. With increasing globalization, and its accompanying diversity, RE becomes even doubly imperative in ushering in a culture of peace. The SDG 4 recognized this fact and designed education to be a tool required for sustainable development through its promotion of human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity (UNESCO, 2017). This indicates the high premium placed upon education as a tool for peace and understanding cultural diversity. UNESCO on May 27 2016, while celebrating the UN peace keeping day in Senegal, gave its vision and design for the achievement of the SDG4 goals in a debate titled “peace through education and culture” at the UN information center (UNESCO, 2016). UNESCO’s program would include, conflict management, and prevention, human rights, gender equality, civic awareness and citizenship education among others (UNESCO, 2016). All the above serve to make clear the fact that education is vital to a culture of peace. One of the biggest challenges brought to bear by human diversity is violence and conflict caused by our cultural and religious differences (Smith, 1995). Since globalization continues to lump diverse cultural and religious groups together, there is need for accommodation and tolerance (Geertz, 2000). While a lot of adults might have become stereotyped and would find it difficult to unlearn their various religious prejudices and hatred, they have accumulated over their life time, the best place to start to build a new generation of tolerant individuals is the schools.

More so, schools now house children from diverse religious and cultural background and would become a theatre of expression for family sentiments and sectarian hatred unless a new design for religious education is put in place to teach tolerance and acceptance. In delivering RE, the teaching guides and sacred writings of religions i.e. the Bible, Koran, Bhagavad Gita should be employed and RE teaching materials should be a synthesis of this materials to create a comprehensive design.

A treatise on conflict resolution and management, as well as sensitive religious communication

239 skills must be put in place. Learning must be designed to relate with real life experiences. Students should have in class lectures on religious practices, world views and beliefs as well as experience these practices first hand in other to create an unforgettable experience and a participatory observation which would make students personalize these experiences and take ownership of them.

According to Boys (1989), the foundational building blocks of any religious education must be designed to expand our sense of the world. In designing RE for a culture of peace, peace educators must discredit and denounce all aspects of their religious beliefs and practices or sacred writings which sees violence as a veritable means and endorses it (Barette, 2009). In recognition of the importance of a culture of peace, the United nations instituted the High-level forums to review progress and chart the way forward on creating a culture of peace. A review of these forums showed a repetition of the following themes, creating a culture of peace requires nation, sector and person to work together to establish an understanding of our common humanity, promote respect of all culture, strengthen interreligious understanding and train people for the future; above all we must peacefully come together. Here, the forum locates the responsibility for creating a culture of peace not just on a particular sector of the global society but on all. We must prevent intolerance, extreme violence and belligerence, we need to promote inclusion, cooperation and the unity of diverse ethnic, diverse cultural and plural societies. We must train ourselves with the education and skills we need to resolve conflicts peacefully to eliminate injustice and intolerance and to eradicate all forms of discrimination and hate. The forum recognized the importance of education in the scheme of things and reiterates that inclusiveness and cooperation for a culture of peace can be achieved through education. The design of RE, its proposed design and activities are indeed plausible reasons why we should adopt RE in Haiti. With the history of religious intolerance and violence littered over the pages of Haiti’s religious and social history, then, the adoption of RE is

240 imperative for us in Haiti. Some important steps for the implementation of RE in Haiti to ensure the positive impacts listed above are brought to bear includes the following: There should be massive RE teacher education which will engender neutrality and be versed in the practices and worldviews of various world religions, there should be a comprehensive RE curriculum design which combines the positive and unifying elements of all religions in other to create a point of convergence for all religions and finally, the sacred writings of the different religious persuasions should be combined to create an all-encompassing material for the transfer of religious knowledge for a culture of peace and cooperation.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: Cover Letter & Survey Questionnaire

Cover Letter

Greetings,

My name is Virginie MARC. I am a PhD candidate of Education, Curriculum & Instruction, at

National Taiwan Normal University-NTNU in Taipei, Taiwan ROC. I would like to invite you to take part in a research study being conducted by myself, as part of my PhD program. The study is described below. This description includes purpose of the study, who can participate, what is requested from you, and anonymity. Your participation in the study will be a mean to the contribution of what pupils will learn in schools in the future which is hoped to foster change in our society. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me.

