AN EVALUATION OF THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS IN THE ORIENTAL AND INDIA OFFICE COLLECTIONS, THE BRITISH LIBRARY
PRESERVATION & CONSERVATION POINT OF VIEW
by
Tamara Adriani Salim
A Master's dissertation, submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Master of Arts degree of the Loughborough University of Technology
February, 1992
Supervisor: Professor J. P. Feather Department of Information and Library Studies
© Tamara A. Salim, 1992 To Papah, Mamah, my sister Miriam Pudjohastuti, and my brother Kemal Hastobroto (his name written Asta Brata appears on page 74)
With love and thanks for praying and supporting endlessly from afar.
It was indeed a great pleasure, whilst studying the physical condition of the manuscripts, to come across familiar names, customs and traditions of which I have heard about from my parents and ancestors. CONTENTS Page Dedication page i Table of contents 1i Abstracts vi Acknowledgements viii Illustrations 1x List of Tables xii List of Illustrations xiii
List of Appendices xiii
CHAPTER 1: SITUATIONAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1. 1 Definition of Preservation and Conservation 1 1.2 Preservation and Conservation Policy of the British Library 3 1.3 The Importance of Javanese Manuscripts 5 1.4 Brief History of the Oriental and India Office Collections, The British Library 8 1.5 Javanese Manuscripts in the Oriental and India Office Collections, The Bri tish Library 10 1. 5.1 Prominent Collectors of Javanese Manuscripts 12 1.5.1.1 Crawfurd, John (1783- 1868) 14 1.5.1.2 Mackenzie, Colin (1753- 1821) 15 1.5.1.3 Sloane, Sir Hans (1660- 15 1753 )
1.5.1.4 Raffles, Sir Thomas Stamford (1781-1826) 16 1. 5.2 Types of Materials 16 1.6 Damaging Agents Contributing to the Physical Condition of the Manuscripts 17 1.7 Concluding Remarks 21
CHAPTER 2: OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 2.1 The Aim of the Study 22 2.2 Brief Overview of the Dissertation 23 2.3 Methodology 2.3.1 Population of the Study 24 2.3.2 The Sample 26 2.3.3 Sampling Procedures 28 2.3.4 Data Gathering 29 2.3.5 Data Analysis and Presentation 32
CHAPTER 3: DESCRIPTIVE OVERVIEW OF THE CONDITION OF THE JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS EXAMINED IN THIS STUDY 3.1 Copper Plates Manuscripts (Red Copper Plates) 3.1.1 Introduction 34 3.1. 2 Copper-Plate Manuscripts in the Oriental Collection 35 3.1. 3 Copper-Plate Manuscripts in the India Office Library 37 3.2 Palm-Leaf and Bamboo Manuscripts
3.2.1 Introduction 39 3.2.2 Palm-Leaf and Bamboo Manuscripts in the Oriental Collection 42 3.2.2.1 Sloane's palm-leaf and bamboo manuscripts collection 43
iii 3.2.2.2 Crawfurd's palm-leaf manuscript collection 46
3.2.2.3 Other palm-leaf manucripts in the Oriental Collection from other prominent collectors 48
3.2.3 Palm-Leaf Manuscripts in the India Office Library 51 3.3 Paper Manuscripts 3.3.1 Introduction 59 3.3.2 Dluwang Javanese Paper Manuscripts 60 3.3.3 English Paper Manuscripts 66 3.3.4 European Paper Manuscripts
3.3.4.1 European Paper Manuscripts in the Oriental Collection 72 3.3.4.2 European Paper Manuscripts in the India Office Library 79 3.3.5 Chinese Paper Manuscripts 83 3.3.6 Manuscripts of Various Combination of Papers 84 3.4 Concluding Remarks 87
CHAPTER 4: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: TABULAR PRESENTATIONS AND ANALYSIS OF OBSERVED PHYSICAL CONDITION AND POSSIBLE AFFECTING FACTORS 91 4.1 Observed Physical Condition of Javanese Manuscripts According to the Degree of Physical Damage Suffered 92 4.2 Observed Physical Condition of the Javanese Manuscripts According to the Possible Agents 94 4.3 Observed Physical Condition of Javanese Manuscripts According to the Types of Materials 96 iv 4.4 Observed Physical Condition of Javanese Manuscripts According to the Original Institution 98 4.5 Observed Physical Condition of Javanese Manuscripts wi th Illustration (22 manuscripts) According to the Types of Materials 99 4.6 Observed Physical Condition of Javanese Manuscripts According to the Collectors 100 4.7 Categories of Physical Condition of Javanese Manuscripts According to the Date of Publishing 101 4.8 Concluding Remarks 103
CHAPTER 5: STORAGE HANDLING 5.1 Introduction 104 5.2 Storage Handling in the Oriental Collection 105 5.3 Storage Handling in the India Office Library 108
5.4 Concluding Remarks 110
CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUS IONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Summary and Conclusions 116
6.2 Recommendations 118
REFERENCES 120 APPENDICES 127
v ABSTRACT
AN EVALUATION OF THE PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS IN THE ORIENTAL AND INDIA OFFICE COLLECTIONS, THE BRITISH LIBRARY: PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION POINT OF VIEW
Salim, Tamara Adriani (1992)
In summary, there are three factors which have prompted the conduct of the present study, namely: (1) The importance of Javanese manuscripts as cultural heritage as well as subjects and sources of research (2) The significant collection of Javanese manuscripts available in the British Library (3) The lack of studies concerning the physical condition of Javanese manuscripts which may benefit preservation and conservation of the manuscripts.
This research is a preliminary study of which objectives are to examine the physical condition of Javanese manuscripts from the preservation and conservation point of view, and to explore possible factors affecting the physical condition of the manuscript.
This study was carried out in the Oriental and India Office Collection, the British Library. Seventy-five (30.9%) of Javanese manuscripts from both institutions were chosen as samples. Stratified and purposive random sampling method were used for choosing this sample.
The Javanese manuscripts examined consist of 2 (100%) copper plate, 47 (100%) palm-leaf and 26 (13.4%) paper manuscripts.
A modification and combination of McCranck's (1984) and Agrawal's (1984) forms were used to gather data on the physical condition of the manuscripts (see Appendix 1). The overall condition of these manuscripts was grouped according to five categories. Category I, 11 and III is a continuum concerning the physical condition ranging from the poor (Category I) to the good condition (Category Ill). Category IV is for manuscripts which have received treatment, and Category V is for manuscripts which have been reproduced. These criteria for evaluating the physical condition of manuscripts under study were a slight modification of those developed by Wright and Yurkiw (1986). Interviews and observations were conducted in order to gather information on the storage handling of the manuscripts.
The results show that, in general, the manuscripts under study are in poor condition (Category I) and hence require immediate treatment. However, the present study found that only less than 30% of the manuscripts of Category I have ever received treatment. And only less than 10% had been reproduced (duplicated). Most of the Category I manuscripts belong to the India Office Library. This study also discovered that almost all of the time, chemical agents were found to be the most damaging agents. The condition of the storage and accommodation of library materials including the security issues in the Oriental Collection can be said to be more satisfying when compared with the India Office Library. To conclude, although the present study is still far from complete and thorough, its result may provide the British Library with information which is useful for its systematic and effective action of preventing and conserving the manuscripts and even for conducting a further study. The present study also provides recommendations for further study.
vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
On finishing this dissertation, I gratefully acknowledge the guiding support of Professor J. P. Feather, Head of the Department of Information and Library Studies, providing me with kind help and comments.
I would also like to express my gratitude to Ms Annabel Teh Gallop, Curator of the Indonesian and Malay collection in the Oriental and India Office Collections, for the kind attention, guidance and assistance in providing much information; and also to Mr Peter Lawson and his staff in the Manuscripts Conservation Studios in the Bri tish Library Preservation Service at the Oriental and India Office Collections.
My gratitude is also due to the kind co-operation of the reading room staff of the Oriental and India Office Collections, the British Library.
I give my gratitude to Mrs Janet Stevenson, Language Tutor, for thoroughly going through the text and making it sound.
I am sincerely thankful to my colleagues and friends whom I have met during my study in Loughborough University of Technology, in David Collett Hall, Borrowdale Way, and Falkner-Eggington Court, for the wholehearted support, not forgetting Mbak Ai Lien for kindly going through the text and making useful suggestions.
I am especially grateful for the opportunity given to me to obtain my M.A. Degree in Information and Library Studies at Loughborough Uni versi ty of Technology. This is realised by the good co operation of the University of Indonesia and the British Council.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents who gave me their consent and blessings to study abroad and my sister Miriam, who accompanied me during my first winter in England.
And, by saying Alhamdulillah, I would like to end this dissertation.
INDONESIA .. - ... H I
SOUTH CHINA SEA
--'
I .i/!.....- p o -- LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Population and sample of Javanese Manuscripts According to the Original Institutions Table 2: Population and Sample of Javanese Manuscripts According to Types of Materials
Table 3: Population and Sample of Javanese Manuscripts in the Oriental Collection According to the Types of Materials Table 4: Population and Sample of Javanese Manuscripts in the India Office Library According to Types of Materials Table 5: Categories of Physical Damage Observed
Table 6: Categories of Physical Damage and Possible Damaging Agents Observed Table 7: Categories of Physical Damage and Types of Materials
Table 8: Categories of Physical Damage, the Damaging Agents, and the Types of Materials Table 9: Categories of Physical Damage and the Original Institution Table 10: Categories of Physical Damage of the Examined Illustrated Manuscripts Table 11: Categories of Physical Damage and the Collectors Table 12: Categories of Physical Condition and Date of Publishing LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1. Frontispiece from 'Wej angan SuI tan Hamegku Buwana I' "Teachings of SuI tan Hamengku Buwana I", c. 1813-4. Javanese Manuscript, British Library, Add. 12337, f. IV - 2p.
Reproduced by courtesy of the British Library Board
2. 'The Island of Java amongst the Indonesian Archipelago'. Reproduced by courtesy of the Department of Tourist, Post and Telecommunications, Republic of Indonesia
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1:
Form for Evaluation of Physical Condition of Javanese Manuscripts
Appendix 2:
General Evaluation of the Physical Condition of Each Manuscript, the Problem, Illustration, Collectors and Date of Publishing
xiii CHAPTER 1
SITUATIONAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1 DEFINITION OF PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION
PRESERVATION is an aspect of the management of the library. Its objective is to ensure that information survives in a usable form for as long as it is wanted.
CONSERVATION is one aspect of preservation activity. It normally implies the active use of preventative measures, or processes of repair of damaged material, to ensure the continued existence of individual items.
RESTORATION .•. is the attempt to restore a damaged item to its original condition by careful imitation of materials and techniques.
[Taken from PRESERVATION &.THE MANAGEMENT OF LIBRARY COLLECTIONS, by J.P. Feather. London, 1991, p.2]
In the Information Age of today's society, information of the past, present and future are a critical resource. A library or an information unit needs to be provided with better quality of information.
However, there is always the problem of deterioration
1 facing all the libraries and archives throughout the world.
The preservation and conservation of library materials of all kinds are thus a major concern of librarians and archivists. These include manuscripts which were often considered to be a secondary interest in the past.
The preservation and conservation of manuscripts are presently regarded as an urgent matter, as when a worn manuscript is damaged beyond repair then it is literally irreplaceable, and hence the path history of a language and culture would be diminished or weakened.
In considering the issues of preservation and conservation, it would be helpful and useful to first know the definition of these two terms.
The definition of preservation, conservation and restoration are well described by J. P. Feather.
Preservation is· one aspect of library management.
Preservation, in general, is greatly concerned with issues relating to the availability and well-being of the collection.
The objectives of preservation, besides preserving the intellectual content of the collection, is also to preserve the physical form of the material. The latter aspect is the focus of conservation, which implies the repair and treatment of damaged material as well as the application of
2 preventative measures in order to minimise the deterioration of the collection. Conservation is therefore one of the aspect of preservation activity which assures the longevity of the existing materials. Restoration on the other hand is specifically concentrating on ways of restoring the material by means of imitating as closely as possible its original form. Thus, restoration is a more specific activity of conservation. Conservation differs from restoration for the structural and artistic integrity of both single items and large collections.
1.2 PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION POLICY OF THE BRITISH LIBRARY
High priority has always been the policy of the British Library in preserving and conserving manuscripts. The preservation of manuscripts has always been undertaken through careful monitoring of the environment and security aspects. Environment means the stabili ty of the temperature and humidity levels. Security matters means the loss and damage of the manuscript (Gallop & Arps,
1991). The principles of conservation of manuscripts are best explained by the Conservation Officer responsible for the manuscript conservation studios in the British Library Preservation Service:
Our policy towards the physical conservation of all types of antiquarian material is one of
3 minimum intervention. Applied conservation is only undertaken to prevent further damage through use of chemical degradation, or where reader facility will be enhanced (Lawson, 1987, p. 4).
This policy therefore does not include the restoration of material. Conservation itself is carried out wi th a minimum intervention on the material, namely only to prevent the related material from further damage. The
Bri tish Library thus underlines the importance of preserving manuscripts in such a way that their conditions should stay as near as possible to the original ones. An example of the conservation action which is likely to be undertaken is best described by the Curator for Indonesia and Malay, the British Library, as follows:
a manuscript lacking original covers which might previously have been "smartened up" and rebound, is today more likely to be simply provided with protective endpapers and a made-to-measure box, leaving the original binding on view (Gallop, 1991 , p. 11)
Furthermore, it is explained that if a reparation on the manuscript needs to be undertaken, then reversible processes are utilised wherever possible in order to keep the aesthetic integrity of the manuscript.
4 1.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS
The manuscript traditions of Java are among the oldest and richest of Indonesia. Javanese is not only the everyday spoken language of Central and East Java, but for a long time was also an important language of learning and literature among the Sundanese, Madurese, Balinese and Sasak.
[Taken from GOLDEN LETTERS: WRITING TRADITIONS OF INDONESIA, by Annabel Teh Gallop and Arps, 1991,p.67]
The above statement expresses the importance of Javanese manuscripts. Javanese language is not only used orally as an everyday spoken language but also for written purpose. It is said that the Javanese script originated from India. With the coming of Islam, the form was later modified into Arabic script, called pegon, and is even still used in the Islamic surroundings, whilst the Javanese script is now considered to be antiquated, and no longer used. Nevertheless, the Javanese script is today mostly written in the Roman alphabet (Gallop and Arps, 1991).
The text of the Javanese manuscripts consists of various genres. They range from historical stories, religions and legal works, charters, treaties, letters, divination almanacs and especially works of literature. Many of the li terary works, which are versified and given tunes in order to be sung, recorded a variety of genres, that is to say, from past mythical narrated stories to the present time royal stories, from erotic short poems to epics with thousands of stanzas. Most of the popular texts are rewritten and copied (Gallop and Arps, 1991).
5 There are yet many aspects for scholars to study the intellectual content of these Javanese manuscripts not only from its literature aspect, but also the literary history and all matters concerning the manuscript production, or even the customs, traditions, such as advice on etiquette and manners. Ricklefs (1974) acknowledged that the historical aspects of the Javanese, especially the later eighteenth century Javanese history, has yet received little adequate attention. Historically, Java is known to produce one of the major classical cultures of pre-modern Asia which was much inspired by Indian cuI ture, nevertheless it was Javanese as well (Ricklefs, 1978) . There are still many manuscripts to be discovered and studied in the classical literature in the Old Javanese language and political traditions of thinking. Some of the researchers that had been using Indonesian manuscripts, and in particular Javanese manuscripts that can be mentioned here are Dr. S.W.R Mulyadi, who has been working on the Hikayat Indraputra, and also other collections of Indonesian manuscripts in Great Britain. Many of Dr. M.C. Ricklefs's works are concerned mainly with Javanese history, in particular dynastic historical subjects.
In addition, some of the text of the Javanese manuscripts can be sung as well as bearing a visual aspect. This visual aspect which has an artistic value provides a sense of artistry, hence can be enjoyed and studied. Many of the manuscripts which were commissioned by members of the aristocracy are frequently illuminated. The illumination varies from fairly simple detailed ornament which marked the stanza and canto, to fine elaborate frontispieces and also chapter headings. Different styles of illustration can also be identified, from crude illustrations but which are lively and vigorous, to the highly refined and delicate, and even highly stylised and also naturalistic (Gallop and Arps, 1991).
6 All of these extremely beautiful illustrations which
"bear witness to a highly developed artistic tradition of manuscript painting on paper" (Gallop, 1990, p. 1), many of them were illuminated with gold, which was not only highly valued for "its enduring decorative qualities, but also for its connotations of majesty and wealth" (Gallop, 1990, p. 1).
Principally, there are many different aspects to consider in order to study these manuscripts which provide many details to help comprehend the meaning of the text. The study of manuscripts covers both not only the content of the text but also the physical appearance of the text, which reflects the norms of the scribes as well as the society to which they belong. This current thinking is best expressed in the words of the Indonesian Minister for Education and Culture in his foreword for the Royal
Indonesian Letters and Manuscripts Exhibition in Jakarta, September 1991:
Much knowledge can be gained from a study of the physical attributes of a manuscript, the type of paper or writing ma'terial used, the writing implements, the type and colour of ink, the shape and format of the manuscript, its binding, decorative and artistic elements, the eloquence of its language, the colour and form of its cover (Gallop and Arps, 1991, p. 11).
