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Anuario de Espac,os Urbanos Historia • Cultura • Diseño, 1 9 9 8
Training Loving Hands: Women's Vocational ■ Education in 1920s Mexico City
Patience A. Schell Oxford University
ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. 249
During the I920s, the revolutionary governments responded to demands for educational expansion. The federal Secretaría de Educación Pública (SEP) founded new primary schools, embarked upon a i nation-wide campa1gn againstill teracy and opened public libraries in rural areas, union meeting halls and prisons. For José Vasconcelos,M inister of Public Education 1927-1924. technical education was the mea ns to e reate the generations of skilled workers 1 Mextco needed. From Mex1co City's technical schools emerged the construction workers who 2 would re-build Mexico and the electricians who would light the cities. While men's vocational schools trained skilled workers to re-build and modernize Mexico, wom en's vocational schools trained women. first. as mothers and homemal:::ers. Women's vocational education did not 1reat its students as equal part ners inthe revolutionary process, rather, they were encouraged to find their fulfillment in the domes tic sphere. Although both teacher-training and commercial schools enrolled women, the nurnber of wornen·s vocational schools indicate the pre dominance of this training. In 1924, there were eleven technical. commercial and vocational schools far men and women in the Mexico City 3 a rea. Five of thesewere vvomen'svocational schools. By 1928. In the Federal District, seven out oi fourteen
technical schoolsspec.ihzed in women·s vocational edu cation.4 Furthermore. ernollrnent in these schools in oeased consistently throughout much of the 1920s, indcatingthat worr.enfound vocationaltraining useful. 1.Fel,C (1989) }0$éV.. ,s,:o,u:,;Joslo
ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. 250 h , 1 t o r I o u r b , n a
this end, 1 will present 1wo case studies: one con Additionally, the skills which women learned In cernIng the d1ssem1nat,on of b1rth control 1nforma vocationai schools could provide an income sup 1 tIon and the other concerning ccoking and plement and give them an 'honourable' means to I y dress-maklng classes. Penu nma1el , th1s paper will earn the1r da,ly bread. The SEP's concern with an examme n,ght schools a,med spec1f1cally ai work 'honourable' l1v1ng WilS a reac11on to the perce1ved mg women. F1nally, we v111II turn to the students Increase In the number of prostnutes in post-revo themselves. Who were they, wha¡ were the:r motI lut1onary Mexíco City. The years of conflict had un vat,ons for furthering their educat1on and what leashed pass1ons wh,ch the revolutionanes became of them1 attempted to restraín in a cage of r espee1ability. As ,he ·weaker sex,' women we�e always in great per Reasons for Women's Vocational Education i!. under constant temptation and ·easíly m1sled' by too-abundant scoundrels. To read SEP documem:s, In women·s techn1cal educat,on, fam,ly rnembers one mIght bel1eve that women tee1ered on the prec
sought refuge from the ournoe woríd and learned IpIce of prostitut,on and dishonor with vocat1onal l morality in the home; the base of the home was tra1n1ng the only handho d to stop their plummet the mother. 'Tan pronto como se logre ImpnmIr una Into the depths of shame. But, how realistic was verdadera educación a la oven muJer se habrá n the SEP's far women·s moralQ According to B iss. j 5 tear l echado las raíces en la regeneración social. How 'anecdotal evidence suggests that sexual comrnerce 1920s ted ever. accordIng to educators. women of the at least became more visible as women solici lacked the skills to create and manage a modern cus1omers on the street 1nstead oi ir.s1de brothels'.' home. a home in wh1ch sta1n-removal followed prin Regardless of actual nu-nbers of prost1tutes, the opals of chem1stry and meals were tailored to the perceptIon of lurk1ng dishonour was suiticient to nutrit1onal needs of each fam1ly member. V0Cc!t1onal mo1Ivate educational in1tta1r.,es which 11,1Quld pro- t training f1lled the dornestic !acuna wh1ch educators vide women w1 h small crafts-maklng skills observed. showmg women how to create an ideal- The stress In women's vocational educat1on on 1.2ed domestic space and how to moralrze their fam domest1c crafts and women's duties in the home liies. Women's education needed to be bo1h contrasts sharply wIlh the public act1v1sm of Mex1• oi practical and theoretical In arder to prepare them co·s women. Galván notes the 'combatividaa' for the arduous miss1on of direct1ng a home.5 Thus. women in the early twentieth century who had the primary antent1on of women·s vocational edu mo supponed strikes and later joined political cationwas creating mothers and household manage¡s. vements.9 During the Revolution, Galván f1nds ex·
5. A.rchNOHrstónco dt al Secretarfade Eo...icac1ónPub !,rn Oe¡>.;n.amEnto 7. »&Pare 68l34/6-9Inspector night schoolsto Dire ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. 252 h , 1 t o 1 , J u r b a n a strain of fees, grants were ava1lable for full-t1me to de la raza, tan degenerada hoy, por la falta cas, students of notorious poveny who had attained the absoluta de culture física, y además se pondrá a 105 mmImum grade of 'muy bien' in the1r studres_ In alum nos en rne¡ores condiciones para luchar en la 1926. of the 50 scholarships ava1 lable, 27 went to vida y para obtener la mayor eficiencia en su 1raoo the Escuela de Ingenieros Mecanicos y Eleariostas ¡o' .23 lf schools succeeded In 1nst1 ll1ng exemse hab- · (a men s vocJtional school for skil'.ed labour), 15 to 1ts, empl oyers were ensu red ot a healthy work force commercial schools, one to !he Escueia Técnica de and minimal absenteeism. Morern,er, women·s phys- Constructores (for constructron site superv1sors). 