Title of the Research: An Explorative Study on Teaching RE for a Culture of Peace in Haiti

Purpose of the Study:

This research will explore Haitian views points on how RE (RE) should be taught in schools, content to be taught, and how such teaching can contribute to a culture of peace. The researcher hopes to be able to determine a common Haitian perspectives of the subject of RE in schools which will serve as scaffolding for future curriculum development and guided instruction.

Who can participate in the study?

Haitians who are University, College and Professional school students may participate in this study.

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Study Design:

You will be asked to complete a fifteen minutes (at the maximum) questionnaire online by clarifying the requested demographic data (some of your background) and by choosing the degree you agree or disagree to each question. There is minimal writing required for the survey also. If interested, the researcher will share a copy of the final work so that you are aware of the findings.

Anonymity:

Both you and your answers will be completely anonymous since your name will not be identified in any way in the survey questionnaire nor in any reports resulting from this research. All data will be kept on a password protect computer and external hard drive. The raw data may be useful for future research as they will be used to create a Haitian standard of conceptualization.

By completing this questionnaire, you express consent to be a part of this survey.

Contact the researcher:

In case you have any questions about the survey questionnaire, you may contact the researcher at

(Email: xxx@xxx; Tel: xxx).

Thank you very much,

Your participation in this survey is greatly appreciated.

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Survey Questionnaire Teaching RE for a Culture of Peace in Haiti - Survey Questionnaire

This survey questionnaire is developed for my dissertation study on “Teaching RE for a Culture of Peace in Haiti.” All the data collected will be kept anonymously and be used for the analysis of the study only. Your honest responses are highly appreciated and will be very helpful not only for capturing the Haitian perspectives on RE but also for constructing future RE for Culture of Peace in Haiti. Thank you so much for your participation!

Sincerely yours, Virginie MARC Doctor Candidate, Department of Education National Taiwan Normal University 162 East Hoping Road, Section 1 Taipei, 106, Taiwan

Demographic Data Some information about yourself (for statistical purpose): Gender: 1. Male 2. Female Age: 1. Under 20 2. 20-24 3. 25-29 4. 30-34 5. 35-39 6. 40-49 7. 50-59 8. 60 or over

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Education Background/The highest degree obtained: 1. Academic secondary 2. Vocational school 3. College/University Religion: 1. Catholic 2. Protestant 3. Vodouist 4. Muslim 5. Other: 6. None Where did you receive RE? 1. In school, 2. In church 3. At home 4. I did not receive RE 5. Other: What type of schools have you attended? 1. Elementary school: 1. Private or 2. Public school; 1. Religious or 2. Non-religious School location: 2. Secondary school: 1. Private or 2. Public school; 1. Religious or 2. Non-religious School location 3. Vocational school: 1. Private or 2. Public school; 1. Religious or 2. Non-religious School location: 4. College/University: 1. Private or 2. Public school; 1. Religious or 2. Non-religious; School location: * If you are college or university student, please indicate your major: Hometown (region): Please answer the following questions from your perspective and/or your religious belief. By encircling one of these numbers from each statement, you automatically: 1= strongly disagree; 2= disagree; 3 = neutral; 4: agree; 5 strongly agree Questions about RE 1. I think RE should be taught in schools in Haiti. 1 2 3 4 5