As a matter of fact, even the study of the writing tradi tions is also considered to be one of the most
7 important aspects of the culture.
The above descriptions show that both the text and the physical appearance of the Javanese manuscripts are undoubtedly valuable, not only as one of the riches of the culture, but also as the subject and source of research. Accordingly, it is undeniably urgent for the manuscripts to be preserved and conserved so as to remain in their best condition.
As far as it can be detected, no research or survey concerning the physical condition of these manuscripts has been conducted, thus it is necessary to begin an observation on the condition of these manuscripts with regard to its preservation and conservation aspects.
1.4 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ORIENTAL AND INDIA OFFICE
COLLECTION, THE BRITISH LIBRARY
It all started when the British Museum was founded in 1753, after the bequest in the will of the Royal Physician and collector, Sir Hans Sloane (Gaur, 1986) . There were already 7,000 manuscripts and, in 1848, the number of oriental manuscripts had risen to 3,500, most of them uncatalogued. In 1867, a separate department focusing only on oriental manuscripts under the name of the Department of
Oriental Manuscripts, was created. Soon afterwards, in
8 1891, Antonio Panizzi, the great librarian known as the
'Prince of Libraries', who created the famous dome reading room of the British Museum, suggested the establishment of the Department of Oriental Printed Books and Manuscripts to replace the above Department.
After The British Library was formed in 1973, as a separate institution, the Department of Oriental Printed Books and Manuscripts was transferred to the British Library
Reference Division and renamed the Department of Oriental
Manuscripts and Printed Books (Gaur, 1986).
On the other hand, the India Office Library was founded in
1801 (Barker, 1988) with the aim of collecting South Asian material for the use of officials of the East India Company and the India Office, as well as for scholars and research workers (Gaur, 1986). In short, more than one and a half centuries later, on 1 April, 1982, the management of the
India Office Library and Records was handed over to the
British Library, from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
It was then realised the overlap of common interest between the Department of Oriental Manuscripts and Printed Books and the India Office Library and Records. In January,
1983, both departments were joined together under one supervision and renamed the Department of Oriental and
India Office Collection, which opened areas of co-operation between the two departments.
9 The two departments were not only merged into one but also they were both put into the same location in one building. However, their manuscript collections were continued to be kept separately. Therefore,.i t was found necessary to observe the physical condition of the manuscripts according to the original institutions. In the data analysis the collection from the Department of Oriental Manuscripts and Printed Books was called the Oriental Collection and the one originated from the India Office Library was called by the same name.
1.5 JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS IN THE ORIENTAL AND INDIA OFFICE COLLECTION, THE BRITISH LIBRARY
Compared with other manuscript holdings in Indonesia and the Netherlands, the collections in the British libraries and museums are undoubtedly small. There are approximately 1,200 Indonesian language manuscripts which can be found in British public collections. The collection includes manuscripts in Acehnese, Ambonese, Balinese, Batak,
Buginese, Javanese, Javano-Balinese (Middle Javanese),
Kalimantan, Lampung, Madurese, Makasarese, Malay,
Minangkabau, Nias, Old Javanese, Old Sundanese, Sangir, Sasak, Sulawesi (Celebes) Minor and Sundanese languages. This variety of Indonesian language manuscripts is due to the fact that Indonesia, which is an archipelago, comprises so many different tribes and most of them have different
10 languages and dialects.
However, it has been acknowledged by scholars that some of the oldest and even the most important Indonesian language manuscripts in the world are possessed and held in British libraries and museums (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977).
The antiqui ty and the uniqueness of the copies of the important texts of manuscripts available in Great Britain distinguishes the British collection from other collections.
The Javanese manuscripts are held in several institutions such as the Bodleian Library, British and Foreign Bible Society, British Library, Department of Manuscripts in the
British Museum, British Library Oriental and India Office
Collection, Brynmore Jones Library, Cambridge University Library, Edinburgh University Library, John Rylands Uni versi ty Library, Museum of Mankind (Ethnography Department of the British Museum), Pitt Rivers Museum,
Royal Asiatic Society, and at the School of Oriental and
African Studies. The Oriental and India Office Collection, the British Library, has the best Javanese manuscripts in
Great Britain.
The first Javanese manuscripts in the British Library date from the eighteenth century, that is when five Javanese manuscripts were included in the collection of that king of
11 collectors, Sir Hans Sloane (Gallop & Arps, 1991).
Many more Javanese manuscripts were acquired during the course of the nineteenth century (Barker, 1988).
The majority of the manuscripts was bequeathed from the collectors or otherwise were bought recently by the library. Most of these Javanese manuscripts were given to the collectors as gifts from the Indonesian ruler and also dignitaries such as Bupati of Semarang, Kyai Adipati Sura Adimanggala, . the Panembahan of Sumenep, and Prince Paku Alam I (Gallop & Arps, 1991).
Many of the others are presumed to be obtained from the library of the courts when the British captured the kraton courts of Yogyakarta in 1812 when Sultan Hamengkubuwana 11 was deposed (Rick1efs, 1974). At the request of these collectors, among many of the manuscripts in the collections have already been copied from the original manuscripts which were held by various nobles.
1.5.1 Prominent Collectors of Javanese Manuscripts
To begin an observation of the physical condition of the Javanese manuscripts available in the Oriental and India Office Collection, it would be of benefit to first recognise and understand the notable collectors of the
12 manuscripts. The reasons are simply because:
1. in cases where the publishing date is unknown,
information on the biography of the collector may give a rough idea of the age of the manuscripts.
2. in addition, if there were differences in the physical conditions of the manuscripts under study amongst the
different collectors, then in future, a further study
may be encouraged to consider the biography of the collector when evaluating the condition of the manuscripts.
Many of the Javanese manuscript collections in the Oriental Collection section were bought from John Crawfurd, while many of the Javanese manuscript collections in the India Office Library were acquired from Colin Mackenzie. Another prominent collector who has also given a number of valuable contributions to the Javanese manuscripts collection was
Thomas Stamford Raffles. There are, of course, other collectors who contributed important manuscripts, but as there was not enough information, their collections were not rigorously dealt with.
13 1.5.1.1 CRAWFURD, John (1783-1868)
Crawfurd's voluminous collection of Indonesian manuscripts in the British Library is indeed a very valuable contribution to the Library, historians, researchers, and those who are interested in the study of manuscripts.
Crawfurd's interest in Javanese manuscripts in particular was blooming during the time when he served the British
Indian expedition from 1811-1816 (Ricklefs & Voorhoeve, 1977) .
His excellent knowledge of Javanese had impressed the Javanese themselves. His valuable collection had been built up during his post as Resident of Yogyakarta in 1811-
1814, during which time the kraton court was captured along with many important historical Javanese manuscripts collection. Afterwards, he moved and became Resident of Surabaya and Bangkalan (Madura) in 1814, and of Semarang in 1815, and again of Yogyakarta in 1816 (Ricklefs & Voorhoeve, 1977).
It was in 1842 that Crawfurd sold his large number of
Indonesian manuscripts collection to the British Museum, now the British Library, Oriental and India Office Collections.
14 1.5.1.2 MACKENZIE, Colin (1753-1821)
Like Crawfurd, Mackenzie's interest in Javanese history and antiquities grew when he joined the British Indian force which took Java in 1811, where he was Commanding Engineer in Java until 1813. It appears that the large number of his Javanese manuscripts were obtained when the court of
Yogyakarta was conquered in 1812 (Ricklefs & Voorhoeve,
1977) .
In 1823, the bulk of his collection of manuscripts was sold to the English East India Company, now the Oriental and
'India Office Collection, the British Library.
1.5.1.3 SLOANE, Sir Hans (1660-1753)
Sloane, who led his life to a distinguished scientific and medical career, becoming the first physician to King George
11, bequeathed his vast collection of books and objects to the nation in 1753 (Gallop & Arps, 1991). His collection includes several Javanese works on palm-leaf and paper, which are now held in the British Library, Oriental and
India Office Collection.
15 1.5.1.4 RAFFLES, Sir Thomas Stamford (1781-1826)
Raffles's career and fame as an imperial figure in South-
East Asia was already known.' His concern for Javanese manuscripts arose when he was appointed as Lieutenant Governor of Java, from 1811-1816. He was described as an indefatigable student of Javanese. Much of his large· collection of Javanese manuscripts was derived from the period before 1816 (Rick1efs & Voorhoeve, 1977).
Most of his Javanese and Malay manuscripts had been presented to the Royal Asiatic Society and a vast collection of his correspondence has been kept in the British Library, Oriental and India Office Collection since 1830.
1.5.2 Types of Materials
Over the past centuries, the type of materials which were used for writing these Javanese manuscripts varies. Historically, at the earliest period, important writings were originally inscribed on stone; and precious metal, such as bronze, copper, silver or even gold. In the later period, leaves of trees were used, especially palm-leaves, and also bamboo, though not popular, they were all used to transfer the author's thoughts and ideas. Writing on pa1m leaves was even practised until recently. A certain type
16 of Javanese paper that was produced locally out of tree bark then superseded the use of bamboo and palm-leaves. Afterwards, various kinds of high-quality paper, namely
Chinese, English, European, and Dutch paper, which were produced from rags and woven, were also introduced and used for writing (Hunter, 1978).
The types of Javanese manuscript materials existing in the
British Library are copper-plates, palm leaves, bamboo and paper which includes dluwang Javanese paper, English paper,
European paper, Dutch paper, Chinese paper, and combined paper. Each of these materials has different characteristics and therefore require different methods of preservation.
Although all of these materials of manuscripts were made for everlasting purpose, they are still at risk from damage from the environment.
1.6 DAMAGING AGENTS CONTRIBUTED TO THE PHYSICAL CONDITION
OF THE MANUSCRIPTS
Manuscripts, like any other library materials are vulnerable to damage by various agents. Al though agents which cause rapid damage to the manuscripts are basically similar to those of printed materials, they cannot be treated in the same way.
17 The problem encountered by Javanese manuscripts can be categorised into three different factors, based on Baynes Cope's classification (Baynes-Cope, 1981).
1. Chemical Agents
These include acid and oxidation problems and may occur both on paper manuscripts and copper-plate manuscripts. Although the paper manuscripts were made of high-quality rag paper, which was free of acid, the materials which were used to illustrate the ornamentation of the manuscripts often consist of acid, which can burn the paper. Oxidation on the copper-plate manuscripts will result in corrosion of the manuscript. According to Thomson (1986), materials made of metal, such as copper-plate, suffer from the existence of sulphur dioxide which can be
found in the air from natural biological sources. Similarly, the acid and oxidant found in the air may also contain acidic pollution from burning coal and oxidant pollution from burning of fuels in the vicinity (Thomson, 1986). These two chemical problems can therefore affect indirectly the existence of these manuscripts.
Water was also discovered to cause damage to the manuscripts. The other factors that can be included
18 in this category of problem is humidity, which is always related to the presence of moisture. Our body, and even plants and animals, though not visible, contain a great deal of water. The products which are made of plants and animals, in this case, palm-leaves, bamboo, paper including the leather used for binding,
retain moisture. If the moisture is taken from them, they will become less flexible and the fibres become
easily broken. It is best therefore to keep these manuscripts in damp conditions. This slightly wet condi tion is however favourable to the growth of moulds and fungi.
2. BioLogical Agents
These include not only moulds and fungi or micro
organisms but also the presence of insects. The material of the manuscripts can be considered as food
for any living creature. Even dirt, resulting from
finger-marking, is considered to be hygroscopic, which
can absorb moisture from the atmosphere and can be attacked by microbes or micro-organisms (Baynes-Cope,
1981). Microbes will grow in moist conditions as they need moisture. The greater the humidity, generally, the greater the possibility of microbial growth. Other possible conditions are acidic conditions, which
are preferable for fungi growth. In addition,
19 temperature, to some extent, does influence microbial
growth.
Moreover, paper, starch or glue applied to library
materials are all sustaining materials for fungi, which usually grows rapidly at a given optimum condition of humidity and temperature. Cold,
al though slowing growth, over a certain level will cause dehydration and will inhibit the growth of micro-organisms (Baynes-Cope, 1981).
3. The PhysicaL Agents
These are problems resulting from ill-treatment, when
manuscripts are used or stored. The effect is that the manuscript becomes worn, stained and sometimes torn, especially paper manuscripts and palm-leaf manuscripts. Of all the types of problems that were recognised as damaging the manuscripts, the type of
problem resulting from physical act is actually the
most easy thing to prevent by simple care.
The above description suggests that it is not uncommon that more than one agent causes the damage of the manuscripts. In addition, different agents may cause different problems to different materials.
20 Due to the limited knowledge of the researcher, the present study did not intend to examine accurately which actual agent causes which effect. Accordingly, in the data analysis (see Chapter Four), the observed problems were categorised only according to the three general factors, i.e., chemical, biological and physical, as stated above.
1.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
In summary, there are three factors which prompt the conduct of the present study, namely:
1 The importance of Javanese manuscripts as cultural heritage as well as subjects and sources of research.
2 The significant collection of Javanese manuscripts available in the British Library.
3 The lack of studies concerning the physical condition
of Javanese manuscripts which may benefit preservation and conservation of the manuscripts.
21 CHAPTER 2
OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
2.1 THE AIM OF THE STUDY
Based on the situation described in the previous chapter, it was decided to conduct the present study with the following objectives.
The general objectives of this study are to do a preliminary study on the physical condition of Javanese manuscripts from the preservation and conservation point of view. This objective is carried out in the intention to understand the general condition of these particular manuscripts.
The specific objective of this study is to explore possible factors affecting the physical condition of the manuscript, namely:
1. by examining the following:
a. degree of physical damage suffered; b. possible agents, i.e., chemical, biological and physical, causing the observed physical condition of the manuscripts; c. the types of material;
d. the institutions where the manuscripts were kept;
22 e. the existence of illustration; f. the collectors of the manuscripts; g. the publishing date or otherwise acquisition date. 2. by exploring the storage and handling of the manuscripts.
An evaluation of the physical conditions of Javanese manuscripts in the British Library, conducted in the present study, may provide the British Library with information which is useful for its systematic and effective action of preventing and conserving the manuscripts.
2.2 BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTATION
This dissertation is divided into six chapters. The first two chapters are a preparation for the study. Chapter One clarifies the reasons for choosing the topic. Chapter Two deals with the purpose of the study and the methodology which was used in order to achieve the goals of this study.
The next three chapters are the results of the study. Chapter Three is a descriptive presentation of the observed physical condition of the collection. Chapter Four contains tabular presentations and analysis of the observed physical condition and the possible affecting factors.
23 Chapter Five is a descriptive presentation of the preservation attempts, mainly the storage handling of each original institution.
The remaining chapter is the summary and conclusion of the study, and recommendation for further studies.
2.3 METHODOLOGY
To achieve the above objective, this study was designed as follows.
2.3.1 Population of the Study
Population of this study was Javanese manuscripts which were available in the Oriental and India Office Collection. To determine the size of the population, the researcher first conducted a literature surveyor document study in order to provide the researcher with some information on the availability of the Javanese manuscripts. The researcher had been fortunately provided with the valuable catalogue of Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, published in 1977, which lists all of the Indonesian manuscripts available in the British Public Collection in Great Britain. This catalogue includes the list of almost of the Javanese manuscripts available in the Oriental and India Office
24 Collection. Another catalogue of the same authors was also used. This catalogue was published in 1982, and consists of additional manuscripts and some corrections from the previous catalogue. In addition, another catalogue of
Gaur, which was published in 1975, was used to trace the rest of the available manuscripts.
All of the Javanese manuscripts which have been catalogued in these three catalogues, and were mentioned to be kept in the Oriental and India Office Collection were used as the population of the study. The number of Javanese manuscripts in the Oriental Collection reached up to one hundred manuscripts, whereas those manuscripts in the India Office Library reached up to one hundred and forty manuscripts. The detail is presented in Table 1.
TABLE 1
POPULATION AND SAMPLE OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS ACCORDING TO
THE ORIGINAL INSTITUTIONS
ORIENTAL INSTITUTION Oriental India Office TOTAL Collection Library Population 100 142 242 (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) Sample 42 33 75 (42%) (23.2%) (30.9%)
25 There are four types of materials used as manuscripts, namely, copper-plate, bamboo, palm-leaf and paper manuscripts. The paper manuscripts were made of dluwang
Javanese paper, English paper, European paper, Dutch paper,
Chinese paper, and a combination of these papers (see Table
2) •
TABLE 2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS ACCORDING
TO TYPES OF MATERIALS
TYPES OF MATERIAL Copper- Palm- Paper TOTAL plate leaves Popula- 2 47 193 242 tion (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) Sample 2 47 26 75 (100%) (100%) (30.9%) (13.4%)
2.3.2 The Sample
As shown in Tables 1 and 2, not all of the manuscripts were analysed. Of the one hundred Javanese manuscripts in the
Oriental Collection, forty-two (42%) of the manuscripts were taken as samples; and of the one hundred and forty-two
Javanese manuscripts in the India Office Library, thirty- three (23.2%) were taken as samples (see Table 1).
