SUB Hamburg

A/550846 •

Third Edition

Colin G. Calloway

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE

BEDFORD/ST. MARTIN'S Boston • New York CONTENTS

PREFACE Hi First Buffalo Hunters of the Plains 24 MAPS, TABLES, AND CHARTS xiii First Farmers of the Southwest 26 Farmers and Mound Builders of the Eastern Woodlands 29 Emerging Tribes and Confederacies 34 Seaborne Strangers 35 INTRODUCTION American Indians in American History 1 DOCUMENTS A Navajo Emergence Story 37 Perspectives on the Past 1 Questions for Consideration 40 HASTIN TLO'TSI HEE, The Beginning 41 America's Master Narrative 2 Corn and Game: Women and Men in Cherokee Indian History: A Shared Past Society 47 Working with Sources 6 Questions for Consideration 48 A Note on Name Usage 11 Kana'ti and Selu 48 The Iroquois Great League of Peace 52 References 11 Questions for Consideration 56 CHIEFS OF THE SIX NATIONS, The Laws of the Confederacy (1900) 56

CHAPTER 1

before Columbus PICTURE ESSAY: Early American Towns and Cities 63 14 Aerial Photograph of the Ruins of Pueblo Bonito • Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde • Taos Pueblo • Determining What Came before 14 Cahokia Mounds, c. A.D. 1100-1150 • Cahokia Precontact Population 15 Village Life • Hochelaga • JOHN WHITE, Indian Creation Stories and Migration Theories 16 Village of Secoton (1585) The Kennewick Man Controversy 18 Questions for Consideration 70 Glimpses of Precontact Societies 19 West Coast Affluence 19 Columbia Plateau Fishers 22 References 71 Great Basin Foragers 24 Suggested Readings 74

VII VIII CONTENTS

CHAPTER 2 Two Views of King Philip 130 The Invasions of America, Questions for Consideration 132 INCREASE MATHER, From A Brief History of the Warr with the Indians in New England 76 (1676) 133 WILLIAM APESS, From Eulogy on King Philip First Contacts and Enduring Images 76 (1836) 134 Columbian Exchanges 80 PICTURE ESSAY: Indian Depictions Changing New World Landscapes 80 Biological Catastrophes 81 of the Invaders 140 Nuno Beltran de Guzman's Conquest of Indians Confront the Spanish 82 Northwestern Mexico as Depicted by Guzman's A Mission for Gold and God 83 Tlaxcalan Allies • Spaniards on Horseback • Conquest of the Aztecs 84 Wampum Belt Commemorating a Treaty of Searching for Other Empires 85 Friendship between the Delaware Indians and North American Attempts to Colonize William Penn • Antler Comb with an Effigy of and Christianize 87 a European, Ganondagan Site (Seneca) • Haida The Pueblo War for Independence 88 Argillite Figure Group, c. 1850 • JONATHAN Indians Confront the French 92 WARM DAY, The Last Supper (1991) Commerce and Conflict 92 Questions for Consideration 145 Pelts and Priests 94

Indians Confront the English 98 References 146 Securing a Beachhead in Virginia 98 Suggested Readings 150 Making a New England 101 King Philip's War 103

CHAPTER 3 DOCUMENTS Indians»in Cokjnia

IC5 jf^n § if* H n n^Vn /F^ mv *^L n A Narrative of the De Soto Invasion 108 Ke vo u uuio n a oy Annfirica, Questions for Consideration 112 154 RODRIGO RANGEL, Account of the Northern Conquest and Discovery ofHernando de Soto Economic and Cultural Exchanges 154 (c. 1546) 113 Indians in Colonial Society 155 An Indian Explanation of the Pueblo Colonists in Indian Societies 159 Revolt 117 The Impact of the Fur Trade 159 Questions for Consideration 117 The Cost of the Fur Trade 161 Declaration of the Indian Juan (1681) 118 War and Diplomacy in Colonial America 162 Jesuits and Hurons in New France 119 The Language and Lessons of Diplomacy 164 Questions for Consideration 122 Wars for America 168 JEAN DE BREBEUF, The Mission to the Hurons Division within Tribal Communities 172 (1635-37) 123 Captives Taken, Captives Returned 173 A Mi'kmaq Questions French "Civilization" 127 Indians and the American Revolution 175 Questions for Consideration 128 Attempting to Draw a Line 175 CHRESTIEN LECLERQ, A Mi 'kmaq Responds to the Taking Sides 177 French (1677) 129 Peace Treaties 179 CONTENTS

