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A Far Greater Prize Than Vietnam A Far Greater Prize Than Vietnam U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Indonesia in the Era of Vietnam (1961-1967) University of Amsterdam Graduate School of Humanities Institute for History, Archaeology, and Region Studies Master Dissertation History of International Relations June 2015 Chea Goossen Vincent[Datum] Goossen (10310835) 1 A Far Greater Prize Than Vietnam. U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Indonesia in the Era of Vietnam (1961-1967) Vincent Goossen COPYRIGHT Attention is drawn to the fact that copyright of this thesis rests with its author. This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognize that its copyright rests with its author and that no quotation from the thesis and no information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. This thesis may be made available for consultation within the University Library and may be photocopied or lent to other libraries for the purpose of consultation. Signed: © Amsterdam and Deventer, June 2015 / University of Amsterdam / Graduate School of Humanities / Institute for History, Archaeology, and Region Studies / Postgraduate dissertation History of International Relations / Thesis promoter: Beerd Beukenhorst, PhD. 2 Indonesia is the best thing that’s happened to Uncle Sam since World War Two. — World Bank official, November 19671 The reversal of the Communist Tide in the great country of Indonesia [is] an event that will probably rank along with the Vietnamese war as perhaps the most historic turning point in Asia of this decade. — Deputy Undersecretary of State U. Alexis Johnson, October 19662 I have a clear conscience. We knew what we were doing. We did what we were doing because we thought it was the right thing to do, and I sleep easy at night knowing that we played the role that we did. — National Security Advisor (1961-1966) McGeorge Bundy3 I think [the Indonesian regime change of 1965-1966] was a momentous moment in world affairs, and I don’t think the press and the public has ever seen it that way. And I don’t think I’m saying this simply because I was there at the time: I think that it was true – that here was what is now the fourth largest nation in the world.... the country is very rich in resources, and it stands astride almost all the seaways in that part of the world: the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, where two oceans meet; enormously strategic…it was about to go communist, and almost did. — U.S. Ambassador to Indonesia Marshall Green (1965-1969), National Security Archive interview, January 15, 19974 1 World Bank official cited in John Pilger, The New Rulers of the World (London: Verso, 2002), 42. 2 U. Alexis Johnson cited in John Roosa, Pretext for mass murder: the 30th September Movement and Suharto’s Coup d’état in Indonesia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), 16. 3 McGeorge Bundy cited in Errol Morris, “The Murders of Gonzago,” Slate, July 10, 2013, available at http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/history/2013/07/the_act_of_killing_essay_how_indonesia_s_mass_killings_could_have_slowed.sin gle.html (accessed July 11, 2013). 4 Marshall Green, National Security Archive Interview, January 1, 1997, available at http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/coldwar/interviews/episode-15/green6.html (accessed March 1, 2014. 3 Contents Map of Southeast Asia 5 Preface / Voorwoord 6 Introduction 8 1. The Kennedy Administration and the Struggle for the Indonesian Mind 27 Towards an Accommodationist Indonesia-Policy 30 Courting Sukarno 37 Resolving the West New Guinea Crisis 41 Moving Forward: An “Action Plan” for Indonesia 53 2. New Challenges on the Horizon: Oil, Aid, and Konfrontasi 67 Action Implementation and Stabilization Efforts 68 The Onset and Escalation of Konfrontasi 78 3. Big Trouble in the Archipelago State: the Johnson Administration Shifts Policy 89 The Revival of the Hard-Line Approach 92 Surviving Indonesia’s “Year of Living Dangerously” 105 4. The Great Bonus of 1965 122 The United States, the September 30th Movement and the Indonesian “Killing Fields” 125 Suharto’s Creeping Coup D’état 138 Securing the Anchor: from Old Order to New Order Indonesia 144 Conclusion: A Far Greater Prize than Vietnam 162 Bibliography 171 4 Map of Southeast Asia Figure 1: Map of Southeast Asia, 1961. 