26 The size of the sample of the present study was, therefore, seventy-five (30.9%) Javanese manuscripts (see Table 1).
All copper-plates (2) and palm-leaf manuscripts (47) available in these two institutions were included in the samples whereas only twenty-six (13.4%) paper manuscripts were examined (see Table 2). The small percentage of paper manuscripts sampled was due to the limited amount of time.
Accordingly, paper manuscripts were not analysed according to the detailed type of paper.
The number of population and samples of each type of manuscript in the Oriental Collection and the India Office
Library are shown in Tables 3 and 4, respectively.
TABLE 3
POPULATION AND SAMPLE OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS IN THE
ORIENTAL COLLECTION ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF MATERIALS
TYPES OF MATERIAL ORIENTAL Copper- Palm-leaf Paper TOTAL COLLECTION plate Population 1 18* 81 100 (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) Sample 1 18* 23 42 (100%) (100%) (28.3%) (42% )
Note * The Palm-Leaf manuscripts include bamboo manuscripts.
27 TABLE 4
POPULATION AND SAMPLE OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS IN THE
INDIA OFFICE LIBRARY ACCORDING TO TYPES OF MATERIALS
TYPES OF MATERIAL INDIA OFFICE Copper- Palm- Paper TOTAL LIBRARY plates leaf Population 1 29 112 142 (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) Sample 1 29 3 33 (100%) (100%) (2.6%) (23.2%)
2.3.3 Sampling Procedures
The procedure of acquiring the above sample was as follows. Javanese manuscripts which served as the population of this study were firstly listed. Then, the types of materials of manuscripts in the Oriental Collection as well as the India Office Library were identified. It was found that the number of copper-plate and palm-leaf manuscripts in each institution was small. This made the researcher decide to take all of them as samples. The twenty-six paper manuscripts were chosen partly based on the existence of the illustration in the manuscripts and partly randomly selected.
28 In summary, there were two methods of sampling applied to the present study, namely, stratified purposive and random sampling.
2.3.4 Data Gathering
A modification and combination of McCranck's (1984) and
Agrawal's (1984) forms were used to gather data on the physical condition of the manuscripts (see Appendix 1).
Data collected regarding the physical form was about:
1. Physical conditon of the material which included that
of: a. binding (format, cover and spine) b. pages or sheets. 2. Physical condition of the text and illustrations.
3. The existence of reproduction of the manuscript. 4. Evaluation of the overall physical condition of each
manuscript.
Information on the acquisition date, collector, date of publication and type of material was also collected. In addition, contents of each manuscript were also extracted to provide identification and value which is more than those that can be derived from the information of call numbers.
29 Evaluation of the overall condition of each manuscript was based on the following criteria.
Category I:
represented material in the immediate treatment category. Its condition was manifestly so poor that further use seriously risked damage or loss either to the document itself or to the text. The factors indicating that the physical integrity of the page was
at risk were visible weakening from mould action, very brittle paper, as evidenced by fragmentation or
breaking along folds, and major tears, i.e., more than
two inches in length. Even if the entire page was not at risk, certain factors might endanger the text; mould, brittleness, or mutilation in the vicinity of
the text; faded inks; or water damage to the text.
Category II:
included materials which had suffered damage which was visible but not sufficiently severe to risk loss of text. For example, there might be slight mould action or minor tears or mutilation which produced merely
local damage. In these cases, neither the material
nor the text was at immediate risk.
30 Category Ill: materials showed no evidence of damage or deterioration.
Category IV:
contained those manuscripts which showed signs of conservation treatment.
Category V: manuscripts which had been reproduced (duplicated, microfilmed) .
These criteria were a slight modification of those developed by Wright and Yurkiw (1986). The reason for choosing these criteria is because it was considered suitable for the evaluation of the physical condition of all types of materials.
Categories I, 11 and III is a continuum, but not categories IV and V. Accordingly, a manuscript may be classified in more than one category.
Interviews were conducted with the Curator in order to gather information on the storage handling of the manuscripts. With the assistance of the Curator, the researcher was also able to see the new storage room located in the Oriental and India Office Collection.
31 The examination of manuscripts was conducted within eleven days, i.e., from 13 August to 17 August, 1991 in the Oriental and India Office Collection, 197, Blackfriar Street, London.
2.3.5 Data Analysis and Presentation
In order to obtain a detailed picture of Javanese manuscripts under study, the information gathered was descriptively presented for each manuscript in Chapter Three.
Each manuscript was then grouped, in Chapter Four, according to: 1. categories of physical conditions; 2. categories of physical conditions and possible agents causing the physical conditions of the manuscripts; 3. categories of physical conditions and the types of material;
4. categories of physical conditions and the existence of illustrations and type of materials; 5. categories of physical conditions and the types of original institution. 6. categories of physical conditions and the collectors of manuscripts;
32 7. categories of physical conditions and the publishing date or otherwise acquisition date ( according to chronological period).
The frequencies and percentages of each category were also counted.
Data obtained from the interview regarding the storage and handling were presented in Chapter Five and as much as possible was used to explain the cause of the observed physical condition of the manuscripts.
33 CHAPTER 3
DESCRIPTIVE OVERVIEW OF THE CONDITION OF THE JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS EXAMINED IN THIS STUDY
3.1 COPPER PLATES MANUSCRIPTS (Red Copper Plates)
3.1.1 Introduction
Manuscripts which were written on bronze, stone, silver and gold are very laborious but on the other hand they are durable. They were usually used for lasting-value documents which include royal charters and decrees which recorded granting of land or status to men of merit or even to religious establishments. Usually, in this case the manuscript mentions definitely the inheritance rights of tax obligation and also the regulations for maintenance
(Gallop and Arps, 1991).
Copper plates were one of the media which were used for writing these Javanese manuscripts. Since they are durable, sometimes charters written on this type of material are still being possessed by their society for a long time. A good example of this is the ancient charters which are still kept in the villages of Bali. Such charters still remain used, for example on holy days when they are
34 cleaned and were also recited. This situation may have been similarly happening in Java. Nevertheless, these manuscripts, although written on copper-plates, still could fade due to age. For this reason, and for other reasons as well, many of the inscriptions written on these types of material are copied so they have duplicates of the same material (Gallop and Arps, 1991).
Two copper-plate manuscripts will be discussed in the following part. Both of the manuscripts, whose acquisi tions are unknown, are charters issued as grants written in Old Javanese language with Javanese script.
3.1.2 Copper-Plate Manuscript in the Oriental Collection
The manuscript IND.CH 57 has always been considered part of the Oriental Collection.
These two copper plates, although they appear to be identical physically one with the other, are actually independent in its contents, respectively.
Using a Javanese language script, the first grant, named plate A, indicates a construction of a canal in the lemah asinan of Pabuharan by a teacher, named Ugra. Also included are rights and regulations concerned with canal construction.
35 Meanwhile, plate B describes a grant of the attribute of the Brahman-order and also the Ksatriya-order conducted by the King to Ugra's children, Dyah Kataywat and Dyah
Nariyama (Gaur, 1975).
Al though thin, these two rectangular copper plates are unusually heavy. For their protection, they are kept in a case, provided with a thick wood at the bottom surface in order to take their weight. The box still remains in very good condition.
Nevertheless, having observed the copper plates, it seems that before the conservation treatment stated above was started, the copper plates themselves had already been in a poor condition when acquired. Some parts of the script of the text, which is engraved artistically in six lines on both sides of each plate, are unfortunately missing from the surface. It is possible that it had been corroded by oxidation of water or air. While some parts of the engraved text are still black in colour, it seems that some other parts have turned to a reddish-brown colour.
Parts of the surface on each side of the plates have blackened. It seems that stains appearing on the corner and along the length of the plates have resulted from the same cause namely oxidation.
Thus, although minor treatment has already been carried out
36 by keeping them in a case, further steps should also be focused on preventing the text from further corrosion damage. Due to its condition and value, this manuscript should be classed as one requiring immediate and thorough attention especially because stains could change into corrosion.
Generally speaking, despite the fact that some parts of the text are missing and that some small stains could be seen on the surface, actually the overall, appearance of this copper-plate manuscript was better compared to the copper plate manuscripts in the India Office Library which will be discussed later.
3.1.3 Copper-Plate Manuscript in the India Office Library
The copper-plate manuscript with the number IOL Jav.106 is actually a charter consisting of seven copper plates.
They are all sequentially numbered.
Plates 1 and 3 are kept in the Leiden Museum of Ethnography
(Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde) (Ricklefs & Voorhoeve,
1982). The five remaining plates, numbers 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7, have always been kept in the India Office Library. These copper plates are the missing charters originated from the collection of Raffles (Gallop and Arps, 1991) and
37 were previously catalogued as Reg. 59.12-28.179 and 180 in Ricklefs and Voorhoeve's catalogue of 1977.
The five copper plates are essentially written up as a copy of a charter of Pu Sindok which has been dated saka 861 [2
May A.D. 939]. This copy was made in the period of Madjapahit between the late thirteenth and fifteenth century. The content of the charter is concerned with Buddhist spiritual activity. The charters were discovered in 1815.
These five rectangular copper plates are kept uncovered.
Cardboard sheets are placed in between each of the plates and they are bound together wi th two cotton ties. The inscription is written on both sides of these thick heavy red copper plates. They are engraved artistically in small type, which is clear and easy to read.
An examination of the surface of the plates, reveals black stains and coloured spots. Signs of early corrosion are the white, red, green, and black stains. It has affected the colour of the inscription which is already faint in most of the text. The white spots, cover a large area of the text on both sides of the plates. Areas of the text are covered with deep black stains.
In contrast with the previous copper-plate manuscript available in the Oriental Collection, the physical
38 condition of the text in these five copper plates could still be considered to be readable. This is in spite of the faint script and the various staining which was caused by the early stage of corrosion damage.
It is interesting to mention that this copper plate manuscript was described in Ricklefs and Voorhoeve's catalogue of 1982, as being in "an excellent state of preservation" (Ricklefs and Voorhoeves, 1982, p. 316). Thus, in a period of nine years, the condition of the manuscript has deteriorated enormously. Another assumption is that the catalogue refers only to condition of the text and not of the copper-plate itself.
The overall examination on this manuscript shows a poor condition of the material. It appears that little attention had been given to it. To prevent the plates from further damage, immediate conservation and preservation treatments are required.
3.2 PALM LEAF AND BAMBOO MANUSCRIPTS
3.2.1 Introduction
There are two types of palm leaves which were used for writing manuscripts, i.e. lontar palm and nipah palm. The ones which are commonly used for writing Javanese
39 manuscripts are particularly the Ion tar palm, or Borassus flabellifer (Gallop and Arps, 1991). This type of palm leaf is said to be fibrous, and initially strong and flexible, but the natural flexibility decreases with the time. The nature of the Iontar palm leaf is rather thicker than other type of palm-leaf, and they are also more exposed to insect attack (Agrawal, 1984). The use of Iontar palm actually still remains popular even in the twentieth century, particularly in parts of East Java, Madura and Bali as well as Lombok.
The process of making the leaves ready for writing was by drying them in the shade. In order to make the surface smooth, sometimes a certain oil was applied. The leaves were then left to where smoke was sent out. After being cleaned, they are ready for writing. However, before they were written and painted, they were often coloured or lacquered. When dried and treated this way, the palm-leaves became strong and relatively durable.
There are two techniques of writing on palm-leaf. The first is by incising with a pOinted stylus, and the second is by wri ting with a pen or brush as it is done on paper.
Incision with a stylus is the most commonly used. In the case of Javanese manuscripts, many of them are engraved with a knife. In order to make it legible, the grooves are then blackened with some sort of powder, so the text will be clearly visible (Gallop and Arps, 1991). When it is done
40 by writing technique, it is done with ink, using a brush or pen. The ink in this case will only remain on the surface since the surface of a palm-leaf is less absorbent than paper. When the palm-leaf manuscripts are illustrated, then they are incised with a painted stylus, and they are cOloured as well, although the choice of the colour was restricted. Usually the grooves are filled with black or red colour.
Actually, palm-leaves are durable but after a long time it becomes brittle at the edges or dried out and breaks into pieces. Also, the leaves may stick to each other when they are stored in humid condition or when rain water falls on them. In order to avoid the above, the palm-leaves are stored in between two wooden panels which are slightly larger in size than the leaves and sometimes are decorated or printed. Moreover, holes were punched in the leaves so as to keep all of the leaves together. They are punched according to their size. If the leaves are small, they are punched in the centre, otherwise if the palm-leaves are long, the holes were punched at either side. These holes were to keep the leaves kept in position, and a cord was passed through the holes so as to bind the manuscripts
(Agrawal, 1984). These facts were noted when the manuscripts were examined.
Meanwhile, bamboo is rarely used (unlike palm-leaves) in writing Javanese manuscripts. They are most often found on
41 manuscripts written in Batak or Malay language manuscripts. However, the way of processing and treating the bamboo before they were written is presumed to be more or less the same as palm-leaves. There were also two techniques of writing the bamboo manuscripts, that is to say, either incising with a pointed stylus or engraving with a knife or also writing with ink. Actually, bamboos are known to be not only difficult to write upon but also difficult to store. The reason is because the form of the wooden strips when they are bundled and tied for the preservation purpose are cumbersome and consume space (Hunter, 1978).
3.2.2 Palm-leaf and Bamboo Manuscripts in the Oriental
Collection
Many of the palm-leaf and bamboo manuscripts in the Oriental Collection are written in Javanese, i.e. eleven manuscripts, including the only bamboo manuscript, and six others are in Old Javanese language. The biggest number of palm-leaf manuscripts is from Sloane's and John Crawfurd's collection. Many of the oldest came from Sloane's collection.
Examination was first carried out by focusing on Sloane's collection. However, as not all of the seven palm leaf manuscripts could be examined in detail, thus the examination pr10ritised on those which it was possible to
42 examine thoroughly. Six palm leaf manuscripts of Crawfurd's collection were then examined afterwards. Four other palm
leaf manuscripts collection, each of which, from other collectors such as Thomas Grenville, B. Farrer, Mrs. Williams and E. J . Brill were the last collection to be dealt with.
3.2.2.1 S1oane's palm-leaf and bamboo manuscripts
collection
Of all the palm-leaf and bamboo manuscripts from Sloane's collection, there are two manuscripts which were dated prior to 1753. One was written in Javanese language script and the other is in Old Javanese language script. Five other manuscripts, which are kept together, have unknown original dates. They were acquired in 1753.
The first manuscript with the call number Sloane 1035 records a debt between Si Cina Kamasan and Ratu Kilen
(Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977) . This manuscript has a unique form of a tapered palm-leaf which was thinner at one end like the shape of a sword. This single piece of palm leaf, is actually thick and strong because it has double leaves. The surface seems to be varnished, with a light golden colour. The manuscript was written in Javanese script with unblackening ink, and incised on one side only.
43 The physical condition of this leaf can be considered to be in Category I1. Although some small stains are visible at the corners and surface along the length side of the tapered leaf, the leaf itself is still strong and flexible.
Some slight insect damage at the bottom level of the leaf and a minor tear and cracks at the narrowing corner of the leaf can be identified. The text is not in immediate risk of damage, despite the small sign of cracking, therefore only minor treatment and careful monitoring should be done.
Five other palm-leaf manuscripts of Sloane's collection are in various conditions. The manuscripts Sloane 1403.A,
Sloane l403.B, Sloane 1403.C, Sloane 1403.D, and Sloane
1403.E are all wrapped in one calico cloth. They have been very well conserved.
Each of the single manuscripts is well covered with
Japanese tissue. Five Perspex plates are placed between these leaves to eliminate any friction between the leaves.
Actually, most of the five palm-leaf excluding bamboo manuscripts of Sloane's collection can be categorised to be in a poor condition and so, despite the fact that they had been given necessary treatment, most of them still need more care and attention.
The manuscript Sloane l403.A consists of a single piece of palm-leaf inscribed in Javanese on one side and Chinese language script on the other. The overall condition is
44 still quite strong because it consists of double leaves, although there are some signs of breakage and missing parts at one end of the piece. The Javanese script is unblackened and some black stains are seen on the surface of the Chinese inscription. The text itself is at risk from damage.
Thin leaves will tend to break, and one such example in a poor condition is the manuscript Sloane l403.B. The leaf was lightly varnished. It is diagonally broken into two parts in the middle throughout the text.
Furthermore, signs of critical breakage at the edges where holes were made to tie and string the layers together is already seen. So, although the condition of the black ink of the text is still good and its surface is free of stains, immediate treatment to solve the problem of the broken parts is necessary in order to avoid any further damage or even the risk of losing the broken parts.
The ends of the two thin pieces of palm leaves of Sloane 1403.C are missing, and horizontal cracks causes the text to be incomplete, especially since the unblackened ink will increase the possibility of the text being lost.