DOCUMENTS Regulating an Indian—and a Land—Policy 221

Franciscans and Caddos in Texas 181 Indians Confront Expansion 222 Questions for Consideration 182 Building a United Defense 222 Accommodating and Resisting Change 224 FATHER FRANCISCO CASANAS DE JESUS MARIA, The Last Phase of United Indian Resistance 226 Report from the Caddo Indians (1691) 182 Indian Removals 228 An English Treaty and a Penobscot Roots of Removal Policy 229 Response 185 The Cherokee Resistance 231 Questions for Consideration 186 Implementing Removal 233 Treaty between the Abenaki Indians and the Surviving Behind the Frontier 240 English at Casco Bay (1727) 186 LORON SAUGUAARUM, An Account of Negotiations Leading to the Casco Bay Treaty (1727) 189 DOCUMENTS A Captive with the Senecas 191 The Treaty of Fort Finney with the Shawnees 244 Questions for Consideration 193 Questions for Consideration 247 MARY JEMISON (DICKEWAMIS), A Narrative of Her RICHARD BUTLER, The Journal of General Richard life (1824) 194 Butler at the Treaty of Fort Finney (1786) 247 The Revolution Comes to the Cherokees i 97 The Lewis and Clark Expedition 254 Questions for Consideration 201 Questions for Consideration 259 HENRY STUART, Report from Cherokee Country MERIWETHER LEWIS AND WILLIAM CLARK, A (1776) 202 Winter with the Mandans (1804-1805) 260 Foundations of Federal Indian Law and a Native PICTURE ESSAY: Painting the Past: Indians in Response 267 the Art of an Emerging Nation 206 Questions for Consideration 271 BENJAMIN WEST, Penn's Treaty with the Indians JOHN MARSHALL, Cherokee Nation v. State (1771) • CHARLES F. WIMER, The Abduction of of Georgia (1831) and Worcester v. Georgia Daniel Boone's Daughter by the Indians (1853) • (1832) 271 JOHN VANDERLYN, The Death of Jane McCrea JOHN ROSS, Reactions to Worcester v. Georgia: Letter (1804) • JOHN MIX STANLEY, The Last of Their to Richard Taylor, John Baldridge, Sleeping Rabbit, Race (1857) Sicketowee, and Wahachee (April 28,1832) 275 Questions for Consideration 210 PICTURE ESSAY: Indian Life on the Upper Missouri: A Catlin/Bodmer Portfolio 276 References 217 Suggested Readings 214 KARL BODMER, The Interior of the Hut of a Mandan Chief • Diagram of the Interior of an Earth Lodge • GEORGE CATLIN, Mint, a Pretty Girl • KARL BODMER, Ptihn-Tak-Ochata, Dance of the Mandan Women • KARL BODMER, Pehriska-Ruhpa, CHAPTER 4 Moennitarri Warrior, in the Costume of the Dog American Indians and the Danse • KARL BODMER, Mandeh-Pahchu, Mandan Man • GEORGE CATLIN, Pigeon's Egg Head (The New Wation, 1783-1838 Light) Going to and Returning from Washington 218 Questions for Consideration 282