5 Preface / Voorwoord Deze scriptie is veel meer dan alleen de afsluiting van mijn Master Geschiedenis aan de Internationale Betrekkingen aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam. Zij is in zekere zin ook de uitkomst en het slotstuk van mijn Bachelor Geschiedenis aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, mijn studieperiode aan de School of Oriental and African Studies in Londen, en mijn stage op de Nederlandse Ambassade in Washington D.C., alwaar ik mij gedurende vier maanden heb mogen bezighouden met de achtergrond, content en implicaties van de Amerikaanse “pivot” naar de Azië-Stille Oceaan regio, welke in het najaar van 2011 door de Obama-administratie werd aangekondigd. Met het afronden van de scriptie gaat ook een wens in vervulling: het binnenhalen van een masterdiploma die mij de mogelijkheid geeft nieuwe uitdagingen aan te gaan. Het onderwerp van deze scriptie, het Amerikaanse buitenlandbeleid in Indonesië ten tijde van ‘Vietnam’ (1961-1967), kwam beslist niet uit de lucht vallen. Al reeds gedurende mijn tijd in Groningen, en met name na mijn eerste reis door Zuidoost-Azië in de zomer van 2009, raakte ik geïnteresseerd in de geschiedenis en ontwikkeling van deze zo fascinerende, dynamische en cultureel zo gevarieerde regio. Deze interesse heeft mij er rond het jaar 2010 toe gebracht mijn aanvankelijke focus op Duitslandstudies en moderne Europese geschiedenis te verschuiven naar de moderne en contemporaine historie van Zuidoost-Azië, ofwel Zuidoost-Azië studies. De nieuwsgierigheid naar bredere, grensoverschrijdende ontwikkelingen, met name op het vlak van internationale relaties en veiligheid, was er al langere tijd, in ieder geval sinds de middelbare school. De interesse in het Amerikaanse buitenlandbeleid, in het bijzonder in Zuidoost-Azië ten tijde van de Koude Oorlog, werd met name gewekt tijdens mijn perioden in Londen en Amsterdam, alwaar ik colleges volgde over onder meer het Amerikaanse buitenlandbeleid sinds 1776, de rol van de Verenigde Staten in Zuidoost-Azië vanaf de Tweede Wereldoorlog, internationale en regionale perspectieven op de Vietnamoorlogen, en de dieperliggende oorzaken en mogelijke implicaties van de razendsnelle opmars van Azië in zijn geheel. Tijdens mijn studie en het schrijven van mijn scriptie hebben diverse mensen een belangrijke rol vervuld. Allereerst natuurlijk mijn ouders, Johan en Chea, die mij niet alleen de kans gaven te studeren, maar mij tevens, na verscheidene jaren elders te hebben gewoond, een fijn thuis boden waar ik eindelijk de broodnodige rust en concentratie kon hervinden om het stuk af te schrijven. Daarnaast wil ik mijn broer, Martijn, mijn zus, Marjanne, hun beide partners, Karlijn en Pim, en mijn vrienden, Sven, Alex, Gada, Niek en Anouk, bedanken. Zonder hun aanmoedigingen, interesse, aanvullingen en relativerende woorden was afstuderen ongetwijfeld een lastigere klus geweest. Tot slot wil ik uiteraard mijn 6 scriptiebegeleider, Dr. Beerd Beukenhorst, bedanken. Zijn tips, feedback, geduld en vertrouwen in het eindresultaat zijn van begin tot eind uitermate waardevol geweest. Ik wil dit voorwoord graaf afsluiten met een noot over het schrijfproces. Het schrijven van deze scriptie is niet alleen een intellectuele, maar vooral ook persoonlijke uitdaging geweest. Ik ben mijzelf meer dan ooit tevoren meerdere malen tegen gekomen en misschien is het wel om die reden dat het schrijfproces langer heeft geduurd dan aanvankelijk verwacht. Passie voor een bepaald onderwerp, nieuwsgierigheid, perfectionisme, het streven volledig en origineel te zijn: het zijn maar een aantal van de vele belangrijke ingrediënten voor het schrijven van een goed stuk en niet in de laatste plaats voor een scriptie. Echter, zij kunnen op sommige moment even zozeer het schrijfproces in de weg zitten. Misschien is dit wel de belangrijkste les die ik de afgelopen tijd geleerd heb. Vincent Goossen Amsterdam en Deventer, 2015 7 Introduction In the fall 1965, not long after the Johnson administration’s decision to escalate the Vietnam War, a sudden change in political outlook took place in Indonesia. Following an alleged leftist coup-attempt and the murder of six army generals of the Indonesian Army High Command in the early morning of October 1, Commander of the Strategic Reserve (KOSTRAD) General Suharto successfully staged a counter- reaction, crushing the coup-plotters and the Beijing-oriented Communist Party (PKI), the largest communist party outside the “Communist Bloc,” recruited from the world’s fifth largest population, and a formidable but unarmed force in Indonesian politics.5 In the weeks and months that followed, against the backdrop of a brutal purge against the PKI and its suspected sympathizers, resulting in the death of “anywhere between 250,000 and perhaps 800,000” and the arrest of 750,000 more, Suharto limited the powers of the left-leaning President Sukarno.6 On March 12, 1967, having stripped Sukarno of all his remaining powers, the General was appointed president, completing his creeping coup d’état and consolidating the “New Order” regime with himself and the pro-American Indonesian military in the sole seat of power. Instead of “falling” to communism, Indonesia, Southeast Asia’s largest and most populous country, rich of natural resources and strategically located
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