Sloane 1403.D is in very poor condition. Having a very thin and bri ttled leaf, the surface is cracking horizontally and is torn in three different places,
45 resulting in part of the leaf being missing. The leaf may crack easily as it is incised on both sides.
A different condition may be. identified in the bamboo manuscript, Sloane l403.E which has a stronger form than palm-leaf. It is incised with Javanese language script on one side and Chinese on the other. There are signs of unblackening ink of the Javanese inscription and a small spot at the layer surface of the text, but the text itself is still legible. Some stains are seen at the corner of one end of Javanese script which was probably a record of an account.
The only palm-leaf manuscript which could be examined thoroughly was the one with the call number Sloane 3480.
The manuscript is the only one written in Old Javanese language script. The fragment of this manuscript has been broken and therefore its contents cannot be identified.
3.2.2.2 Crawfurd's palm-leaf manuscripts collection
Unlike Sloane's collection, Crawfurd's palm-leaf collection consists of more than one palm-leaf. Two manuscripts are written in Javanese and four manuscripts in Old Javanese scripts. The first two manuscripts seem to be in worse condition compared to the four Old Javanese manuscripts.
46 The palm-leaf manuscript, Add.12273, entitled Serat Rama, is an incomplete manuscript. There were originally more than 169 palm-leaves, but some gaps suggested that the leaves are out of order and no doubt missing. The remaining 158 leaves, have broken edges along the length of the leaves. Some leaves have already cracked and are sOiled. The thick leaves are strong enough and therefore they are not easy to break, although misuse may cause further damage. Some dirt and dust on the leaves and Perspex are visible. The manuscript is completed with end boards decorated with a faded gilt ornament. The text itself is still fairly legible, although a few parts of the leaves are fading.
An examination through the manuscript Add.12274, entitled Raden (Ardi) Kusuma Romance, shows a similar condition of the leaves. Most of the eighty-six palm-leaves are almost soiled. The simple decorations incised at the beginning of the varnished leaves are stained with dirt. The edges of the leaves are somewhat blackened. Presumably, the soil was the result of flood damage which dampened the soil on the leaves. In addition, it is quite probable that the leaves were not originally of good quality.
Four of Crawfurd's palm-leaf collection are written in Old Javanese, namely Add.12274, Add.12276, Add.12277 and
Add.12278. The first two manuscripts individually consist of forty-nine palm-leaves, and twenty-four palm-leaves.
47 The manuscript of forty-nine palm-leaves is entitled Arjuna Wiwaha Kakawin, whilst that of the twenty-four is entitled Ramayana Kakawin. The manuscript, Manawa, is a law book consisting of sixty-three palm-leaves. It was presented to Crawfurd by the Rajah Bililing, in the Island of Bali in 1814. The manuscript Add.12278, entitled Ramayana, was also given by the Rajah Bililing and consists of twenty seven palm-leaves.
These four manuscripts were not able to be examined in depth individually; nevertheless, a quick overview of the leaves showed that they can still be considered to be in category 11.
3.2.2.3 Other palm-leaf manuscripts in the Oriental Collection from other prominent collectors
Five of the following manuscripts were examined, three of them are written in Javanese language, and the last one is written in Old Javanese language.
It is interesting to note that Thomas Grenville's collection of palm-leaf manuscripts is impressively preserved. The palm-leaf manuscript, Grenville LXI, which turns out to be a fragment of a Yusuf Romance, is well kept in a black box in the shape of a book. Three thick leaves are screwed together in the middle with a wood screw so as
48 to avoid friction between the leaves which may cause cracking and breaking of the leaves in the vicinity of the
screwed hole. Most of the leaves' ends have already been torn. Nevertheless, the condition of the varnished leaves, although already decreasing, are still quite flexible. The
text on both sides of the leaves is still legible although further cracking may damage the text.
Meanwhile, Dr. Pigeaud has suggested that an impressive palm-leaf manuscript, acquired from B. Farrer in 1888, with the call number Or. 3583, may originate from the 17th century or even earlier (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977).
There are seventy-seven palm-leaves. This manuscript can be considered as one of the oldest besides those of Sloane's palm-leaf manuscripts. There is slight damage and one leaf is broken. Previous repairs can be identified by the replacement of a blank palm-leaf preventing the leaf
from further damage and strengthening the original leaf. This manuscript contains a prose treatise on divination
related to the Javanese wuku calendar. The lines on the
top and bottom of the leaves are inscribed and are often illegible. The leaves are not numbered and thus it seems
that they are out of order. This manuscript is actually the only palm-leaf manuscript which was cased in a blue
hard box. Signs of slight white mould action can be detected on several parts on the surface of the leaves.
This manuscript can be considered to be in Category 11.
49 There are two other palm-leaf manuscripts with Javanese language scripts. One is entitled, Carita Yusup, with the call number Or. 9809. It consists of one hundred and twenty-three palm-leaves. It was presented by Mrs Williams in 1927. It was not examined in detail. The condition can be considered to be classified in category 11. However, the other manuscript, with the call number Or.13329, is in category I. It was acquired in 1971 but its collector is still unknown. This manuscript consists of one hundred and thirty-seven palm-leaves divided into two parts. The first part is entitled Carita Yusuf. The leaves are out of order and some are even missing. Although the beginning of the leaves are intact, the ending of the leaves seem to be missing. Some of the text is illegible and almost all are badly soiled. The second part, entitled Yusup Story, is not in good condition. The leaves are out of order and presumably missing. Several leaves are soiled and they are even badly damaged.
The last palm-leaf manuscript which is written in Old
Javanese language script is entitled Anang Niratha Kakawin with the call number Or.5306. It is said that it came from Lornbok Island and consists of forty-one palm leaves. It was purchased by E. J. Brill in 1897. This palm-leaf manuscript needs no immediate treatment, therefore can be considered in category Ill. These last four manuscripts, namely Or.3583, Or.9809, Or.l3329 and Or.5306, were examined quickly hence not in depth.
50 Looking at the overall condition of the palm-leaf manuscripts examined above, some conclusions can be made. Although many of Sloane's collections are considered classified in Category I, which need immediate treatment, compared to Crawfurd's and other collections, which are in similar condition, Sloane's collection is better off because all these manuscripts are left as they are, but had been given protection by providing Perspex and calico cloth as a cover to wrap them in.
3.2.3 Palm-Leaf Manuscripts in the India Office Library
The only palm-leaf manuscript which has always been kept in the India Office Library is a single collection from Mackenzie's collection, bearing the call number IOL Jav.53.
According to Mackenzie's report, there are twenty-four manuscripts, but actually there are many more than this
(Ricklefs and Voorheove, 1977).
The manuscript with the call number IOL Jav. 53 contains various kinds of languages. The fact that the number of manuscripts has increased until now, with the subsequent discovery of IOL Jav.53a until IOL Jav.53cc, would probably be an error on the part of the collector, or alternatively, the manuscripts have been broken into more than one bundle of leaves, since 1812.
51 The condition of all the manuscripts is extremely poor, that is to say, they are damaged, and the leaves are out of order. They are all kept in the same way. Each of the twenty-nine manuscripts is wr?pped in plain paper and placed together in one big box. They were all examined quickly, since there was only a limited amount of time; therefore, they cannot be described in detail.
IOL Jav.53a has missing leaves at the beginning and the end. The surface of the leaves is soiled and damaged. The end-boards of the palm-leaves are missing. The remaining eighty palm-leaves are identified as a Balinese reproduction of the Tantrie.
IOL Jav. 53b, which is written in Old Javanese language script, contains thirty-five leaves. The inscription has become unblackened, and signs of exposure to smoke can also be seen. It is probable that this manuscript is a tutur.
Many of the names included are names of the Gods.
IOL Jav.53c is divided into two texts, one in Old Javanese language script and the other in Modern Javanese text, which is incomplete. This consists of thirty-eight palm leaves, which have been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav.53d consists of fifty-seven leaves. The script has become unblackened and the leaves themselves are soiled.
The manuscript has a short title, Ki Amad. It is incised
52 in Modern Javanese language script. Some leaves, presumably from a second text, are also bound in.
IOL Jav.53e is probably in slightly better condition than the other manuscripts, as a large part of the text seems undamaged. The leaves are inscribed in Old Javanese, with a short title, Niti Sara (Niti Sastra). Some broken folios of the manuscripts can also be identified. Moreover, signs of exposure to smoke can also be seen on the sixty palm leaves.
IOL Jav.53f, which consists of forty-eight palm-leaves is wri tten in Modern Javanese. There are several Hindu di vini ties' names mentioned. Many of the folios are damaged and soiled. Most of the inscriptions have unb1ackened script. The text itself is unidentifiable.
IOL Jav.53g is written in Old Javanese. It is probably a tutur. There are about fifty-eight palm-leaves. It can be seen that some of the folios are damaged, and that the leaves have been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav.53h has the short title, Sanghyang Kalimahosadha, and is written in Old Javanese language script. The same condition can also be seen on the thirty-three palm-leaves. Some of the folios of the leaves are soiled and have been exposed to smoke.
53 IOL Jav.53i consists of mantras which are written in Modern
Javanese. It includes various names of Hindu divinities. A magical illustration occupies one of the leaves. Unfortunately, many of the leaves are badly soiled, and the
script is also in a bad state. It is widely unblackened. This manuscript consists of thirty-nine leaves.
IOL Jav.53j is an incomplete manuscript. It is written in Modern Javanese text. However, the thirty-eight palm leaves are badly soiled on many of the folios. It is
probable that the manuscript has also been exposed to
smoke.
IOL Jav.53k consists of forty-nine palm-leaves. It is
wri tten in Old Javanese, with the short title, Saivite
tutur. It is presumed that the text's content is about magic or mysticism. Unfortunately, several of the folios
are broken, and many of them are soiled. They have been
exposed to smoke. Nevertheless, a photocopy is available
in LOr 14492.
IOL Jav.531 is an unidentified text, written in Modern
Javanese language script. There are about thirty-five palm
leaves. As in previous manuscripts, many of the leaves
have been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav. 53m is another text presumably about magic or
mysticism. It is written in buda or gunung script. It
54 consists of fourteen palm-leaves, and some of these leaves have become unblackened.
IOL Jav.53n is written in Modern Javanese language but the text is inscribed in buda or gunung script. It is most probable that it contains a mysticism and is apparently Islamic. The condition of the script has become unblackened, and some of the folios are somewhat soiled. It can be seen that the twenty-four palm-leaves have been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav.530 has also been exposed to smoke. It consists of twenty-seven leaves. The text, written in Modern Javanese language, and inscribed in buda or gunung script, is also presumed to have a magical or mystic content. Some of the folios of the leaves are broken. The script itself has become unblackened and exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav.53p is probably a tutur. It consists of thirty- nine palm-leaves. The text is unidentifiable, written in an Old Javanese language. It could be seen that some of the leaves are broken, and all of them have been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav.53q consists of forty-five palm-leaves. The text is solely concerned with Balinese religions, completed with tables, diagrams and some illustrations. Unfortunately, some of the leaves are broken. It can be seen that the
55 manuscript has been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav. 53r is most probably a tutur, written in Modern Javanese. It consists of forty-two palm-leaves. All the leaves have been exposed to smoke and many of them are broken and soiled.
IOL Jav.53s is a palm-leaf manuscript which consists of thirty-one palm-leaves, with a Balinese text. It is possibly a tutur. The condition of most of the text seems to be slightly damaged compared with other manuscripts. Nevertheless, signs of exposure to smoke can easily be seen.
IOL Jav.53t consists of sixty-five palm-leaves. The manuscript is actually an interbound of two Modern Javanese texts. One text is in buda script, the other is in Javanese script. Both of the texts are unidentified. Several of the leaves are broken and soiled. It is likely that the manuscript has been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav.53u is also in poor condition. The text, consisting of thirty-six palm-leaves, is somewhat broken. It is written in Modern Javanese language. This manuscript, like other manuscripts, has also been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav.53v is an unidentified manuscript text. Only the
56 names of Nabi Ngisa, Nabi Musa, and Nabi Muhammad can be identified. It is written on thirteen palm-leaves. The manuscript is very badly soiled and most of it is illegible. It has also been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav.53w consists of sixteen palm-leaves. It seems to be that many of them are missing. These include the beginning and the end of the manuscript. Signs of insect damage on many folios of the leaves could be identified. Most of the leaves are broken. The content of the manuscript is unidentifiable; however, Pun Semar is mentioned several times. It is not clear whether this manuscript is a tutur, although there is a note attached to the manuscript stating about this. However, this has still to be identified.
IOL Jav.53x consists of seventeen palm-leaves. The manuscript has also been exposed to smoke. It seems that some of the folios are missing and soiled, too. The manuscript is unidentified. The story is written in Modern Javanese.
IOL Jav.53y is an Old Javanese mantras, most probably with some magical illustrations. It could easily be identified that the one hundred and eight leaves have been exposed to smoke.
IOL Jav.53z, which is dated 1812, is written in Modern
57 Javanese. The leaves are out of order. There are about thirty-nine palm-leaves and these have been exposed to smoke. Various Hindu divinities are mentioned in the text.
IOL Jav.53aa consists of thirteen palm-leaves. This manuscript is mainly broken. It is not clear whether the fragments of text are about ethics or otherwise. However, it is written in Javanese language.
IOL Jav. 53bb consists of approximately one hundred and fifty palm-leaves. The text is unidentifiable. It is wri tten in Modern Javanese language. It is presumed to have a rather Old pasisir-style inscription. The beginning and end of the text is missing, and most of the leaves are broken.
IOL Jav.53cc is the last manuscript examined. This manuscript is kept in a wooden box. The leaves are out of order and the first leaves are broken. There are approximately ninety palm-leaves. Some of the folios from other manuscripts are bound within. This includes folios written in buda or gunung script. Yudistira is mentioned at the beginning of the text. Names from the Bratayuda also appear.
Almost all of the palm-leaf manuscripts in the India Office Library discussed above are in category I, as almost all of them are exposed to smoke, and soiled on the surface, and
58 even broken and out of order. Thus, it is then suggested not to allow frequent direct use of the material in order to prevent them from further damage.
Generally speaking, the condition of the palm-leaf manuscripts in the India Office Library is worse than those observed and described in the Ricklefs and Voorhoeve 1977 catalogue.
3.3 PAPER MANUSCRIPTS
3.3.1 Introduction
Al though it has been said that lontar palm-leaves were still popular up to the 20th century in some parts, such as East Java, Madura and Bali, as well as Lombok Island, in other parts of Java, the use of lontar had already been replaced by paper, in the early 19th century, since it was more suitable for writing Arabic script than lontar. The fibroid structure of lontar palm-leaves made it difficult to write Arabic script which used curves and diagonal lines
(Gallop and Arps, 1991).
The kinds of paper used for writing these Javanese manuscripts varies from what was always described as a locally-manufactured kind of paper called dluwang, or
Javanese paper, which was hand-made paper, taken from
59 beaten bark of paper mulberry or Broussonetia Papyrifera. It has been recorded that this material was, in fact, already used as paper-making material prior to the third century in China (Hunter, 1978). Amongst these materials are English, European, Dutch and Chinese paper. It is said that at first it was the Chinese who made the paper out of woven cloth, i.e. wasted cuts of textile which was beaten into fibre and formed as sheets of paper (Hunter, 1978).
As with the palm-leaf manuscript, most of the Javanese manuscripts written in paper at the Oriental and India
Office Collection have been acquired from Crawfurd' sand Mackenzie's collections. The collection consists of various types of paper, namely Javanese and English,
European, Dutch, Chinese and some with a combination of the above papers. In the present study, all types of paper manuscripts, except Dutch, were examined.
3.3.2 Dluwang Javanese Paper Manuscripts
All dluwang Javanese paper manuscripts examined were those held in the Oriental Collection. The Oriental Collection holds twenty-two Javanese manuscripts, written on dluwang
Javanese paper. Most of them, as has been described previously, were purchased from John Crawfurd's Collection. Almost half of them dated from the 18th century until 19th century. Four manuscripts were taken as sample, one is
60 from Sir Hans Sloane's collection and the other three are from Crawfurd's collection. The oldest manuscripts, originating from Sloane's collection, dated from the 17th century, i.e. A.D. 1623. Therefore, it would be best to first concentrate on this manuscript. This manuscript and one of Crawfurd's collection, Add.12338, are classified in category 11, whilst the two others are categorised as needing immediate treatment, category I.
Sloane 2645, or Mukhtasar Ba Fadl of Mukaddimat al-Hadrami, given the title Masa'il at-ta'lim, is actually a treatise on Islamic jurisprudence (Gallop and Arps, 1991). The text was written in Arabic with interlinear Javanese translation written in the Arabic script, pegon. The one hundred and twenty folios of the manuscript were formerly produced as a teaching method in religious schools.
The appearance of the paper shows that the beginning and end of the manuscripts consist of very thin paper. Some of them are blank. The folios in the middle part of the manuscript which have a cream colour tend to have a glossy surface. Discolouration of the paper, turning into a brown colour, could be seen at the beginning and towards the end of the manuscripts. Some minor repair should be done on the right-hand corner, bottom edge folios and along the right hand edge of the folios in the middle part of the manuscript. These folios of paper show some early signs of brittleness as well. There is a small sign of insect damage
61 at the corner in some of the folios as well as at the end paper of the back cover. Insects have already started boring through some of the paper. This damage has not yet reached a critical stage.