The New Nation Expands 218 References 283 Developing an Indian Policy 219 Suggested Readings 287 CHAPTER 5 PICTURE ESSAY: The Battle of the Little Big Defending the West 1830-1890 Horn in Myth and History 356 290 WILLIAM CAREY, The Death Struggle of General Custer (1876) • Custer's Last Fight (c. 1896) • Custer's Last Stand (1904) • They Died with Their The Indian West before 1830 290 Boots On (1941) • Custer of the West (1968) • Horses Transform the Plains 291 Little Big Man (1970) • Lakotas Fighting Custer's Jostling for Position on the Plains 293 Command • Custer's Dead Cavalry At the Confluence of Guns and Horses 294 Questions for Consideration 363 Invaders from the East 296 The Ravages of Smallpox 296 References 364 Ethnic Cleansing in Texas and California 297 Suggested Readings 368 Losing the West 300 Wars and Treaties, 1861-68 301 Battles for the Black Hills 305 CHAPTER 6 Different Strategies for Survival 307 "Kill the Indian and Save The End of Apache Resistance 311 Return of the Prophets 313 the Man," 1870s-1930 372 DOCUMENTS Americanizing the American Indian 372 Sixty Years of Kiowa History 317 Policies of Detribalization 373 Questions for Consideration 321 Resistance Takes New Forms 376 The Dohasan Calendar (1832-92) 321 The Dawes Allotment Act (1887) 376 Protection and Exploitation in the State Indian Territory Becomes Oklahoma 381 of California 324 The Educational Assault on Indian Questions for Consideration 324 Children 383 An Act for the Government and Protection Removing Children from the Tribe 383 of Indians (April 22,1850) 325 Life in the Schools 386 The Treaty of Fort Laramie and the Struggle Surviving the Schools, Using the Education 390 for the Black Hills 327 The Two Worlds of Ohiyesa and Charles Questions for Consideration 334 Eastman 391 Council with the Brule Sioux (April 28, A Changing World 393 1868) 334 "I Still Live": Indians in American Society 394 Council with the Oglala Sioux (May 24-25, A New Generation of Leaders 399 1868) 337 Soldiers and Citizens 402 Council with the Miniconjous (May 27, Indian Affairs on the Eve of the Great 1868) 338 Depression 403 Treaty with the Sioux—Brule, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arc, and Santee—and Arapaho DOCUMENTS (1868) 338 Dismantling Tribes and Their Homelands 404 Chief Joseph's Plea for Freedom 344 Questions for Consideration 405 Questions for Consideration 349 MERRILL E. GATES, From the Seventeenth Annual CHIEF JOSEPH, An Indian's View of Indian Affairs Report of the Board of Indian Commissioners (1879) 349 (1885) 405 CONTENTS

An Indian View of the Indian Bureau 410 Siege at Wounded Knee 460 Questions for Consideration 411 Legacies of Wounded Knee 462 CARLOS MONTEZUMA, What Indians Must Do Moving beyond Failed Policies 465 (1914) 411 .. From Paternalism to Partnership 465 Sioux School Experiences 413 Sovereignty Goes to Court 467 Questions for Consideration 415 The Struggle for Natural Resources: Black Mesa LUTHER STANDING BEAR, What a School Could and Laguna Pueblo 470 Have Been.Established (1933) 416 ZITKALA-SA, The Melancholy of Those Black Days DOCUMENTS (1921) 420 Two Views of the Indian Reorganization PICTURE ESSAY: The Fort Marion Artists 426 Act 473 HOWLING WOLF, Cheyenne Warrior Striking an Questions for Consideration 475 Enemy • HOWLING WOLF, Gathering for a Dance JOHN COLLIER, An "Indian Renaissance," from • Courtship Scene • PAUL CARYL ZOTOM, On the the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Parapet of Ft. Marion Next Day after Arrival • Affairs (1935) 476 Distribution of Goods • CHIEF KILLER, Education ROBERT BURNETTE AND JOHN KOSTER, A of the Fort Marion Prisoners • WOHAW, Self- Blueprint for Elected Tyranny (1974) 479 Portrait Indians in the Cities 483 Questions for Consideration 431 Questions for Consideration 484 ANONYMOUS, Life in the City: Chicago References 432 (c. 1970) 484 Suggested Readings 436 IGNATIA BROKER, Brought to a Brotherhood (1983) 487 Documents of Indian Militancy 490 Questions for Consideration 492 CHAPTER 7 CLYDE WARRIOR, " We Are Not Free": From From the Great Depression to Testimony before the President's National Advisory Self-Determination, 1930-1980 Commission on Rural Poverty (1967) 493 438 Proclamation to the Great White Father and to All His People (1969) 496 MARY CROW DOG, I Would Have My Baby at Shifting Policies and Indian Activism 438 Wounded Knee (1991) 497 John Collier and the Indian New Deal 439 The Indian Reorganization Act 442 The Supreme Court and Tribal Sovereignty 500 Opposing and Disputing the IRA 443 Questions for Consideration 501 Indians and World War II 445 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, Oliphant v. Suquamish Tribe (1978) 502 Termination 447 Indian Claims Commission 447 Removing the Government's Trust PICTURE ESSAY: Indian Artists Depict Responsibilities 448 Twentieth-Century Indian Life 507 Relocation 451 ARTHUR AMIOTTE, The Visit (1995) • WOODROW Drowning Homelands 453 W. CRUMBO, Land of Enchantment (c. 1946) • A Younger Generation Responds 455 ARNOLD JACOBS, Reflections: Tribute to Our Iron Urban Indians 456 Skywalkers (1983) • HARRY FONSECA, When Rise of Indian Militancy 457 Coyote Leaves the Reservation (A Portrait of the XII CONTENTS

