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ABSTRACT Writing Race in Haiti's Constitutions: Synecdoche And ABSTRACT Writing Race in Haiti’s Constitutions: Synecdoche and Negritude in Post-Revolutionary Haiti Scott Koslow, M.A. Mentor: Scott Varda, Ph.D. All political universals rely on a synecdoche in which a part of the population is taken to represent the whole. Modernity is characterized by a white supremacist synecdoche that selects the white portion of a population to stand in for the whole population. Haiti’s early constitutions invert this synecdoche, picking out the black population as representative of the whole. This thesis analyzes Haiti’s 1805, 1806, 1807, and 1816 Constitutions for this synecdochal inversion. These synecdoches rearticulate Modernity in a way that frustrates Modernity’s white supremacist foundation. Because of this, Haiti’s early constitutions are rich resources for negritude. Copyright © 2015 by Scott Koslow All rights reserved TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 Introduction, Literature Review, and Methods ............................................................... 1 The Silence on Haiti .................................................................................................... 3 Methodology ............................................................................................................... 7 Review of Haitian Constitutional Literature ............................................................. 21 Summary of Chapters ............................................................................................... 27 Notes ......................................................................................................................... 33 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 39 The Imperial Constitution of Haiti, 1805 and the New Black ...................................... 39 The Haitian Revolution and Aftermath ..................................................................... 40 Indigeneity ................................................................................................................ 54 Blackness .................................................................................................................. 58 Family ....................................................................................................................... 69 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 75 Notes ......................................................................................................................... 78 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 86 Versions of Synecdoche in the 1806 and 1807 Constitutions ....................................... 86 The Split into Northern and Southern Haiti .............................................................. 87 The Republic of Haiti, Constitution of Haiti, 1806 .................................................. 90 The State/Kingdom of Haiti, Constitution of 1807 ................................................. 103 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 113 Notes ....................................................................................................................... 115 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................... 120 Extending Haiti’s Synecdoche Internationally ........................................................... 120 Reinvigorating “The People” .................................................................................. 121 iv Internationalization ................................................................................................. 127 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 137 Notes ....................................................................................................................... 139 CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 142 Conclusion: The Impact of Haiti on Negritude ........................................................... 142 Summary of Preceding Chapters ............................................................................ 143 Influence of Haiti Internationally ............................................................................ 150 The Ideology of Negritude ...................................................................................... 163 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 175 Notes ....................................................................................................................... 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 182 Primary Sources .......................................................................................................... 182 Secondary Sources ...................................................................................................... 183 v DEDICATION To Wallace Roberts vi CHAPTER ONE Introduction, Literature Review, and Methods Throughout Haiti’s history, it has been seen as savage, brutal, and volatile. In Haiti’s 210 years of existence, it has ratified 28 separate constitutions.1 From the beginning of the Haitian revolution against France in 1791 through the end of that revolution in 1803, 150,000 of Haiti’s 570,000 inhabitants were killed. 2 After independence in 1804, their first Constitution (1805) was wholly replaced within three years. Independence, and the first of these constitutions, were accompanied by additional slaughters of the white inhabitants of the country.3 And today, Haiti is considered the poorest nation in the western hemisphere. Such instability should not be surprising. From 1492, when Columbus first landed on the island that would become Haiti and the Dominican Republic, Haiti was subject to European colonization. Over the subsequent 300 years – up to the start of the Haitian revolution in 1791 – Haiti traded hands between Spain and France but remained always subject to foreign powers. Through the enslavement of the local population, and the massive importation of slaves from Africa, these imperial powers were able to reap great profit from Haiti. Saint Domingue (Haiti’s name under French colonial rule) was the richest colony in the world, earning the title the “pearl of the Antilles.”4 In the 1780s, under French rule, Saint Domingue accounted for 40 percent of France’s foreign trade, producing two-fifths of the world’s sugar and half of the world’s coffee.5 Yet this economic system was unsustainable, reliant upon both cheap labor and the importation of 1 new workers (slaves) to keep the population stable. It could not function without unsettling Saint Domingue society more and more.6 In 1791, two years after the French Revolution, the brutal exploitation of Saint Domingue’s slaves (who made up more than 85 percent of the population of Saint Domingue) sparked revolution. The roughly 500,000 black slaves of Saint Domingue turned against the 70,000 free people of the colony.7 Despite infighting between black and mulatto8 individuals, the former slaves won out and France withdrew from Saint Domingue in 1801. That year, still officially a colony of France but with de facto independence, they passed their first Constitution. “Haiti” discarded the colonial name Saint Dominque and declared official independence in 1804, and more constitutions followed in 1805, 1806, 1807, and 1816. The Haitian people, most of them recently freed slaves, had been considered property, less than human. They had largely been denied education or even the most basic freedoms and reduced to manual laborers. In 1825, France levied a 150,000,000 franc indemnity against Haiti for France’s lost “property” (equivalent to US $21 billion today).9 Ongoing United States intervention in Haiti, alternating between destabilization and colonization throughout the early 20th century, continued the tyranny and instability of the island nation extending to today.10 And in recent years Haiti has suffered massive natural disaster. Despite this, Haiti remains uniquely important among the community of nations. It is the product of arguably the only successful slave revolt in history, and certainly the only slave revolt to directly establish an independent state. 11 It was the “first black republic” and the first state to make the abolition of slavery an explicit tenet of an official 2 constitution.12 It was also the first non-European state to gain independence from European colonialism (and after the United States, the first state in general). Given this unique historical position, Haiti, and particularly the Constitutions of Haiti, are a valuable source for reconsidering the “Age of Revolutions” and its production of Modernity, two concepts which have neglected any consideration of the island nation. This thesis argues that Haiti’s early constitutions make use of a synecdochal inversion to reverse the
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