The manuscript itself was written in black ink and seems to be in a stable condition, although some sign of smeared ink is seen towards the middle part of the manuscript. Some white stains cover the surface of a few of the folios in the middle part of the manuscript. An Arabic script text was rewritten or typed over the manuscript. This could be assumed as a correction script, presumably done by the pupil. However, the text is still in a satisfactory condition. Some parts of the text, were given simple decoration. It is assumed that this was done afterwards at a later stage (Gallop and Arps, 1991). Red as well as gold ink or gilt were used to decorate, marking the Arabic text and the Javanese glosses as well as the first few folios i.e. folio 5, 6 and 7.
From an exterior view, the manuscript is still in a strong sewn binding with red calf leather and it is decorated with a simple Islamic style. Some sign of worn edges on the binding could be identified. This was perhaps caused by friction with other manuscripts while they were being used.
The overall condition of the manuscript is actually still good, despite of the insect damage and the brittle paper.
The condition of this manuscript was not mentioned at all
62 in the catalogue. It could be assumed that the manuscript was still in good condition at the time it was being catalogued. However, it. is probable that the manuscript has already shown some small damage upon cataloguing but that the cataloguer did not disclose its condition.
The manuscript Add.l2289, which was entitled Serat
Sakondar, is a version of the Baron Sakender stories (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). It describes the story of Baron Sakender. The microfilm of this manuscript is kept in Cornell University Library. The front binding is given the English title "Romance of Sakender". Consisting of one hundred and forty nine folios, most of the paper is very thin paper; some of it is not trimmed at the edges, giving a bad appearance. Some sign of smeared black ink can be seen on some part of the folios of the paper. This could be due to the fact that the manuscript is not a refined work of art, as had been stated by Ricklefs. The inscription was described as:
very sloppily written, and the scribe switched back and forth between different styles of handwriting (Ricklefs and Voorheve, 1977, p. 46).
The condition of the paper is beginning to worsen, the back cover showing signs of insect damage. The bottom end paper, and some part of the binding boards as well, have suffered slight insect damage. A simple uncoloured decoration along the margin of the text is situated towards
63 the front folios of the paper.
An examination through the manuscript with the title 'Romance of Durya Talajang Sajarah', written on its binding, shows that the surface of the paper, being smooth and glossy, had a cream colour that is turning brown, giving a dirty appearance to the surface. The edges of the paper are a little tattered and brittle. No ruled margin mark was given on the plain paper. Using a dark black ink, the manuscript was written and decorated in part with red ink which is slightly unstable, causing smeared ink on the decoration. This manuscript, wi th the call number Add.12316, is divided into three parts. The first part, consisting of one folio, is a record or charter of Kangjeng Raden Tumenggung Sumadiningrat. The second part is the history of the Javanese Legendary consisting of thirty-four verses, dated 1722/1795. The last part is said to be a Yusup story which was bound upside down. This part consists of fifteen verses, dated either 1721/ 1794 (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). Coming towards the end of the last three folios, a very rough illustration of wayang-style drawings is presented. In fact, the only illustration in the manuscript is drawn in smeared black ink. The illustration was unfinished and not yet coloured at the end folios. This illustrated paper is already brittle and showing holes on its surface. The three front folios of the manuscript show some brittleness and the end papers are already loose and turning brown. Nevertheless, these two hundred and thirty folios of manuscript had presumably been repaired. The paper on folio sixty-five was replaced with a new off white tissue paper, but the text is not rewritten.
The binding condition of this manuscript shows that the hinges are loose and holes could be identified. It is a full leather binding hard board with a light brown calf leather cover. Being tightly spined, the binding is decorated with a blind stamped European style of
64 decoration. The physical condition of the manuscript, as presently shown, was not stated by Ricklefs and Voorhoeve. It is difficult to believe that the condition is still the same. Judging by the condition stated above, this manuscript, if compared with the previous of Crawfurd' s manuscript Add .12289, is better, especially some of the paper is thick and the binding is still strong.
Another Javanese paper from Crawfurd's collection which is filled with illustration is the manuscript with the call number Add.12338. The title, 'Treatise on Judicial Astrology' is on its binding. The manuscript is actually a miscellaneous collection of items on Sengkalas dating. One part was in the form of verse, and the other part is in the form of prose (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). The paper, being smooth and glossy, is slightly worn on the edges. The manuscript has cream coloured paper which, being typical Javanese paper, turns to a brown colour in the centre section. The paper is somewhat ruled on the margin side. The ink used to write the Javanese script is a dark black soluble ink.
Of the one hundred and forty folios, a large number were filled with full pages of tremendous, artistic wayang illustration. Folio 79 until folio 135 are beautifully coloured with white, black, brown, red, yellow, green and gold ink. It is said that this manuscript includes twenty nine coloured figures of the gods and goddesses that are related with the WukU5. The beginning of the text is dated 1796. The canto, beginning on folio 25, is dated 1807. Some stains of dirt can be seen on some of the folios.
Upon examining the condition of the binding, the manuscript can be seen to be bound in a full leather hard board binding. The light brown calf leather binding was most probably covered with a flap over it. The remaining key on
65 the centre of the binding shows this indication. The binding has a blind stamp of Islamic style decoration. The spine is in good condition. It has been tightly spined. The spine has a flat format which is blind stamped decorated on the surface. There is no mention of the condition of this manuscript in the catalogue. It can be assumed that the text as well as the condition of the manuscript was roughly in a similar condition as at present.
---~3~En~ish-Paper-Manuscrip±~s ______
All English paper manuscripts examined were those held in the Oriental Collection. Apparently almost all of the twenty-five English paper manuscripts in the Oriental Collection are written in Javanese script, describing historical matters, and dated from the beginning of 19th century. They are all from Crawfurd's collection. Among these twenty-five English paper manuscripts, only one is written in old Javanese language namely Bharatayudha. There were nine English paper manuscripts taken as samples to be examined directly. One of them, i.e., Add.12279, is the only one which is grouped in Category I, the others are considered to be in Category II.
Bharatayudha manuscript with the call number Add.12279 is written in Old Javanese text at the beginning of the volume and a Modern. Javanese text was written as an explanation. The manuscript, dated 1814, has a watermark 1808, on the paper. The one hundred and seventy eight folios of manuscript comprised of twenty-seven verses (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). The textured non-glossy surface of the paper has a cream colour. The paper is indented on the margins as a preparation before writing the text. Dirt can be seen and also discolouration to yellow paper.
66 Looking at the condition of binding, holes on the end-board of the spine and loosened surface of the end paper can be identified. The manuscript is in a full leather binding, covered with black calf leather. The spine was discovered having holes in the middle of both corners. It is sewn tightly with a flat format. The binding is no longer in good condition, disengaged back and signs of deterioration at the flyleaf can be identified. The calf leather binding shows signs of damage at the corners of the spine. Signs of cracking and holes along the spine liner and through the board and spine can visibly be seen. The binding is decorated in European style. This type of design is most frequently found in almost all of Crawfurd's collection. However, it cannot be said that this is the original binding as when it was acquired by Crawfurd. The type of binding and the type of decoration used for the binding is similar wi th some other manuscripts of Crawfurd' s collection. Further thinking brings to mind that perhaps the original binding might have been replaced, when acquired by the collector, by the same binder. Thick paper is used at the beginning and towards the end of the manuscript. A small amount of thin paper is used, in the middle section of the manuscript.
The Old Javanese language is inscribed in black ink. Unfortunately, it seems that the type of ink used is not stable. Thus, some number of folios have smeared ink and have become discoloured to yellow coming towards the front section. Nevertheless, this will not cause any major damage unlesss the text becomes illegible. Upon observing the end-papers of both boards, the disengaged back cover had been repaired and replaced by a new English paper. Small damage from insects can be noticed at the endboard.
One good example of a manuscript which is using a modern binding is the manuscript with the call number Add.122B2 entitled, Serat Babad Pakubuwanan. Unlike other
67 manuscripts, the binding of this manuscript seems to have been replaced by the recent style of binding. It is bound with a hard board and given a mosaic coloured paper cover. The binding is still in good condition concerning the flat form and sewn tight spine as well as the end papers. No decoration is given on the binding. A new translated title is stamped on the spine, "Chronicle of the Reigning Dynasty of Java, in Javanese".
The manuscript is dated 1796. It consists of sixty-five verses which tells the story beginning with the death of Pakubuwana I, 1718, and ending at the time of the Chinese War, 1740s (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). The smooth, non-glossy surface of the paper has an off-white colour. The edges of the paper are in good condition. there is no sign of damage. It is indented along the margin. Apart from a small amount of dirt on some of the folios, the paper is actually showing no sign of damage. However, the black ink used is unstable. There are signs of smeared ink in some area of the paper. No illustration highlights this manuscript.
The following seven manuscripts can be examined directly. They are illuminated wi th coloured decoration and illustration, namely, Add.l2283, Add.l2284, Add.l2285, Add.l2287, Add.l2288, Add.l2290, Add.l229l.
The manuscript Serat Babad Pakunegaran, 'History of Mangkunegara, composed by the prince himself' with the call number Add.l2283, is actually written for the fifty-fifth birthday of Mangkunegara I, in Surakarta (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). These three hundred and sixty-five folios of manuscript consist of ninety verses. The paper, has a smooth and non-glossy cream colour surface. It showed no sign of damage, nor do the edges of the paper. The texts can also be considered as being undamaged. The type of black ink used varied from light black at the front section
68 becoming darker towards the end part of the manuscript. Some of the ink caused a smeared sign on the paper. The binding shows a slight sign of deterioration, the front end-paper is loose from its board. The binding has a European style of binding decoration. The manuscript is actually given a new English translation written on its cover, 'Adventures of Prince Mangkunegara'. The manuscript is surprisingly decorated with a coloured illustration of a somewhat traditional Javanese inscription on the frontispiece. It is coloured in red, yellow, dark blue, orange, white and gold. The frontispiece had not been mentioned in the catalogue about the condition. A microfilm of this manuscript has been kept in the Cornell University Library.
A similar condition can be seen in a manuscript with the call number Add.12284, entitled Serat Keling. The manuscript had been given the date 1814 and is said to be written for royalty. The new translated title stamped on the binding is 'Romance of Rama Kaling'. The paper is in good condition in white coloured paper. The manuscript, which consists of two hundred and fifty-six folios, is decorated at the frontispiece and at the canto-headings of the text, with colourful ink and gilt ink as well. The black ink used for writing the text is of good quality and it is written artistically. The condition of the binding is good. Presumably, the endpapers at the beginning and at the end of the boards were loose and had been repaired. The flyleaf had also been replaced with a Javanese paper. Only small signs of worn edges can be seen at the surface of the spine.
The manuscript Add.12285, Serat Hangling Darma, which has the translated title, ' Romance of Hangling Darma', with thirty-six verses, is kept in good condition. The paper has a smooth non-glossy and white surface, which was indented along the margins. The edges of the one hundred and three
69 folios of paper are in good condition. The manuscript is written with a light black stable ink. The material used for the illustration is in good condition, too. The frontispiece is illustrated exceptionally beautifully and artistically in red, green, w~ite, brown and gold colours on both sides of the pages. The texts are also highlighted wi th several decorations of gilt. The condition of the binding is still good. It is bound in full black calf leather binding which is stamped blindly with a European style of decoration. There is sign of worn edges on the corner edge, but it is still in good condition. The spine is tightly sewn and is in a flat form. The endpapers are half loose and half torn from the inside.
The manuscript with the call number Add.12287, Babad Sejarah Mentaram, is given a new translation title, 'History of the Kingdom of Mataram in Java', on the spine. It is actually a copy of the manuscript with the call number Add.12320, entitled Babad, which is written on European paper and kept in the Oriental Collection as well. This manuscript is dated 1777. It is one of the voluminous Javanese manuscripts which comprise six hundred and fifty eight folios, wi th one hundred and seventy verses. The paper has a smooth, non-glossy cream coloured surface with two watermarks. The edges of the paper are in good condition. The surface is indented along the margins. The beautiful illustrations on the frontispieces are using a lot more of the gold ink and are completed with green, red, whi te and yellow colours. The text is also highlighted with small illumination of decoration. It seems to be in good condition, that is to say, it is written in good stable ink which varies from light to dark black ink. The binding is bound in full black leather binding and decorated with a European style of blind stamping of decoration. Some area of the concave spine is loose at the corner, with the title written in gold letter stamping.
70 The manuscript, Babad Sultanan utawi Mangkunegaran, with the call number Add.12288 is given a new translation title on its cover - 'History of the Kingdom of Solo in Java'. It is said that the text begins in the third Javanese War of Succession, 1749 and apparently ended in 1754. Some stains of dirt appearing on the surface of the endpapers and also some small damage on the binding can be discovered. The manuscript itself is completed with small illumination of decoration in the text. Beautiful illustration also illuminates the frontispieces of the manuscript.
The same condition can be found in manuscript Serat Kitab Tupah with call number Add .12290. The manuscript was actually a translation from Arabic into Javanese text presented to Crawfurd by 'The chief of Samarang Adimaggolo'. The original text is dated 1551 in Mecca (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). A new translation title was given on the spine, "Treatise on Mohammedan Law in Javanese". The manuscript has one hundred and sixteen folios and is divided into three hundred and fifty-nine sections. Like previous manuscripts, it is decorated with illustrations on the frontispiece but not on the text. Signs of dirt and stain and small damage can be discovered on the endpapers.
Another English paper manuscript which is completed with illumination is Serat Maliawan with the call number Add.12291. The content of the manuscript tells the story of a certain King Subali. The brown coloured paper has a textured non-glossy surface. It is ruled along the margin. The paper is considered to be in a good condition. The one hundred and thirty-five folios manuscript are completed with illustrations on the frontispiece with various colours and gold ink, whilst the text has a lack of decoration. However, it seems that the ink used for writing the text is in good condition. There is no sign of smeared ink in the text. Unfortunately, the binding has signs of holes and the
71 inner side of the hinge is loose. The binding is blind stamp decorated like some of the other manuscripts.
Of the nine English paper manuscripts which were examined directly, one of them had been microfilmed and another duplicated on European paper, whilst there is only one manuscript which shows signs of repair. None of the eight manuscripts seem to have severe damage but necessary treatment should still be implemented.
3.3.4 European Paper Manuscripts
3.3.4.1 European paper manuscripts in the Oriental Collection
There are twenty-seven manuscripts written on European paper that can be found in the Oriental Collection. Besides the manuscripts from Crawfurd's collection, which consist of twenty-three manuscripts, the other four manuscripts are each acquired from Edward Lumley, i. e. , Add.1485l, W. Cranswick Nood, i.e. Or.13826, Or.13827. Out of twenty-seven manuscripts, four of which are written in Old Javanese. One of them is also catalogued under Malay manuscripts in the Oriental Collection. Another two manuscripts are acquired only recently and is catalogued in the Addendum & Corrigenda, 1982. The manuscripts consist of various things, such as history, teachings, regulations, dictionary and other things. Most of the manuscripts which are discussed below are decorated with illustration. The time periods dated in the manuscripts are between the 18th and 19th century. One of the manuscripts with the call number Add.12280 could be examined directly because it was being used for exhibition purposes. There are eight manuscripts taken as the sample. One of them is considered to be grouped in Category I, i.e. Add.12340 and another one Or.13827 is classified in Category Ill, whilst the other
72 six are in Category 11.
A manuscript with the call number Add. 12286, Serat Jaya Kusuma, was given a new translation title, 'Romance of Jaya Kusuma' on the binding cover. The manuscript has been given the date 1813. The paper has a textured non-glossy cream colour surface. The surface has been indented along the margin. The light and dark black ink used is unstable. Hence, signs of smeared ink can be seen on the surface of the paper. The edges of the manuscript are still in good condi tion. The text seems to be discoloured, turning towards brown, caused by the smeared ink. The binding seems to be in good condition. It has European decoration blind stamped on the binding. The spine appears to be in good condition, although small signs of wear at the bottom of the spine can be seen. The spine is in a flat form and it is tightly sewn. Like other manuscripts, the spine has the title in gold letters. The end paper seems to be half loose. It is made of Javanese paper. Although it is not wri tten in the catalogue, mention should be made of the beautiful illustration on the manuscript. The frontispiece on the initial pages has flower decoration, coloured in red, green and gold. The text is also decorated with golden ink.
A Babad story manuscript with an English translation title, 'Romance of Vangsa Yuda', is catalogued under the call number, Add.12292. The year 1813 was the date given to this manuscript. The frontispiece is illustrated with colourful decoration in red, blue, green and gold ink. The text is also illuminated with golden ink. The manuscript can be considered to be in good condition. The edges of the paper show no signs of being worn. The ink used, light and dark black, seems to be stable. Only the end-papers showed some signs of loose paper. The surface of the paper has a textured, non-glossy appearance in white colour, indented along the margin. The binding seems to be in a
73 good condition. It is bound in full black leather in a European style of decoration, which is blind stamped.