Artist as a Young Coyote) (1980) • T. C. CANNON, WILMA MANKILLER, Returning the Balance Osage with Van Gogh or Collector #5 (c. 1975) (1993) 572 Questions for Consideration 512 Tribal Colleges: Indian Education for Indian People 575 References 513 Questions for Consideration 577 Suggested Readings 517 THE CARNEGIE FOUNDATION, From Tribal Colleges: Shaping the Future of Native America (1989) 578 Playing Indian and Fighting Mascots 582 CHAPTER 8 Questions for Consideration 585 Mations within a Mation: Indian TIM GIAGO, Mascots, Spirituality, and Insensitivity Country since 1980 (1991) 585 520 S. L. PRICE, The Indian Wars (2002) 586 A New Museum, A New Era? 590 Changes at the BIA 520 Questions for Consideration 593 W. RICHARD WEST, JR., Remarks on the Occasion Self-Rule and Self-Help 523 of the Grand Opening Ceremony, National Chipping Away at Tribal Sovereignty 525 Museum of the American Indian (2004) 594 Numbers, Identities, and Images 528 Census 2000: A Profile of Indian America 528 PICTURE ESSAY: History, Tradition, and Who Is an Indian? 531 Innovation in Contemporary Indian Art 596 "Recognized" and "Nonrecognized" Tribes 534 Stereotypes Old and New 536 LINDA HAUKAAS, Manly Heart Woman Stealing Back Horses (2003) • DIEGO ROMERO, The Choosing Homelands over Wastelands 538 Drinker (1993) • BOBBY MARTIN, Pursuit of Building Prosperity in Indian Country: Civilization #4 (2004) • STEVEN DEO, When We Gaming, a Devil's Bargain? 544 Become Our Role Models #2 (2004) • STAR WALLOWING BULL, Twinkle Twinkle Little Star Taking Back Education 550 Now I Know Who You Really Are (2003) • Building Well Nations 555 GEORGE LONGFISH, The End of Innocence Confronting Drugs and Alcohol 555 (1991-92) • JAUNE QUICK-TO-SEE SMITH, Balancing Ways of Healing 557 Indian Men Wear Shirts and Ties (1996-97) Repatriation 557 Questions for Consideration 604 Indian America in the Twenty-First Century 559 References 605 Suggested Readings 611 DOCUMENTS APPENDIX I. General Reference Works 614 Indian Leadership for the Modern World 561 APPENDIX II. Film Resources 617 Questions for Consideration 565 INDEX 1-1 VINE DELORIA, JR., The Popularity of Being Indian: A New Trend in Contemporary American Society (1984) 566