1Cal educat,onal atso assured the natíon of hea:thy · four to women s vocational sc!'lools and tlfvo to ,ech salubnous mothers to bear future c1tizens nical schools ,n Europe ·s Whde women·s schools These -future mothers also needed to learn outnumbered rnen·s.at least ;n terrns of grc1nts the household sk1lls. Classes in women·s household a - men·s techn1cal schools tared be1;er than wom en ·s_ bour, generally defined as 'trabaJOS manuales.' Although a wide range of act vIt es temoted stu 1 1 taught women skills for home lile, TrabaJ05 manu· dents In wornen's vocat,onal schoois , the 'product a/es encompassed everyth1ng from mend1ng to ron- 2 models and consumer values' c 1nspIring courses 1ng, budget managemem to childcare. sk1!ls wh!CI', generally reflected the tastes of the wel l-to-do. For the sE, believed women needed to run a house eKample, one women's technical school ofiered hold_ Through these courses, women would learn closses in painting porcela,n and maklng decorated to creare a beautiful home with little cost. · un;en· 21 boxes. At the same school. sewing classes offered do la economía a la belleza para hacer el hogar 24 hngerie making as well as ·corte y confección de atract1vo'_ These courses professiono!ized the 2 troJes de novia, teatro y soire.'2 Nonetheless, the housevvife and transformed her 1nto a manager of the models which the SEP paraded as ideal. whether elite the domestic economy They also gave women or popular, were not unilaterally accepted and par responsibility to mal:.e up for their rnan's low wag ticular cumcula, hke cooking, t>ecarne the subJect es through crea[lve budget management. of debate, as d1scussed below_ lf a women des1 red to f1nd emp!oyment. she Each oí the technical schools under the 0¡;1,c re- received httle support from the sEr. as the m 01d i au,red physical educat1on c asses for the studen1's not concern 1tself w1th f: nd1ng pos,tionsfm ,t, worn· overall well-be1 11g. Accord1r.g to ,he SEP, physical en scudents_ NeIther SfºvocJtiona I schools no' work· �lace educac1on played an essent1al ro le 1n the cl evel op er n1ght schools for women attempted to ment ot the complete person. provid,ng heaith ben graduat,ng stude11ts. For exarnple, the Escuela de efits and o wholesome form of a musement. Enseiianza Doméstica offered courses tor teachers Through physical educat,on carrie the · 'ne¡oramien- of home economIcs. However. the dJrectora r-o�ed a .y, 1:1rr. ca E''l a , 19.;H:-Sff�b 192Ei.o 1 ·,a p ra 1 c� cu-ilas 1 1 s, que tul? apmhr1i:sa l !uí'�o:1 ce .:- c,·!?<:..�•a� 1 20. Vauohan, M K , f 98,!j The 5rcte. fct-..,,::ac:or. �r.rJ5"o:;: (¿,ss Oe:K.i,ll: •.•er1ko;:tc en l.s [m· .. e •a 1'< d� Ane� Oty 1orn oarn 51:'noritd�.r; il f-!2'::i Northem llt.nc-s:.Jn 1ve ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. patience t1 s e h e 1 1 253 that students who comp!e1ed the degree could not doth1ng design and hair dressing. Physical educa find su,table employment; none of the primary tion classes were held in the ample terrace, cov schOols offered home economics and ,econdary ered to protect young women from direct sunshine. schools preferred to h1re teachers with more gener· Once course fees were 1ntroduced, they varied ac 25 27 ¡¡I knowledge. There is no ev1 dence that the SEP cording to the selection of subjects. As the list of attempted to create a market for these women by classes above is similar to those offered at other 1nduding home economics in the primary educa women·s vocational schools, 1 will only mention curricula. The SEP's report on vocational educa• courses which were unusual or unique. tion tion during 1 924-1928 pro11ides further evidence Locc1ted on Santa María la Redonda and Prime that the ser did not concern itself with wome n's ra de Mina, the Escuela deArte Industrial Corregi employment. The report includes a section on em dora de Querétaro, named after the heroine of ployment for male graduates with no parallel sec Mexican independence, was a two storie building t1on for female graduates.26 with 45 rooms and two patios. Founded in 197 O, Now let us turn to the various women·s voca the Querétaro School prepared single young ladies tional schools in Mexico City. Vocational education and housewives 'para conquistar su independencia 28 was a cra:zyquil1 of schools created in different pe económica'. Courses were modernized in 1921 nods and under various administrations. In 1922 in to include new workshops for perfume making, Mexico City the women's technical schools were porcelain painting and photography. Students could the Escuela de Arte Industrial 'La Corregidora de earn extra money by doing work for individualswho 29 Ouerétaro·, Escuela Na doral de Enseiiar>.za O□més· contacted the school. Anyone registered for the tica and Escuela deArte y Ofidos para Señoritas. full-time course was required to take five hours per That year, the SEP founded the Escuela Hogar Gab• week of Spanish and arithmetic. Admission require riel.} Mistral. The Escuela Hogar Sor Juana Inés de ments included proof of completion of upper and /.aCruz-was founded in 1923. Most of these schools lower primary school-six years in total. Thus, the offered both day and night courses. students attending the Querétaro School had more The Escuela de Artes y Oficios para Señoritas basic eduGltionthan their counterparts at the EAos. {eAos), founded in 1871, was the first public wom In 1922, the school had an attendance of 1,603 en's vocational school. lt was located on 5 de febrero day students and 827 night students, with 79 #90, in Mexico City's historie downtown area. Class teachers for the day school and 17 for the night 30 es and speciali:zation at the EAOS included hand or school. machine E'mbroidery and lace-making; cooking, The Escuela de Enseñanza Doméstica, founded dessert and confection making; manufacture of in 191 5, trained women to be housewives or do children's clothing; hat making; flower arranging; mestic economy instructors whose teaching would Z5. "" l (19231. p 236 21. """'orll< 7413/24pamphle1 ·com,g,do ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. 