Another manuscript with an English title given as translation is manuscript Serat Rejunawijaya, with the call number Add .12302. The translated ti tIe is 'Romance of Arjuna Vijaya'. It has been given the date 1802. It is said that the story ends with the Asta Brata (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). The manuscript is composed of seventy four verses and consists of two hundred and fifty two folios. There are illustrations of decoration on the frontispiece in red, blue, green, yellow and gilt colour. The surface of the paper is textured, non-glossy and is in white colour. The edges at the beginning and end of the folios are worn. The ink used is a light black colour. There are signs of smeared ink at the end of the folios. It seems that the scribe had changed the type of ink or, alternatively, the quality of the paper is different from the previous ones. The writing is written artistically in small type lettering. There are signs of previous repair on the front and end hinge of the manuscript, presumably using white adhesive cloth. The binding is in good condition. It is bound with hardboard in full dark brown leather. The shape formed a flat to curved form. It is decorated with an Islamic style of decoration. The spine shows signs of wear along the outside cover. The title is blind stamped.
One of the manuscripts which is written in Old Javanese language is the manuscripts with the call number Add.12321. The manuscript is divided into six parts, all given the date 1814. The manuscript is given the title, 'Historical Tracts in Javanese' on its spine cover. It consists of ninety-four folios. The paper is in good condition. It has a smooth, non-glossy surface in white colour, which is indented to mark the margin sides and at the end folios, pencil is used as a marker. The ink used is a light black
74 ink. The text is written in artistic clear lettering. There is no sign of smeared ink, but slight staining is visible. The binding is in good condition. It is bound in full light brown leather, decorated with an Islamic style of decoration. The spine is in good sewn condition.
A similar type of manuscript can be found in the manuscript with the call number Add.12325, which is given the title, 'Songs and Tracts', and dated 1813. It is mentioned that 'the bottom page has been cut off in binding and that more lines have been lost thereby' (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977, p. 51). The whole volume consists of fifty folios. The manuscript has a textured, non-glossy surface. The paper, consisting of European and English paper, has cream and white colour. The edges are in perfect condition. The surface of the paper is somewhat indented at the centre and end sections of the folios to mark the margin. The ink varies in thickness. It is in a stable condition. No signs of smeared ink can be spotted. The manuscript is written in an artistic and clear type of lettering. The hinges of folios 2 and 3 are broken at the centre. The text seems to discoloured to a yellowing colour. There is some sign of stain, presumably stain from erased writing. The binding is in good condition. The cover is decorated wi th Islamic style of decoration. The spine is still strong and has a flat form. The endpapers of the front and end cover of the manuscript are in good condition.
A very unique form of paper manuscript can be found in the manuscript with the call number Add.12340. It is given the title, 'Fac-simile of an ancient manuscript in the Rawi character' on the spine. According to Crawfurd, it appears that:
the figures, signs of the zodiac and other characters painted upon it, suggested that the manuscript is a treatise on astrology (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977, p. 53).
75 Meanwhile, according to Dr. J. Noorduyn, this manuscript may relate to divination for agrarian purposes. He suggested that, basically, the language is Javanese or even
Old Javanese but it is probably influenced by Sundanese language. The period of time connected with this manuscript is the pre-Islamic period, and it is presumed that the original might have been 16th century or even earlier (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). It is said that the Javanese manuscript, IOL Jav.96, in the India Office
Library, which will be discussed later, is a copy of this manuscript.
The manuscript consists of three sheets of folded paper which are covered in a unique case made of wood which is shaped into two books piled vertically side by side along its width. The division between each book can be slid open to see the manuscript. The first sheet, i.e., sheet A, is folded into thirteen folios. The second sheet, i.e., sheet
B, is folded into fourteen folios. The third sheet, i.e., sheet C, is folded into twenty-one folios. Each sheet of paper has a textured and non-glossy surface with a cream to brown colour. Having been kept folded, the edges of the paper are worn out and somewhat brittle. It was written in pencil. The only illustration which exists are small decorations with pencil on the text and on the left side margin. Some dirty stains can be discovered in sheets B and C. There are some signs of previous repair on sheet B, on the surface of folio 27, which is somewhat torn. The
76 case is already damaged in some parts and broken.
Another interesting case to discuss here is the manuscript wi th the call number, Or .13827, having the title, 'Babad Tanah Jawi Javanese' on the spine. This manuscript was purchased in 1977. It is catalogued under Javanese manuscripts in Ricklefs and Voorhoeve's catalogue, 1982. The manuscript has been given the date 1941. It consists of six hundred and thirty-eight pages, and it was written in the form of verse. The acquisition of this manuscript is unknown. One thing which is important to mention here before going into further discussion is that the condition of the manuscript is mentioned to be in poor condition. Presumably, this is the condition when it was acquired and being catalogued.
All of the folios of paper seem to have been repaired already. Some Japanese tissues have been used to replace the damaged and missing and torn paper. The paper has a smooth and semi-glossy surface with a cream colour turning to browning. It appears to have been indented along the margin. The edges are in perfect condition. The ink used is dark black colour which appears to be unstable in all of the folios. No illustration can be seen decorating the manuscript.
Meanwhile, the condition of binding shows that it is in perfect condition. Nevertheless, it is not the original
77 binding. The manuscript has been repaired in half green leather binding with hardboard which has the British Library logos showing that it was bound in the British Library. The convex spine is tightly adhesived.
In spite of the slightly missing text caused by previous torn paper on the edges, all of the folios of paper have been repaired. The missing text has not been rewritten. This manuscript has been given very good conservation treatment. Some indication of the conservation treatment which had been conducted upon this manuscript can be seen on the back flyleaf of this manuscript, that is to say, wash, bleach, antichlore, size (gelatine), deacidify, silk gauze, laminate (barrow), Lasminate (ademco), tissue nylon, tissue Japanese, tissue rag, adhesives, namely PVA, Scotch, Clam, soluble nylon and CMC.
Looking towards another form of manuscript is the manuscript with the call number Add.18578, which turned out to be a dictionary. It is given the title, 'Dictionary in Javanese, and English by J. Crawfurd' on its cover. Apparently, this Javanese-English Dictionary contains approximately 12,000 entries (Rick1efs and Voorhoeve,
1977). The manuscript consists of one hundred and thirty one folios purchased in 1842 but not received until 1851.
The surface of the paper is smooth and not glossy, with an off-white colour, which is indented along the margin lines. The edges seem to be slightly worn. The Javanese entries
78 were written in Javanese script with a dark black ink, whilst the English entries were written in a very light black ink and a very faint red ink as well. Some sign of smeared ink can be seen in some of the folios towards the centre section of the manuscript. The binding, having been bound like the previous manuscripts in full dark brown leather, is in good condition. A simple Islamic type of decoration, which is blind stamped, decorated the binding cover. Having a convex form, the spine is also in good condition. Slightly worn signs can be seen on the edges. However, it is not at risk to damage the text at all. One manuscript was already microfilmed and another is a reproduction from palm leaf manuscript.
3.3.4.2 European paper manuscripts in the India Office Library
The India Office Library has the largst holdings of manuscripts written on European paper. Fifty European paper manuscripts are housed in this institution. Apart from Mackenzie's collection, which fills the majority of the collection holdings, there are about four other collectors as well, namely John Leyden's collection, i.e. Arab.2446 (Loth 1047) IOL Jav.88, Raffles-Minto's collection, i.e., MSS Eur.F.148/23, Lt. Col. Raban's, i.e., IOL Jav.89, and Raffles's collection, i.e., IOL Jav.100, IOL Jav.102, IOL Jav.103. Of all the fifty manuscripts,
79 only one is written in Old Javanese script. Six others are catalogued under the Javanese manuscripts as well as the Malay manuscripts, in the India Office Library. Most of them date between 18th century and 19th century. Several of them .consist of an enormous number of folios. Many of them are illustrated with ornamentation, whilst the content of the manuscripts are various, i. e. , in addition to historical story, literature, and treatise, they also comprise of vocubulary or dialogue in Javanese, English and Duth, also on collection of alphabeticals Javanese script, and on grammar of Javanese language. All of the manuscripts are catalogued in Ricklefs and Voorhoeve (1977). There are only two manuscripts that were taken as sample, namely Jav. 24 and IOL Jav. 89 which are richly ornamented.
The manuscript IOL Jav. 24 with the title 'Jaya Lengkara Wulang' is said to be written on 7 November, 1803. The manuscript consists of ninety-three verses, which tells about the journey of Prince Jayalengkara visiting the sages in isolated places. The binding of this manuscript can be considered to be in good condition. It is bound with European style of binding decoration. The manuscript is ornamented impressively almost throughout the folios accompanied with detailed, complicated and high artistic ornamental frames which are called wadana on the frontispiece, in the initial pages. However, some of the wadana illustrations are not complete. This could be
80 considered as a coincidence since these complete and incomplete illustrations each can be compared in order to discover how the scribe works, in terms of the technique used in producing the manuscript. It seems that, at first, lines were drawn on the page by using a stylus and ruler. The text was written between these lines. A wide space of margin was left for the frames. Using a pencil, all of the straight lines of the ornamentation on the frame were drawn. Secondly, the gold leaf was glued, probably using a fine brush on the foliate and floral patterns. Thirdly, black ink was drawn around the borders of the golden decoration or gilt. Some patterns were drawn with ink, as well as sole foliate patterns. The last stage is filling the remaining outlines with blue, dark green, and yellow colour (Gallop and Arps, 1991). The condition of paper in some section of the manuscript is good, especially those folios of paper at the end section of the manuscript, has signs of smeared ink on the illustration as well as in the text. It seems that the ink colour that were used turned out to be acidic. Having decorated the paper half way thorugh, the ink started to react against the paper and bruned the surface of the decorated paper. It can be presumed that probably the pigment which were used had reacted with the paper and started to discolouring it.
Perhaps a different kind of glue were used.
An even more impressive coloured depiction can be discovered in manuscript IOL Jav.89 with the title 'Damar
81 Wulan' which was presented from Lt. Col. Raban. The story is said to begin with the daughter of Brawijaya, namely
KusumaKancana Wungubening of the throne of Madjapahit
(Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). The manuscript was not given the date, it is assumed to be from the second half of the 18th century. It consists of fifty nine verses, having approximately 200 folios. The manuscript is illustrated throughout with impressive drawings in various colours and gilt in a lively and rigorous style, depicting the famous story of Damar Wulan, who comes to the throne as king of
Madjapahit. Many of the illustrations depict the moments when the Javanese poems are recited from the manuscripts (Gallop and Arps, 1991). The poems are sung for personal pleasure or in front of an audience, usually at night, especially when it is a full moon, or either as an accompaniment in dance performance as well as mask dance performance or even a wayang performance, where traditional musical instruments are used for accompaniment. It can be recognised that the picture is crudely drawn, in the sense that it is not of high artistic standard, yet a lot of gold is used. This can be assumed that perhaps the person who paid for this manuscript to be done must be presumably a wealthy person. Otherwise, alternatively, gold was considered to be an inexpensive thing and could be purchased easily at that time.
Most of the paper is rather soiled and dirty, especially along the edge sides to turn the pages. These edges are
82 more stained. This dirty stain is assumed to be fingertips of people when turning over the pages. This shows that the manuscript is very much in use, read and re-read. Apart from that, signs of staining on the surface of several depictions can be recognised. In this case, presumably the sort of pigments that were used for the colour are metallic, it seems to look like silver that is very susceptible to changes. The silver has presumably become tarnished and turned to black throughout the surface of paper. This case does not happen with other depictions which used gold, since obviously gold never tarnished, thus it will stay the same. Perhaps this might be one reason why gold is used so much for painting illustrations. Hence, people at that time were already aware of these matters, so as to preserve the longevity of the ornamentation in the manuscript. A microfilm of this manuscript is kept in Leiden University.
3.3.5 Chinese Paper Manuscripts
All Chinese paper manuscripts examined were those held in the India Office Library. The India Office Library holds around six Javanese manuscripts written on Chinese paper, namely, MSS Eur.F.148/24, IOL Jav.9l, IOL Jav.93, IOL
Jav.99 and IOL Jav .101. The two latter manuscripts are from the Raffles collection, whilst the origin of three previous ones is originally unclear.
83 Only one of the Chinese paper manuscript in the India Office Library is taken as sample and examined directly, i.e., MSS Eur.F. 148/24. The manuscript which consists of only 9 folios, contains 'Copies of Original Javanese Correspondence from Sooracarta' . Apparently, this manuscript of Raffles-Minto is actually a copy of correspondence between Raden Tumenggung Sumadiningrat of Yogyakarta and Raden Adipati Cakranegara of Surakarta in
Javanese language which was given the date 1811-1812. The English abstracts can also be found inside the volume (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). The condition of the manuscript can be grouped in Category I. The manuscript is not illustrated with decoration. It is kept in a simple file with the spine already half loose. The folios are left unbound. The condition of the paper shows some signs of brittleness. Nevertheless, the text is still legible, signs of slight smeared ink can be recognised.
3.3.6 Manuscripts of Various Combination of Papers
All manuscripts of various combinations of papers examined were those held in the Oriental Collection. There are five Javanese manuscripts in the Oriental Collection which are written in different combination of papers. Four of them are written in Javanese and European papers, and one in English and Dutch paper. It appears that the manuscript from B. Quaritch collection, i.e., Add.18397, written in
84 Javanese and European paper, is the only one using an Old Javanese language script, whilst the other four manuscripts from Crawfurd's collection are written in Javanese language script. There are two manuscripts which were taken as example and examined directly, namely Add.12333 and Add.18397. Both manuscripts are grouped in category Ill.
The manuscript with the call number Add.12333 was given the title 'Historical Tracts' on its cover. It is divided into three volumes, the first volume is written on English paper. The second volume is written on Dutch paper. The third volume is again written on English paper (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve, 1977). The first volume is entitled 'Serat Sejarah Demak' which consists of twenty-six verses. The second volume, entitled 'Serat Kuntara', is a legal text, consisting of five verses. The third vOlume is given the ti tIe, 'Serat panj i Kuda Narawangsa', and consists of thirty-five verses. The manuscript comprises one hundred and twenty six folios. The edges are still in good condition. There is no signs of stains on its edges. The surface of the English paper is indented along the margin, whilst the Dutch paper has a plain surface. The manuscript is written in a small and artistic style of writing, using a dark black to light black ink. There is no sign of damage on the text as well as on the paper. The binding appears to be in good condition. It has light brown leather, decorated in an Islamic style of decoration which is blind stamped. The spine has a flat form of
85 spine. There is no sign of damage and stains on the paper, the text, and on its binding.
The manuscript with the call number Add .18397, which is known by the title, 'Layang Wiwaha', is the one which was purchased from B. Quaritch. The text, which is said to be incomplete, is written in Old Javanese language with a
Modern Javanese interpretation (Ricklefs and Voorhoeve,
1977). It is written in the form of verse, consisting of six verses. The manuscript has thirty-eight folios, Javanese and European papers are used in this manuscript. Both types of papers have a textured and non-glossy surface. The Javanese paper, which has cream to light brown colour, is used for the flyleaf and the endpapers.
The European paper, which has a white colour, is used to write the text. The surface of the paper is indented to mark along the margins. It seems that the edges are in good condition. The ink of the text appears to be in a stable condition. It is written with very artistic style, in clear handwriting which was written in different sizes.
There is no sign of previous repair on the paper.
Meanwhile, the manuscript was bound in a characteristic light brown leather binding with a flap in order to close and open the manuscript. The cover of the binding is decorated with Islamic style of decoration with artistic blind stamped ornamental carving. This manuscript, which is distinctive by its characteristic binding, also has no sign of damage on its paper or text.
86 3.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
After examining all of the manuscripts above, there are several points which can be concluded as follows:
3.4.1. Both of the copper-plate manuscripts in the
Oriental Collection as well as in the India Office Library have the same condition. They are both at risk of loosing the text. Nevertheless, deterioration of the copper-plates in the Oriental Collection had already been minimised by preserving the materials in a special case.
3.4.2. The number of palm-leaf manuscripts in the Oriental
Collection that still remain in good condition is very small compared with those that are already deteriorating.
Treatment of the cracking, unblacking ink, stains, and small signs of dirt and soil were minor by providing them with necessary materials, i.e., calico cloth and Perspex.
In comparison, with those palm-leaf manuscripts that are kept in the India Office Library, almost all of them are in bad condition. Moreover, it seems that less attention had been given to these manuscripts. As has been explained previously, according to Agrawal, before the leaves were written, usually those tender palm-leaves were left to hang for several days in the kitchen to let the smoke which was emitted from the kitchen dry the leaves, which then were
87 cleaned. However, the present study has observed the sign of 'too much exposure to smoke' in the palm-leaf manuscripts held in the India Office Library. As previously mentioned, this has ~esulted in soiled leaves, unblackened script, broken leaves. Another interesting thing to mention is that one or two palm-leaf manuscripts had been given a particular case, like the manuscript from
Grenville's collection. It can be assumed that there was no particular reason to create a special case for these palm leaf manuscripts. Presumably, it was done from an artistic point of view. Another point to be considered is that the
Perspex used in each palm-leaf manuscripts seems to be not sufficient to keep the palm-leaves on one manuscript in a strong position.
