ARCHAEOLOGICAL WATERCRAFT: A REVIEW AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE PRACTICE A Dissertation by PETER DOUGLAS FIX Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, C. Wayne Smith Committee Members, Donny L. Hamilton Kevin Crisman David Woodcock Head of Department, Cynthia Werner May 2015 Major Subject: Anthropology Copyright 2015 Peter Douglas Fix ABSTRACT Vestiges of humankind’s long-term interaction with the earth’s rivers, lakes, oceans and seas lie beneath water, sand, soils and sediments in the form of archaeological waterlogged wooden ships and boats. These quintessential maritime artifacts, and the connections formed between humans and watercraft create an extensive artifact biography revealing a host of physical and metaphysical meanings. Over a span of the last nine millennium watercraft have acted as containers, vessels, a means of conveyance, a bridge, a home, a factory, a prison, a fortress or a life boat. They are emblematic of individuals and nations. Deep seated in many cultural beliefs, they are integral aspects of birth or renewal, and often a critical component for reaching the afterlife. All of these factors motivate individuals to save archaeological watercraft when discovered in the course of academic search and survey, or a civil/commercial excavation. Although attempts by professional conservators to stabilize waterlogged wooden watercraft first occurred in the early 1860s with the finds from Nydam Bog (Denmark), there was little change in methodological and philosophical approaches from then until after World War II. Following the war, a combination of new products, dissatisfaction with previously tried methods, and a shift in attitudes towards preserving representations of the past, ushered in a new era in the conservation of antiquities, and in particular watercraft. Over the last 60 years, incremental advancements have taken place concerning the conservation techniques applied to waterlogged archaeological wood and ii wooden structures. Investigations that focused primarily on methods that maintained the dimensional stabilization of the object are now beginning to share considerably more time with inquiries about the state of artifacts once stabilized and in storage or on display. The archaeological remains of one watercraft, La Belle discovered in the shallow waters of Matagorda Bay, Texas in 1995 provides a case study in this dissertation to address some of the issues surrounding the conservation of waterlogged ships and boats. iii DEDICATION To Suzanne: for years of support and sacrifice. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to extend my deepest gratitude and sincerest thanks to each member of my doctoral committee. Dr. Wayne Smith (Chair) worked extensively with me during my early postgraduate development, encouraging me to consider studying aspects of waterlogged archaeological wood conservation, and instilling in me the need to assess critically conservation questions and continually push against preconditioned notions in order to find the suitable answer for a particular challenge. Dr. Kevin Crisman and David Woodcock A.I.A, accomplished scholars and leaders in their fields, were a source of continual inspiration who gave freely of their time whenever consulted. Finally, no greater thanks can go to Dr. Donny Hamilton, Director of the Conservation Research Laboratory and the La Belle Conservation Project, mentor, friend, and boss, without whom this dissertation could never had been completed. He placed his trust in me to undertake the conservation and reconstruction of La Belle, and although during the past few years, he probably felt considerable empathy for Sisyphus in urging me to finish writing, I can only hope that future achievements warrant his Herculean effort. Texas A&M Nautical Archaeology Program Faculty Dr. Cemal Pulak, and Dr. Filipe Castro were strong sounding boards through many years of the project, challenging scores of my developed concepts relating to watercraft preservation, and often prompting me to rethink and hone my ideas. Also from the Texas A&M Anthropology Department, I extend my sincerest thanks to Marco Valadez, Rebekah v Luza, Cynthia Hurt and Dr. Cynthia Werner (Department Head) for the many years of help, encouragement and patience. Over the last 18 years, the stabilization of the La Belle timbers and reconstruction of the hull remains has been the accomplishment of many individuals: 4 full-time and 4 temporary full-time staff, 75 part time graduate students, 6 interns and 26 volunteers. Jim Jobling, Dr. Helen Dewolf and John Hamilton, part of the core staff at the Conservation Research Lab, worked tirelessly throughout the project to guide different aspects of the overall artifact conservation, but always found extra time to lend a hand on conserving the largest artifact in the collection. Taras Pevny and Peter Hitchcock committed themselves to make the project succeed and were instrumental in the initial reconstruction. Both were exceptional colleagues to work with and my knowledge and experience was greatly enhanced through our association. In the last year of the project, while La Belle was slowly reassembled as a “living” museum exhibit in Austin, TX, graduate assistant Chris Dostel assumed many of the responsibilities and tasks of the final freeze-dried product. His competence and commitment to the project were a great relief while I was involved with the hull reconstruction. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Jim Bruseth (Texas Historical Commission), Archaeological Director of the La Salle Shipwreck Project for also trusting that La Belle conservation efforts were in competent hands, and for his continued participation in the project through to the very end of the reconstruction. During the summer 2003, a research trip through Europe, funded in large part by Dr. Hamilton, allowed me to evaluate 43 individual watercraft around Europe and the vi United Kingdom. Staff members at many museums offered invaluable assistance, sharing their experience and perspective. In particular, I would like to thank Dr. Frederick Hocker, Ingrid Hall-Roth, Emma Hocker and Leif Malmberg from the Vasamuseet in Stockholm, Dr. Per Hoffmann of the Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum Bremerhaven, Germany, Dr. Jan Bill and Dr. Anton Englert of the Vikingeskibsmuseet in Roskilde, Denmark, Dr. Arne Christensen from the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo Norway, and Dr. Mark Jones from the Mary Rose Trust in Portsmouth, England. Special recognition and thanks is due to the late Dr. Ole Crumlin-Pedersen who spent one incredible afternoon with me discussing many of the topics found in this dissertation. My parents Jack and Marcia Fix deserve considerable praise for a lifetime of continued encouragement, which led me to experience different cultures and explore my creativity through many different outlets. They have always given so much so that I might achieve whatever goal I set. Finally, to my wife Suzanne, who endured far more than should have been necessary during these last few years when my dissertation seemed always so close to being “almost done!” To all, again, my sincerest thanks. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ xiii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER II THE QUINTESSENTIAL MARITIME ARTIFACT .............................. 12 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 12 Why We Save Watercraft ........................................................................................... 17 The Appeal of Watercraft ........................................................................................... 19 Intuitive Behaviors and Environmental Influences .................................................... 23 “The Social Life” of Watercraft ................................................................................. 26 More than Melville’s “Oaken Box” ........................................................................... 31 Containers and Conveyances ............................................................................... 32 Homes and Communities ..................................................................................... 33 Prisons .................................................................................................................. 34 Fortresses and Weapons ....................................................................................... 35 Life Rafts .............................................................................................................. 36 Coffins .................................................................................................................. 36 Factories ..............................................................................................................