254 h I s t o 1 1 a u I b a n e 31 'transformar los hogares· . Located on the Ca lle 30 would not lead them into 'fracaso o a la dísílus1ón' de Aztecas #1, the school served the north and east The school dupl1cate-d the m,ssíon of the Escuela 2 areas of the city 3 The n1ght school at Enseñanza Nac,onal áe Ensei1anza Doméstica, since one Inst1- Doméstica oHered courses of shorter duration a1med tutIon was not suffic1ent to meet ihe demands of 33 39 specificall y at seNants. In add1t1on to courses s1m- parents. The Mistral School was located on Sad, 1lar to those taught at the EAOS, the Escuela de Carnot #63, where it served the working class a reas Enseñanza Doméstica provided classes 1n mother of Guerrero, San Rafael, Santa Maria de la Ribe1a; e ing. With no appropriat texts available, the teach the middle class neighbourhoodsof Juárez and Roma er des1gned the course herself basing 1t on her own and the towns ot Popotla, Ta cuba and Atzcapo1za: 34 41 observations. Ta pies included studying the baby co."° By 1923 ít had moved to Peravill o 124. Gab and mother, d1v1d1ng their expenence 1nto phases nela Mistral (1889-1957), al though an 1ndependen1 of development, expla1ning rnculat,on and resp,ra woman herself, promoted domestic hves for other 2 t,on, as well as reasons for cry1ng and problems women with �he fervor ot a miss1onary." At the Mis assooated 1.,vnh breas1 feed1ng. F1eld tnps away from tral school, students lea med to be content w,th the1r school took students in the mother,ng classes to lot and to run their homes rationally. They were also the public orph anage, Casa de Cur.a, to pr<1ctice'e l instilled with a sense ot carnaraderie for fellow stu maneJo de los niños, baño del niño y juego con los dents.43 They learned that professional careers 1Nere 35 i niños· . Another poss1ble major at Enseñanza not the onl y means for fulf1ll ment: they could f nd Domestica was 'housew,fery'. Courses o-ffered tips fu lfillment In other k1nds of labour, particular ly 1n work 4 to future housew1ves on how to rnake an attraC11ve theycou ld pursue from their homes. 4 The Bulletin home. whích would 'retenga agradablemente a sus of the Pan Ameiican Union, In 1924. commemed 3 miembros,' on a small budget. ' Students at that the 91 rl s were of 'the better classes' and 'not so Ense,ianza Domé5tica 1.rained to be educated con long ago the parents of these g1rls would have sumers, vis1ting orchards and fruir. proce�sIng cen thought 1t a d sgrace 10 have the1r chi dren do any 37 i l tres to learn how to select the best produce. manual work'. However. accord1ng to the SEP. 1n 192 5 al Named for the celebrated Chilean poet, the Es the rna Jonty of studen1s carnefrom 1he 'clase soci 5 cuela Hogar para Señoritas Gabriefa Mistral, found más desvalida'.ª Further ev1dence 15 necessary ,n ed 1n 1922. off ered women an eaucatíon which or der to reconcrle these v1ew�. r 31. "-'1Sl:.->OUI( 68/70,' 15 Due<.tora'':.i " nfo ,.-ede lic fJl.fJO�t,i::n de los aa C;:,me2�21 HD".- 1928 bllJOS hech0'5idur�nte el ;añoe-scc -la, ce 1 �23· eri 1a f'jc1..,e..a N de En� 39. "" 1 ,t.t,a, 19221. o z,:o nanza. Domést,ca,' 29 Nov 1923 40. �H l 1t...'!ar 192],1. p lC«:. 32."" 1 (Mor 1921).o 244 41. )f;' ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. patience a s e h e 1 1 255 The Escueta Hogar Sor Juana Inés de fa Cruz, Examining the women·s vocati onal schools. we founded in 1923 and named for Me> was not fillíng 'la misión a que se había deslinado.' Now that wehave examined the programmes, let us But. in 1928. it was re-opened and enrolled a large turn to the situation inside classrooms. At the voca group of single and married women who showed tional level of education, sorne classrooms were over 49 particular interest in domestic science courses. crowded and under-supplied. For example, the 30 46. Maoas, A (1982) A¡¡,,inst al/ Odds We ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. 256 h , 1 1 o r , a u , b a n a siudents 1n the Mistral School's class of cloth,ng ,h e Exce(sio(s repon on the exhib1t1on wh,ch manufacture lacked sutt1cient tables and cha1rs to Enseñanza Doméstica staged v1v1dly exemplif1es the 5 work simultaneously. 4 In a 1922 report on the cook div1s1on between day and night schools: Ing class, the inspectora noted close to 260 students in a space only equ,pped to accommodate 30. Even Ld e�CIÓ'lde =bff!ro5. e/¡¡!(>r,oc(lJmo'l / / fue mt('tes(iJr;rJ:m;i 1 ffOllÓll'I!· if the class had been small enough, the studen�s st1II ademJ. de¡x,r lavariedad en lapm 54. A11SE�orne 6&'2012 Inspectora rn D1 1ecmr Ct'(. ;:,W�r 1922 5, . ., .. Z P92• t o JOl 55. AASfP OHIC 6&r201) ln�pl?c!ora to D f(?CtOf t:·::.24 P.,1ar 1922 60. .,,1�u.c oep.artamen10 Esc01.a1 {h�re�fter 01-ed as DE) 56/ti/a D1 rectc''° r 56. AUSt:,(l(rrc 6&'21nt n.>oectora ta D1,ector-m·:. �6 Mar 1923 Queretaro to D1ie ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. p � t i t n e e • . 1 e h t 1 1 257 ¡dea, and students presumably benefited trom in ly, teachers and students deliberately ignored SEP 61 creased caforic intake. InspectorAbraham Arellanos curricula or advice. Nowwe wi ll investigate instances noted at the Centro Jndustrial #2, for working wom of teachers re-making SEP programmes fortheir own efl, tha1 students of the 'clase humilde' were 'casi ends. The first case concerns morahty breeches in 62 adormecido[s]' . Atthough he made no attdůpt to civics class, white the second case treats cooking studen1S' listlessness. malnutrition could and dress-making ctasses. We must remember that explain the account for the symptoms. The attentiveness of one the societywhich contained and created these va inspector likely irrproved the health and learning Ccl cational schools was in the midst of flux. By the pac1ty of students, wh1le the lack of percept1on of early 19305, education would be called ·socialist' another may have aggravated \Mlat appears to have and be a fundamental means of spreading the Rev 63 t:een malnutrition. In summary, it appears that in sEP olution, particularly its anti-clerical elements, but night schoo:s teachers, many of whom worked two in the 1920s the SEP was closer to its Porfirian heri jobs to suNive. and students both struggled 'Mth ex tage. Until the mid-1920s, educators preferred sin h,,ustion, which limited the qualrty of eduaition. gle-sex education and into the 1 930s many human Consideñngthe differences betweenday and night biologic:alfunctions, suc:has reproduction, were not schoofs. there might have beena de facto stratification considered appropriate for dassroom discussion. of educ:atíon in llllhlCh the curricutumwas altered to fi1 Teachers needed to take care in their words and the perceived needs of different social dasses. lf, in not invite revolutionary challenges to morals and deed, cou rseswera tai loredfor the studen1S' socialclass, mores into the discussion. Those teachers who ex then vocational edurationwould havefurtherrei nforced panded the currículum to include dangerous themes el &1. "'"' < ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. 