3.4.3 In all the paper manuscripts that were examined in the Oriental Collection, the number of manuscripts that are still in good condition proved to be higher than those in the India Office Library. This can particularly be seen in manuscripts written on English and European paper. Only one out of those twenty-one paper manuscripts in the Oriental
Collection which were examined directly was discovered to have been treated extensively. The most interesting thing to examine was the illustration of the manuscripts, besides studying the paper, text and content of each manuscript.
Many of the manuscripts written in English as well as on
European paper are illuminated with decoration. Illustrated
88 manuscripts were also found in several manuscripts with dluwang Javanese paper. The distinguished illustration can be seen through the golden colour ink, which also ornamented the text itself. An examination of the binding of each manuscript lead to a conclusion not only on the condi tion of each manuscript, but also on the style of decoration between one manuscript with the other. Apart from that, judging by the given title on the cover binding of each manuscript, which are sometimes given the English translated titles, it can be assumed that the binding was not the original one. Presumably the binding was done at the order of the collector, after having acquired the manuscripts.
3.4.4 The problem of most of the materials are stains and dirt, and are summarised as follows:
3.4.4.1 On examining the copper plate, the stains and dirt are caused by oxidation through the air which cover the surface of the copper with coloured stains and could endanger the existence of the text.
3.4.4.2 On examining the leaf and bamboo, the stains resulted from dampness, flood and even exposure to smoke.
The leaves are becoming brittle and damaged because of the cracking and breakage through friction between the leaves especially when the leaves themselves are very thin.
89 3.4.4.3 On examining the paper manuscripts, stains and dirt on the paper are caused by finger mark, the nature of the paper itself, mud resulting from a flood and, furthermore, the paper is also at risk of insect damage which will not only damage the paper and the binding but also the content of the text. As a matter of fact, the ink used to write the text or even the pigment which was used to draw the illustration can also cause the paper to become damaged. The bindings of the manuscripts are usually worn because of heavy use, insect damage, and exposure to heat.
3.4.5 The problem encountered when examining and categorising the materials directly is the varying condition of each manuscript. Examination of each type of manuscript should be conducted at one time as a whole so as to be able to compare the condition of one manuscript with the other. This was not possible in this survey, since only a limited number of manuscripts can be taken for examination for security reasons. Consistency in categorizing the manuscripts is, therefore, important when examining the manuscripts.
3.4.6 The overall picture described in this Chapter is presented in tabular form in Appendix 2.
90 CHAPTER 4
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS : TABULAR PRESENTATIONS AND ANALYSIS OF OBSERVED PHYSICAL CONDITION AND POSSIBLE AFFECTING FACTORS
In most of the tables constructed for this Chapter, the physical condition of the observed manuscripts is presented according to the possible affecting factors, such as types of material, institutes of origin, dates of publishing, etc. All tables are derived from the master table presented as Appendix 2.
The criteria used to categorise the physical condition of the manuscripts under study is repeatedly formulated as follows:
Category I: Manuscript with severe damage on the cover, on the materials themselves, and/or on the text, which may be caused by the works of one or more agents.
Category 11: Manuscript with slight damage on the cover, the materials and/or on the text.
Category Ill: Manuscript with no signs of damage at all. This includes manuscripts Which had been given treatment.
Category IV: All manuscripts which have been given conservation treatment, such as being kept in a case, or covered with special cloth; and minor repair of the material itself.
91 Category V: Manuscripts which had been duplicated either in the form of microfilm or in another or same type of material, either copper-plate, palm leaf or various paper manuscripts. Although the duplication might not have been for the sake of conservation purposes, at least these duplications have contributed to conserving the contents of the information.
4.1 OBSERVED PHYSICAL CONDITION OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF PHYSICAL DAMAGE SUFFERED
TABLE 5 CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL DAMAGE OBSERVED
r".cn'Y II III TOrAL I IV V 9JB-rorAL II IV V SlB-1Ul'AL III IV V ....rorAL 30 14 3 '7 , 0 '0 , 2 2 - , 75 (63. S%) (29.7'%.) (6.3%) ( 100'%.) (11 1 .6'%.) (~,. 6',1;) ( 16.6,,) ( "100%) (50',(,) (50S) - ( lQOS)
(62.6'%.) ( 32'.4) (5.3%) (100%)
On comparing those manuscripts in Categories I, 11 and Ill, Table 5 shows clearly that, of all the manuscripts observed, more than half, i.e., 62.6%, are classified in category I, whilst 32% are observed to be in Category 11, and only a very small number of manuscripts, i.e., 5.3%, can be considered to be in category Ill. This means that, in general, the condition of the observed manuscripts is poor as only four of 92 the manuscripts are in good condition.
Amongst seventy-five manuscripts examined, only twenty-six manuscripts (34.6%) have received conservation treatment (Category IV). And there are seven manuscripts (9.3%) which have been duplicated (Category V). The details of the percentages of these manuscripts can be seen in Table 5.
Table 5 shows also that most of the manuscripts of Category I, i.e, 63.8%, have never received any conservation treatment; while 41.6% and 50% of Categories II and Ill, respectively, have received it.
In addition, these facts suggest that the treatment received, especially by manuscripts in categories I and II, . did not resul t in the promotion of the physical condition of the related manuscripts to Categories II and Ill, respectively. This is not surprising since, as stated in Chapter 1, the conservation policy adhered to by British Library is one of minor intervention, aiming at preventing further damage only and to keep the manuscripts as close as possible to the original ones, but not promoting the condition. The treatment observed by the present study was as minimum as putting the damaged manuscripts into the box, especially for copper-plate, and covering with calico cloth, especially for palm-leaf manuscripts, and repairing or giving a new binding.
Many of those manuscripts in category I which had received treatment are palm-leaf manuscripts. They had been given cloth to cover and Perspex to avoid friction between the leaves. There was also one copper-plate which is in poor condition but is already protected in a case. Two of the paper manuscripts also belonged to this category (poor condi tion), although there were signs of repair on the binding and on one of the folios.
93 Many of the manuscripts in Category II which had received treatment consist of eight palm-leaf and two paper manuscripts. The palm-leaves were given cover with calico cloth and given Perspex, whilst the paper manuscripts were repaired on the end paper, flyleaf and the other on the hinge. Those repaired manuscripts in category III consisted of one palm-leaf manuscript which has no sign of damage and had been given cover with a similar material, as above, and another paper manuscript had been given a new binding, endboards, endpapers and a repaired flyleaf (see Appendix 2).
4.2 OBSERVED PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS ACCORDING TO THE POSSIBLE AGENTS
TABLE 6 .CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL DAMAGE AND POSSIBLE DAMAGING AGENTS OBSERVED
"EGORY ACENT In .. 117 (100%) Un .. 21& (100%) Illn = 11 (lQO%) . ,iaHx,,, , • " Haa., 15 - 62 '8 CHEMICAL (100%)" (62. 5~) (8l1.9%) ( 75'.4) - 8 4 BIOLOGICAL (8.5%)• ( 16.6'10)• ('0.9%) (16.6% ) 28 '8 46 PHYSICAL - (59.5%) OS%) (63'.4) .145.'"" 5 - 5 5 UNIDENTIfIED - (20.8'10) (6.8%) (20.8'.4)
The sub-total numbers of manuscripts in each category in Table 6 are bigger than those shown in Table 5. This incongruity is because the physical condition of one manuscript may result from the work of more than one type of agent.
Since Category III is for manuscripts which were in good condition, there are no possible affecting damage agents found 94 in this Category.
Two manuscripts from Category IV are in good condition, they are not affected by any damaging agents. Thus, there are only twenty-four manuscripts in this Category IV. Accordingly, the total number of manuscripts in this table is seventy-three.
Five of the manuscripts classified in Category 11 were not thoroughly examined. As a result, the present study was not able to identify their possible damaging agents.
Table 6 shows that out of the three agents which cause problems to the manuscripts observed, chemical agents are the most prominent agents for the examined manuscripts as a whole. Out of a total of seventy-three manuscripts observed, 84.9% were damaged by chemical agents, 63% by physical agents, and only 10.9% by biological agents.
The very little damaging effect of biological agents may be because problems resulting from this agent are more likely to occur in the tropical rather than the non-tropical climate. The physical agents in here may be manifested in the form of careless use or insufficient storage; and the chemical agents are concerned with the provision and balance of moisture in each manuscript as well as in the air.
On comparing the works of the damaging agents in different categories, Table 6 shows that chemical agents were not the most prominent damaging agents for the manuscripts of Category 11. In this category, physical agents (75%) played a more damaging role.
The types of materials which belonged to Category I, 11, III and IV can be seen in Table 7; and the damaging agents which cause problems to them can be observed in Table 8.
95 4.3 OBSERVED PHYSICAL CONDITION OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS ACCORDING TO THE TYPES OF MATERIALS
TABLE 7 CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL DAMAGE AND TYPES OF MATERIALS
C ATEGORY TYPES OF I TOTAL IV MATERIALS II III
2 - - 2 , Copper-plat.e ( lQO".') (100") (50") 3B B' , 47 Palm-leaf (80.8,,) ( 17") (2.'".' ) (, QO") (iI 0.4,,)" 7 , Paper 3 2' (26.9'-'> (61.5',..," (11. 5") ( 1001d (23.'" )
* 5 palm-leaf manuscripts were not examined thoroughly
TABLE 8 CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL DAMAGE. THE DAMAGING AGENTS AND THE TYPES OF MATERIALS
TYPES Of
MAll.ru.AL I II n SUB CHEH SIO PHlS I T~¥~1 CHEM SIO PHlS CHEM SIO PHlS SUB 2 "'-- - - I - - - - - "~,,. - "ol., - I " ' ,., ""~ I ,.loB". "Ie-. , "P•. ld~" f (00<1 "L., "t ,., ,,3;0<1 ,';. f 1O~'" ",'. " , ,,'~o<, I "lo., I (lJn,;, ,,~,., """" "f. " f"~'" fH.· ,,'80" <'ioo., f~'.6<' '" 2,., fAt ,., I "\0"
* 5 palm-leaf manuscripts were not examined thoroughly
Table 7 shows the physical condition of each type of material. Copper-plate has the highest percentage of manuscripts. i.e. 100%. which are in poor condition (Category I) compared with
96 palm-leaf manuscripts, i.e. 80.8%, and paper manuscripts which are only 26.9%. However, there were only two copper-plate manuscripts in the British Library.
Most of the paper manuscripts, i.e., 61. 5% were only suffering from slight damage (Category 11). Nevertheless, it must also be remembered that the paper manuscripts taken as sample consist only of a small part from all of the paper manuscripts available in the two institutions under study.
In addition, the percentage of the manuscripts which had already been given conservation treatment can be said to be high as well (see Table 7). One out of two copper-plate manuscripts observed had already been given treatment, as well as 40.4% of the palm leaf manuscripts.
Table 8 shows the possible damaging agents which contributed to the physical condition of each type of material.
Those manuscripts in Category I, including copper-plate, palm leaf and paper manuscripts, all of them (100%) experienced the effect of chemical agents on their physical condition. In addi tion, most of the palm-leaf (57.8%) and paper (86.7%) manuscripts in Category I were also damaged by physical agents.
Manuscripts examined in Category 11 consist of palm-leaf and paper manuscripts only. For palm-leaf manuscripts examined, chemical agents play the most important role (100%), whilst for paper manuscripts, it is physical agents (100%).
97 4.4 OBSERVED PHYSICAL CONDITION OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS ACCORDING TO THE ORIGINAL INSTITUTION
The first thing to notice when comparing between the manuscripts in the Oriental Collection and the India Office Library is that the number of manuscripts observed in the Oriental Collection are bigger than those of the India Office Library.
TABLE 9 CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL DAMAGE AND THE ORIGINAL INSTITUTION
INSTITUTION CATEGORY I II III TOTAL IV ORIENTAL 14 24 4 42 25 COLLECTION (33.3%) (57.1%) (9.5%) (100%) (59.5%) INDIA OFFICE 33 - - 33 1 LIBRARY (100%) (100%) (3%)
The proportion of manuscripts Which are in poor condition (Category I) in the India Office Library was bigger than those in the Oriental Collection, 1. e. , 100% and 33.3%, respectively. The manuscripts observed in the India Office Library were all in poor condition. On the other hand, most of the manuscripts in the Oriental Collection, i.e., 57.1%, are in better condition (Category 11).
The last thing to note here is that, of those manuscripts which are in the Oriental Collection, more than half of them, i.e., 59.5%, had been given treatment, compared to those in the India Office Library which is only one manuscript, i.e., 3% (see Table 9). The above result may be partly due to the
98 difference in storage handling systems in these two institutions (see Chapter 5).
4.5 OBSERVED PHYSICAL CONDITION OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS WITH ILLUSTRATION (22 MANUSCRIPTS) ACCORDING TO THE TYPES OF MATERIALS
TABLE 10 CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL DAMAGE OF THE EXAMINED ILLUSTRATED MANUSCRIPTS
CATEGORY TYPES OF MATERIALS I II III IV Copper - - - - Palm-leaf 5 - -- n=5 (100%) (100%)
Paper 5 12 4 n=17 (100%) (70.5%) - (23.5%) (100%) TOTAL 10 12 - 4 n=22 (45.4%) (54.5%) (18.1%) (100%)
Table 10 shows in detail the condition of the examined illustrated manuscripts available in both institutions.
There were twenty-two illustrated manuscripts that were examined in the present study. In general, the percentage of
99 these illustrated manuscripts belonged to Category 11 (54.5%) is higher than those of Category I (45.4%).
None of the illustrated palm-leaf manuscripts examined had ever received any conservation treatment, whilst there were four (23.5%) of the illustrated paper manuscripts examined which had been treated.
Among the fifty-three manuscripts which are not illustrated, there were thirty-seven (69.8%) which were classified in Category I, and twelve (22.6%) which were in Category 11, and only four (7.5%) were in category Ill. Thus, the condition of the illustrated manuscripts observed in this survey is better than those which are not illuminated.
4.6 OBSERVED PHYSICAL CONDITION OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS ACCORDING TO THE COLLECTORS
TABLE 11 CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL DAMAGE AND THE COLLECTORS OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS
CATEGORY COLLECTORS I Il III TOTAL IV Raffles 2 - - 2 - (100%) (100%>
Sloane 5 3 - 8 7 (62.5%) (37.5% ) (100%) (87.5%)
Crawfurd 19 1 2. 11 (23%)• (73%) (3.8% ) (100%> (42.3\)
Mackenzie 30 30 1 (100%) - (100%) (3.3%) 3 Others & 4 2 (33.3%) 9 7 Unknown (44.4% ) (22.2%) (l00% ) (77.7\)
TOTAL 47 24 4 75 2~ (100% )
100 Table 11 points out the condition of those observed manuscripts according to the collectors. Of the seventy-five manuscripts observed, those manuscripts from Mackenzie's collection were the biggest. Unfortunately, all of them, i.e., 100%, are in poor condition (Category I). Most of them consist of palm-leaf manuscripts (see Appendix 2). Raffles's collection, which consists of only two manuscripts, also has a higher percentage of manuscripts belonging to Category I (100%) .
The other collection which has also a high percentage of manuscripts classified in Category I is Sloane's collection, i.e., 62.5%. Surprisingly, Sloane's collection is the only collection with a high percentage of manuscripts which have been given treatment, i.e., 87.5%.
4.7 CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL CONDITION OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS ACCORDING TO THE DATE OF PUBLISHING
Table 12 shows that the manuscripts of the 10th and 16th centuries have the highest percentage of manuscripts which were classified in Category I, but it must be remembered that the quantity of manuscripts in these periods is small (only one). Thus, it cannot be concluded that all of the oldest manuscripts are in poor condition.
Other manuscripts with high percentage of manuscripts classified in category I are those of the 18th and 19th centuries, i.e., 50% and 67.2%, respectively.
The only manuscripts with a high percentage of manuscripts classified in category 11 are those from the 17th century, but the number of manuscripts is only two.
101 As a matter of fact, it should be remembered that not all of the information on the date of publishing is known; thus, the classification was carried out roughly, namely according to the history of its collectors.
TABLE 12
CATEGORIES OF PHYSICAL CONDITION AND DATE OF PUBLISHING
CATEGORY DATE OF PUBLISHING I Il III TOTAL IV 10th century 1 - - 1 - (100%) (100%) 16th century 1 1 - 1 1 (100%) (100%) (100%) 17th century - 2 - 2 1 (100%) (100%) (50%) 18th century 6 6 - 12 7 (50%) (50%) (100%) (58.3%)
19th century 37 15 3 55 13 (67.2%) (27.3%) (5.45%) (100%) (23.6%)
20th century 1 1 1 3 3 (33.3%) (27.3%) (33.3%) (100%) (100%) Unknown 1 1 - 1 1 period (100%) (33.3%) (100%) (100%)
TOTAL 47 24 4 75 26
102 4.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS
This Chapter tries to give a tabular picture of the physical condition of the manuscripts observed according to the possible affecting factors.