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2. S tudents have the right to know about all religions in RE. 1 2 3 4 5 3. The content of RE should be on the Bible only. 1 2 3 4 5 4. The content of RE should be on the catechism only. 1 2 3 4 5 5. RE should teach the students about Christianism. 1 2 3 4 5 6. RE should teach the students about Islam. 1 2 3 4 5 7. RE should teach the students about Vodou. 1 2 3 4 5 8. I think the content of RE should focus on general knowledge about all religions. 1 2 3 4 5 9. RE should be taught for students’ conversion. 1 2 3 4 5 10. RE should be part of the student education. 1 2 3 4 5 11. RE should equip students with critical thinking skills. 1 2 3 4 5 12. RE should be experiential. For instance, to bring the students to mass or to a mosque to experience a worship service. 1 2 3 4 5 13. Every school (primary and secondary) should provide RE. 1 2 3 4 5 14. In Haiti, schools in all levels should provide RE. 1 2 3 4 5 15. Knowledge about all religions should only involve secondary school and the university. 1 2 3 4 5 16. Religious school should teach RE base on the school’s religious beliefs only. 1 2 3 4 5

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17. RE teacher must a believer. 1 2 3 4 5 What are your views on RE as a subject in the school curriculum in Haiti? Answer: Questions about views on tolerance 18. I can listen to the opinion of people from different beliefs. 1 2 3 4 5 19. The opinions of people from different beliefs are also important as mine. 1 2 3 4 5 20. I feel comfortable to have debates on religious issues with people who do not share the same religious beliefs as mime. 1 2 3 4 5 21. I agree that people could be persecuted because of their religious practice or appurtenance. 1 2 3 4 5 22. I respect others’ religious beliefs. 1 2 3 4 5 23. I will help people no matter their religious background. 1 2 3 4 5 24. I feel more excited when people have the same belief as mime. 1 2 3 4 5 25. I am safe among people who share the same belief as mime. 1 2 3 4 5 26. School should teach pupils to be tolerant to different religions. 1 2 3 4 5 27. RE should help students cultivate non-violence attitudes. 1 2 3 4 5 28. RE should train students on how to avoid violence attitudes towards other religions. 1 2 3 4 5 What are some ways to teach RE to create tolerant citizens? Answer:

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Questions for culture of peace 29. Having religious knowledge will contribute to a peaceful living. That means people who are knowledgeable on many religions are more likely to live in peace with other people. 1 2 3 4 5 30. The religious principles I learned in school allow me to love others. 1 2 3 4 5 31. The religious principles I learned in school allow me to love myself. 1 2 3 4 5 32. If religious principles continue to be taught in school, our citizens will better understand each other 1 2 3 4 5 33. Religious knowledge would help students to respect others’ opinions and differences 1 2 3 4 5 34. Teaching children RE would help them become compassionate human beings. For instance, people who like to help, protect animals and the environment. 1 2 3 4 5 35. RE in school would help Haitians be caring citizens. 1 2 3 4 5 36. An educated citizen is one who protects the natural environment. 1 2 3 4 5 37. A religious person appreciates the culture of his/her country. 1 2 3 4 5 38. Knowing about other religious beliefs would contribute to peaceful dialogue. 1 2 3 4 5 39. If all Haitian children were taught religious principles in school, this would inspire them to better resolve conflict. 1 2 3 4 5 40. I believe RE in school would help students overcome superstition and bigotry. 1 2 3 4 5 41. Teaching RE would play an important role in education for moral cultural values in students.

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1 2 3 4 5 42. Teaching RE in Haiti’s schools should equip students with skills to manage class conflicts in Haiti society. 1 2 3 4 5 43. Teaching RE in Haiti’s schools should sensitize students to respect human rights. 1 2 3 4 5 44. RE should promote religious freedom for all religions. 1 2 3 4 5 45. Teaching RE in Haiti’s schools should promote gender equality. 1 2 3 4 5 46. RE should educate male students to respect women. 1 2 3 4 5 47. RE should educate female students to respect men. 1 2 3 4 5 48. RE should be taught in Haitian Creole. 1 2 3 4 5 49. RE should be taught in French. 1 2 3 4 5 50. RE should be taught in both French and Haitian Creole. 1 2 3 4 5 51. RE should help students to overcome language discriminations. That means to help students know that a language is a communication tool, and every language is beautiful. 1 2 3 4 5 52. RE should equip students to manage culture differences. 1 2 3 4 5 53. RE should train students to live in a multi-faith society. 1 2 3 4 5 How to teach RE in school to reach to a culture of peace in Haiti? Answer:

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APPENDIX B: Pilot Survey Questionnaire

This questionnaire aims at understanding whether Haiti and its Education System are religious. We will afterward compare Haiti and its Education System to that of France which is secular (separate from all religions).