258 h1�1cr1á urb,1n Yucatán's Governor, Felipe Carrillo Puerto, autho Pacheco gathe,ed staff and students to explain 1he nzed the publicat1on and disuibut,on of a Spanish suspens, on. The report produced at th1s meeting translat1on of Sanger's pamphlet 'Birth control, or relates 1hat. after hearing the allegat,ons .igaIns1 the compass of the home·. He 1nv1ted Sanger her them, the teachers vehernentlyprotested the1r 1n self to the Yucatán to found cl:rncsand. although nocence. Condemn1ng Sanger's pamphlet, they unable to a1tend. she sent Mrs. Anne Kennedy, ex claimed they had nothing to do with 11. Afterwards. ecut1ve secretary of the National Council of the they re-affirmed their g0ol of creating moral and American Birth Control League, m her stead. As a virtuous women who would susta In the domes1ic 69 result of Kennedy's vIsIt. two chn,cs were founded sphere. Over 270 teachers and students s:gned GE in the Yucatán the report. Reports in Mex1co City period,cals claimed that In addition. the teachers protested the suspen of 5EPteachers were distribut1ng a Sanger oamphlet One sIon the morals and civics classes to the SEP. In a artrcle cla1rnedthat the pamphle1 was rout1nely used letter f,Jled w1th ,nnuendo. which rnakes no rnen• in SEP 91rls' pnmary schools SEO Undersecretary Fran non of Sanger's pamphler. the teachers descnbed cisco Figueroa, speaking to the riewspaper La Raza. the1r work. For them. the cIvics course prov1ded a said that rf the pamphlet was being used and rf it forum from wh,ch they struggled agamst the1r stu was immoral, then the m would prohib,t ,ts circula dents' I9norance. This ignorance was the primary 67 tion among schoolgirls. While charges that the cause of ·errores y vicios de nuestro medio.· Wnile pamphlet was distnbuted among prImary school 1t was not the teachers' role to expose young wom children appear to be the product of wild 11nagrn.i en to matters distant from their lrves, the teachers trons and tabloid-style reporting, at least one wom felt ir was their du1y to answer students quenes 70 en·s vocational school probably used Sanger 's work. honestly. The teachers· defense appears carefull,' Through a newspaper ar1icle or perhaps paren worded to allude to the Sanger controversy, w1th tal complaints, the Departamento de Enseñanza out prov1d1ng e11 1dence of rrn sconduct. Because d Técnica Industrial y Comercial (orne)s uspected that the1r reluctance to prov1de specific e1 66. Macias., A (1982i Agdmsr flll Odds V\' e->t:]·::Ht and _ondon 69. �.,;-!11 c-1 • e7l171� meetu'llg ttport, 10 AJQ 192:Z Gr�woc;d Pte-S:5-. 92�9J JOSE. PH, G M t l982JR�FC,'i.Jt:onom fr VVt!hOl. t 70. .!t--li.if Di"•: 7).fl/17 teaChi?íS �t M1 stra1S.Chod w1th0tJ l add�i.Pt? ·o Camb'1d9e Ctlmbndge Uri1ve-rs1ty Pres.s P '} · & At,9 1922 67. La R.aza30 July 1922 71. M'"-l!': � l.'! '< 7li7ll9 Mameu 10 D1(eClor Mistral, 1.d Au9 1922. 68. t..H5lPOHtC 72nll. Ma,�s:1ffü !o Dttecror M1s�ral. S Aug 1921 ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. pat,ence a 1 e h e I f 259 ther inquiries, the orne assignedinspector Juan León of Castillo's students had requested transfers to 2 to the maner. 7 Since León devoted most of his at• other civics classes becau,;e thei r teacher 'daba te ntion to Castillo. It appears that he suspected her ensaf1anzas inmorales y que su confesor. .. les había before beginning the investigation. However, León prohibido que volvieran a la Escuela'. One student neverstates that Castillo is h1s primary 1arget and recalled that Castillo, after dis<:ussing women·s h1s abjective report fai!s to convey his own opin1on emancipation, espoused that 'era preferible que la on the investigation. mujer se divorci ara tres veces a que soportara las After observing her teach. León noted that humill aciones del esposo'. One of the former civics Cast1ll0 students reported that Castillo taught inappropn ate materia Is, induding 'cosas intírnasque ... les daba (... } dÍJC, enrre orr.is cos.is, que hasra ahorael hombrese fta pena repetir'. Although embarrassed to rnention impvesto la C/J� delGobiemo de la sociedad; pero quea ., the unmentionable to a SEP inspector, this student mu¡er le rom,sponde tom;,rp;,rticip;lció11 en es.i .itdua labor told her rrother, whoiorbid her to return to school. para Jocual cuenrdcon infinidadde =sos en el hog.ir, como Gossi p also ci,culated that Castillo had endorsed e,posa,/JiJa, herm,ma o madre. OiJea nadie se oculta el nu1' married couples having onty two children and, ac vo mo'/imiento que la mujer estJ llevando a cabo par.ideíen cording to rumours, Castillo promised to tell her der sus /eg;limos dered-.os, y que tiempo vendtán queigual al students how to avoid pregnancy.74 But the rumours horr.bre, podrJorup,11 los trismos ,.argos que aquél.'1 had no one to substantiate them; for ali León's in vestigations. hewas not a ble to find one witness to León iound nothing scandalous in Castillo's sum charge Castillo with using Sanger's pamphlet. ma1ion of the situation oi women in Mexico and Castillo's fate as a teacher in a federal school the call for women's political action. Casti llo tem remaIns murky. However, no records indicate that