The discussions suggest that, in general, the manuscripts under study are in poor physical condition (Category I) and hence require immediate treatment; and most of them belong to the India Office Library. Almost all of the time, chemical agents were found to be the most damaging agents.
103 CHAPTER 5
STORAGE HANDLING OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS IN THE ORIENTAL COLLECTION AND INDIA OFFICE LIBRARY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Correct storage conditions may prevent library materials
from further damage. Javanese manuscripts which consist of
valuable documents of different types of materials are made
out of organiC materials which are perishable. However,
this process may be slowed down, namely by providing
appropriate storage conditions.
No matter how well the conservation treatment towards each
type of materials has been conducted, and howsoever
sophisticated the treatment that has been carried out, if
the material is not then stored in the correct way, every
effort of the treatment will be useless, since the material will perish after all.
Every type of material needs different storage conditions.
Many experts have written books and articles on how the
storage of manuscripts should be carried out. One of which
amongst the textbooks that can be used as a guide is The principles for the Preservation and Conservation of Library
104 Materials, written by J. M. Dureau and D. W. G. Clements
(1986), which gives a general approach with regard to the nature and objectives of preservation and conservation work of library materials.
O. P. Agrawal's (1984) textbook describes clearly the storage and handling and keeping of manuscripts including palm-leaf and paper. Another good preservation and conservation literature is the textbook Museum Environment, by Garry Thomson (1986) which describes the logic of conservation, its measurements and tools. It is concerned mainly with the problem of light, humidity and air pollution and the way to reduce the damage of materials.
In this Chapter, discussions focus on three aspects mainly concerning storage handling. First, the storage and accommodation of the manuscripts; second, the security of the collection; and third, issues regarding the use of the collection. The storage handling of both institutions will be discussed from these three points of view.
5.2 STORAGE HANDLING OF MANUSCRIPTS IN THE ORIENTAL COLLECTION
The storage room of the Oriental Collection, having been merged into one building with the India Office Library recently, has a new storage room, which is situated on the
105 second floor connected with the reading room. The Oriental Collection has two storage rooms, one of which is for printed materials and the other for manuscript storing. The storage room for manuscripts is situated behind the printed materials section. Paper manuscripts, palm-leaf manuscripts, and copper-plate manuscripts are stored separately in another room.
The paper manuscripts are kept in a special cupboard with a special lock, named Abloy for security reasons.
The way that the manuscripts are arranged is according to the size of the books, starting from: A is for the smaller size; B is the medium size; and C is the biggest size, and also the oversize or special manuscripts.
The way that they are stored is in numerical order. Nevertheless, there are some which are considered as main or special collections such as Sloane. Manuscripts from
Sir Hans Sloane's collection are all numbered by the name
Sloane. These manuscripts are put at the beginning of the order.
Following are the Additional, namely abbreviated Add •• There are roughly about 20,700 manuscripts with this number system. These manuscripts are not organised by language but they are all numbered sequentially each time, whenever the library bought a manuscript.
106 It is important to mention that before the Department of
Oriental Manuscripts was created, all of the English, French and Oriental manuscripts were numbered within one numerical Additional. Afterwards, when the Department of Oriental Manuscripts was established alone, they began to start a new sequence Or. number. All of the manuscripts with this number were acquired in recent years, this year and the last year. It is said that there are about 15,000 manuscripts. Thus, each of the manuscripts that have been purchased is given the number with a strict sequence. Unless the library bought or acquired a collection from one person like Crawfurd, then this collection will be placed in one room.
It is worth mentioning here that, since it is not an open access area, the manuscripts in different languages being mixed up will not really matter. The important thing is that each manuscript has a unique number.
The manuscripts in the Oriental Collection that were previously in the British Museum are traditionally being very well locked in a cabinet and using a special lock, called the Abloy lock, as has been mentioned before. By using that lock, it gives extra security. When the lock has been unlocked from the cabinet, it cannot be taken out again without it locking back again. The cabinet must always be locked first in order to release the lock.
107 Different sizes of manuscripts are stored separately because it is difficult to store them in one place. The manuscripts with the same size are stored in one section and given the number to the language.
In the case of palm-leaf as well as of bamboo manuscripts, they are placed in a purpose-built cabinet. They are all wrapped in calico cloth. On the cloth is written not only the manuscript number but also the location number, which will tell where the manuscripts are located. They are put in numerical order. They are all placed one over another without any pressure.
The temperature and humidity of the room is well controlled and adjusted every week. The light in the room is always left off when not used.
5.3 STORAGE HANDLING IN THE INDIA OFFICE
The India Office Library, having been used as a Public
Record Office, seems to be more neglected than the Oriental
Collection.
Situated on the fourth floor, the room is not renovated on the outside and seems smaller than the Oriental Collection.
Light can be seen through the window. The room is air- conditioned. Nevertheless, the room still has a damp atmosphere.
108 The cupboards are in an appalling condition. Most of the
Oriental manuscripts, including Javanese manuscripts, are not in locked cupboards: they are just placed on an open wooden shelf. This shows already one level of security less.
The condition of the books is much worse. No bound or boxed manuscripts can be seen. It seems that they are all out of order and not well handled. They seem not to be arranged. The bindings of most of the books have been broken and damaged and left as they were. Oversize manuscripts are left in an insecure place which can be knocked down easily. The bindings of many of the books have been broken.
The palm-leaf manuscripts are left in one open cupboard on
the bottom shelf. They are put in one box together. Most of the manuscripts kept there are in a terrible state. On the other hand, it is perhaps advantageous to study the original binding, so as to know the traditional way of binding.
In general, the quality of conservation of the manuscripts
is poorer when compared with the Oriental Collection. Many of them are stamped with big India Office marks which use
a very acidic ink which comes through the paper.
109 5.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Since the present study found that most of the damage is caused by chemical agents and physical agents,
respectively, this subsection will try to evaluate the
above-mentioned storage handling in both institutions,
based on the principles formulated by Clements (1986),
focusing on the storage handling methods which can
contribute most to the prevention of the chemical and
physical damages. These are as follows:
1. Temperature and Humidity:
'Correct and satisfactory level of temperature and relative
humidi ty is important for the long-term storage of the
manuscripts, since it has a long lasting impact on their
preservation. The sui table suggested temperature ranges
from l6 0 C to 2loC and the relative humidity between 40% and
60% (Clements, 1986). To control both the relative
humidi ty in the air, and the level of temperature, air
conditioning is the only answer. Both institutions had
used air conditioning for their storage rooms.
One important thing to be remembered here is that low
humidity will make the manuscripts less flexible, since
when the moisture (chemical agents) is taken away, the
fibres become easily broken, such as can be found in
organic products of paper, leather, palm-leaf, whilst high
humidi ty will encourage the growth of moulds and fungi
110 (biological agents).
Apart from that, fluctuation of humidity levels can cause cracking and distortion of manuscripts as well. Therefore, careful attention should be given when removing manuscripts from the storage room to the reading room. Special reading rooms with suitable temperature and relative humidity for special and rare manuscripts should be provided. One such reading room has already existed for the users of both institutions.
2. Light. All organic materials are at risk when exposed to light since light is a form of energy, and chemical reaction, a chemical decomposition, which may absorb energy and destroy the manuscripts (Thomson, 1986).
The control of light in the storage room of the Oriental Collection is very well kept at a minimum level. The room is always kept dark, no presence of light through the window can be seen. On the contrary, the one in the India Office has daylight coming through the side windows, and although it does not fall directly onto the manuscripts, they have been given shades. The room is never kept extremely dark.
The effect of exposure to light may be seen in signs of cracking on the surface of the palm-leaf or on the surface of the leather of the paper manuscripts, unblackened script of the copper-plate and the palm-leaves.
III 3. 11ir Polluti.on: By this is meant various gaseous pollutants to dust, which can cause damage to paper and other organic materials (Clements,1986). This is likely to be considerable or significant since the position of the building of both institutions are in the vicinity of several large chimneys (which cause dust) and the burning of fuels (which cause gaseous pollutants).
Apparently, this can be controlled by air filtration of full ducted air-conditioning (Clements, 1986) which in both institutions have already been used.
4. Dust and Cleanli.ness: Dust can damage the materials especially when it contains gaseous pollutants from the air (Clements, 1986). Full air-conditioning is the only right answer for cleanliness and prevention from dust, and this has already been provided in both institutions.
5. storage Hateri.als and Equi.pment: Appropriate storage materials and equipment should suit to house and accommodate the manuscript collections in their proper position as well as to prevent them from dust, damage and mishandling (Clements, 1986).
Several points of suggestion can be summarised as follows: a. Different sizes of manuscripts should not be put together in order to prevent damage to the manuscripts themselves and their neighbours, when moving the manuscripts from storage accommodation to reading rooms.
This point has already been practised in the Oriental
112 Collection. On the other hand, the manuscripts in the India Office Library are not arranged properly. b. Cabinets should be used in order to exclude dust and reduce fluctutations in humidity level.
The Oriental Collection has undergone this suggestion, but the India Office Library are only provided with simple wooden shelves. c. Well designed manuscript equipment should be used, such as shelving, reading desks and surfaces for consul tation free from sharp edges, well designed manuscript supports, cushioned or padded book trollies, reading stands which will not injure the manuscripts, and shelves which are far enough from the floor in the event of flooding and for cleaning the floor.
The use of good storage materials has already been conducted properly in the Oriental Collection, whilst in the India Office Library, the shelves are still at risk from sharp edges, there are no manuscript supports available and the distance of the lowest shelves is still too close to the floor.
The reading rooms of both institutions which are merged into one big room is provided with well designed stands for manuscript reading and the trollies are cushioned and padded.
Lack of accommodating these storage materials and equipment properly may cause possible physical agent damage to the manuscripts.
6. Buildings: The present building does not suit the requirements of a
113 good library building from the point of view of the furbishing materials and materials used for furniture including shelving and lighting (Clements, 1986).
The Oriental and India Office Collection, as part of the British Library, will be unified in one new building of the British Library in St Pancras, London, in 1993.
7. Security of the CoLLection: Both institutions have a closed access system which shows one level of security more. Readers are not authorised to enter the storage room. Manuscript cabinets in the Oriental Collection are well provided with security locks, which cannot be found and practised in the India Office Library.
Readers are checked on entering and leaving the reading room. All of these security matters are in accordance with what has been stated by elements (Clements, 1986).
8. Use of the CoLLection: To prevent damage, the use of Javanese manuscripts which can be ordered out from the storage room in both institutions is restricted up to a certain number only.
In these institutions, the use of Javanese manuscripts, however, need not be done in the special reading room. The users are allowed to use the general reading room, even though according to Clements (1986, p. 16):
Rare and precious library materials may need to be under separate and adequate supervision with the provision of separate reading rooms ..••
The users in the reading room are only allowed to use pencils.
114 In both institutions, manuscripts are transferred from one place to another, by hand and trollies. For this, an extra and careful attention and training should still be given to the library staff.
All of this is in line with what has been suggested by Clements.
Should these matters above be carelessly neglected, possible damage caused by physical agents is likely to occur.
In summary, the above discussion implies that:
The condition of the storage room, in particular, the temperature and humidity, light, air pollution and dust; may cause chemical damage to the manuscripts. Meanwhile, the storage material and equipment, along with the security matters and the control of the use of the collection, if not carefully given attention, may lead to physical damage to the manuscripts.
In general, the condition of the storage and accommodation of library materials including the security issues in the Oriental Collection can be said to be more satisfactory when compared with the India Office Library.
In both institutions Javanese manuscripts should be treated as rare and precious manuscripts. This means they need to be used in special reading rooms. The India Office Library should pay attention to several factors, namely, the temperature and humidity, the light, the dust, the storage materials and equipment, the security factors.
115 CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In summary, there are three factors which have prompted the conduct of the present study, namely:
1. The importance of Javanese manuscripts as cultural heritage as well as subjects and sources of research.
2. The significant collection of Javanese manuscripts available in the British Library.
3. The lack of studies concerning the physical condition of Javanese manuscripts which may benefit preservation and conservation of the manuscripts.
This research is a preliminary study of which the general objective is to examine the physical condition of Javanese manuscripts from the preservation and conservation pOint of view.
The specific objective of this study is to explore possible factors affecting the physical condition of the manuscript, namely by:
1. examining the following:
a. degree of physical damage suffered;
b. possible agents, 1. e., chemical, biological and
116 physical, causing the observed physical condition of the manuscripts;
c. the types of material;
d. the institutions where the manuscripts are kept;
e. the existence of illustration;
f. the collectors of the manuscripts;
g. the publishing date or otherwise acquisition date.
2. exploring the storage handling of the manuscripts.
This study was carried out in the Oriental and India Office Collection, the British Library. seventy-five (30.9%) of Javanese manuscripts from both insti tutions were chosen as samples. Stratified and purposive random sampling method were used for choosing this sample.
The Javanese manuscripts examined consist of 2 (100%) copper plate, 47 (100%) palm-leaf and 26 (13.4%) paper manuscripts.
A modification and combination of McCranck' s (1984) and Agrawal's (1984) forms were used to gather data on the physical condition of the manuscripts (see Appendix 1).
The overall condition of these manuscripts was grouped according to five categories. Category I, 11 and III is a continuum concerning the physical condition ranging from the poor (Category I) to the good condition ( Category II I ) • Category IV is for manuscripts which have received treatment, and Category V is for manuscripts which have been reproduced.
117 These criteria for evaluating the physical condition of manuscripts under study were a slight modification of those developed by Wright and Yurkiw (1986).
Interviews and observations were conducted in order to gather information on the storage handling of the manuscripts.
The results show that, in general, the manuscripts under study are in poor condition (Category I) and hence require immediate treatment. However, the present study found that only less than 30% of the manuscripts of Category I have ever received treatment. And only less than 10% had been reproduced (duplicated) •
Most of the Category I manuscripts belong to the India Office Library. This study also discovered that almost all of the time, chemical agents were found to be the most damaging agents.
The research found also that the condition of the storage and accommodation of library materials including the security issues in the Oriental Collection can be said to be more satisfying when compared with the India Office Library.
To conclude, although the present study is still far from complete and thorough, its result may provide the British Library with information which is useful for its systematic and effective action of preventing and conserving the manuscripts and even for conducting a further study.
6.2 RECOMMENDATION
Taking into account the result of the study summarised above, the following recommendations for further studies are
118 proposed.
Further studies on Javanese manuscripts should include all Javanese manuscripts available in the British Library. Comparisons wi th Javanese manuscripts held in other institutions in Great Britain, Netherlands, or even Indonesia, are worth undertaking.
Further examination should be conducted in more detail and concentrated on identifying not only the damage and the causes but also the proper treatment.
Further research on these Javanese manuscripts should not only focus on the physical condition but also on the artistic point of view of the illustration as well as the cover; the script of the manuscript; the historical background of the manuscript, such as the chronological acquisition, and how each of them was made, so as to understand the traditional or conventional method of making them. All of these matters may explain the causes of the physical condition.
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SUTTON, S. C., C. B. E. (1967). A guide to the India Office Library: with a note on the India's Office records. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
THOMSON, G. (1986). The museum environment (2nd edition). London: Butterworths.
WILLIAMS, E. E. (1978). Deterioration of library collections today. In: (J. P. Baker and M. C. Soroka,
125 eds.) Library Conservation, Preservation in perspective. Stroudsburg: Dowden, Hutchinson & Roos, Inc.
WRIGHT, S. and YURKIW, P. (1986). 'The collections survey in the federal archives and manuscript divisions of the public archives of Canada: a progress report on conservation program planning'. Archivaria, 22, 58-74.
126 APPENDIX 1
FORM FOR EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL CONDITION OF JAVANESE MANUSCRIPTS
1. Institution: 2. Call Number:
3. Type of Material: 4. Collector: 5. Acquisition Date: 6. Date of Publication (if any):
7. Physical Condition (~ if appropriate): 7.1 Binding (not applicable for copper-plate manuscripts):
7.1.1 Construction:
7.1.1.1 Format:
- bound - not bound 7.1.1.2 Cover: - leather - wooden board 7.1.1.3 Spine
- concave - convex - adhesive - sewn - staple 7.1. 2 Condition Evaluation: - sewing/adhesive/staple deterioration - cleavage of endpaper - stains, soiled, dirt - chemical damage - biological damage - physical damage
7.2 Pages or sheets:
- stains, soiled, dirt - splits in the surface - cleavage of surface layer - brittleness - loss - worn edges - signs of repair - chemical damage - biological damage - physical damage
7.3 Texts:
- stains, soiled, dirt - splits in the surface - cleavage of surface layer - brittleness - loss - fading ink - smeared ink - signs of repair - chemical damage - biological damage - physical damage
7.4 Illustrations (describe as appropriate):
- location - number of pages - paint, colour - chemical damage - biological damage - physical damage
7.5 Reproduction:
7.6 General Condition:
- category 1 - category 2 - category 3 - category 4 - category 5
8. Abstract:
us • • APPENJ)iX2
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