Gender: Male/Female Profession: Religion: I have already done my primary and secondary school level: Yes/No Elementary school: religious/ non-religious Secondary/ vocational school: religious/ non-religious

Please answer the following questions according to your experience and religious belief by choosing one of these numbers per statement. 1= Strongly Agree 2= Agree 3= Not Sure (I don’t know) 4= Disagree 5= Strongly Disagree

1- I believe that Haiti is a religious country. 1 2 3 4 5

2- Every Haitian has a religion 1 2 3 4 5

3- My primary school required that I become religious (either through conversion or catechism) 1 2 3 4 5 4- My secondary (vocational) school required that I become religious (either through conversion or catechism) 1 2 3 4 5 5- My family and my primary school shared similar religious beliefs 1 2 3 4 5

6- My family and my secondary (vocational) school shared similar religious beliefs 1 2 3 4 5

7- My family and my primary school shared distinct religious beliefs 1 2 3 4 5

8- My family and my secondary (vocational) school shared distinct religious beliefs

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1 2 3 4 5 9- Learning biblical verses or catechism gave me stress 1 2 3 4 5

10- I liked biblical verses, Bible teachings, and catechism 1 2 3 4 5 11- I was delighted (happy) that my school did not provide any religious teaching 1 2 3 4 5 According to your experience in primary or secondary or professional school, please share your ideas about these statements below:

1. Should public and private schools teach students about all religions that exist in the world? If you agree or disagree, please state why.

2. Should public and private schools teach students only about their religious beliefs? If you agree or disagree, please state why.

3. Do you believe that religion should be taught in Haitian schools? If you agree or disagree, please state why.

4. Why religion should not be taught in Haitian schools?

5. Could you please illustrate/specify some advantages of teaching RE in school?

6. Should school provide students with information about all religions without the ultimate aim of having them converted? If you agree or disagree, please state why.

7. Do you think that school and church should merge/converge their efforts to educate the Haitian population? If you agree or disagree, please state why.

8. What is the advantage(s) or the disadvantage(s) when religious institutions finance education? If there are, please state them?

9. Are you satisfied with having only learned about no more than one religious belief during your primary and secondary and/or vocational education? If Yes, why? If No, why?

10. Should Vodou be taught in school like any other religion? If you agree or disagree, please state why.

11. Would there be any advantage or disadvantage for Haitian students and the society if Vodou were to be taught in school? If yes, please list them?

12. What could have been some advantages or disadvantages if all students had knowledge about all religions?

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APPENDIX C: Interview Questions

Cover Letter for the Experts

Greetings,

My name is Virginie MARC. I am a PhD candidate of Education, Curriculum & Instruction, at

National Taiwan Normal University-NTNU in Taipei, Taiwan ROC. I would like to invite you to take part in phase two of a research study being conducted by myself, as part of my PhD program.

The phase one was a survey questionnaire being answered by students from universities and professional schools in Haiti. The study is described below. This description includes purpose of the study, who can participate in phase two, what is requested from you, and anonymity. Your participation in the study will be a mean to the contribution of what pupils will learn in schools in the future which is hoped to foster change in our society. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me.

Title of the Research:

An Explorative Study on Teaching RE for a Culture of Peace in Haiti

Purpose of the Study:

This research will explore Haitian views points on how Religious Education (RE) should be taught in schools, content to be taught, and how such teaching can contribute to a culture of peace. The researcher hopes to be able to determine a common Haitian perspectives of the subject of RE in schools which will serve as scaffolding for future curriculum development and guided instruction.