pered her analysis by using women's roles in the Castillo was fired In this circumstance, the onIc at· family and home as the rationale for their po!itical tempted to placate everyone, from the voraci ous role. While she envisioned full equality bet'.veen men loc:al press to anguished teachers and outraged and women, that day had not yet come. When León parents. lf Castillo was torced to resign, she could returned to observe Cas-tillo on a later date, she have served as a warning to the other civics teach told her students why he was there 'agregando que ers, who may have been using similar materials. en su clase siempre se habían tratado asuntos den Because the Mistral School was founded less than tro de la moral más pura, y que nunca se había a year before the situation arase, it may have been dtCho nada de lo que aseguraban algunos diarios ireer from constraints created by longevity of staff de la Capital: Judg ing from Castillo's comments to and school h'story. her students. she was named in news articles as a After receiving León's report on the Mistral corrupter of morals. School, the m made inquiries at other women's Classroom observatíons failed to produce trac es of the notorious pamphlet, so Pacheco Directora 72. ,..,,,onr. 72/lfll secretary of Di=or otncto Lwn. 19 Aug 1921_ arranged íor León to interview C astilio's current and H. -.,"'" 68111/1 León to Dire«or ,r n,. Z2 Aug. 1922. forrner students. Pacheco also recalled that sorne 74. _,, toe 6811 1/1-4león 10 Director a ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. 260 hi1tor,a urbana vocational schools concernIngthe Sanger pamphlet. Macía5 fiods that the majority of feminim in the 15 79 The other schools ali denied any improprieties. 1920s ·-Nere in fact primary school teachers. lt However, the press continued to allege Inappropn seems likely that sorne vocationa! teachers would ate materials in the classrooms and th,s tempest also have been feminist. For example, Luz Vera, who !asted for severa! more months. Throughout Sep bec:ame the dí1ectora ot the Mistral School after tember and into October 1922 the local press pub Pache 75.,..,.,ornc 7217/26-3 1 J•!• Dé toO,rector"""' and Oirern,, DntC ro ciónívperior rls mu)ef"la MélCICG: C12ntrode lnve-s:1,gac1onesy Em;d1os dtrfl!l'.:lor� v#O men·s technJCalschools. , 24 and 25 Aug 1922 Super,o,e, en Antro1>cfogia Sc<:,ol Cuadernosd• la CasaC�ota 109 P. 76. ""'""'ne 7117/49 ·50 Jefe DE w.1hou! addr,ssee, 6 Oct 1912. 32 11. Monroy flu,troo.G (1985). Po.iucaeduca,wa ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. p a t i e n e e a . s e h e 1 1 261 ¡es forc:hildren and expectant mothers, radio broad ricula. In April 1923 he depreciated the curricula casts of health care information and rural mobile because it was dominated by European foods and hea11h 'NO rkers were ali partof the national health designed to teach 'lo que pomposamente � llama s ,ampaign_& In Mérida. the b1rth control clinics alta cocina· _88 lnstead. he called fer simple Mexí for founded under Carri llo Puerto, rnentioned above. can foods su1table daily meals. Teachers resisted in partnership with the America n Birth Contr ol atternpts by Vasconcelos and the SEP to invade their kit ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. 262 n , 1 1 o r , • u r b a n � croaching armies of 'cakes' with an army of his own. The quest1ons over cooking curricula were only For this end, he appointed two inspectors to revive sorne of the 1ngred,ents in the debate. The larger the dy1ng artof Mex1can desse rts.Vascorcelos want and potentially divisive issue was which model5, ed cuisine taught in the vocational schools to be a ideaIs or norrns to teach students. In tech nical edu· bastion of nationalism and a source of Mexican cation. there was no consistent SE? policy guid1ng pride. models: should they come trom Mexico or beyond í Vasconcelos' op1nsons were unpopular wtth in the borders1 While affecting a national stic stance 93 spectors and teachers of cooking alike. A iew about cooking and drawing courses, Vasconce y months after his decree,the lnspeaora de Cocina los st1II offered the masses Cervantes and transla 94 Repostería requested perm iss1on to teach more elab tions of Goethe. The SEi'under Vasconcelos staged orate d1shes. She worried that e�hibitions of the s1udent performances modeled on classical Greek students' cooking would disappoint the crowds theatre. These open-a1r events were intended to waiting to be delighted and astonished by extraor awaken sublime sentirnents in the people and vaL 95 di nary dishes. Exposit1on aud1ences would not date Mexica n popular music. Nonetheless, dur queue up for food wh1ch they could cook them ing one section of the performarice, students were seives, she argued. She downplayed her own pref adorned 1n 1vy garlands and ciad in togas vmile 111 erences. portraying herself as the mouth piece oí the next section students performed a typical May 89 96 pubhc, teacher and student demands. Luis Mas an dance. sieu, director of the orne, refused her pet1tion and Even 1hough Vasconcelos' SEP cla1med to g1ve 90 referred her to Vasconcelos' April circular. While preference to national thernes in art and mus1c, re circulars shuttled around administrative offíces, so:ving the quest1on of mode s in vocational edu- l g, cooking classes continued on a steady diet of Euro cat1on depended on who was ask,ng and when. pean food. For the month of May 1923, for exam In a larger context, the useof Mex1can models was ple, a second year class heal'd about the 'historia part of the cultur al nationalism wh1ch emerged frorn de helados.' That spring, the women learned to the Revolution. José Vasconcelos, promoter of Me)(- make sherbert, ice cream, canapés and a ham 1can cultural nat1onal1sm in popular art and cook 1 mousse.9 However, the teachers may have even ing curricula, was a europhile in literature and tually compromised, for the public exhibition of st u fashion. L.vill discu ss next how his contempt far dents' work in the spnng of 1924 included 'cul1nary ap1ng the elite did not extend to \'l.'Om en's apparel. 92 exhib1ts[which) stressed Mexican and other dishes'. One is left wondering ií his inconsistently appl1ed 89. t1,¡.¡SH 'J;[TI( 68/l8/9w10 Inspectora TO D1r�nor Ct!l e, 22 S.eot 94. Bra.c Ugarte. J !1966) la Educación en México IM,uco td•::,1,al 1923 Je, P 157 90. �;rei�:- 68/18/1 1 Je-fe DE to D,,e ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. p a l 1 • n e t a . 1 < h , 1 1 263 i nationalism was a reflecton of personal taste rath her report was a censorious li tany of whích teach er than personal convictions Perhaps Vasconcelos ers had taste and which díd not. She then mused enJoyed his moie pob�no but preferred women in that taste was d1fficult to improve: paris1an fashion instead of rebozos and braids. J ust as Va sconcelos appoi nted special tnspectors { .J rodas lai i6venes (como dice el licerooado V.uconcelosJ for desserts, he also appointed inspectors for dress quieren .,,,,une de una manera inpropi., de su condición. y rnaking cou rses. For cooking classes he had want prefinendo l-0; colores vivos las hechuras rompficadas, apa ed the student5 to learn simple Mexican dishes, rentitndo un lujo queno pueden 1ener; creo que esre defec f while in clothing manu acture he wanted students to se corregiráa fuerra de coMtaMia, presentando/es ejem to mim1c the styles of high fashion. Consultants to plos que demueslfan que el buen gusto es comp atiblecon k, teachers and students both, fashlon inspectors were sencillez y que deben fijarse en que sus vestidos sean el,¡. on their guard against any signs of bad taste. They gantes. sobriosy hechos detel.is que resistan el uso dia"º· were chosen because their contact with high soci ety had given them 'hábitos de refinamiento.' These Whi:e the students wanted lo dress in lush co style consultantswould demonstrateto the studen15 lours and compl icated desig ns, the inspectora 's dis para that 'bastan pobres el ementos lograr el buen dainful and haughty remarks imply that students parecer, con tal que se les arregle con modestía y should dress wi1hin boundaries determined bytheir 98 verdad' . lnstead of looking for forms of dress social station. Since the inspectora personally was blessed wth good taste, she would counsel the stu which would appeal to vocational school students, i fit into their budgets and refl ect their own tastes, dents and teachers. She may have even believed · that she was a missionar; of sorts, preaching Vasconcelos tried to fashion the ms students into the gospel of elegance to the badly-dressed masses. cheap copies of the el ite. Thus, he promoted Euro pean styles and discouraged domestic forms of dress, while for the cooking curricula he endorsed Night Schools for Working Women the opposiie. Vasconcelos and his inspectors frowned on frip The previoussectíons have concentrated on the sit pery and agreed that good taste was fundamental. u<1tion of vocattonal classes in day schools. Now it The Inspectora de Estiio praised the hat-makíng 1s time to turn to the evening classes which were teacher at the Querétaro School for her re1ined intended for women already in the labour force. taste. Her ha!S·[ ... ] parecen a la altura de cualquier Warbng women had multiple options for night school educat on. The voc<1t onal schools mentioned casa de modas elegantes por el muy buen criterio i i 99 ofiered night classes; additionally, there were sepa que tiene en mezclar suscolores y telas'. The re rate night schools aimed at women and girls o der portcont i nued, criticizing another teacher because l her hats lacked any vestiges of style whatscever. In than 12 which taught primary education and crah the clothi ng making class, the inspectora found Miss MacGregors students produced clothing without tEn:: ' 91. .u-i u,- 68/isn vasconcetosto d1rectors,tea chers:and stu.1ents..n. merit or taste and 'los trajes que salen de allí tienen .cca,,onal schocls. 8 Apr. 1923. H ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. 264 h11to,ia u1banJ 100 sk ills. Wo rk e r night sc hool s for women numbered Nu rnb ers enr olled were 530, 730, 7 6 6 and 750, 101 t en in 1923. Con d itio n s i n these n ig h t schools r espect i vely. , os Thus , three of the centres were prob were far worse th an t hos e in v ocational schools, abl y ov e rc rowd e d. in s pectora pr obably partially due to the fact that the s chools Consuelo Rafols, of women· s ni ght díd not charge f ees. However, a more flexi ble cur schools, distingu ishe d between th e students at t he rícul um allowed scho ols t o respond qui ckly to the C e n tros J ndus triafe s and the E sc uelas No ctu rna s. She needs of student s, who helped di rect the1 r own described th e st u dents at the Es c uelas Noct urnas education. More ov er, s tudents earned money on as 'u n element o más hu milde. ta les como s irvien 102 the pro d u ru they ma d e . t as y operarias. se lucha con la tor peza manual de Located mostly i n the centre of the cit y and Just gente que ha desempeñado t r abaj os rudos dur ante north of the Zócalo, there were al so worker n ig h t el dla y además sumamente po b re que s ólo puede schools i n the Col oni as Guer r er o, San R afa el, Mo hacer gast os m uy pequeñm' .106 Accordi ng to i n relos and Juáre z, Women· s w orker nI ght s chools spector Arellanos, who noted agai n and again 1h e were di ví ded bet1Neen the Centros lndustúales Noc student s' e n thusia sm for learning, the student s at t urnos ( four) a n d the Escuelas Noc:tu rna s para the Ce nr r o s lndust r i afes were se Nan ts and working 107 Obreras. The Centros Nocturnos were opened in class. While o b v iou sly wi thin the categories 'ser 1923 to. g i v e b a sic e duc a tion and techni ca I skílls to v<1nt ' or 'wor ker' there are many sub-division s, t he women workers, a llowi ng them to ea rn an i nde inspectors did not elabor ate fu rt her . Si nce the two pendent living. E.xtre me ly su cce ssful , the centres, in specto rs hel d dí fferent opin ío ns, 1 w1 I I con s1der which were i nadequately