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Who can participate in phase two of the study?

Haitians who are educational experts and religious experts namely scholars, teachers, religious leaders may participate in phase two of this study.

Study Design of phase two:

You will be interviewed for one hour (at the maximum) via Skype by clarifying the requested demographic data (some of your background), by opining on phase one report (the survey that was done on Haitian Students) and by providing suggestions to develop a RE prototype for a culture peace. If interested, the researcher will share a copy of the final work so that you are aware of the findings.

Anonymity:

Both you and your answers will be completely anonymous since your name will not be identified in any way in any reports resulting from this research. All data will be kept on a password protect computer and external hard drive. The raw data may be useful for future research as they will be used to create a Haitian standard of conceptualization.

By answering the interview questions you express consent to be a part of this interview.

Contact the researcher:

In case you have any questions about the interview, you may contact the researcher at (Email: xxx@xxx; Telephone: xxx).

Thank you very much,

Your participation in this study is greatly appreciated.

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Interview Questions

Profile of the Interviewees:

Gender:

Role/function:

Year of experience at your role:

Experience in teaching:

Religion:

Please answer these interview questions based on the provided analytical results of this study and based on your own point of view or beliefs:

1- What are the advantage and challenges of teaching RE in Haiti?

2- What should be the content of RE in Haiti?

3- How should the content of RE be taught in Haiti school?

4- How can RE contribute to a culture of peace?

5- What are your views on RE as a subject in the school curriculum in Haiti?

6- What are some ways to teach RE to create tolerant citizens?

7- How to teach RE in school to reach to a culture of peace in Haiti?

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APPENDIX D: Descriptive Statistical Results from the Survey

Descriptive Statistical Results from the Survey Measure N Percentage 1. Gender Males 175 58.92 Females 122 41.08 Total 297 100 2. Age 20-24 years old 109 36.7 25-29 years old 88 29.63 30-34 years old 59 19.87 35-or more 41 13.8 Total 297 100 ** Age range is reduced to four. 3. Education Background Secondary/Vocational school 39 13.13 College/University 258 86.87 Total 297 100 ** Education background is reduced to two. 4. Religion Catholic 71 23.9 Protestant 157 52.86 Vodouist 21 7.07 Other Religion 20 6.74 None 28 9.43 Total 297 100 ** Muslim religion is combined with other religion. 5. Where did you receive RE? In school 136 45.8 In Church 187 63.0 At home 147 49.5 Did not receive RE. 8 2.7 Other places 11 3.7 No answer 1 0.3 Total ** 490 165 ** Respondents had multiple choice option for this question, the total is not equal to 297. 6. Type of Elementary school attended Private 215 72.4 Public 54 18.2 Religious 199 67.0 Non-religious 37 12.5 Total ** 505 170 ** Respondents had multiple choice option for this question, the total is not equal to 297.

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Continue. . . . 7. Type of Secondary school attended Private 182 61.3 Public 104 35.0 Religious 146 49.2 Non-religious 76 25.6 Total ** 508 171 ** Respondents had multiple choice option for this question, the total is not equal to 297. 8. Type of Vocational school attended Private 79 26.6 Public 31 10.4 Religious 33 11.1 Non-religious 37 12.5 Did not go to vocational school 182 61.3 Total ** 362 121 ** This question was optional and multiple choice; the total is not equal to 297. 9. Type of University attended Private 168 56.6 Public 112 37.7 Religious 58 19.5 Non-religious 121 40.7 Not University student 30 10.1 Total ** 489 164.6 ** This question was optional and multiple choice, the total is not equal to 296. 11. Region of origin Big North 141 47.5 Big South 43 14.5 Transversal 113 38.0 Total 297 100 ** The 10 regions of Haiti was broken down into 3. *The tenth demography item of the survey (city of origin) is excluded.

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