housed (one even l acked the student s of bot h ty pes of schools to be a mi� elect r icrty), uncomfortable and under-s upplied, soon ture of women, includi ng in du stria l workers, ser had no spa c e left for new s t udents an d had to turn vants, sea mstres ses and per haps sorne otiice hopefuls awa y . Al though called 'indus tr ial' , cours workers. e.s were similar to th ose offered i n women's v oca 1 n 1923, the currículum at the Escuel as Noct ur tIonal s c h ools, t eaching s mall sc a le cr af t s such as r ,as para Obr eras e�panded to in c lude srnall sc ille soa p-ma k in g , umbrel l a mak íng and book bind1ng, i ndustrial tramIng. Ac c ording to orne p la ns, the di as well as t yp i ng.103 Un f or tu na t ely, 1 not rectoras do have of t he night school s woul d des1gn techr.I at tendance f i gur es for t he worker rnght schools. In ca l courses addressing s tuden1 S' needs and 192 3 Ce ntros Industriales #1-4 had the capaci ty for interests. 108 Directora s had l i cense to use thei r o wn 1 300, 600, 700 and 90 0 s t udent s . respectively. 04 i nit iative to cater to the1r st u d e n ts. Nonetheless, 1 00. SecmariA de Educa c i ón Públ,ca 11 928) fl r,slv e r z o e d u c a ti, 10 4. .,, ,,. 0< 6 3 15128 ' '-li.mero de al umn0s q.,.. �g (,n_ .' Menc,ro, 26 va en Tomo J uex1 co MCxico � !cretariace [du caoóri PUh hc d P Fe b 1923 180 105. Fell ,c. (19 89). / ose VJs conce-Jos.-los arioJ del a;t;,Tc, . M,:,,:K o L.... . , .A 101. """ " " '' 7'lJ18/S h sta de las es ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. patien(e � - sc��ll 265 since schools depended on the directora to design multiple activities. Altercations arose beca use day the currículum, schools without energetic leader school dírectors felt possessive towards the build sh1p could languish. Furthermore,technical instruc ing and resented the night tenants as interlop tion 1n the Escuelas Nocturnas depended on the ers. Fortunate night schools could utilize all the facilities and teachers available. For e)(ample, sew- available space, but if the director of the day 1ng classes could not occur unless 'the school had school had sorne sort of grudge against the m the necessary equipment and a qualified teacher. or territorial conflict with the night school. sec Moreover. students had heterogeneous back tiom of the school would be kept locked and dark 109 grounds and skill levels. Thus, teachers had to in the evenings. In an extreme case, night school deviseone class for myriad IC11els of knowledge or students were not even permitted access to the 1 12 plan severa! smaller classes. toilets. Athough Inspector Arellanos believed women's Buildings which housed multiple night time ac• l i night schools generally to be more successful than tivities had evenm ore problems. One women·s n ght rnen's. he criticized women's night schools on a school shared a building with an co-ed orfeón pop variety of counts. Hygiene tal� wasted time, since ular. The choral society used the facility's central most students lived in situations of squalor which rooms and the wornen's night school used the couldonly be improved by better economic circum rcoms around the periphery of the singing work stances. Moreover, thetraining womenreceived did ers. Certain unmentioned improprieti es occurred not provide them with the means to earn an inde because of the mixing of men and women in this pendent living or be household-heads. Still, Arell situation and the inspector requested that the or anos feó 113 believed that the crafts-making skills would n find another place to practice. Conflicts with help women improve their homes and families both chora! sccieties were frequent enough that when 110 ·morally' and ·economically'. Inspectora Rafo s peace reigned bet-.veen a night schoo anda chora! l 114l offered more praise for women's night schools, say- society inspector Contreras noted it. These con 1ng they responded to 'la necesidad de dar a las flicts were not based on gender; in men's night obreras mejor medios de vida, abrirles un campo schools, as well, orfeones populareswere magnets 115 de acción m�s grande y darles iniciativa industrial y for trouble. comerical sin perder femenidad, inspirándoles amor The aforementioned chora! society,f or the 'clase 111 y cuidados por su hogar' . humilde,· functioned under the m's Departamento Cond tions in women's night schools were great de Bellas Artesy Cultura Estética . In theory, singing i i ly inferior to those in day vocational schools. The 'canciones populares' lifted these s ngers and their IEP had to use and re-use ali the resources available families to a superior cultural leve! and the workers to i1. which meant that most buildings housed learned to entertain family gatheri ngs with 'typi- 109. '""" orne 68130/12Inspector toDirteCtor Oep3r1mento deEnse 112. "'"''orne 68.'30/18 Inspector to ();JKtOf o•"'· 9 ..iai, t 923. ñanza Pnm¡¡nay Normal (hereatt�, crt�d ASa:m ,J 9 Mac 1923. 113. ""'" oinc 63129n Inspectorto DirectOf orne, 26 Sept. 1923. 110. ,.,.,c,:rc 61Y29l5lnspecto, toO:rector cuc. 16 Ju!y 1923 114."""' c,nc 68/30/7 ln>1>ect0 11 6 c al' music. Orfe ones may have been imende d to Ad minis trators 1aced a no1h er struggle enfoíc bring cu lture t o the · cultureless: but i nste a d be ing regu l ar atie ndance. wh1ch s uffe red becau se o f ca me an excus e for soci aliz ing betwe en meo a nd a r ange of f actors. Multiple educational offering, women. Referri ng to the se c hor a! so cietie s. our in the same neigh b or h ood s compete d with e ach trus ted i ns pecor Are lla nos c ommemed that other for student s . F or e xample. students from t he Escuela No ctu r n a para Ob r eras #'12 p referred t o 111 /. .} goun los alumno s de una wmplera libertad , que lleva a attend classes a t the M,stral S ch oot Additional • un deso rd en rnmpl eio, unos permanecen en s�9uJn (sic ) , ly. out sid e ev e nts and en t ertain men t lowe re d at ot ros en Jru puerto> y por úl r,mo s e pas,,n buen ti empo bai• t endan ce. I n o ne insta nce, inspector Arellanos /a ndo y p!aucando en g r u p ,ro; o por p , UeJas , yde cuando en blame d lowe r e d attendan c e al a me n 's night s ch o o l c ua ndo organizan fies itastec c omo /amaiildaJ, a si es quepre• o n the Co ngres o Eucarís t ic o. a 'car p a de Var i ed ad e s· 122 fieren el desorden y las p /Jticas entre compañer o s y comp d·· and the local c,nema . We ather al so deter red stu· �eras, q u e asisiir a fas E scu elas de un s o/o s e.xo d onde v an a d ents; dunng th e we t sea s on s t ron g rains and tr ans· 1 23 en udrar y a aprender algo útil. "' port ati on dif ficu:tie s reduce d class s i 2e. Dang e r ous st reets th r eatened nig ht s c hool students . Fr om Ar e llanos ' c omments. it b ecomes clear ln t h e neig hbou rhood of th e Esc uel a Noctu rna #26 t ha t dis t u r b an c e s bet we en t h e orfeones populares 'el rumbo es malo y convendría poner u n ge nda r me a nd nig ht s chools occ urred i n part because o f lac k en la pu erta para e vitar el con tin u o asedio e n q ue 124 of disc ipline a nd in part because o f con fli c ti n g ti e n e a la s a lurnna s la mala ge nte del barr io'. g oals. Students. f amilies and admini s tration p e rceived c ha1 Night sc hool s t u dents c rea ted th eir o\o'm d istur street d angers were gr eater i o r women than for bances. a s wel l . and day s chool staff h ad rea son to men an d, thus, ro ugh n eigh bourhoods hurt wo m· worr y abo u t what t h ey would find 1n th e morn ing. en·s n ight schools more than men·s. Fina l ly, 1 he iri· At th e Escuela Noctu rna #6 7, stud ents arnved to terna! a t mosphere of the school a ttra cled o r repelled fin d n o au th ori ty f i gure pr e seíll a nd so rne of the st ude nts. At the Cent r o Jndu5tria / Nocturna # 4, at 1 1 8 women v and alize d t he sch ool . At t he Escuela t en danc e diminished beca use an orfeón popular para Obreras #9 fo ur st udents d e st ro yed th e d ay share d the h allways with t he wome n ·s night s chool, 119 schoo1· s v egetable garden. Al th ou gh i n both o f and the wome n· s families were concerned a b ou t 1 25 t he a bo v e cas es students cause d t he d amage. the y immoral influences . had no fina ncia! responsibil1 ty for thei r a ctions. The While attenda nce figu re s mov ed up a n d down with con· n i ght sc hool staff was respo n sible for pecuniary the s easons, tard iness disr up ted dasses 120 da ma ge s in flicted by t h eir stu d ents_ sta n1 1y. Stu dents. tea che rs a nd ev en directors ar· 116. "'' 2 ( 1923), 41 4- 1 7 n.a 1 pcr,o Obrerais:, De-e 1923. 117. "'"" o rne 68/34/14 tn,p e cto, t o Oo ro c 1o r e, :�, 5 S ept 1 923. 122, AHlll' ot« 58') 5 / 2 4 lnspectono D rrectcr o,,, c. 1 Nov. 1 92 4 1 11. " '"" o rne 68/37/16 Di ree1or DEP N 10 Dueac:r me, i J une 1923 lll .-."�11- orn.: 6813511 .:a Ins pec tor 10 Duector ;¡ P:, 17 r-. ."il)' 11 9. AHSLP D ETIC 6&'31 11 l 1 L<¡:1e ANUARIO DE ESPACIOS URBANOS, HISTORIA, CULTURA Y DISEÑO ISSN digital: 2448-8828 No. 5 enero-diciembre de 1998. IChell 267 r1Ved hours aíter classes should have begun. Once from families which were able and willing to sup inside the crowded building, students would slow port an unemployed adult member. These families y meander to their classroom through the hubbub valued education and were able to invest in their l of fellow students. Dogs and cats roamed halls; stu daughter's future. As I mentioned above. it was dents stopped to greet each other, mingling and parents whose demand led to the founding of the exchanging laughs with friends as they went. lt Mistral 5chool. Day vocational education, particu would appear that for ma ny students education was larly for those women who enrolled in a degree the last reason they attended night school classes. course, could be construed as a finishing school experience; students refioed their taste and learned And what of the students? to run a household. However, women in degree courses we:re a minority. Now we turn to just that question, why did stu In cont1ast, night schools were specifically de ctents attendvocat i onal schools? Who attended day signed ior working women. Night school students 129 and night school? What can we know of these were women of 'modesta po;;Ición', who wor ked SEP statisticc1I su rveys offer sorne clues. women7 in factories, off1ces, as servants and as homemak r Generally. 14 yea s old was the mínimum age to, ers. Many of these students worked a full day and enrollment in technical education. In 1926. most 1hen mustered their remaining energy for night women en íOlled in vocationalschools were betvveen learning. They sought 'increased knowledge, in 130 the ages of 1 4-20. A SEP surveyfrom 1 926 indicates creased in comes, and increased pleasures'. Their that the bulk of women m vocational schools. both commitment to a double day indicates how much day and night schools, enrolled for individual cours these womeo valued education and suggests that 126 es. Furthermore, the high pass rate (91 percent their training offered concrete possibilities for im in 1926) indicates that almost ali women mastered provi ng thei1 situation. While night school students 127 the1r training. Thus, most women pursumg vo learned sk1lls similar to their day school counter cati onal education were between 14 and 20, pre parts, their financia! circumstances makes it more i y ferred el as ses in a particular sk ll, rather than a likel that they would have used their skil ls to earn degree programme, and _finished their classes at an income. mastery leve!. Women who attended day school and women While early SEP reports note that women·s voca who attended night schools both used vocational tional education was in high demand among the training íor their own ends. They did not feel an 'middle dass' and the ' 128 poor', we must further obligat ion to f1nish their courses, rather. they wan ted d1stinguish between women enrolled in day and immediate utility from their education. Select1ng rnght courses. Day school students probably carne courses, students preferred those w1th p1actical